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    Parental Involvement in Childrens Educat PDF

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    Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: Why Does It Make a Difference? KATHLEEN V. HOOVER-DEMPSEY AND HOWARD M, SANDLER ended Untey We ast thatthe most important questions concerning parental inleement in hildens education addr why parents cote lo bce ecloed and wy ther involooent,oncr underway, fen poste influences educational cutcomes. We reset a del suggeting that part bem ivoled prima bs (a) he ‘del a personal contraction ofthe parental role Ua includes parpation i ‘hair chins education, (2) Bey have devloed a postive sense of eleay or Delping their children succed echol, and (e) thay persve opportunities ‘demands for inzluemen! from children andthe xehol. Parents thn coat spre forms of inuolooment in response tthe specie damains of land kneeled they ‘press, the total demande on ther time and energy, nd specific requets Jor ‘ralsement from children and the rzhool. The motel get that parental sno snent then inftuences children’s dedopmental and educational oucomes though Such mechentms a6 modeling, reinforcement, ad instracion, madi by the ‘parent's use of developmentally ppropate atti and theft Betaen parental ‘cities and the thao’ expectations. The major educational outcomes ofthe involvement proces am childrens deopment of hls and Krol, a5 wll asa eronal uns of efficacy for suceding in schoo Major implications of he madel Jorracarch and pace are dsc, ‘The literature on parental involvement in child and adolescent education convey the clear asimption that parent’ invlvement benefits children's learning (eg, Chavkin, 1998; cles &e Harold, 1998; Epeein, 1989, 1994, Hess & Holloway, 1984; Hobbs, Dokecki, HooverDDemprey, Moroney, Shayne, & Weeks, 1984; U.S. Department of Education, 1994. In some cit feumatances, the literate simply makes the assertion; In others, the aetr= tion is grounded in systematie examination of specific aspects of parental Involvement as related wo specific indiestore of school succes (eg, Eecles Harold, 1998, 1994; Epstein, 1991). As'a whole, however, the lterature Zach al Het on 9, Nan 2 Wr Parental Hiveboment $11 10 be pragmatic in Its orientation, usually aking the question "What's happening, with what (apparent) effec” A model commonly ‘assumed in the literature i illustrated in Figure 1. Student educational ‘outcomes are assumed to be influenced oF caused by parental involvement, hich selfs often assumed tobe influenced by selected factors related t0 parents (most often, sociodemographic variables, but sometimes more ‘Synamic variables such ae parental attudes) or selected factors related ‘schools (status variables characterizing schools or more dynamic varablet Such at teacher behators) That model falls short af offering clear answers tw two crlucal questions, however: Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? How does parental involvement have a positive elect on children's edueational outcomes? Our interest is in learning about parental involvement and its beneficial influences on child and adolescent school outcomes, Many children sue- eed in school even when their parents are not directly or actively involved in their education: the reatons may include good teaching. postive rela tionships with other aduls, personal resilience, and so forth. While the mechanisms that promote ruccess in school for children and adoleseens inthe absence of meaningfl parent involvement are of substantial interes 1 educators, our interest in this article lies notin that more general domain (Le. what creates school success for children and adolescents, regardless of parental or familial input), but inthe specific aren defined ‘Chia/Stadent Outcomes I Parental Involvement Parent factors School fuetore sams/ ——Dynamie/|_— | Stas Process [demographic process | | variables variables variables salable Figure 1 Model of Parent Ivelvement Commonly Assumed inthe tertare S12 Thachre Calle Record by this question: Why do parents become involved in various aspects of their children's education, and—when they do hecome to involved-—how does their involvement influence school outcomes? “We ae interested in knowing more about parent’ posite influences on their children’s educational outcomes. Thu, we have considered work that points to potential indicators ofthat indluence; we have not included the fll ‘ange of studies that may include findings of "no parental inluence.” Our Interests notin examining the proportion: Does paren involvement make a ference? It x ther in these questions: Why do parent become involved? “When paren choote 1 became involed, how do they choose specifi forms of involvement? Finally, how does parent involvement make a difference? (That is what goes on in the process of parental involvement that makes i Wkly wo create aposuvediferene in children’s choo! outcome) In developing the model presented here, we have built on work that has ‘examined specific aspects of parental involvement as well x work focused fon identifying and describing schematically—and to some extent ‘ausally—the wide range of parent. child, school, and community variables {hat may be related to parental involvement and it outcomes (eg. Eccles & Harold, 1998, 1994). The variables included in Eccles and Harold's (1995, 1984) model in parcular representa thoughtful dilation of fac: tors that are possible inks to both parental involvement and a variety of felated educational outcomes for children, Although Eccles and Harold developed their model In order to understand procestes that underlie parental involvement, the influence of parents and schools on children’s Performance, and “the many barrier to parent involvement” (Eecles & Harold, 1998, p. 570), we construe our model as a more specific and ‘delimited approach wo these questions: Why do parents become invohed? How they choose specifi invelvement forms? How docs their lvolernent influence outcomes? We have chosen to focus on specific variables that (1) are likely to be most salient tothe parentinvolement process from parents" perspectives, and (2) are potentially subject wo specific interention and ‘change as school personnel and others work to improve parental insole ‘ment and related student outcomes, WHY PARENTS BECOME INVOLVED IN THEIR ‘CHILDREN’S EDUCATION Many have suggested the preeminent significance of parents’ education, Income, marital status, and related indleatore of family status in efforts to understand parent’ involvement decisions (eg. Lareau, 1989). However, ‘we assert that these status variables, while not snimportan, do not explain parent’ decisions to become invaled, their choice of involvement forms, Parental Involvement S18 forthe effecs of their involvement on student outcome, We suggest that patents mot often become involved in ther children’s education for three ‘major reasons: (1) their personal construction of the parental role; (2) ‘their personal sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school, and (3) their reaction to the opportunities and demand characteristics pre sented by both theie children and their children’s schools PERSONAL. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARENTAL ROLE ‘Wie believe that parents become involved because they consni the parental roles including personal involvement in their children’s education. Several Investigators have referenced or examined parent’ role construction ab 4 variable potentially important to parental involvement (e4, Delgado Cat ‘an, 1992; Eccles, 1995; Feces & Harold, 1993; Larea, 1989; Lightfoot 1978). We suggest that parent role constuction s distilled from parents ‘ideas about the parental role, learned largely through observation and ‘modeling oftheir own parent schoobrelated involvement, their fiends Involvement in children’s schooling. and so forth. This construction of the parental role is important because t enables the parent to imagine, ant pate, and at on a host of edetionally related attics wth thet children "A constuction of the parental role at including personal inwalverent in children’s education would seem tobe a necessary (but not sullcient) con- fition for the emergence of parentinvolvement activities. The presence of sich 3 role conection means that relevant responsibilities and actives hha been thought of and considered by the parent, chs creating the por sibliy of an acve cole: the presence of the Foe construction alone, how ‘ver, fs not sulficent co ensure involeent. Ii nt sufficient because the Parent mist take the role construction and act on it in order to be involved; toacton the role, the parent must Believe that he or she has the stills and opportunities necesiary for involvement {in other words, seeing Involvement activites as reasonable or pouible does not ensure tha the parent believes he oF she can do those actives). PERSONAL SENSE OF EFFICACY FOR HELPING CHILDREN We also believe that parents Become involved because they have a sense of| penonalafcacy for helping thar children sucted im shook The construct Is Included in Beees and Harold's more! (1995; sce also Feces, 1998) but hat bbeen developed more specifially by Hoover-Dempeey, Basler, and Brite (1982) Parents sense of efficacy comes from four sources the direct exper fence of succes in other involvement or involvementrelted activities the su Teachers Calege Record vicarious experience of others" succes in involvement or involvement: Felated activites verbal persuasion by others that involvement acties are ‘worthwhile and can be accomplished by the parent; and the emotional {rout induced when ines of importance tothe parent—for example, his or her child's wellbeing or suces, his or her own success as a parent—are “on the line." This personal sense of effec) for helping children succed in school means that a parent believes that he or she has the sls and know! ‘edge necessary 1 help his or her children, that the children ean learn what hor she hat to share and teach, and that he or she can find alternative sources of sil or knowledge and when they become necessary. The sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school is important because it tnables the parent to acti relation to his or her childs schooling andl to Perit in the face ofaificlies that may emerge in the course of helping his Other children suecced in school (Hoaver-Dempsey etal 192) ‘We nuggest thats personal sente of efficacy for helping children succeed in school isa neceuary condidon for parent involvement, parucularly if lnvolmement activites are to be sustained through dificult mes, If com- bined with a construction of the parental role as including parental Involvement, and if relatively strong, a parents sense of elfiaey for help Ing children sueceed in school may constitute a suficient condition for active parental involvement. ‘Abref overview of the origins of teléefficacy belles suggests tha they ae drawn from four general sourees (Bandura, 1986, 19803, 19890). The most powerful is det experince ofa postive and succesful nature in the fed of onain of interest With reference tothe sone of efeacy for helping chil fren succeed in school, his source suggest that parents who have been suc cessful in school themselves, of who received varied forms of involvement, perceited as help from their on parents during schooling, or who have had prior personal experiences of succesfully helping children succeed in School would be more likely than parents without such experiences—oF thote with experiences offlure in such domainy—to have higher efficacy for helping children succeed in school Usually secandary in importance to direct experience, vicarious expec also serves a8 a source of personal ef «acy beliefs, Parents who have observed (or perhaps been told of) succesful lnvolement activities and experiences by others~especialy others who are Sigaificant and similar vo themscives-vall be higher in elleacy for helping thilren succeed in school than willbe parents wh have had no or only ime ited opportunities to observe others succesfully helping children in school felated activites. Lower in importance but sil offering contributions to per- sonal efcacyare the effort of others in veal pruasion Applied to parents Sense ofecay for helping their children succeed in schoo, this source of efcacy beliefs suggests that parents who have been told—especaly by oth Pareto Involvement 315 ers who are significant and similar wo themseles—that their involvement is important and has had or can have a signiieant positive impact on chil dren's educational access wl be higher in efficacy than thowe whe Rave not ceived such exhortations. Thus parents whose children ask them to be involved, parents whose frends or other family members point out the bene: 5 of involvement and the ability of the parent to become involved, oF par tents whowe children's choos and teachers make efforts to communicate the ‘ale of the parents direct involvement wil probably be higher in efficacy {than parents who do not have these experiences. A fourth genera source of personal elficacy is enotimal arousal Applied to parent efficacy, the theory fggests that parents who are emotionally and directly concerned about there children's educational success, or whose personal sense of adequacy is ‘emotionally connected to succes in helping one's children be succes vil be more likely than those with lower emotional investment or arousal De high in efcacy Parent sense of efcacy for helping children succeed in achool is drawn. ‘dus, from all four sources. Taken together, they ereate the dynamic quality of efficacy inthis general area Speci skill, knowledge, and ables derived from one of a combination of these sources of effieacy may also work ‘uniquely to influence the speciic ype of involvement that individual parents choose. Ths “unique working” of specific skills or knowledge will be dit ‘used ater with relerenceto parent choice of specific involvement forms “Also, a we will 4c later, dee four major sources ofthe sense of elficacy for helping children do well in school are the same source categories that val come into play for cildrn at parents involve themselves in the chi “dren's schooling. We suggest that to the extent that parentinvolvement actvties ate effective, developmentally appropriate, and reasonably consi {ent withthe schools goals and expectations, they wil become sources of the child's personal sense of efficay for succeeding in school. That i (as developed more fully below), we suggest that parentinvolement actives folfer divect experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and motional arousal that will themeelves contribute to che child's develop- tment ofa sense of efficacy for doing wel in school OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS FOR INVOLVEMENT, Parents aso become involved in part hecause they perceive opportunites, invitations, or demands, from their children or their childrens school, (0 ‘do s0 (eg Epstein, 1986). There opportontes, invitations, and demands may influence parents’ involvement decisions because the demand oF ‘opportunity characteristics 0 created tend to elicit and often reward S16 Teacher College Record (selected) involement behaviors. These demand and opportunity charac. teristes—if positive and vigorous—may be folded into the verbal persia. sion source of parental efficacy for helping children succeed i school but ‘hey may also be relatively freestanding, that to sty, they may exist a lnvlatons or demand characteritics that open the possibilty of involve: ‘ment but do lite to directly or vigorously encourage “The demand and opportunity characteristics offered by children or their school setings that influence whether parents will become involved are [gewral demands and opportunities. Children, for example, might be con Sstendy enthusiastic about any parent vss to school or might be generally ‘eager to talk about the school day's events. The general demand and ‘opportunity characteristics presented by schools might be found in a con ‘sstenly inviting environment (eg, signs welcome parents into the school, teachers greet them when the) pass in the hall) or a regular parent newsletter describing volunteer opportunities. These qualities offer {enerie invitations they may be related to but are often distinc from spe fifi demands and opportunities, which are described below. General demand and opporcunitycharacerisies may influence the emer ‘gence of ave parental invohement thete demand and opporsinity chars teristics, however, ae neither necesar no sulfiient conditions for the occur ‘ence of parent involvement. While faiitatve of involement, hese character [sues are not necessary, for example, parents who construe their role a8 including active inolement and who have a relasvey strong sense of per sonal efficacy for helping ther children succeed in school are likey to involve ‘hemsehes whether nted to do 30 oF not. Smiley, hese characternics do ‘ot constutesufcient condions for involvement because they do not have the power in themselves to create elther parental role conceptions that incade active involement or a pose sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school. (Demands and invitations might be consied af child: or Schooliniatedeffor a verbal persuasion, but in the absence of more power fal ecacy sources [tect experiences of involvement succes, vicarious expe ences, oF persuasive emouonal arousal), neither i ikely to inftuence impor tant the sense of effeay for helping children suceed in school) HOW PARENTS CHOOSE SPECIFIC TYPES OF INVOLVEMENT Parents who become invoved—as a function of role construction, sense of elfcacy for helping children succeed in school, and opportunity oF ‘demand for invoWement—select levels and forms of invelvement (2. help with homework, phone calls to teachers, expressions of interest In schoaleated activities) that are consistent with Four speciie domains of Parental nssleement® $17 the parent's life. (The discussion above focused on variables that influence ‘ulther parents will become involved, We shift now tothe question of how parents choose to become involved.) ‘Several typologies of parental involvement have been described inthe lie crature. The mont widely recognized, developed by Epstein (e.g, 1992, 1004) defines six levels of schoabrelated involwement opporsunitis for par- ents, These are efforts to asst parents with child-rearing sil (1), commur nicating with families (I). providing school volunteer opportunites (I), nolan parents in home-based learning (IV), involving parents in schoo! decision making (V), and involving parents in schooleommunity collabora: tions (VI). We suggest here that parents’ responses to such varied init tions from schools swell a parents initiation of involvement activites will he influenced significantly by the following variables specific domaine of| the paren’ selrperceived sill and knowlege: the mix of employment and other family demands experienced by the parent: and specific invialons, dlemands and opportunities presented bythe chill and the child's schoo! SPECIFIC DOMAINS OF SKILL. AND KNOWLEDGE ‘Specific domaine ofthe parent’ skill and knowledge should influence the spe- cfc Forms of involvement that a parent chooses. While the full mx of par ‘ents penonal hl, knomiedge, and abilities contributes to hi or her sense of ‘etfiacy for helping children succeed in school, his or her spe skis and fareas of knowledge wll nflence the choice of specific involvement forms. In {general parents mil choose ype of involvement consistent with their percep thon ofthe speci skile and knowledge they bring to the muliple take of chilen's schooling, For example, a parent who feels knowledgeable about ‘math ules competent i vocal stds more likely to help with math than vith social sues homework; a parent who feel comfortable speaking before {roup more likely dhan one who doesnot to volunteer time to talk wih ‘dents about his or her occupation: parent who feels unable (o communicate ‘electively inthe school sting kel to choose invoement at home rather than at school. In shor selfperceptions of specifi skis and knowledge wll influence the pe of involvement parents choose: in general, they wil tend to choot involvement forms in which they believe they can be aucesfl THE MIX OF EMPLOYMENT AND OTHER FAMILY DEMANDS Several investigators have suggested that familystatue variables and related factors (ee, energy. community contacts) are significantly related to parentinvoivement decisions and influence (e. Entwisle, 1990; Hobbs et a, 1984; Lareau, 1988). We suggest thatthe full mix of demands on par 318 Teachers Cate Record ‘ent time and energy, particularly related to employment and other family Fesponsbilties, wil serve as the primary influence on the types of involve- ment they choose once they have made the decison—as a primary func tion of parental rote consiriction, parental sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school, and opportunities and demands presented by ‘children and echools—to become involved. The demands of employment (eg whether the parent can readily take time off from work for schoo! related activities, how cote the workplace itt the school, what the work Schedule is) will offer both possibilities for and restrictions on parent involvement actives. Similars, the demands of other family responsibil: ties (eg, infant care elder care, another child's basketball gars) wil re sate consraina on the range of involvement actives that are posible for ny given parent. ‘We argue here that these demands and rexponsibilities outside of the childs achooling—are primarily influential on a parents decision about how to become involved, rather than whether to become involved. Many have argued that external demands on parent’ time eut down sharply 0 the postbltes oftheir involvement in children’s education we agree, nd support numerous efforts to increase workplace responsiveness to parents enibiliy in felauon to User children’s schooling, We suggest, however, that a parent who perceives his or her parental role ab including involve ‘ment and who has a relatively strong sense of efficacy for helping chiléren ‘do wel in school will make the fundamental decson to become involved land wil elect involvement forms that ft within the mix of ether respons bilities and demands. Conversely, a parent who does not pereeive his or hher role as incuding schoo! involvement, or who has alow sense of efficacy {or helping children succeed in school will—almost regardles of time free from other employment or familyrelated demands choose not to ‘become involved SPECIFIC INVITATIONS AND DEMANDS FROM THE CHILD Specific “invitations," opportunites, and demands for involvement com ‘eyed bythe child or the school should alo influence the parent's choice ‘of involvement forms. As noted earlier, the child's general aiude toward the parent's involvement and the general openness to parental involve- ‘ment conveyed by the school will influence the parent’ decision about whether to became involved; ia their specie manifeataions, however, nv ‘ations and demands from the child and the school wil be inflvental in the parent's choice of specifi involvement forms. For example, the child ‘who'atke for homework help wil tend wo influence the parent to become Parental nseoement~ 19 {nvolved in monitoring and reviewing homework: the child who pleads wrth the parent to.come on afield trip wil tend to influence the paren to Thecome involved in providing transportation and chaperoning the tip. Similary, the teacher who sends home specific homework assignments ‘Involving five-minute parent-child interactions wil tend to encourage par- ‘]ent homework involvement the teacher who calls the parent and specific- Ally invites him or her to call anime with questions will end to encourage inereaed levels of parencteacher conversation. WHY PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT HAS A POSITIVE EFFECT ON CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES We now shift from variables that influence whether and how the parent vail become involved to variables that influence haw parla inolooment will Tee a ptoe infturce om cidrn's educational outeomes, We addres specific ‘mechanisms that we believe operate to determine whether parent invol- fent—-once itt undertaken, in whatever forms selected by the parent— Ul have a postive effect om children's educational succes. MECHANISMS OF INFLUENCE “There are three primary mechanisms of parental influence on children's educational outcomer: modeling, reinforcement, and direct instruction. ‘These mechanisms of parental influence are set within the context of| understanding that parenvinvolvement behaviors asa whole constitute one of several sources of influence on children’s edeational outcomes. Pa ‘ens involement plays a role in the context of other variables that have important influences on educational outcomes, such as child variables (ed. abilities, lerning syle, developmental level), teacher and school variables (eg, teaching effecsveness, curriculum appropriateness), and broader sociocultural variables (e.g, cultural atiudes that may limit or enhance the opportunities available to any given child). In most circum- Stances, parent involvement le mos accurately characterized as a powerful Cabling and enhancing variable in children’s educational suecess, rather than a elther 8 necestary ora sufficlent condilon in itself for that succes. Its absence eliminates opportunities for the enhancement of children’ ‘education; its presence creates those opportunites, Modeling Parents influence ther children’s educational outcomes through modeling fof schoobelated behaviors and attitudes. In invobing themselves in aspects ‘oftheir children’s educational nes, parents behave in ways that demonsrate 320 Teachers Calle Record that activites related to schooling are worthy of adult interest and time. This may be demonstrated in proximal ways, rach a8 aking questions about the School day, taking with a teacher after school, spending time reviewing homework, aking a phone eal to the teacher. may also be demonstrated in ways more daly elated to child's school work, fo example, coming (03 School event attending a schoot basketball ame, volunteering to cun the ticket booth atthe schoo! ply, All sich parentinvolvement activities are potendally important because they suggest that the parent regards school: ‘elated actives as significant co the parent and the child. The ates by parents are specifically important because parents are usualy positively Fegarded by their children, perceived ss powerful, and respected. Modeling ‘theory predicts that children wil emulate selected behaviors of adults held Jn such regard, Thus, when parents spend time with or fr their children in ‘elation to schoo! activities, children have opportnites and encouragement ‘to model parents schookfocutedsttudes and behaviors, Parental modeling san enabling variable with respect to children’s post tive educational outcomer Is presence enhances the possiblities tac chil ‘ren will do well in school Its neither 3 necesary nor a sufficient condi- tion in itself, however, to produce these outcomes because modeling by Itself does not enable the child to acquire the full range of skills and Knowledge necessary to success in school Reinforcement Parent influence their children’s educational outcomes by reinforcing specific aspects of school-related learning. In involving themselves in aspects of children’s schooling, parents often give their children interest altention, prise, and rewards felated to behaviors fundamental to varied Aspects of school succes. Assuming tha the reinforcement are applied in ‘ways that do not interfere with the role and development of intrinsic mot vation (eg, Eeces, 1098), reinforcements are important because they help

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