Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sociology
Sociology
C
Chhaapptteerr 22:: TTH
HEESSC
CHHO
OO OLL AASSA ANNA
AGGE
ENNTT O
OFF
S
SOOC
CIIA
ALLIIS
SAATTIIO
ONN
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: The Schools as an Agent of Socialisation
Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
Chapter 4: Education and Occupation
Chapter 5: Peer Group
Chapter 6 : Home
Chapter 7 : Academic Underachievers
Chapter 8 : Teaching Profession
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:
Define socialisation
Distinguish between the forms of socialisation
Compare the different dimensions of socialisation
Suggest activities that encourage socialisation in and outside the
classroom
Describe the socialisation that takes place inside the classroom,
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
PREAMBLE
In Chapter 1 you were introduced to the sociology of education and the importance of
the field in better understanding the relationship between school and society. In this
chapter we will examine the school as an agent of socialisation with emphasis on the
forms and dimension of socialisation. Socialisation takes place both in the outside the
school. The student in the classroom is constantly being socialised through teacher-
student and student-student interactions.
WHAT IS SOCIALISATION?
Socialisation begins when the individual is born. The new born baby enters a
social environment meeting first its parents and other caregivers. As social beings,
humans naturally engage in relationships with others in society. The following are
some definitions of socialisations:
Socialisation is the act of adopting the behaviour patterns and norms of the
surrounding culture. Another word to describe socialisation is „enculturation‟
(Wordnet. Princeton University).
TYPES OF SOCIALISATION
Primary socialisation
Secondary socialization
Reverse socialization
Anticipatory socialisation
Resocialisation
Reciprocal socialisation
Primary Socialisation
Primary socialisation is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values,
and actions appropriate to function as members of a particular culture. In
many instances, the socialisation process takes place without the individual
knowing about it. Primary socialisation is essentially through face-to-face
interaction between people and the main socialising institution is the family.
Secondary socialization
Secondary socialisation refers to the process of learning what is appropriate
behaviour as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. This type
of socialisation is purposeful and obvious. Usually it involves smaller changes
than those occurring in primary socialisation. Example would be being
socialised by the peer group or when entering the workplace or relocating to a
new environment or society. A substantial amount of secondary socialisation
takes place in the school and peer groups.
Reverse socialisation
Reverse socialization is deviation from the desired behaviours or
enculturation. This is especially common among young adults.
Anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory socialisation refers to the processes of socialisation in which a
person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.
For example, a high school student who has been accepted to university begins
to dress and adopt mannerisms which are supposed to be characteristic of an
undergraduate.
Resocialisation
Resocialisation refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns
and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs
throughout the human life cycle. Resocialisation can be an intense experience,
with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and needing to
learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example
4
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the
military.
Reciprocal Socialisation
Reciprocal socialisation is when parents socialise children and children in turn
socialise their parents.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is socialisation?
b) Explain the difference between primary and secondary
socialisation?
c) Give a few examples of resocialisation.
5
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION
Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence an individual's
self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour. Among the common agents of
socialisation include the family, schools, the media, religion, the workplace, and the
government (see Figure 2.1).
SCHOOL
FAMILY
AGENTS OF
SOCIALISATION
MEDIA &
PEERS COMMUNICATION WORKPLACE
FAMILY
SCHOOL
Outside of the family, students probably spends the most time in school.
Schoolmates, teachers, and the environment itself can have lasting impacts on
a child's socialization. It is in this environment that children learn to interact
with their peers, to compete, to cooperate, to respect authority, and many other
valuable skills. Besides these interpersonal skills, schools are also places of
learning cultural content in which one can be made aware of their society's
history, traditions, and norms. Schooling enlarges children‟s social world to
include people with social backgrounds different from their own
o School teach children a wide range of knowledge and skills
o School is the child‟s first experience with bureaucracy
o School socialise children into gender roles
PEERS
Provides young people the experience in developing social relationships on
their own and establishing an identity apart from their family [Discussed in
detail in Chapter 5]. Provides the opportunity to discuss interests not shared
by adults Provides a sense of belonging that eases the anxiety of breaking
away from the family. Provides young people the experience in developing
social relationships on their own and establishing an identity apart from their
family
o Provides the opportunity to discuss interests not shared by adults
7
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
WORKPLACE
After having left school, the young person either continues studying in a
college or university or enter the place of work. The workplace plays an
important part in socialising individuals and among the values acculturated are
punctuality, work ethics, working in teams and so forth.
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIALISATION
The three types of conformity are emphasised in most schools but it is unlikely
schools will be able to successfully instil the three types. For example, in the military
8
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is socialisation?
b) Explain the difference between primary and secondary
socialisation?
c) Give a few examples of resocialisation.
Let us now compare how the socialisation process varies according to the type
of school.
Over the seven day period, out of 50.5 hours spent at school
by the children… 30.5 hours were [spent out of the
classroom] as follows: 16.5 hours in recreation periods, 4.5
hours in sports competitions, 3.5 hours waiting during adult
meetings, 3.5 hours in which teachers were absent during
school, and 2.5 hours in line-up activities”. A portion of the
class time was allocated for cleaning up the classroom
Schools are where children are taught virtues that reflect moral
traditions; truthfulness, politesse, broad-mindedness, love of
goodness, and compassion, work ethic of industry; endeavour,
planning, and prudence, and patriotism; courageousness in battle,
love of independence, respect for the rule of law and the
Constitution and responsible participation in the institutions of
political society.
Teachers are now responsible to equip their students with mental abilities
instead of the previous focus on character building and survival skills only. Aspects of
cognitive development becomes the niche areas of most school curriculum. The
10
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
The fees in these institutions are expensive and thus, only the wealthier
families can afford to enrol their children in these schools (see Picture 2.1). The
students bring to classes their refined manner which can be a model to fellow
classmates. On the other hand, these children may express aloof attitude towards those
who they perceived as lower in social status and may only want to socialise with peers
of the same social background. Socialisation in elite schools may also reflect the types
of activities these group of community practices.
11
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) How the role of the village school different from modern
schools?
b) How do you think private schools socialise students
differently from public or government schools?
things to them, yet students readily adjust their behaviour according to those
expectations, knowing what the consequences are likely to be, and are prepared to
make those choices seemingly without effort.
The hidden curriculum is a major socialising process in the classroom. This
process may include daily features such as queuing, doing class exercises
independently, following instructions made by the teacher, doing group work and
keeping the classroom clean and neat. At times it could be through messages
conveyed verbally or nonverbally by teachers such as expectations, attitudes towards
others and power relations through interaction between students or pupils and the
teacher.
CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS
As John Dewey said: “The only way to prepare for social life is to engage in
social life” and the classroom is the place to do so. The classroom is one of the places
where through a gradual process of socialisation, students or pupils are equipped with
the knowledge, skills and responsibilities needed in adult life. Interactions that occur
in the classroom environment will depend very much on the teaching styles and
behaviour of teachers. Teacher-student interactions and student-student interactions
creates the atmosphere of the classroom. Just look at the interactions that goes on
during a 40 minute class lesson. There may be around a few hundred interactions
which may be in spoken form, unspoken form; facial expressions, tone, gesture and
physical movements and so forth.
Interactions in the classroom vary according to the pedagogical strategies of
teachers. During the interaction between the teacher (transmitter) and the students
(acquirer), knowledge is transmitted via the teaching methods used by the teacher.
Thus, the teacher has control over how knowledge is to be transmitted; the teaching
materials, the skills to be incorporated, how much information to be conveyed and
received (Bernstein (1990, 1996). Teachers who practiced an authoritarian teaching
style tend to control noise in the classroom where students can only speak when
permitted to do so. This style was found to prevalent in classrooms with low achievers
and children from lower socio-economic backgrounds. On the other hand, if teachers
perceived themselves as facilitators they tend to allow students more freedom to speak
and have less control over them. This approach was found to be more prevalent in
classrooms with high achievers and children from high socio-economic backgrounds
(Kalekin-Fishman, 1991). Hence, different teaching styles and approaches has a
different effect on classroom interactions which in turn has different socialisation
effects on students in the class.
Besides teacher-students interactions, another form of interaction that
contributes towards socialising students or pupils is through student-student
interaction. For example, in most classrooms a structured seating arrangement is
imposed where students have no choice but to sit according to the seating assigned.
Invariably, students start to get to know those seated around them. Later they “hang
out” together in the school canteen and perhaps after school leading to the
development of friendship which becomes an integral part of the informal learning
experience.
14
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) How does the classroom socialise students or pupils?
b) Explain the role of the hidden curriculum in socialising
students.
c) How does student-teacher interaction influence the
socialisation process?
d) .
FRIENDSHIP
Friendship begins in preschool
years when children first encounter the
world outside their family. The preschool
years are filled with play and informal
learning where there is plenty of
opportunity for children to make friends.
Socialisation begins here and develops as
they go through childhood. A child who is
able to interact with other children grows
socio-emotionally.
As the child grows into
adolescence, friendship is seen as an
important part of a teenager‟s life. They
perceive social peers and close friends as
people whom they can associate with, seek advice, and have a sense of belonging. As
such adolescents tend to place friends above their parents, because they perceive
loyalty and commitment as important aspects of friendship.
The socialisation process that takes place among friends can vary depending
on whether the classroom culture is autocratic or democratic. For example, in a
democratic classroom, affective and emotional development of students is likely to be
enhanced because of increased interaction and shared activities leading to wider
frienships. On the other hand, in autocratic classrooms, students tend to make friends
mostly with those seated near them. Democratic classrooms further encourage more
and longer lasting friendships compared to autocratic classrooms. Interestingly,
students in democratic classrooms tend to have fewer best friends but more general
friendships (Grubaugh & Houston, 1990).
Gender differences are also observed in terms or friendship and socialisation.
In a study by Corsaro and Eder (1990), it was reported that girls tend to have close
friends and are more open in sharing their secrets and problems with each other. On
the other hand, the boys are unlikely to have close friends but they tend to develop
friendships based on common interest, especially in sports. Also, boys are likely to
gain popularity because of their athletic capability, hardiness, aloofness, and cross-
gender relations. On the other hand, girls become popular based on their parents‟
socioeconomic status, their physical looks, social skills, and school performance
(Adler, Kless & Adler, 1992). In addition, girls who are popular tend not to socialise
with those from the lower status. Boys on the other hand tend to adopt an insensitive
and aggressive attitude to cope with the pressure for success (Edler et al., 1995).
15
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
SEGREGATION OR STREAMING
Segregation or streaming of students or pupils into particular classes can
influence socialisation. Streaming students according to their academic ability may
confine students socialising with students of the same academic ability and exclude
them from mixing with students of different ability levels. Similarly, grouping
students on the basis of their ethnic origin may hinder them from socialising with
those from other ethnic groups. Segregating students deprives students the
opportunity to understand and socialise with students of other races which is
especially important for a multiracial society like Malaysia. Interracial friendship is
important to prepare students for future work environments in most instance
multiracial.
SEATING ARRANGEMENT
Another aspect of the classroom that may influence socialisation is the seating
arrangement and physical conditions of the classroom. Most classrooms have a
common set up where the teacher is in front of the classroom and students sit in rows
facing the teacher. While this pattern of arrangement gives the teacher a strategic
position in front of the classroom, it also influences the socialisation process.
For example, students who are seated in the first few rows have the advantage
to participate more frequently compared to those seating at the back of the classroom.
Because they are seated in front, they are noticed by the teacher as well as their peers.
Studies have shown that teachers tend to be accommodating towards those in the front
rows and imposed fewer formal directives. In college or university, students in the
front rows tend to be academically better and more interested to get better results and
tend to be more involved in the learning process.
CLASS SIZE
Size of classroom also determines children‟s socialisation pattern. Smaller class size
means lesser students per teacher. If the number of students in the classroom is small,
teachers tend to impose less control, less time on discipline. Also smaller class size
encourages more time for interaction and communication between the teacher and
students and students and students. In such classes, students have the opportunity to
participate actively in the class, leading to more informal interactions with teachers
and administrators. In contrast, large class size leads to the gap between teachers and
students to be wider; less opportunity for participation in the teaching-learning
process and eventually minimal less socialisation.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) How does segregation, streaming, seating arrangements,
class size and interaction influence socialisation in the
classroom?
b) How can teachers engage students to socialise in the
classroom?
We have discussed how socialisation takes place in the classroom and the
factors influencing the socialisation process. Let us examine how sociological
theorists view socialisation in the classroom. In chapter 1 we discussed three schools
of thought namely the functional theory, conflict theory and interactional theory.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
SCHOOL PLAYGROUND
The school playground is an important
place for students to socialise. It represents
the informal setting for friendship. What
happens outside the classroom helps to
prepare students for the adult world as it is
here that they learn about self-esteem and
self-control among peers. Most schools
ensure that students leave the classrooms
during recess time and this allows them to
socialise with other students.
Why is the school playground
important to children’s socialisation?
When students are in the school playground they are distant from adults. Most of the
time they are on their own and even if there are adults, these adults are in the
background, perhaps monitoring children‟s safety and possible mischievousness.
When adults stay away then there is opportunity for children to perform
group-directed activity. They also feel at ease to mix around and without being
observed by an adult. Most of the time, children choose to play with children similar
to their age group, not necessarily their neighbours or relatives. Interacting with peers
reduces social distance between children. However, if they interact with children of
different age groups, this allows an opportunity to get to know juniors or seniors and
develop new relationships as well as break relationships. Such social interactions
enable children to understanding the what, how and problems of social relationships.
Therefore, children who lack experiences in socialising outside the classroom
may be less prepared for adult life. What goes on at the playground are basically
lessons on how to socialise, make friends and how to handle bullies, false friends,
snobs, tag-alongs, tale-tellers and other behaviours of children. They learn how to
react to different types of behaviour and which helps them in their judgment of others.
For example,
how do I deal with aggressiveness,
when do I report a friend‟s misbehaviour
Does giving in mean I‟m being bullied,
How much personal information should I reveal,
What is the effective way to make friends,
When should I speak and when should I listen.
19
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Observe a playground with children playing and see evidence
for the following: gender segregation, inter-racial grouping,
abusive language, loneliness, following rules, bonding,
sharing, taking turns, bullying and so forth.
20
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
KEY WORDS
SUMMARY
The term socialisation is used by sociologists, social psychologists and
educationalists to refer to the process of learning one‟s culture and how to live
within that culture.
Behaviour conformity: If you do not comply with this expected behaviour then
it is the duty of the teacher to use her power to socialise the students to
conform to the required behaviour.
Socialisation trains students for cultural conformity or acculturation.
The village school is used to pass on essential information about the culture of
the immediate community; i.e. values, skills and knowledge necessary for
survival.
As John Dewey said: “The only way to prepare for social life is to engage in
social life” and the classroom is the place to do so.
Another aspect of the classroom that may influence socialisation is the seating
arrangement and physical conditions of the classroom.
21
Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation
Students do interact with other students throughout the school hours, for
example, at the playground and performing duties outside the classroom.
Friendship begins in preschool years when children first encounter the world
outside their family.
REFERENCES
Bernstein, B. (1990). Class, codes and control. Vol. 4. The structuring of pedagogic
discourse. London: Routledge.
Bieber, J. (1994). Learning disabilities and social skills: Last one picked … First one
picked on. Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.
Brint, S. (1998). Schools and societies. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.
Socialization. (2008, April 2). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:45, May 13,
2009 from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Socialization?oldid=683247.
Myles, B.S., & Southwick, J. (1999). Asperger Syndrome and difficult moments":
Practical solutions for tantrums, rage, and meltdowns. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism
Asperger Publishing Company.
------000------