EE 332 Part 1 Important Practical Signals: important practical signals in most engineering systems are as follow: Constant, de, Signals: In this case the signal has a constant value at “all times”. Mathematical definition: x(t)-constanta, graphical representation: ac Practical examples: de voltage/current ei t Unit-Step Funetion: In this case the signal is constant only for positive time and zero for negative time range Ute) x()-u(= 1 for 0 graphical representation: : 0 Elsewhere (t<0) : oO ‘Therefore, unit-step function is “one sided”. Practical applications: If we place a de source in “series” with a “switch”, then the voltage across the terminal is unit-step. Also, in order to show any fimetion is one sided and exist only for a certain time-range, we can use unit-step function, for example: x(O= 2+! fort20 is the same definition a 0 fort<0 2 XOD=(2+I)UCD) Derivative of the unit-step function: d(u(Vdt=0 for 0 & t<0 for t= This function is called “delta” function, 5(t), and we will discuss delta function in detail later > du(y/ai=3(t) Integral of unit-step function: Jp u(z)de=t for >0 =tu(t)=r(t) 0 fort<0 This function is called “unit-ramp” function, which we wil discuss next. Unit-Ramp Function: Mathematical definition: 1(0)= ['y u(t)de=tu(t)= t for 20 tt) < 0 for t<0 os + t Derivative of the unit-ramp funetion: d(({))/at= 1 for ©0 de(t)y/at= u(t) 0 for t<0 Integral of unit-step function: !or(c}de=1/2 for (20 =(7/2)u(t)=p(t) 0 fort<0 “This function is called “unit-parabolic” function, which we will discuss nextMathematical definition: p(= f'or(e)de-1'/2. for 20 =(C2)u(0) 0 for t<0 +t © Derivative of the unit-parabolic funetion: d(p(t))/dt=t for 20 d(p(dyiat=r(e) 0 for <0 Exponential Function (two sided): Exponential function may represent either “system behavior” (for example, capacitor’s charging or discharging pattern), exponential function may also represent “input” or “output” signals. ‘growing exponential > x(()=Ae™ all t Decaying exponential > x(t)=Ac™ all t Ma Exponential Function (one sided); growing exponential > x(t}=Ae"* for 20 x(Q=Ae™* u(t) 0 fort x()=Ac™ for 20 A x(trAe“u(t) 0 fort exponential is fast, if vis large then exponential is “slow”. We can measure time constant from the graph. T is the time crossing point of the “tangent line” to exponential at the departure point. Highest slope of exp=d(Ae™)/dt|,-o=Aae"|~o=Aa, slope=A/t > Aa= Alt >-Va. ce _t & a = e fe oo bPage 3 Sinusoidal Signals: We use sinusoidal signals either as input ac signals or as ac “carriers”. General form is: x(f)=Acos@(t) OR Asin@ (1). Either sin or cos may be used as sinusoidal function. There are no practical differences between sin and cos. It is just mathematical difference, The mathematical difference is the phase angle; sin and cos are differing by 1/2 rad (or 90 degrees). There is also a mathematical advantage of cos representation, in Euler formula there is no factor jin the formula Standard (conventional) sinusoidal: @(t)=aot+9=2xfot*, note that the practical frequency is fp (lz), ois mathematical frequency to adjust “unit” of the phase angle. ‘Therefore, there are following important “parameters” related to sinusoidal function: amplitude or maximum value=A, > peak-to-peak value is 2A ac is “periodic” signal, period is “the time after which the function repeats itself,” and it is denoted as T (sec). «real or natural frequency fy: frequency is “number of cycles per second,” unit for fyis sec or Hz Hertz) > fy=1/T © radian or mathematical frequency (oy-2nfy2niT unit is rad/see «phase angle o (degree or radian) Standard ac “signal in ac circuits” is one sided (time limited) > ac “voltage or current signal” in ac circuits: x()=Acos(2zfottp)u(t) Standard ac “carrier” or “baseband information signal with ac behavior” are two sided (not time limited) > ac “carrier or baseband information” x(t)=Acos(2ntfatp) In communication systems, we use both “ac carrier” and “ac as information signal”. Acosingt (Acosiot)ut) a we Derivative & integral: d[Acos(aot+o))/dt=-Aapsin(aot+), d[Asin(wottp)/dt=+Ac@gcos(wottp), I Acos(oattg)]dt=(A/aa)sin(oottp) J[Asin(oot+9)]dt—(A/ao)cos(oot+9) Euler’s formulas: cosé=(e"+e"/2, sind=(¢*-%)/2}, c”cos0-+jsind Sinusoidal expansions: cos(A#B)-cosAcosB-sinAsinB sin(AB)=sinAcosB-cosAsinB, cosAcosB=1/2[cos(A+B)+cos(A-B)], sinAsinB=1/2[cos(A-B)-cos(A+B)), cos(-0)=cos0, sin(-0)=-sin0, cos0=sin(0+90), sind=cos(8-90) Combining sinusoidal: x(t)= Acos:t+Beosa2t+Csinast*..., we have two cases: ies are “different”, in this case we can NOT combine (simplify) and the summation of sinusoidal is “non-sinusoidal”.Page 4 Case 2: frequencies are all the same; in this case we can combine all sinusoidal signals and substitute by a single sin or cos, the combined for is either: x(D=Reos(ant+p)=Rsin(oot+p+90), where: «9=0)=02=w3=.. in order to find R and wwe use “phasor” method, Example: Simplify x(0)=2cos(2t+45)+3sin2t+4cos(21-60) x()-2cos(2t+-45)+3c0s(21-90}#+4cos(2t-60) X=2/45+3|-90+4]-60=2(V2/2 +jV2/2)-3)+4(1/2-5V3/2)33 4-5} x(1}=Go08(21-56)=6sin(2t-56+90)=6sin(2t+34) [56 > ¢ func athematical definition: x({)=Asine2nat=Asin(2nat)/(2nat), sinc function id oscillatory and decreasing as tis increasing. Also sine function is symmetrical (even) function, therefore the right and left sides are the same Xmax=(Asin(2nat)/(2reat) at t=0)=0/0 using L’Hopital’s rule: A(2xa)cos2na/2zalay=A Zero crossing points: 2rat 1,2,3., first erossing point: ty-1/(2ma)=1/(2a) ASincgTrak Example: express function x(t)=2sin6v/ in terms of sine function, then find the maximum value, crossing points and show the graph Solution: x(i)=2sin6t/t=2(6)sin6t/(6)t=12sinc6t > Xmax=12, time-crossing points at: 6t=kex > t=ka/6 > t-1/6,21/6, 3n/6,.. fe % Xs % Pulse (gate) function: Mathematical definition of single pulse: consider the following general example: p(=A for act oa Definition 2: 6(1)=du(t)/at (derivative of unit-step function) Important properties of delta function (in any domain): 1) “multiplication property”: x(). 5(Q=x(0)3(0) paren Ex: (20-3t+4)8(1)= (217-3t+4)}.-08(0=48(0) 2) “integral property”: [..” 8(t)dt=area=(1/a)(a}=1> [."k6()dt=k 3) “combination of 1 and 2” L®x(t).8(t)dt=).0°x(0).8()dt=x(0) J.."6()dt=x(0) Ext: [yQ?-3t+4)8()dt=(2P-3th4)feo=4 NOTE: “multiplying any function by delta, the result is stil delta function” “multiplying and integrating any function by delta, result is constant”