Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Alicia C. de Couve
Conservatorio Superior de Música de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires
Claudia Dal Pino
Universidad CAECE
Ana Lucía Frega
Universidad CAECE
1. Alicia de Couve, Claudia Dal Pino, and Ana Lucía Frega, “An Approach to the History
of Music Education in Latin America,” Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education 19
(September 1997): 10–39.
2. Alicia de Couve and Claudia Dal Pino, “Historical Panorama of Music Education in
Latin America: Music Training Institutions,” International Journal of Music Education 34 (1999):
30–46.
79
80 Journal of Historical Research in Music Education
… was obliged by himself and by all the chapel members to attend Church
and to sing vespers and masses on the most solemn days as those of first
class, Palm Sundays, Holy Maundy, Good Friday, Easter Saturday, November
twenty-nine, Saint Sacrament Fêtes and any other celebrations held in such
Church as well as those of brotherhoods but at private ones performed by
devoted people at which he will have no obligation to assist unless he receives
a payment according to his work. The same is understood for fêtes
performed at convents and hermits. The named Domingo Flores will
have the duty to compose at least one complete mass per year, plus
Christmas carols and songs to be sung at Church in vespers and in
Christmas celebrations. He also has to compose for less solemn occasions.6
December 4, 1551 at the Salvador see by royal letter. On August 17, 1552 the
bishop of Salvador had already appointed musicians for the charge.8 In the
Captaincy General of Chile, in the city of Santiago de Chile:
8. Regis Duprat, “A Música na Bahia Colonia [Music at Colonial Bahia],” Separata do no.
61 da Revista de Historia. (Sao Paulo, Brazil: s/de, 1965): 96 quoted in Bruno Kiefer, Historia
da Música Brasileira dos primórdios ao inicio do século XX [History of Brazilian Music from the
Beginnings to the Twentieth Century] (Porto Alegre, Brazil: Editorial Movimento, 3rd ed., 1982),
16.
9. Samuel Claro and Jorge Urrutia Blondel, Historia de la Música en Chile [History of Music
in Chile] (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Orbe, 1973), 64 including a quotation from Pereira
Salas, Los Orígenes del Arte Musical en Chile [Origins of Musical Art in Chile] (Santiago de Chile:
Imprenta Universitaria, 1941), 31.
10. Robert Stevenson, “La Música en Quito” [Music in Quito] in Revista Musical Chilena
Year XVI, no. 81–82, (July–December 1962): 185.
11. Stevenson, “La Música Colonial en Colombia,” 139.
82 Journal of Historical Research in Music Education
flute, oboe and so on, to the Indian boys who gave service to the Cathedral
chorus.”12
Simultaneously urban schools were including music teaching within a
general curriculum.13 For example, in Cuba, the San Ambrosio College
was founded at La Havana, “where the children serving at the altar and in the
parochial chorus were instructed in Latin and plain chant.”14 In Brazil, the priests
“… in the interior of the States or Captaincies, exercise the role of the three
‘Rs’: arithmetic, solfege and Latin.”15
Although they were not very prevalent, there were institutions that provided
specific musical teaching dependent on civil authorities. For instance, in
Venezuela, “On 2 April 1641, the Metropolitan Cabildo [town hall] founded
a plain chant school, where not only those people serving Church, but whoever
wanted to, could learn musical rudiments.”16
As in Argentina, music education was a subject included in priesthood studies.
For example, at Pará, Brazil: “In 1786 the Seminar was provided by Bishop Frei
Caetano Brandao, with one discipline of vocal music and another of Gregorian
chant, ordering that scores were sent from Portugal. During his Episcopal
government the cathedral chorus reached its apogee and we have notice of two
excellent organists …”17
In Ecuador, there was a Consiliar Seminar at Quito, where Gutierrez
Fernández Hidalgo (1553–1586) taught music. His duties were: “to teach
classes twice a day, one of singing and other of counterpoint, one in the
morning and the other in the evening. His pupils would be all those clergymen
of Quito who wished to learn music …”18
There is evidence that nuns received similar teaching at some convents. In
Mexico the Music School for women was founded in 1740 at the San Miguel
of Bethlen Convent by Archbishop Don Antonio Vizarrón y Eguiarreta. It
functioned up to 1821 when the convent was closed. Similar to the first
conservatories in Italy, it was an asylum where girls were taught music. During
12. Segundo Luis Moreno Andrade, La Música en el Ecuador [Music in Ecuador], 2nd ed.
(Quito, Ecuador: Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, Departamento de Desarrollo
y Difusión Musical, 1996), 48.
13. See de Couve and Dal Pino, “Historical Panorama … Music Training Institutions,” 35.
14. Alejo Carpentier, La Música en Cuba [Music in Cuba], 3rd ed. (La Habana, Cuba: Editorial
Letras Cubanas, 1988): 51.
15. Kiefer, Historia da Música Brasileira, 35.
16. José Antonio Calcaño, “Música Colonial Venezolana” [Colonial Music in Venezuela],
Revista Musical Chilena (July–December 1962): 195.
17. Kiefer, Historia da Música Brasileira, 26.
18. Stevenson, “Música en Quito,” 181.
Alicia C. de Couve, Claudia Dal Pino, Ana Lucía Frega 83
the first six years more than twenty music teachers graduated. This institution
provided its services to all the convents in New Spain, the nuns acting as
teachers who trained those pupils who showed more aptitude:
It is ordered that not every girl at the Recogimiento will attend that school
because of their number, as only twenty or a few more may be trained at
the same time, and that for their selection it must be taken into account
who felt more inclined to the religious state and even more to music
playing. As regards the first point the Priests must immediately acknowledge
and as for the second point Teachers must take an exam to the girls so that
those who applied to constant study will occupy a place in the chorus with
the only cost to have taken part in this charitable exercise.19
Music was also taught at some universities, but with regard to this point it
is necessary to refer to information cited in previous analyses of music training
institutions, as there is no additional data available at this time.21 The following
educational centers included music in their schedule: the Real and Pontifical
University of Caracas (Venezuela, seventeenth century),22 the Santo Tomás
University (Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, seventeenth century), the
Gorjón University (Dominican Republic),23 the San Basilio Magno Seminar
(Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, eighteenth century), and the Real Pontifical University
of San Cristóbal of La Havana (Cuba).24
19. Document “Escuela de Música en que perpetuamente hallen las niñas más desvalidas el
recogimiento y Casa de San Miguel de Bethlen de esta ciudad de Mexico. Dote y título para
poder ser religiosas” [School of Music in which are always found the most neglected girls of
the House of Correction and House of St. Michael of Bethlehem in Mexico City. Endowed
and licensed for the study to become nuns.] (Mexico: Imprenta RL del Superior Gobierno y
del Nuevo Rezado, 1746) quoted in Saldivar, Historia de la Música en México, 148–149.
20. Ibid.
21. See de Couve and Dal Pino, “Historical panorama … music training institutions,” 37.
22. Calcaño, “Música colonial Venezolana,” 196.
23. Coopersmith, Música y músicos de la república Dominicana, 72.
24. Pablo Hernández Balaguer, “Panorama de la música colonial Cubana” [Panorama of
Colonial Cuban Music], in Revista Musical Chilena Year XVI, no. 81–82, (July–December 1962):
201–202.
84 Journal of Historical Research in Music Education
In 1568 the Quito Audience asked the teachers’ names in order to distribute
the budget. A list was presented under the conduction [sic] of Fray Juan
de Obeso that included Diego Gutiérrez, Indian from Quito to teach singing,
reading and keyboard and flute playing; Pedro Díaz, native from Tanta,
for plain chant, organ, reading and writing, and flageolet and flute playing;
Juan Mitimas, Indian from Latacunga, for singing and sackbut playing;
Cristóbal de Santamaría, native from Quito for singing, reading and string
instrument playing. All these teachers were given as assistants Juan Oña,
native from Cotocollao, Diego Guaña, Indian from Conocoto, Antonio
Fernández, native from Guangopolo and Sancho native from Pizoli.32
The first methodology applied was mere imitation. At the Jesuit missions
in the Ecuadorian territory: “The missionaries selected several Indian boys and
without any preparation, they taught them by rote to sing some praises and even
the Mass, the Salve and so on; and those one who showed special abilities were
taught to play the harp, the violin (instruments that were constructed in an
unpolished and primitive way in the very mission), the flute, the clarinet, etc.,
with the aim to fulfill new born church’s necessities.”33 In Mexico the Franciscans
taught the Catholic doctrine using rhythmic phrases which, when accompanied
by plain chant, made learning easier.34
Although the priests aimed at eliminating every belief contrary to the
Catholic faith, they used many popular Indian songs and changed their texts
for evangelical purposes. As an example, in Ecuador: “It is doubtless that from
the first years of Spanish domination, this melody [Yupaichishca, a sacred
Indian song] was adapted as a pledge to ‘the Great Milady … Sky Empress.’
And this supposition is not unfounded, because it is not difficult to understand
that the missionaries employed Indian melodies, selecting those ones that
without substantial changes may be applied as religious songs.”35 Documentation
has also been found to indicate that priests sometimes composed religious
songs on the minor pentatonic scale.36
Beginning in the seventeenth century there appeared more data on methods
or texts proceeding from Europe. An eighteenth-century Mexican musicologist
stated that: “In the last third of the seventeenth century Cerone’s Musical
Theory and Nasarrecon’s One (1683) were already known.”37 These works used
to be memorized and comprised a great number of rules and definitions. Mariz
states that, “Plain chant, organ, clavichord, violin, and counterpoint treatises
came to Brazil from Portugal.”38 Mariz goes on to note that this contact with
the European resources was fast and fluid: “In Europe Eximeno creates a clear
musical teaching reform, causing great scandal with his work Dell origine e delle
regole della musica colla historia de suo progreso e decadenza e rinovezione [Music
Origin and Rules, including the history of its progress, decline and rejuvenation],
that as soon as it was translated into Spanish it was known in Mexico.”39
There are also references to musical theory books written by Creoles and
Indians. In Brazil the mulatto chapel master Alvares Pinto, who studied in Lisbon
wrote a treatise entitled “Solfege Art.”40 In Mexico, according to a certain Burgos,
“An Indian musician from Oxaca developed To Tie Harmony to a Perfect Circle,
which may be considered the first Mexican work on musical theory, as far as
it is known.”41
African culture meant another challenge to the priests. Claro Valdez points
out that: “Negro melodies had a great influence on religious liturgy. Together
with Indian songs, they entered in the Catholic ceremonies, causing great
trouble and becoming a debatable point at the first American councils.”48
During the first colonization times, necessity led to flexible criteria when
selecting musical instruments for religious ceremonies. During the sixteenth
century in Cuba “black women sung at church and a guiro [percussion
instrument made from a dried gourd] was among the instruments. The truth
was that at Santiago de Cuba instruments were scarce and it was frequent for
organists to justify the employment of secular musicians for the solemn worship
… because there were very few musicians in Cuba.”49
It is known that in the Brazilian missions: “In short time, there were in
all the catechized villages small music schools, where the Indians learnt with
great facility to play flutes and viols … besides chant for celebrating Mass. The
Jesuits created choral and instrumental music for the religious ceremonies and
the public acts. In 1578 the first Master in Arts diplomas were granted.”50
Instrument construction was soon under way both by independent lutenists
and in the mission workshops, as has already been explained when presenting
the Argentine data.51
There is evidence that musical composition was taught in many educational
centers. For example, in La Havana, Cuba, composition was taught at the
parochial manor in addition to organ and plain chant.
Many Latin American cathedral files constitute the evidence that a diverse
repertoire, which included local compositions, was performed. In Lima,
Perú, in 1809 Andrés Bolognesi registered the music papers available at the
Metropolitan Sacred Church of Lima, which comprised many Latin American
works: “… José de Oregón y Aparicio (1690–1763), Peruvian, thirty-seven works;
Melchor Tapia y Zegarra (eighteenth century), three works; Manuel Davalos,
(?–1818), Peruvian, two works; Toribio del Campo y Pando (1740–1818),
Peruvian, one work; … a total of 221 works.”52 It must be noted that this
inventory does not include famous European composers because their works
were usually performed by the chapel masters.
53. See de Couve and Dal Pino, “Historical Panorama … Music Training Institutions,” 34.
54. Saldivar, Historia de la música en México, 98.
55. Stevenson, “Música en Quito, 176.
56. Ibid. 176.
57. Stevenson, “Música colonial en Colombia,” 157.
58. Stevenson, “Música en Quito,” 175–176.
59. Saldivar, Historia de la música en México, 165.
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There are Spanish documents that show the Crown’s decision to support
musical development in American churches. It must not be forgotten that the
Spanish Crown was the protector and custodian of the Christian faith in these
territories.
Charles the Third, King of Spain, in a royal letter sent to the bishop and
the Cabildo of the Cathedral of Santiago [Cuba] in 1764, expressed his will
to create a music chapel with everything needed, taking as an example the
metropolitan one in Mexico. Not only plain singing but also string instrument
playing must be considered in order to exercise polyphonic music.60
It is said that the way to obtain a good sound can not be learned or taught.
This is a misunderstanding because I consider, apart from my observation,
that it is easy to achieve. It consists in putting the bow two fingers from
the bridge with a good balance neither strong nor lax, while at the same
time the fingers of the left hand press the strings in such a way that they
have channel marks on them when they are lifted. This study must
continue up to the moment when the sound has no buzzing or creaking.
In order to obtain this result it is necessary to execute this study in an empty
dark room because this situation does not mask the instrument defects while
darkness helps to the student’s attention.78
The copybook then explains the way to tune the violin in two lines and
develops some musical rudiments, such as intervals, clefs, and measures. It devotes
a whole chapter to note reading, presenting the corresponding symbols.
Furthermore, the first copybook presents the violin scales, the bow management,
and three melodies with their bass parts: an andante, an allegro, and a minuetto.
The second copybook consists of thirty double-chord violin exercises.79
Marcelo Fegerrlande recently published an analysis of the pianoforte method
written by Father José Mauricio Nunes Garcia (1767–1830), of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. The full title of this method was “Compendium of Pianoforte Music
and Pianoforte Method.” This work
“The viol artisan, in order to know his craft well and be an specialist, must
know how to construct many different instruments, for example a
clavichord, a harpsichord, a monochord, a lute, an arch vihuela [former
name for a violin], a big guitar with its inlaid details, and other simpler
guitars, and that a skilled workman who does not known how to construct
all these instruments must be examined in those abilities he declared,
performing them in due manner in order to be tested. The Carpenter
Warden and two deputies must examine every artisan as said before, but
if he refuses to take the exam he will be charged with a ten pesos in gold
punishment. That skilled workman who wants to open a shop must be
examined in the construction of a big guitar with big pieces. If he does
not pass the exam he will be not allowed to open a shop in the city nor in
its surroundings. These strict dispositions were not executed or there was
no opportunity to apply them.81
Musicologist Curt Lange states that in Minas Gerais, Brazil, “Musicians from
this State, as duly respected artists, did not pay license, having the same
privileges as architects, sculptors and painters. They did not exercise a job, but
an art. By that time when a musician, being himself either organist, singer,
instrument player or music teacher, wrote a letter to the authorities, he pointed
that he exercised the art of music.”82
80. Marcelo Fegerrlande, Metodo de pianoforte do Padre José Mauricio Nunes Garcia [Pianoforte
meted by Father José Mauricio Nunes Garcia] (Río de Janeiro: Ed. Relume Dumará, 1996),
20.
81. Saldivar, Historia de la música en México, 185–187.
82. Lange, “A organizacao musical durante o período colonial Brasileiro,” 41.
Alicia C. de Couve, Claudia Dal Pino, Ana Lucía Frega 95
Conclusions
These two large overviews of the history of music education in Latin
America enable the reader and the authors to summarize some relevant trends:
1) From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, the Catholic Church was
the main institution that included music in its educational programs as
an important factor to spread the Christian faith in the new territories.83
Although priests sometimes took into consideration Indian music
expressions, they imposed the European music style throughout Latin
America.
2) The fact that music teaching in schools depended on the approval of
local Cabildos [town halls] constitutes the first evidence of civilian
authorities’ interest in this field.
3) The increasing presence of private teachers helped to establish music
education as a priority in urban society as well as forming the basis for the
creation of the future conservatories.
83. See de Couve and Dal Pino, “Historical Panorama … Music Training Institutions,”30–46.