APPLIED

Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

ENERGY
www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Intelligent solar-powered
automobile-ventilation system
K. David Huang a, Sheng-Chung Tzeng b,*
, Wei-Ping Ma c,
Ming-Fung Wu a
a
Graduate School of the Vehicular Engineering, Dayeh University, Changhua 500, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chien Kuo Institude of Technology, Changhua 500, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Information Management, Lan Yang Institute of Technology, Ilan 261, Taiwan, ROC
Accepted 19 March 2004
Available online 1 June 2004

Abstract

This study adopts airflow management technology to improve the local temperature dis-
tributions in an automobile to counteract the greenhouse effect. The automobile’s temperature
can be reduced to almost the outside temperature before the driver or passenger gets into the
vehicle. When the engine is idling, the greenhouse-control system can be activated to remove
the hot air from the car. An appropriate negative pressure is maintained to prevent stuffiness
and save energy. The greenhouse-control system requires electrical power when the engine is
idle, and a battery cannot supply sufficient power. An auxiliary solar-power supply can save
energy and reduce the greenhouse effect of sunlight, while creating a comfortable traveling
environment. It ensures that the engine is not overburdened and increases its service life,
conserving energy, protecting the environment and improving comfort.

2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Air flow management; The greenhouse effect; Auxiliary solar-power supply

1. Introduction

The average temperature during the summer typically exceeds 300 K in

subtropical or tropical regions. Furthermore, the greenhouse effect causes the

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886-4-711-1111x3132; fax: +886-4-735-7193.
E-mail address: tsc@ckit.edu.tw (S.-C. Tzeng).

0306-2619/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2004.03.010
142 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

Nomenclature

CP specific heat (J kg
1 K
1 )

E gross energy (J kg
1 )
g gravitational acceleration (m s
2 )
k thermal conductivity (W m
1 K
1 )
p pressure (N m
2 )
Pr Prandtl number
q heat flux (W m
2 )
T temperature (K)
u; v; w velocity components (m s
1 )
x; y; z rectangular coordinates

Greek symbols
b coefficient of thermal expansion,
 b ¼
ð1=qÞðoq=oT ÞP
0 for i 6¼ j;
dij Kronecker delta, dij 
1 for i ¼ j
j turbulent kinetic-energy (m2 s2 )
l dynamic viscosity (kg s
1 m
1 )
s tensor stress (N m
2 )

Superscripts


time-averaged quantity
0
fluctuation quantity

Subscripts
eff effective
i; j; l coordinate components
‘ laminar
t turbulent
1 free stream

temperature in automobiles to reach 333 ! 343 K [1–3] in open parking lots; people
cannot usually endure such temperatures comfortably. Moreover, the instrumenta-
tion panel, leather seats and plastic accessories, among other items, age rapidly if
exposed to these temperatures for a long period. When the air conditioner is turned
on and the engine has not reached its working temperature, additional loading will
occur, increasing the waste of fuel and the abrasion of the engine. An air conditioner
cannot effectively adjust the temperature within a short period, so developing the
automobile’s ‘‘greenhouse’’ ventilation system is essential.
Removing hot air from within an automobile requires opening a door, activating
the engine and turning the A/C to its peak power. However, reducing the temper-
ature markedly takes some time. If the engine has not reached a proper working
 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 143

temperature, then the heavy-duty operation will lead to speedy abrasion of me-
chanical components and an increase the fuel consumption. Sheathing paper,
weather windows and shading curtains can be used to control an automobile’s
temperature, but they are not very effective. Heat accumulated in an automobile
cannot be easily removed and the temperature cannot be reduced to close to that of
the outdoor environment if the temperature distribution in the vehicle is not effec-
tively controlled.
An energy-efficient greenhouse for heating, cooling and dehumidification appli-
cations was described by Chou et al. [4]. Airflow arose from the interactions and
energy exchanges between components within the greenhouse and the external en-
vironment via infiltration and the ventilation process. Their study found that the
conditions of the greenhouse air were greatly influenced by the conditions of the
outdoor air. In the present study, the ‘‘greenhouse’’ ventilation system runs normally
when the engine is idle, but it cannot be powered by a battery. An auxiliary power
supply system, that automatically powers the ‘‘greenhouse’’ ventilation system using
solar energy and without increasing the loading of the battery, must be designed to
prevent shortages or deep discharging of the battery power, and the consequent
reduction in the service life of the battery due to the long-time operation. Currently
available alternative sources are solar energy, wind power, geothermal power and
tidal power, among others. However, the latter three are geographically restricted,
and their stability is a difficulty. The solar-energy module can be applied to absorb
solar power and turn it into electric power during driving or parking. Then, a
voltage-stabilizing circuit can output a stable voltage and supply the power con-
sumed by both the safety control system and the ‘‘greenhouse’’ ventilation system.
Surplus power generated by the solar energy module can be used to charge the
battery in order to ensure that the power supplied to the automobile’s electric system
suffices in the absence of solar energy [5,6]. Thus, the solar module can serve as an
auxiliary power-supply, and contribute to reducing the greenhouse effect caused by
sunlight.

2. Methodology

Based upon integrated CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAE (Computer
Aided Engineering) software, this study establishes a realistic numerical model of the
automobile, and designs a control system that occupies very limited space to try to
achieve optimum performance.

2.1. Design ideology and infrastructure

When an automobile parks in the open air, its temperature rises rapidly as fervent
sunlight enters. Hence, a solar-energy module, which is covered with a transparent
colloid protective layer, should be placed in the hardboard on the top support. It can
then prevent the heat radiation from being transmitted into the automobile via
mechanical components, while absorbing and storing solar energy as an auxiliary
144 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

power-supply. Additionally, the module can power the ventilating fan to exhaust the
hot air and suppress the greenhouse effect.
The ‘‘greenhouse’’ monitoring system becomes operational when the engine is
idle. It therefore enables the status of the engine to be judged with the help of the
greenhouse controller. When the engine is in its operating mode, the greenhouse
controller continuously monitors its status while the control system is idle. When the
engine is idle, the greenhouse controller determines whether the temperature exceeds
the preset value using an air-temperature detector. If the temperature is below the
preset value, then the greenhouse controller monitors the temperature through the
air-temperature detector whenever the control system is idle. When the internal
temperature exceeds the specified threshold, the greenhouse controller compares the
temperature inside with that outside the car. When the internal temperature exceeds
the external temperature, the ventilating fan will continue to exhaust the hot air and
open the inlet valve to absorb the outdoor air. Otherwise, it will close the inlet valve,
inactivate the ventilating fan and monitor the difference between the temperatures
inside and outside the car. Fig. 1 presents the infrastructure of the system.

Fig. 1. ‘Greenhouse’ ventilation system.

 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 145

The automobile’s auxiliary solar-power supply continuously powers the safety

control system and the air quality and ‘‘greenhouse’’ ventilation system. Fig. 2 shows
the architecture of this system. The electrical capacity of the solar-energy module is
directly proportional to its collector area, and also varies with the intensity of illu-
mination. Therefore, a group of voltage-stabilizing circuits is required to maintain
the charge at 12 V for the monitoring and driving systems. If the power supplied by
the solar-energy module is excessive or insufficient, the batteries store or supply
power, respectively: the switchover of the loop of the electric system is controlled by
a control circuit. If the solar electric-power is adequate, then the ventilating fan (air
inflow) will be activated as the electric power is transmitted to the forced-ventilation
system and detector: the battery stores any surplus power. In the case of insufficient
solar electric-power, the battery will power the ventilating fan and the detector in
order to achieve the optimal performance.

2.2. Numerical model

2.2.1. Physical and mathematical model

A solid model was built using Pro-E software to measure the physical dimensions
of the automobile. Then, Gambit software was applied to trim the solid model and
generate the grid of the flow field. Fig. 3 shows the computational domain of
physical model.
The following assumptions are made with respect to the simulation of streamlines,
saving computing time and maintaining the physical properties of the system:
(1) Newtonian fluid,
(2) steady state,
(3) effects of gravity and buoyancy are considered,
(4) uniform air velocity at the outlet,
(5) k
e turbulence model.

Fig. 2. Circuit diagram of auxiliary power-supply.

146 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

Fig. 3. Computational domain of physical model (unit: cm).

The following are the governing equations:

Continuity equation:
o
u ov o w
þ þ ¼ 0: ð1Þ
ox oy oz
Momentum equation:
  
o
1 op o oui ouj 2 oul
q ui uj ¼
þ leff þ
dij
oxj q oxi oxj oxj oxi 3 oxl
o  
þ
qu0i u0j
gi bðT
T1 Þ: ð2Þ
oxj
Energy equation:
  
o o CP lt oT
½ui ðqE þ pÞ ¼ j‘ þ þ ui ðsij Þeff ; ð3Þ
oxi oxj Prt oxj
where E is the gross energy, keff is the effective thermal-conductivity, and the tensor
force of the effective the shear stress ðsij Þeff is given by the formula
 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 147

 
oui ouj 2 oul
ðsij Þeff ¼ leff þ
leff dij : ð4Þ
oxj oxi 3 oxl
The turbulence equation, which was proposed by Spalart and Allmaras in 1992 to
model the turbulent kinematic viscosity, is primarily related to the eddy viscosity [7].

2.2.2. Simulation conditions

2.2.2.1. Identification of collected sunshine. This experiment endeavors to measure the
changes in the intensity of sunlight using a sunlight recorder. When the sunlight
enters the glass of the vehicle window, the practical effect of the residual sunlight can
be obtained by subtracting the effect of the reflected sunlight. The data measured at
the four corners and the center of the window, and the average values, are calculated.
The formula for converting sunshine illuminance (lx) to heat flux (q) is q ¼ lx/107.5.

2.2.2.2. Heat flux. The heat sources of the automobiles are internal heat and heat
absorbed by the glass window. Heat radiation enters the automobile through three
areas – the front and rear windshields (which directly absorb light) and a general
absorption area. The gross energy of the light directly absorbed is the product of the
practical residual energy (that enters through the windshield) and the absorptivity of
the materials. The gross energy reflected from the areas that directly absorb light
equals the practical residual energy (which enters through the windshield) minus the
gross energy absorbed by the front and rear areas that absorb light directly. The
gross energy over the absorption area is equal to the practical residual energy (which
enters through the vehicle’s windows on both sides) plus the gross energy reflected
from the front and rear areas that directly absorb light.
RHG (relative heat gain) in W/m2 is determined using the following formula,
provided by the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.) [8] to identify the edge conditions of the window glass
RHG ¼ 630 C þ 8 ksum ð5Þ
of which the right-hand first item is represented by the heat radiation that enters
through the windows and C is the sheltering coefficient; the right-hand second item is
represented by the thermal conduction due to the difference between the tempera-
tures of the windows on both sides, and ksum presents the thermal conductivity during

Table 1
Set simulated air outlet and inlet in ‘greenhouse’ ventilation system
Position of air inlet Outlet pressure (Pa) Inlet pressure (Pa)
Case I Rear shelf board (near front of rear 0 )6
windshield)
Case II Placed vertically at top support 0 )6
Case III Placed laterally at top support 0 )10
Case IV Placed laterally at front of top 0 )10
support (near to front of front
windshield)
148 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

daytime in the summer. The heat flux through the glass is 23.2 W/m2 , when only
thermal conduction is considered.

2.2.2.3. Pressures at air outlet and inlet. The pressure at the air outlet of the green-
house ventilation system is set to zero, and that at the air inlet is set to )6 and
)10 Pa, as listed in Table 1.

2.3. Numerical method and grid system

This study seeks to determine the numerical simulation solutions using the finite-
volume method and the segregated solution method as in FLUENT software. The
SIMPLE method [9] is applied to correlate the pressure and velocity solutions during
the iteration process. The optimum grid is determined by the adaptive gradient
within the adaptation grid options. Where the gradient varies widely, the grid
number is increased; in other places, the grid number is reduced. A comparison of
five discrete grid numbers, such as 1,274,571, 844,747, 770,000, 504,434 and 364,025,
and the proof test of the functions of the adaptive grid lead to setting the grid
number of the greenhouse ventilation system to 770,000. A staggered grid is applied
in the grid calculation, with proper relaxation factors, to obtain the correct and
stable values.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Air inlet placed at rear shelf-board

The air inlet is placed at the rear shelf-board because flexible installation and
piping are required to avoid obstructing the firewall, the steering column and the
shockproof steel-skeleton. Its proximity to the front windshield places it in one of
the high-temperature zones of the automobile, yielding the simulation results
plotted in Fig. 4. The temperature rises primarily because the low-temperature air
is heated by the heat radiation that enters the automobile through the windows.
Then, hot air flows upwards, causing heat to accumulate. The air inlet in case I is
close to the rear windshield, which stands a little apart from the high-temperature
zone and the largest thermal source, which is the front instrument board and the
steering wheel; the air inlet absorbs only the hot air around the passenger seats
and the rear shelf board, so it cannot easily exhaust uniformly all of the hot air
in the vehicle. When the pressure at the air inlet is )6 Pa, the temperature near
the driver’s seat is approximately 304 ! 310 K. Fig. 5 plots the temperature
distribution.
Case I reveals that, rather than expelling the heat via a strong negative-pres-
sure zone, a smaller negative-pressure zone should be created within the high-
temperature or high-pressure zone, and the difference between pressures used
to exhaust the heat without any additional energy loss due to mechanical
components.
 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 149

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution of central section of automobile in case I.

3.2. Air inlet placed vertically at the center of the top support

When the air inlet is placed vertically at the center of the top support, according to
the simulation, the heat will continuously enter the automobile and open the ven-
tilation system. Fig. 6 shows the temperature distribution in the center section one
hour after the ventilation system has been turned on. The simulation demonstrates
that exhausting heat in case II is easier than doing so in case I, because the high-
temperature zones in case II are much smaller than those in case I. The temperature
around the driver’s seat is 303 fi 309 K.
The hot mechanical members at the front and rear ends of the car heat-up the
surrounding air (around the steering wheel, the front instrument board and the rear
shelf board, for example). The hot air moves upward towards the center of the top
support through the front and rear windshields. However, the top support is at an
angle to the direction of flow of the hot air in case II, and the low-temperature air at
the air outlets over the seats flows towards the air inlet due to the inertia effect, which
acts in the same direction as the inertia of the low-temperature air. Fig. 7 shows the
temperature distribution; the air inlet exhausts only the hot air that flows across it,
especially in the front part of the vehicle.

3.3. Air inlet placed laterally at the top support

When the air inlet is placed laterally at the center of the top support, according to
the simulation, the heat continuously enters the automobile and the ventilation
150 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

Fig. 5. Air-flow paths from steering wheel and front instrument board to air inlet in case I.

system is opened. Fig. 8 plots the temperature distribution one hour after the ven-
tilation system has been turned on. The simulation reveals that exhausting heat in
case III is easier than in the other cases, because the high-temperature zones in case
III are much smaller than those in the other cases. Hence, the air inlet pressure in
case III will rise to )10 Pa from )6 Pa, making the value of desirable temperature
easier to attain.
The air inlet in case III can exhaust the heat effectively, primarily because most of
the heat radiation enters the automobile through the front and rear windshields.
However, heat is absorbed from the hot air by the steering wheel, front instrument
board, passenger seats and rear shelf-board surrounding the air. Influenced by the
inertial effect of the air outlet of the front and rear windshields, the flow of the hot air
towards the top support and air outlet accelerates along the direction of the cabin
outlines. The air inlet in case III is laterally placed at the center of the top support,
and so exhausts a substantial amount hot gas from the front and rear windshields
(which face the direction of flow of the hot air). However, the air inlet in case II is
vertically placed on the top support, and so can exhaust the hot air smoothly, only
changing the flow direction.
The considered cases imply that the following principles must be observed when
placing an air inlet to exhaust effectively the heat of automobiles. Firstly, the air faces
 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 151

Fig. 6. Temperature distribution in the central section to the left of the steering wheel in case II.

Fig. 7. Air-flow paths near the front seat in case II.

152 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

Fig. 8. Temperature distribution in the central section of the automobile in case III.

Fig. 9. Temperature distribution in the central section to the left of the steering wheel in case IV.
 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154 153

Fig. 10. Path in central section to left of steering wheel in case IV.

the direction of flow of the hot air to optimize the exhaust; secondly, the air inlet is
arranged in or near the high-temperature/high-pressure zones, so the hot air is ex-
hausted according to the difference between pressures. In a simulation environment,
in which these principles are followed (i.e. given strong sunshine at the front of the
automobile), in case IV, the air inlet is moved to the back of the front windshield,
allowing hot air to be exhausted effectively, as shown in Fig. 9. The effectiveness
follows primarily from the proximity of the air inlet to the steering wheel and to its
orientation with respect to the direction of flow of hot air, which allows it to exhaust
the air rapidly. Fig. 10 indicates the temperature distribution.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that an air inlet should be placed in high-temperature or

high-pressure zones, to enable the hot air to be exhausted rapidly, according to the
difference of local pressures. Some innovative improvements were made to the dis-
tribution of temperature, and the piping design within a limited space, so optimizing
the design of the greenhouse ventilation system.
• In case I, the air inlet is placed at the rear shelf-board, and the air exhaust per-
forms poorly, primarily because the air inlet in case I is near to the rear wind-
shield, which stands a little apart from the high-temperature zone and the
largest thermal source, which is the front instrument panel and the steering wheel.
154 K.D. Huang et al. / Applied Energy 80 (2005) 141–154

Hence, the air inlet absorbs only the high-temperature air around the passenger
seats and the rear shelf-board, making it difficult to achieve uniform exhausting
of all the hot air in the vehicle.
• In case II, the air inlet is placed vertically at the center of the top support. The
results concerning air exhaust are somewhat better than those in case I, primarily
because the hot mechanical members in the front and rear ends heat the surround-
ing air. Hot air moves towards the center of the top support passing the front and
rear windshields. The air inlet in case II is placed at the top support, so facilitating
the exhausting of the hot air in the automobile. However, in case II, the top sup-
port is at an angle to the direction of the flow of the hot air, and the low-temper-
ature air at the air outlets over the seats flows towards the air inlet by inertia, so
the air inlet can exhaust only the hot air that flows across it.
• In case III, the air inlet is placed laterally at the center of the top support. The
results concerning the exhausting of air are significantly improved, mainly because
most of the heat radiation enters the automobile through the front and rear wind-
shields. However, when the heat is absorbed by the steering wheel, front instru-
ment board, rear passenger seats and rear shelf board, the surrounding air is
heated. Influenced by the inertial effect of the air outlets at the front and rear
windshields, the flow of hot air accelerates towards the top support and air outlet,
along the direction of the cabin outlines. The air inlet in case III is placed laterally
at the center of the top support, and so exhausts hot gas from near the front and
rear windshields. However, the air inlet in case II was vertically placed on the top
support, and so could smoothly exhaust the hot air.
• Case IV exhibits the best air-exhausting performance of all cases, primarily be-
cause the air inlet is near to the steering wheel and is orientated in relation to
the flow of the hot air; it can exhaust the hot air rapidly under the preset pressure
difference of )10 Pa at the air inlet.

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