5

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Roles of women in agriculture

According to Lu (2010), in her study in the highland community, women play a

very important role in the production of vegetables and crops. However, there are hazards

facing these women while performing their work in the farm, predisposing them to

certain occupational health issues. As such, this research study aimed to look into

occupational issues of women, as well as certain cultural, political, socio-economic

perceptions and attributes that affect women’s occupational issues. Women actively

participated in agricultural activities as much as men. Farming is a family based activity

that involves the husband, the wife and the children. The role of women in agriculture

according to this study was not merely a complementary role to the men in the

agricultural system. The work of women farmers are the same as their male counterpart

ranging from pesticide application, clearing the land, fertilizer application, to harvesting

and trading. Most of the decision concerning vegetable farming is decided by the wife or

the women in the family. Moreover, according to Gite et.al (2010) there are four major

roles of women farmer. She can be the source of power or the worker, the controller or

the operator, the manager or the farmer, and entrepreneur or the business person.

Vegetable Farming in the Philippines

According to Eaton et.al. (2009), there are approximately 250 million vegetable

farmers in Asia. Vegetable farming is relatively labor intensive and embarked on most

part by small farm holders with less than two hectares farm holdings. Due to extensive
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work and high value of agricultural products, vegetable farming plays a big role in the

farmers’ living status. Vegetables farming sustain the needs of the farmers and aids in

their daily life requirements.

Vegetables, as part of Filipino subsistence, be it as food or as source of livelihood

cannot be undermined. All 43 kinds and 250 lesser-known species of Philippine

vegetables are important sources of minerals, vitamins, fiber, and proteins. In the crop

category, vegetable ranks second to ornamentals in terms of income generated per unit

area and time. Moreover, it is widely used as an intercrop for coconut and fruit trees, and

as a component of other cropping systems. Ironically, per capita consumption is quite low

at 39 kilograms considering that the recommended intake is 69 kilograms ( Pabuayon,

BAR Digest 2012)

The production of vegetables can be improved not only by means of improved

vegetable varieties and new technology but also greatly affected by the ergonomics of the

farming tools used by farmers. The safety and ease of operation using these hand tools

contribute to the effectiveness of the farmer in performing the different farm operations.

Vegetable Farming in Rizal Province

Female farmers in Rizal province are identified to be vegetable farmers. Only few

of them are involved in rice production. Farm operations such as plowing and other land

preparation operations are mostly done by male farmers while weeding, uprooting

seedlings, and transplanting are exclusively done by female farmers. However, operations

such as fertilizer and chemical application, harvesting, threshing, and transportation are

done by both genders. Therefore, anthropometric body limitations of the female farmer
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have to be taken into consideration for the design of any tools or machinery used in

performing a specific agricultural operation. Table 1 indicates the vegetable area planted

in hectares for Rizal Province. According to the Provincial Agriculture Office of Rizal

during 2007, the area planted in hectares for vegetables and root crops were 615 and 200,

respectively. Part of the crop production in metric tons from 2006-2007 composed of

these two crops contributed to the total production of 8650 MT. Table 2 shows the

volume of production of vegetable in Rizal Province. The vegetables that are planted in

this area are mainly garden vegetables such as string beans (sitaw), snow cabbage

(pechay),bitter gourd ( ampalaya), and raddish (labanos). Unlike the male rice farmers,

female farmers only use light weighted tools and equipment in land preparation, planting,

and during the growth of the crops and also harvesting.

The province is bordered by Metro Manila to the west, the Bulacan Province to

the north, Quezon Province to the east, and Laguna Lake to the south. The province is a

combination of valleys and mountains, flat low-lying areas on the western portion which

are mostly urbanized and populated. Figure 1 shows the location map of the sampled

municipalities in Rizal Province.

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Table 2-1. Area planted in hectares for vegetables in Rizal Province.

VEGTABLE 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Ampalaya 18 20 20 20 20 20
Camote 126 108 108 108 105 96
Cassava 100 100 100 103 103 106
Eggplant 66 68 68 68 68 70
Ginger 8 7 4 7 7 9
Gourd 20 20 20 20 20 20
Kangkong 26 27 28 28 32 33
Mongo 9 180 160 144 8 7
Okra 10 10 10 10 10 10
Peanut 68 67 67 67 66 56
Pechay Native 78 74 68 68 68 71
Radish 17 21 19 22 20 20
Squash Fruit 21 19 19 19 19 19
Stringbeans 917 923 925 931 105 95
Tomato 20 21 21 21 21 23
Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2012

Table 2-2. Volume of production of vegetables in Rizal Province.

VEGETABLE 2010 2011
Camote 824.9 713
Eggplant 517.85 518.85
Kangkong 359.8 363
Mongo 4.1 4
Okra 34.7 34.66
Pechay Native 339.5 341.9
Radish 361.3 361
Squash Fruit 131.6 155.1
Stringbeans 659.6 497
Tomato 132 133
Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2012
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Figure 2-1. Location Map of the sampled Municipalities in Rizal Province.

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Hand Tools Used in Vegetable Farming Operations

Common farm operations that use hand tools are tillage and harvesting operations.

Tillage uses tools that break and turn the soil to control soil moisture, temperature and air

circulation, weeds and pests, and to bury vegetation and other ratter in the soil. The main

object of tillage is to assist the natural processes which bring about the most favorable

soil conditions for the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. Weeding is

particularly time consuming task and frequently the main limiting factor on the area that

can be cultivated. Harvesting includes cutting or digging, gathering and handling of crops

up to their final removal from the field. Crops that are growing above the ground are cut

with knives while those growing in the soil, like potatoes and roots, are lifted with

digging tools or implements. Gathering and handling crops grown on a small scale is

done with various tined or toothed implements ( Hopfen, 1969).

Vegetable farming tools used by the female farmers in Rizal are classified as

simple hand tools. A hand tool is consist of a handle and a working part and coupled by a

connecting device. It is generally made of wood and specially shaped for good grip and

comfort and it is adapted to the size, strength and shape of the hand of the user in the

most convenient position during farm operation. Selecting tools for farming operation is

important to consider the whole farming environment and farming system.

There are twelve hand tools that were evaluated in the study. Hand trowels are

used for cultivating weeds, mixing soils or fertilizers, transplanting seedlings and filling

containers with soil. Figure 2-2 (a) shows the illustration of the hand trowel Figure 2-2

(b) shows the bolo same as itak but it has boarder blade usually used for weeding

purposes and for loosening the soil particles. The machete in Figure 2-2 (c) is a long
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heavy, single-edged machete used for cutting woods or branches of trees. It is also used

for clearing the area to be planted. Another tool is the rake which is long-handed with a

row of projecting teeth at its head, used especially to gather leaves or to loosen or

smoothen the soil surface. Two figures of rake are shown in Figure 2-3. Figure 2-3 (a) is

a rake from the municipality of Pililia and Binangonan Rizal. Figure 2-3 (b) is a spade

from Pililia and Binangonan Rizal. Spades are used to dig, lift and turn soil for the

preparation of arable land, to make holes and to dig make channels or other excavation.

For work with spades both hands are usually employed as well as one foot which helps to

push the blade into the soil. The digging bar in Figure 2-4 (a) from Pililia and

Binangonan Rizal used to dig holes for the trellis for the climbing crops. The hoe in

Figure 2-4 (b), used for primary tillage, it has heavy blades and thick handles. The fork in

Figure 2-5 (a) is used both for gardening and moving loosly packed materials like a

mound of weeds that needed to be recollected. The pick mattock in Figure 2-5 (b) are

commonly used for opening up new land, the cutting edge being used to cut roots and the

digging edge for primary tillage on very hard ground, and together with pickaxes they are

used for digging and building works. Figure 2-5 (c) shows the scythes that are used for

harvesting fodder crops and although not as commonly used as sickles, they offer higher

work rates. Scythes require substantial skill to use. Scythes can only be used on flat

surfaces with few stones. Digging fork in Figure 2-6 (a) are used to remove small weeds

and loosen soil or roughing up the soil for seedling in small area. In Figure 2-6 (b) the

sickle is a tool having a semicircular blade attached to a short handle, used for cutting

grain, such as palay or tall grass.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure2-2. (a) Hand trowel, (b) dulos, and (c) machete.

(a) (b)

Figure 2-3(a) Rake, and (b) spade.

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(a) (b)

Figure 2-4 (a) Digging bar, and (b) hoe.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2-5. (a) Fork, (b) pick mattock, and (c) scythe.
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(a) (b)

Figure 2-6. (a) Digging Fork, and (b) sickle.

Musculoskeletal Injury

According to Kumar (1999), injury means the disruption of tissues. This, in turn

led to pain in addition to inflammation and other biomechanical responses. The

Musculoskeletal injury is an injury that affects the muscles of the body, joints, tendons,

ligaments and nerves. An injury may result to a functional disorder which can be

remedied by healing. This can occur due to the mechanical damage of tissue due to

overuse. This can occur because of the person’s line of work or the working environment.

Some other factors are the involvement of the person in sports activities which will lead

to fractures sustained in an accident. Due to various body postures during work, the body

experiences discomfort and may lead to such injury. This usually affects the back,

shoulder and upper limbs. The lower limbs have the less possibility to be affected.

Overexertion of physical efforts may lead to a muscle and joint injury. This can be done
 15

by exceeding the physical and physiological limits in the field of work or in any physical

activities. All musculoskeletal injuries have a bio mechanical basis which is affected by

three variables: force application, effective exposure to force exertion, and the extent and

range of motion in these activities.

Flexion

According to Woodson (1964), flexion is the process of bending. It is a movement

which forms a smaller angle or decreases the angle between the bones. From Cailliet

(2004), the hip of the human flexes during the swing and become neutral during

midstance phase and extends as the other leg goes through the swing phase. The author

then concluded that the hip flexion angle was determined to be 20 degrees. This was

shown in figure 2-7.

Figure 2-7. Hip angle during normal gait.

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Grip

According to Kumar (1999), the human hand is flexible enough to permit

different grips. There are two common grips: the power grip and the precision grip as

seen in Figure 2-8. The power grip is used when large forces are to be exerted. It is a

basic grasp whereby the fingers are wrapped around an object and the thumb placed

against it, the fingers are more or less flexed according to the size of the object, and they

are laterally rotated and inclined towards the ulnar side of the hand. The precision grip is

primarily used for work that requires precise manipulation and control, rather than the use

of large force. Deviation of the wrist results in productivity loss and losses grip strength.

In designing hand tools to be used by one hand, the forces in the fingers are greatly

influenced by the grip posture of the hand. Bad grip posture causes a fatigue and loss of

control in the grip. Grip diameter of not more than 60 mm is recommended in order for

the population with smaller hands can grip the tools properly with strength.

Figure 2-8. Illustration of Power grip and

Precision grip.
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Effective Weight of Tool

This is the tool weight supported by the worker (Kumar, 1999). Kumar

recommend in his book the effective weight of the power grip tools to be 2.3 kg to reduce

fatigue experienced by the user.

Repetitive Motion

The duration and repetitiveness of use of a hand tool have shown to increase the

potential for risk of an occupational injury. Repetitive strain injuries are a family of

injuries affecting the muscles, tendons, nerves, and joints and typically occur in the hand,

arm, shoulder, neck, and even the back of the tool operator. Based on Kumar, (1999)

when exertion have to be repeated, the duration of exertion and the ensuing rest period

influence the time it takes to reach subjective fatigue.

Back Pain and Injury

Injury occurs if the limits of maximal strain of the tissues exceeded. An accidental

trauma can happen in a single strenuous effort. However, often repeated loadings add up

to a cumulative overloading. Back pain and injury may happen without generating any

pain (Kroemer et al.1994). The flexion angle at the back of the human body according to

Lim et.al.( 2011) on their study is 45 degrees and a shoulder flexion angle of 45 degrees.

With this, the discomfort felt of the person flexing is less.

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Ergonomics

Human factor or ergonomics deals with the scientific understanding between

human and the working environment. It is applying the ergonomic principle with the data

and methods to design and evaluate the system in order to optimize it and the human

interacting with it, producing a comfortable environment considering the abilities and

limitation of the people (Retrieved from http://www.iea, 2000). It is the study of work and

the science of designing the job to fit the worker, rather than physically forcing the

worker’s body to fit the job. Adapting tasks, work stations, tools, and equipment to fit the

worker can help reduce physical stress on a worker’s body and eliminate many

potentially serious, disabling work related musculoskeletal injury. Ergonomics draws on

a number of scientific disciplines, including physiology, biomechanics, psychology,

anthropometry, industrial hygiene, and kinesiology (Osha, 2000).

For the past few years, ergonomic initiatives have been growing in Asia due to

increasing local needs. A number of studies in some developing countries in the region

has contributed in improving the working conditions of locals in terms of materials

handling and workstation design (Prado-Lu, 2007).

All agricultural equipment usually operated by machines and human requires

talent and skills from the operator in order to optimize it. To have an efficient work, the

machine to be use should be capable of producing a comfortable atmosphere without

risking the health of the operator. The performance of the operator can be accessed

through his physiological response. Not ergonomically designed equipments and tools

will probably cause discomfort to the user and body pain or severe health disorder

(Yadav et al., 2010).

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According to Rubio (1995) on his paper, Ergonomics for Industrially Developing

Countries: An Alternative Approach, suggests different method to improve working

conditions for ergonomists in industrially developing countries. This considers the social

and cultural context within the worker and the working place together with the ergonomic

factor. The operator as a product of his socio-cultural environment, and the work place

and his work practices are affected by societal conditions (like quality of training and

education, technical infrastructure, and technical culture). The main focus of ergonomics

is the improvement of working conditions and safety.

Based on the study of Fathallah (2010), ergonomics has been used to reduce the

health effects of labor-intensive agriculture. A summary of exposure to MSD physical

risk factors within various classes of crops, along with various administrative and

engineering controls for abating MSDs in agriculture is given. These controls range from

programmed rest breaks to mechanized or partially-mechanized operations. Despite the

advent progress in new technologies in agricultural practices, reliance on labor, especially

in fresh market fruits and vegetables, will always be a major keystone of agriculture for at

least the foreseen future. It is encouraging to see the increased interest among health and

safety professionals, epidemiologists, engineers, social scientists, and ergonomists

throughout the world who are committed to the plight of reducing MSDs and other health

problems among agricultural workers.

Ergonomic consciousness is increasing among the agricultural workers of India.

Hence, anthropometric data were collected for efficient and safe design of agricultural

hand tools, implements and machines. To achieve better efficiency of performance, more

human comfort and to reduce musculoskeletal injury, it is necessary to design the hand
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tools and equipment keeping in consideration the operator’s capabilities and limitations.

The design of equipment is always a compromise between the operator’s biological

needs, which are determined by the ergonomics guidelines, and physical requirements of

the equipment. In this regard, the basic information required is the anthropometric body

dimensions of the users of tools and equipment. All India Coordinated Research Project

(AICRP) on Ergonomics and Safety in Agriculture (ESA), Bhopal, India has identified 76

body dimensions including age and body weight for the design or design modification of

agricultural hand tools, implements and machines from ergonomic considerations

(Dewangan et al. 2010).

Anthropometry

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual. It is used as an

early tool of physical anthropology. Anthropometric body dimensions play a considerable

role in human-machine relations. The overall working efficiency of human-machine

environment and resultant discomfort has severe impact while using farm tools and

machinery in the farm lands (Agrawal et al. 2010).

A study conducted by Del Prado-Lu (2007) entitled Anthropometric measurement

of Filipino manufacturing workers, conducted anthropometric measurements among 1805

Filipino workers in 31 manufacturing industries. Anthropometric data were measured for

standing, sitting, hand and foot dimensions, breadth and circumference of the various

body parts, and grip strength. In this study, similar problems were noted among the

respondents. The top five hazards identified were poor posture leading to backache

(72.2%), heat (66.6%), overwork (66.6%), poor ventilation (54.8%), and chemical
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exposure (50.8%). Among physical and psychomotor stresses, the top three were visual

strain, overtime, and overwork. The most common illnesses related to ergonomic

problems were backache (56%), fatigue and weakness (53.2%). Cuts (46.8%) topped the

list of common injuries followed by slipping injury (23.2%). As time goes by many

establishments and industries have yet to recognize the importance of ergonomics and

anthropometry in the workplace.

A paper published by Victor et al. (2002) that deals with the anthropometric

survey of male agricultural farm workers of Chhattisgarh region as a reference for the

ergonomic considerations, while going for design and developing tools, implements and

machinery. This survey has also been compared with available data of other regions.

According to the paper the Indian population varies from region to region, body

measurement differs in dimension that’s why every region must have its own

anthropometric data.

An anthropometric study was conducted by Laguna (2010) of the University of

the Philippines Los Banos for the Design analysis of AMDP’s Garden rotavator. The

study is to assess the suitability of the design to the female user. About 82 out of 106

respondents were considered in anthropometric evaluation of garden rotavator. Results

show that the AMDP’s garden rotavator is not ergonomically fit for the female users

because of the height and spacing of the handle that cause strain to the operators

shoulder.

Also another study was conducted by Gonzales (2012) of the University of the

Philippines Los Banos for the evaluation of the two-wheel tractor. The study shows that

the distance of implement from farmer’s feet is too short. So as not to jeopardize
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operator’s safety, adjustments should be done to allow more space between operator’s

feet and implement.

Maulion (2009) of the University of the Philippines Los Banos conducted a study

by integrating anthropometric data of male farmers in Cavite with focus given to the

diameter of the pulper’s wheel to reduce cases of fatigue, wrist pain and back pain as

reported by its users.

Aldea in 2011 conducted a study on the evaluation of an animal-drawn plow

using the anthropometric data of female farmers in Batangas. Result showed that the

height of the handle should be adjusted to conform to the anthropometric data of the

female farmers. Also further adjustments should be done for the grip diameter and the

handle curve to allow the 95% of the population to use the handle comfortably.

A study on design evaluation of IRRI 4-Row ultralite rice transplanter based on

the anthropometric data of female farmers in Cavite by San Juan in 2009 shows that 90%

of the female farmers can operate the transplanter with less back pain and injuries.

A study on design analysis of the multi tilling machine based on the

anthropometric data of female farmers in Quezon Province by Eusebio in 2013 shows

that the multi tiller used in the evaluation found to be easier to use and the distance

between the engage clutch and the operator needs to be improved since it causes the user

the difficulty in reaching it.

A study conducted by Lapitan (2009) on the design evaluation of hand jabber

using anthropometric measurements of Batangas male farmers shows that the total height

and the handle height of the hand jabber should be adjusted. The handle diameter should
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be increased and 5 cm. distance between the handle and actuator should be maintained.

And he also recommended that the handle length can be maintained.