The Standard Model and BeyondThe Standard Model and BeyondSeries in High Energy Physics, Cosmology, and Gravitation Series Editors: Brian Foster, Oxford University, UK Edward W Kolb, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA This series of books covers all aspects of theoretical and experimental high energy physics, cosmology and gravitation and the interface between them. In recent years the fields of particle physics and astrophysics have become increasingly interdependent and the aim of this series is to provide a library of books to meet the needs of students and researchers in these fields. Other recent books in the series: Particle and Astroparticle Physics Uspal Sakar Joint Evolution of Black Holes and Galaxies M Colpi, V Gorini, F Haardt, and U Moschella (Eds.) Gravitation: From the Hubble Length to the Planck Length 1 Ciufolini, E Coccia, V Gorini, R Peron, and N Vittorio (Eds,) Neutrino Physics K Zuber The Galactic Black Hole: Lectures on General Relativity and Astrophysics H Falcke, and F Hehl (Eds,) ‘The Mathematical Theory of Cosmic Strings: Cosmic Strings in the Wire Approximation MR Anderson Geometry and Physics of Branes U Bruzo, V Gorini and, U Moschella (Eds.) Modern Cosmology S Bonometto, V Gorini and, U Moschella (Eds.) Gravitation and Gauge Symmetries M Bhagojevic Gravitational Waves I Ciufolini, V Gorini, U Moschella, and P Fré (Eds.) ‘Classical and Quantum Black Holes P Fré, V Gorini, G Magli, and U Moschella (Eds.) Pulsars as Astrophysical Laboratories for Nuclear and Particle Physics F WeberSeries in High Energy Physics, Cosmology, and Gravitation The Standard Model and Beyond Paul Langacker Institute for Advanced Study Princeton, New Jersey, USA CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New Yok ERC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business A TAYLOR & FRANCIS BOOKTaylor & Francis, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Taylor & Francis is an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-7906-7 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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QC794.6.S75136 2010 539.7'2--de22 2009040058 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crepress.com«OO Contents Preface 1 Notation and Conventions 1.1 Problems 2 Review of Perturbative Field Theory 2.1. Creation and Annihilation Operators .. . 2.2 Lagrangian Field Theory 2.3 The Hermitian Scalar Field ...... . 2.3.1 The Lagrangian and Equations of Motion . . . . 2.3.2 The Free Hermitian Scalar Field 2.3.3 The Feynman Rules ........ 2.3.4 Kinematics and the Mandelstam Variables . . . . 2.3.5 The Cross Section and Decay Rate Formulae 2.3.6 Loop Effects. . . . 2.4 The Complex Scalar Field 2.4.1 U(1) Phase Symmetry and the Noether Theorem 2.5 Electromagnetic and Vector Fields 2.5.1 Massive Neutral Vector Field ........... 2.6 Electromagnetic Interaction of Charged Pions 2.7 The Dirac Field... . 2.7.1 The Free Dirac Field . 2.7.2. Dirac Matrices and Spinors . . 2.8 QED for Electrons and Positrons 2.9 Spin Effects and Spinor Calculations 2.10 The Discrete Symmetries P,C,CP,T,and CPT ...... 2.11 Two-Component Notation and Independent Fields 2.12 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) 2.12.1 Higher-Order Effects... .. . 2.12.2 The Running Coupling 2.12.3 Tests of QED 2.12.4 The Role of the Strong Interactions... .... . 2.13 Mass and Kinetic Mixing 2.14 Problems 2.6... 0.60: c eee eee ee eee xivi The Standard Model and Beyond 3 Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Symmetries 103 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4 Gauge Theories Basic Concepts 0... eee eee 103 3.1.1 Groups and Representations . . . . 103 3.1.2 Examples of Lie Groups... .. « 105 3.1.3 More on Representations and Groups . 106 Global Symmetries in Field Theory... . 112 3.2.1 Transformation of Fields and States .......... 112 3.2.2 Invariance (Symmetry) and the Noether Theorem. . . 114 3.2.3 Isospin and SU(3) Symmetries 3.2.4 Chiral Symmetries 3.2.5 Discrete Symmetries Symmetry Breaking and Realization 3.3.1 A Single Hermitian Scalar... . . 3.3.2 A Digression on Topological Defects 3.3.3 A Complex Scalar: Explicit and Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking 3.3.4 Spontaneously Broken Chiral Symmetry 3.3.5 Field Redefinition................--000- 3.3.6 The Nambu-Goldstone Theorem 3.3.7 Boundedness of the Potential . . . 3.3.8 Example: Two Complex Scalars . . Problems 0... eee 4.1 The Abelian Cases... 2... 4.2 Non-Abelian Gauge Theories ....... 4.3 The Higgs Mechanism 4.4 The Re Gauges ...... 4.5 Anomalies 4.6 Problems 5 The Strong Interactions and QCD 183 5.1 The QCD Lagrangian 5.2 Evidence for QCD 5.3 Simple QCD Processes . . 5.4 The Running Coupling in Non-Abelian Theories 5.4.1 The RGE Equations for an Arbitrary Gauge Theory . 199 So Deep Inclestic Scattering 9 9 09 ee ee 5.5.1 Deep Inclastic Kinematics ............. 5.5.2 ‘The Cross Section and Structure Functions . . . 5.5.3 ‘The Simple Quark Parton Model (SPM)... . . 5.5.4 Corrections to the Simple Parton Model . . . . . 5.6 Other Short Distance Processes ...... 5.7 The Strong Interactions at Long Distances 5.8 The Symmetries of QCD ..........Table of Contents 7 5.8.1 Continuous Flavor Symmetries . . 5.8.2 The (3*,3) + (3,3") Model... . . 5.8.3 The Axial U(1) Problem... .. . 5.84 The Linear o Model ........ 5.8.5 The Nonlinear o Model 5.9 Other Topics ....... 5.10 Problems The Weak Interactions 239 6.1 Origins of the Weak Interactions ................ 239 6.2 The Fermi Theory of Charged Current Weak Interactions. . 245 6.2.1 Decay ...... : 6.3 The Standard Electroweak Theory 71 7.2 7.3 74 75 7.6 62.2 ve +Ke ... 6.2.3 mand K Decays : 6.2.4 Nonrenormalization of Charge and the ‘Ademollo-Gatto Theorem 9 og 62.5 BDecay...... 6.2.6 Hyperon Decays 6.2.7 Heavy Quark and Lepton Decays . a2 Problems 0... eee eens 278 The Standard Model Lagrangian Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking 7.2.1 The Higgs Mechanism 7.2.2 The Lagrangian in Unitary Gauge after SSB. . . 7.2.3 Effective Theories : 7.2.4 The Re Gauges . . The Z, the W, and the Weak Neutral Current... 7.3.1 Purely Weak Processes 7.3.2. Weak-Electromagnetic Interference... .... « 7.3.3 Implications of the WNC Experiments 7.3.4 Precision Tests of the Standard Model 7.3.5 The Z-Pole and Above . 7.3.6 Implications of the Precision Program Gauge Self-Interactions . . Thelieeep ooye | 7.5.1 Theoretical Constraints 7.5.2 Experimental Constraints and Prospects... . . The CKM Matrix and CP Violation 7.6.1 The CKM Matrix......... 7.6.2 CP Violation and the Unitarity Triangle... . . 76.3 The Neutral Kaon System. .......--..- 7.6.4 Mixing and CP Violation in the B System ...... 7.6.5 Time Reversal Violation and Electric Dipole Moments 397viii The Standard Model and Beyond 7.6.6 Flavor Changing Neutral Currents (FCNC) ..... . 401 7.7 Neutrino Mass and Mixing... 2.2.00. .-2-0 000000 404 7.7.1 Basic Concepts for Neutrino Mass ..........- 405 7.7.2 The Propagators for Majorana Fermions........ 417 418 425 438 440 446 . 447 7.7.3 Experiments and Observations 7.7.4 Neutrino Oscillations 7.7.5 The Spectrum... . 7.7.6 Models of Neutrino Mass... .. 7.7.7 Implications of Neutrino Mass. . . TS | Problems (pet nog 8 Beyond the Standard Model 8.1 Problems with the Standard Model .. . . 62) Supersymmetry 8.2.1 Implications of Supersymmetry . . 8.2.2 Formalism.............. 8.2.3 Supersymmetric Interactions 8.2.4 Supersymmetry Breaking and Mediation. ..... . . 490 8.2.5 The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) 493 505 508 510 519 8.2.6 8.3 Extended Gauge Groups .......... 8.3.1 SU(2) x U(1) x U(1)! Models . . . 8.3.2 SU(2)z x SU(2)p x U(1) Models « 84 Grand Unified Theories (GUTS) 8.4.1 The SU(5) Model 8.4.2 Beyond the Minimal SU(5) Model 8&5 Problems .... 2... eee eee eee 537 A Canonical Commutation Rules 541 Derivation of a Simple Feynman Diagram 545 C Unitarity, the Partial Wave Expansion and the Optical Theorem 547 D Two, Three, and n-Body Phase Space 549 Calculation of the Anomalous Magnetic Moment of the Electron 555 F Breit-Wigner Resonances 559 G Implications of P, C, T, and G-parity for Nucleon Matrix Elements 563Table of Contents ix H Collider Kinematics 567 I Quantum Mechanical Analogs of Symmetry Breaking 573 References Ll Field Theory 22.2.2... 00.000 000002 ee ee eee 1.2 The Standard Model and Particle Physics ........ 1.3 The Strong Interactions, QCD, and Collider Physics 14 The Electroweak Interactions 15 CP Violation 16 Neutrinos ......... 17 Supersymmetry, Strings, and Grand Unification 18 Astrophysics and Cosmology 1.9 Groups and Symmetries 1.10 Articles Web Sites 631 IndexPreface In the last few decades there has been a tremendous advance in our under- standing of the elementary particles and their interactions. We now have a mathematically consistent theory of the strong, electromagnetic, and weak interactions—the standard model—most aspects of which have been success- fully tested in detail at colliders, accelerators, and non-accelerator experi- ments. It also provides a successful framework and has been strongly con- strained by many observations in cosmology and astrophysics. The standard model is almost certainly an approximately correct description of Nature down to a distance scale 1/1000‘ the size of the atomic nucleus. However, nobody believes that the standard model is the ultimate theory: it is too complicated and arbitrary, does not provide an understanding of the patterns of fermion masses and mixings, does not incorporate quantum grav- ity, and it involves several severe fine-tunings. Furthermore, the origins of electroweak symmetry breaking, whether by the Higgs mechanism or some- thing else, are uncertain. The recent discovery of non-zero neutrino mass can be incorporated, but in more than one way, with different implications for physics at very short distance scales. Finally, the observations of dark matter and energy suggest new particle physics beyond the standard model. Most current activity is directed towards discovering the new physics which must underlie the standard model. Much of the theoretical effort involves constructing models of possible new physics at the TeV scale, such as super- symmetry or alternative models of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Others are examining the extremely promising ideas of superstring theory, which offer the hope of an ultimate unification of all interactions including grav- ity. There is a lively debate about the implications of a landscape of possible string vacua, and serious efforts are being made to explore the consequences of string theory for the TeV scale. It is likely that a combination of such bottom-up and top-down ideas will be necessary for progress. In any case, new experimental data are urgently needed. At the time of this writing the particle physics community is eagerly awaiting the results of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and is optimistic about a possible future International Linear Collider. Future experiments to elucidate the properties of neutrinos and to explore aspects of flavor, and more detailed probes of the dark energy and dark matter, are also anticipated. The purpose of this volume is to provide an advanced introduction to the physics and formalism of the standard model and other non-abelian gauge theories, and thus to provide a thorough background for topics such as super- xixii The Standard Model and Beyond symmetry, string theory, extra dimensions, dynamical symmetry breaking, and cosmology. It is intended to provide the tools for a researcher to un- derstand the structure and phenomenological consequences of the standard model, construct extensions, and to carry out calculations at tree level. Some “old-fashioned” topics which may still be useful are included. This is not a text on field theory, and does not substitute for the excellent texts that al- ready exist. Ideally, the reader will have completed a standard field theory course. Nevertheless, Chapter 2 of this book presents a largely self-contained treatment of the complicated technology needed for tree-level calculations in- volving spin-0, spin-2, and spin-1 particles, and should be useful for those who have not studied field theory recently, or whose exposure has been more formal than calculational*. It does not attempt to deal systematically with the subtleties of renormalization, gauge issues, or higher-order corrections. ‘An introductory-level background in the ideas of particle physics is assumed, with occasional reference to topics such as gluons or supersymmetry before they are formally introduced. Similarly, occasional reference is made to ap- plications to and constraints from astrophysics and cosmology. The necessary background material may be found in the sources listed in the bibliography. Chapter 1 is a short summary of notations and conventions and of some basic mathematical machinery. Chapter 2 contains a review of calculational techniques in field theory and the status of quantum electrodynamics. Chap- ters 3 and 4 are concerned with global and local symmetries and the con- struction of non-abelian gauge theories. Chapter 5 examines the strong in- teractions and the structure and tests of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD); Chapters 6 and 7 examine the electroweak interactions and theory, includ: ing neutrino masses. Chapter 8 considers the motivations for extending the standard model, and examines supersymmetry, extended gauge groups, and grand unification. There are short appendices on additional topics. The bib- liographies list many useful reference books, review articles, research papers, and Web sites. No attempt has been made to list all relevant original articles, with preference given instead to later articles and books that can be used to track down the original ones. Supplementary materials and corrections are available at http: //www.sns.ias.edu/~pgl/SMB/. Comments, corrections, and typographical errors can also be sent through that site. I would like to thank Mirjam Cvetié, Jens Erler, Hye-Sung Lee, Gil Paz, Liantao Wang, and Itay Yavin for reading and commenting on parts of the manuscript, Lisa Fleischer for help in the preparation of the manuscript, and my wife Irmgard for her extreme patience during the writing. Paul Langacker July 4, 2009 *Most calculations, especially at the tree-level, are now carried out by specialized computer programs, many of which are included in the list of Web sites, but it is still important to understand the techniques that go into them.1 eee Notation and Conventions In this chapter we briefly survey our notation and conventions. Conventions We generally follow the conventions used in (Langacker, 1981). In particu- lar, (11, V,p,) are Lorentz indices; (i,j,k = 1---3) are three-vector indices; (i,j,k = 1---N) are also used to label group generators or elements of the ad- joint representation; (a,b,c) run over the elements of a representation, while (a,@,7) and (r,s,t) refer to the special cases of color and flavor, respec- tively. (a,/) are also occasionally used for Dirac indices. (m,n) are used as horizontal (family) indices, labeling repeated fermions, scalars, and repre- sentations. The summation convention applies to all repeated indices except where indicated. Operators are represented by capital letters (T’,Q,Y), their eigenvalues by lower case letters (t*,q,y), and their matrix representations by (L‘, Lg, Ly). In Feynman diagrams, ordinary fermions are represented by solid lines, spin-O particles by dashed lines, gluons by curly lines, other gauge bosons by wavy lines, and gluinos, neutralinos, and charginos by single or double lines. Experimental errors are usually quoted as a single number, with statistical, systematic, and theoretical uncertainties combined in quadrature and asymmetric errors symmetrized. Units and Physical Constants We take h = c = 1, implying that B, p, m, 4, } have “energy units.” One can restore units at the end of a calculation using the values of h,c, and hic listed in Table 1.1. Operators and Matrices The commutator and anti-commutator of two operators or matrices are [A,B])=AB-BA, {A,B} = AB+BA. (1.1) The transpose, adjoint, and trace of an n x n matrix M are transpose: M7 (MJ,= Mba), adjoint: Mt = M7* (1.2)2 The Standard Model and Beyond TABLE 1.1 Conversions and physical constants. For more precise values, see (Amsler et al., 2008). The fine structure constant is a = e?/4m, where e > 0 is the charge of the positron. The Planck constant is Mp = Gy'/. h~ 66x10 MeV-s c~3.0x10 cm/s fe~ 197 MeV-fm an} ~ 137.04 a7!(M3) ~ 128.9 sin? by (M3) ~ 0.2312 ag(M3) ~ 0.034 ag (MZ) ~ 0.010 — ag(M3) ~ 0.118 Gp ~L17x 10° GeV-?_ My ~ 80.40 GeV Mz ~ 91.19 GeV me ~ 0.511 MeV m,~105.7MeV — m, ~ 1.78 GeV Mp ~ 938 MeV m+ ~ 140 MeV ms ~ 494 MeV Mp ~ 1.22 x 10!° GeV k~ 1.16 x 104 °K/eV trace: TrM =} Maa, Tr(MiMz)=Tr(Mz2M,), TrM = Tr M7. = (1.3) Vectors, Metric, and Relativity Three-vectors and unit vectors are denoted by # and £ = £/|Z|, respectively. We do not distinguish between upper and lower indices for three-vectors; e.g., the inner (dot) product #- 7 may be written as x‘y',2*y;, or xy:. The Levi- Civita tensor is €ijk, where i,j,k = 1---3, is totally antisymmetric, with €123 = 1. Its contractions are . €ijkeijk = 6, €ijk€ijm = 2km 14 €ijk€imn = 5jmbkn — Sjndkms = where the Kronecker delta function is eed b= {0 iz): (1.5) jx is useful for vector cross products and their identities. For example, (Ax B)i = ijn AjBr (1.6) (AxB)-(Ex B) = ijneitmA;BkCrDm = (A-C)(B-D) -(A-D)(E-B). (1.7) Notations for four-vectors and the metric are given in Table 1.2. The four-momentum of a particle with mass m is p* = (E,p) with p? = E? — p? = m?. (The symbol p is occasionally used to represent |p| rather than a four-vector, but the meaning should always be clear from the context.) The velocity f and energy are given by B= 1 VE (1.8) mlsNotation and Conventions 3 Under a Lorentz boost by velocity J; (the relativistic addition of J, to 8, which is equivalent to going to a new Lorentz frame moving with —G;) pt pl = (E',p"), (1.9) where : . B= W(E+h.-P), =P. +r2(H +42), (1.10) with _. 1 By = BL Bi-B, (1.11) TABLE 1.2 Notations and conventions for four-vectors and the metric contravariant four-vector A“ = (A®, A), at = (t,Z) covariant four-vector Ay = QuvA” = (A°,-A), metric Quv = gh” = diag(1,—1, lwo Ya grtg = Gu = =I We =F 9 ay Lorentz invariant A- B= A,BY = g,,A"BY = A°B°— A.B derivatives 8.2 r= (g.¥) , Hs 2 0=6,0= 8-7 0-A=0,AH = 24 GA ad#b = ad"b — (B"a)b antisymmetric tensor Yeo, with 9103 = +1 and ¢°!73 = -1 contractions IP egg = 24 ups, = ee Eur = Translation Invariance Let P* be the momentum operator, |i) and |f) momentum eigenstates, PHli) = pili), Pf) = PGlf), (1.12) and let O(a) be an operator defined at spacetime point z, so that O(z) eP EC (O)e P=, (1.13)4 The Standard Model and Beyond Then the « dependence of the matrix element (f|O(z)|é) is given by (f|O(@) li) = e##-P9 (F[O(0)I8). (1.14) The combination of Lorentz and translation invariance is Poincaré invariance. The Pauli Matrices The 2 x 2 Pauli matrices ¢ = (01,02,03) (also denoted by 7, especially for internal symmetries) are Hermitian, 0; = o!, and defined by [01,03] = ieijnon. (1.15) ‘A convenient representation is nae a2) o2G.9) am There is no distinction between o; and o*. Some useful identities include 2 Troi = Gian =0, Tr (aia) = 2843 & (1.17) {oi, 05} = 26ijI > oF =I, 940; = Fig + teijnoe- The last identity implies (4-4) (B-@) = 4-BI+i(Ax B)-a, (1.18) where A and B are any three-vectors (including operators) and A-é is a 2x 2 matrix. Thus, (A-@)? = A2J for an ordinary real vector A with A = |A|, and ef = (cos A)I + i(sin A)A- a. (1.19) Any 2x 2 matrix M can be expressed in terms of & and the identity by M= har(M)r + i (Ma) +8. (1.20) The SU(2) Fierz identity is given in Problem 1.1. The Delta and Step Functions The Dirac delta function 5(z) is defined (for our purposes) by +00 [ 5(x — a)g(x)dx = g(a) (1.21) 00 for sufficiently well-behaved g(x). Useful representations of 6(z) include te fe 1 5(x-a) = 5 f eF@-2) dk = — lim 00 70 (ea): (1.22)Notation and Conventions 5 The derivative of 6(x) is defined by integration by parts, [ 8e-eaente= [ BEM eayir=- 48) 1.28) Suppose a well-behaved function f(x) has zeroes at «ro; Then 5(x — x0i) 5(F(2)) = gal. (1.24) ‘The step function, ©(c), is defined by (ec — 2’) a (1.25) from which 6(«) = d@/dz. EE LL 1.1 Problems 1.1 Let xn, n = 1---4 be arbitrary Pauli spinors (i.e., two-component com- plex column vectors). Then the bilinear form xt,0;Xn is an ordinary number. Prove the Fierz identity (xbexs) - (xb0x1) = 2me (xdx1)(xbxa) — Oxdxs)0dx1)s where nr = +1. (The identity also holds for anticommuting two-component fields if one sets np = —1.) Hint: expand the 2x2 matrix 1x} in (x4x1)(xbxa) using (1.20). 1.2 Justify the result (1.24) for 6(f(2)). 1.3 Calculate the surface area f dQ, of a unit sphere in n-dimensional Eu- clidean space, so that [d"k = [dQ o°k"-'dk. Show that the general formula yields fam 2 fom =2n, [as =4n, fam = 2n?, Hint: Use the Gaussian integral formula _ = { eae de =F for Rea>0 i a to integrate [ d"ke~*” in both Euclidean and spherical coordinates.6 The Standard Model and Beyond 1.4 Show that the Lorentz boost in (1.10) can be written as E'\ _ (coshyz sinhy,\ ( E py) \sinhyz coshyz) \ pj)’ aliyith& w= xine where is the rapidity of the boost.2 Nee ee EEnEEEEEEEEEEEEEEIEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEET Review of Perturbative Field Theory Field Theory is the basic language of particle physics (i.e., of point particles). It combines quantum mechanics, relativistic kinematics, and the notion of particle creation and annihilation. The basic framework is remarkably suc- cessful and well-tested. In this book we will work mainly with perturbative field theory, characterized by weak coupling. The Lagrangian of a field theory contains the interaction vertices. Com- bined with the propagators for virtual or unstable particles one can compute scattering and decay amplitudes using Feynman diagrams. Here we will review the rules (but not the derivations) for carrying out field theory calculations of amplitudes and the associated kinematics for processes involving spin-0, spin-}, and spin-1 particles in four dimensions of space and time, and give examples, mainly at tree level. Much more detail may be found in such field theory texts as (Bjorken and Drell, 1964, 1965; Weinberg, 1995; Peskin and Schroeder, 1995). eM ii I. 2.1 Creation and Annihilation Operators Let |0) represent the ground state or vacuum, which we define as the no parti- cle state (we are ignoring for now the complications of spontaneous symmetry breaking). The vacuum is normalized (0|0) = 1. We will use a covariant normalization convention*. For a spin-0 particle, define the creation and an- nihilation operators for a state of momentum jas a! (j') and a(p), respectively, ie, a(p)l0)=0, ab (p)|0) = |p), (2.1) “The alternative non-covariant convention, in which some formulas are simpler, is [an(®), af, (6’)] = 4°( — p"), where an(p) is related to a(f) by a(p) = V/(2n)>2Epan(A). The corresponding non-covariantly normalized single-particle state is |#)n = ah() |0), and the integration over physical states is simply fd°p. Yet another possibility is box nor- alization in a volume V = L’, leading to discrete three-momenta with i‘ component Pi = ny2Z, nj =1,2,-++ , and commutators [ap (p), a!,(p")] = d55"-8 The Standard Model and Beyond where |j') describes a single-particle state with three-momentum 9, energy Ep = /p? + m?, and velocity 6 = p/Ep. We assume the commutation rules (for Bose-Einstein statistics) fa@), at ("| = (20)°2E,5°(7— 7"), fa), a(6")] = lal), a'(@")] te 0, y which correspond to the state normalization Pp") = (27)°2E,6°(p— p’). (2.3) This is Lorentz invariant because of the E, factor. This can be seen from the fact that the integration over physical momenta is ap Geom; = as 5(p? — m®) @(p°), (2.4) where @(z) is the step function and we have used (1.24). The right-hand side of (2.4) is manifestly invariant. The additional 2(2m)° factor is for convenience. ‘The interpretation of (2.2) is that each momentum # of a non-interacting particle can be described by a simple harmonic oscillator. The number opera- tor N(p), which counts the number of particles with momentum in a state, and the total number operator N, which counts the total number of particles, are given by ap Sane N(@) (B)a(P), Gn2E, N(p). (25) (2.1)-(2.5) actually hold for any real or complex bosons, provided one adds appropriate labels for particle type and (in the case of spin-1, 2, ---) for spin. For real (i.e., describing particles that are their own antiparticles) spin-0 fields of particle types a and 6, for example, [aa(P),a}(")] = dan(2m)°2E,5°(F—P"), laa(P), a0(8")] = lah), aes i 2.6) Similarly, for a complex scalar, describing a spin-0 particle with a distinct antiparticle, it is conventional to use the symbols at and bt for the particle and antiparticle creation operators, respectively. (It is a convention which state is called the particle and which the antiparticle.) E.g., for the 7+ state, a'(p)I0) =|r*(p)), —B*(@)I0) = |n-(@)), (2.7) with [6@),'(B")] = (2n)2E,6°(G—p"), — [alp), '(")] = [al = 0. (2.8) The creation and annihilation operators for fermions are similar, except that they obey the anti-commutation rules appropriate to Fermi-Dirac statistics.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 9 ‘The creation operator for a spin-} particle is a'(p,s), where s refers to the particle’s spin orientation, which may be taken with respect to a fixed z axis or with respect to p (helicity). Then, {a(B, 8), a'(p", s')} = a(B, s)al(p", s') + al(p’, s')a(p, 8) = (2n)°2E,6°O- F')bue. Similarly, for the antiparticle, {0(B, 8), B18", s')} = (2n)°2B,5°(B— B")5,5", (2.10) while {a,a} = {b,b} = {a,b} = {a,b'} =0 (2.11) for all values of p,’,s, and s’. Fermion and boson operators commute with each other, €.., [@boson; Gfermion] = 0. Non-interacting multi-particle states are constructed similarly. For exam- ple, the state for two identical bosons is |Pibe) = |PoP:) = at (Pat (2)|0) (2.12) with (PiPalPaps) = (2m) 2Ey (2n)°2Es [5°(P, — Bs)5* (Bo — Ba) + 6°; ~ B1)6° (He — Fa) on Similarly, for two identical fermions, |Pi813P282) = —|P2825 isi) = a! (Pis1)a" (Bes2)I0), (2.14) with (rs1iPeselPsss; Pasa) = (2x a) 2 On) 2B [5° (Bi — Ba) boy 545° (Be — Pa) Boasu — 6B — P4)5s, 545° (P2 — Pa)bsasa] - (2.15) <_< 2.2 Lagrangian Field Theory Consider a real or complex field $(z), where x = (t,%). The (Hermitian) Lagrangian density L(9(z), ,4(x), $* (2), On" (x)) (2.16)10 The Standard Model and Beyond contains information about the kinetic energy, mass, and interactions of ¢. We will generally use the simpler notation L(¢,4,@), or just C(z), with the understanding that for a complex field £ can depend on both ¢ and its Her- mitian conjugate ¢'. (2.16) is trivially generalized to the case in which there are more than one field. It is useful to also introduce the Lagrangian L(t) and the action S by integrating CL over space and over space-time, respectively, L(t) = [8% £(6,2,6), ge f- at L(t = faz £00,040). (2.17) The Euler-Lagrange equations of motion for ¢ are obtained by minimizing the action with respect to ¢(x) and ¢t(z), 8k 86 56 "58,8 (2.18) and similarly for ¢t. The fields ¢ are interpreted as operators in the Heisenberg picture, i.e., they are time-dependent while the states are time independent. Other quantities, such as the conjugate momentum, the Hamiltonian, and the canonical commutation rules, are summarized in Appendix A. ———<—— i Xs 2.3 The Hermitian Scalar Field A real (or more accurately, Hermitian) spin-0 (scalar) field, which satisfies 4(z) = ¢t(2), is suitable for describing a particle such as the x° which has no internal quantum numbers and is therefore the same as its antiparticle. 2.3.1 The Lagrangian and Equations of Motion The Lagrangian density for a Hermitian scalar is 1 £(, 0,0) = 5 [(@.0)(8"4) — m?¢?] — Vi(d) 2.19) 1 ¢ = § (0,0)? ~m*6"] - v6 The first two terms correspond respectively to canonical kinetic energy and mass (the } is special to Hermitian fields), while the last describes interactions. (8,4)? is a shorthand for (,¢)(8"¢). The interaction potential is 3 s Vi() = +e tet hot ds ¢ 7 +++: non — perturbative, (2.20)Review of Perturbative Field Theory u where the k! factors are for later convenience in cancelling combinatoric fac- tors’, and “non-perturbative” allows for the possibility of non-polynomial interactions. The constant c is irrelevant unless gravity is included. A non- zero dy will necessarily induce a non-zero vacuum expectation value (VEV), (0|4|0) # 0, suggesting that one is working in the wrong vacuum. The d) term can be eliminated by a redefinition of ¢ > ¢/ = constant + ¢, as will be described in Chapter 3. £ and ¢ have dimensions of 4 and 1, respectively, in mass units, so the coefficient of ¢* has the mass dimension 4 — k. The d, terms with k > 5 are known as non-renormalizable or higher-dimensional operators. They lead to new divergences in each order of perturbation theory, with d, typically of the form dy = cx/M*~4, where c; is dimensionless and M is a large scale with dimensions of mass. Such terms would be absent in ‘a renormalizable theory, but may occur in an effective theory at low energy, where they describe the effects of the exchange of heavy particles (or other degrees of freedom) of mass M that are not explicitly taken into account in the field theory. (In Chapters 6 and 7 we will see that an example of this is the four-fermi operators that are relevant to describing the weak interactions at low energy.) Keeping just the renormalizable terms (and c = d; = 0), one has ra De where « (dimensions of mass) and \ (dimensionless) describe three- and four- point interactions, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. From the Euler- 3 Vi(b) = a +A (2.21) FIGURE 2.1 Three- and four-point interactions of a Hermitian scalar field ¢. The factor is the coefficient of ¢"/n! in i£, as described in Appendix B. Langrange equation (2.18), one obtains the field equation e q (+m?) 64 FF = (4m) 405 AF =0, (2.22) where 0 + m? = 8,0" +m? is the Klein-Gordon operator. The expression for the Hamiltonian density is given in Appendix A. Conventions for such factors may change, depending on the context.12 The Standard Model and Beyond 2.3.2 The Free Hermitian Scalar Field Let ¢o = ¢f, be the solution of (2.22) in the free (or non-interacting) limit K==0,ie, (0 +m?) do(x) =0. (2.23) (2.23) can be solved exactly, and then small values of the interaction param- eters « and \ can be treated perturbatively (as Feynman diagrams). The general solution is 35 do(@) = a5() = if eae [a@)e“?* + al(pet?7], (2,24) where x = (t,@) and p = (Ep,B) with Ep = /p?+m?, ic., the four- momentum p in the Fourier transform is an on-shell momentum for a particle of mass m. The canonical commutation rules for ¢o and its conjugate mo- mentum given in Appendix A will be satisfied if the Fourier coefficients a(j) satisfy the creation-annihilation operator rules in (2.2). It is useful to define the Feynman propagator for $0, iAp(a — 2') = (0|T[¢o(z), 60(2')]I0), (2.25) where T(d0(z), do(2’)] = O(t — t')40(z)$o(2') + Olt! — t)do(x')bo(z) (2.26) represents the time-ordered product of $o(z2) and $o(2’). In (2.26) (t — 1’) is the step function, defined in (1.25). Ar(a — 2’) is just the Green’s function of the Klein-Gordon operator, i.e., (Oz +m?) Ap(2 - 2’) = -54(e - 2’), (2.27) where 0, refers to derivatives w.r.t. z. The momentum space propagator Ap(k) is Ar(k) = | dteet*** A p(z) ‘ 1 — Rom tie 2k — me + ie (2.28) k is an arbitrary four-momentum, i., it need not be on shell. The on-shell limit is correctly handled by the ie factor in the denominator, where ¢ is a small positive quantity that can be taken to 0 at the end of the calculation. 2.3.3 The Feynman Rules The Feynman rules allow a systematic diagrammatic representation of the terms in the perturbative expansion (in « and A) of the transition amplitudeReview of Perturbative Field Theory My; between an initial state i and a final state f. The derivation is beyond the scope of this book, but can be found in any standard field theory text. (The derivation of a simple example is sketched in Appendix B.) Heuristic derivations may also be found, e.g., in (Bjorken and Drell, 1964; Renton, 1990). For the Hermitian scalar field with the potential (2.21), the rules are ¢ Draw each connected topologically-distinct diagram in momentum space corresponding to initial (final) states i (f), with internal lines corre- sponding to virtual (intermediate) particles. The internal and external lines are joined at three- and four-point vertices corresponding to the interactions in V;. Each external and internal line has an associated four-momentum, which is off-shell for the virtual particles. It is conve- nient to put an arrow on the line to indicate the direction of momentum flow. This direction is only a convention, and for the Hermitian scalar field (with no internal quantum numbers) there is no restriction on how many arrows flow into or out of a vertex. There is a factor of —ix at every three-point vertex and a factor —i\ at each four-point vertex, as in Figure 2.1. These correspond to the coefficients of $3/3! and ¢4/4!, respectively, in iL, with the 1/3! for « cancelling against 3! ways to associate the three lines with the three fields in ¢°, and similarly for the \ term. There is a factor of iAr(k) = ~rjrq; for each internal line with four- momentum k. Four-momentum is conserved at each vertex, implying that the overall four-momentum is conserved (i.e., My; is only defined for Sp; = Dpy). Integrate over each unconstrained internal momentum (there will be one for each internal loop in the diagram), with a factor f £4. There may be additional combinatoric factors? associated with the in- terchange of internal lines for fixed vertices, e.g., a factor of 1/n! if n internal lines connect the same pair of vertices, as in Figure 2.2. The ordering and arrangement of the external lines in a Feynman diagram is irrelevant (although the relative ordering between two diagrams does matter for fermions). In this book we we usually, but not always, place the initial state particles at the bottom and the final particles at the top. As a simple example, the tree-level diagrams for the 2 > 2 scattering am- plitude My; = (#304|M|Pip2) are shown in Figure 2.3. Applying the Feynman In general, there may be subtleties involving combinatorial factors (or, signs when fermions are involved), especially in higher-order diagrams, which are best resolved by returning to the original derivation.14 The Standard Model and Beyond FIGURE 2.2 Diagrams with additional factors of 1/2! (left) and 1/3! (right), required be- cause not all of the (4!) ways of associating the four fields at each vertex with four lines lead to distinct diagrams. \, gf ain pore i (APP \ PL Bz FIGURE 2.3 Tree level diagrams for My; = (P3p4|M|p1p2) for a Hermitian scalar field. The arrows label the directions of momentum flow, and pi; = pi — pj. Note that the arrangement of lines in the last diagram is modified to allow the diagram to be drawn without crossing lines.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 15 rules, these diagrams correspond to the expression ' i i i i Myi = ~id+ (in)? | + a + | 5 (2.29) where s, t, and u are the Mandelstam variables 8 = (pi + 2)? = (Ps + 4)? ~ ps)? = (pa — po)? (2.30) (Pp: — pa)? = (Ps — pr)”. u For the present (equal mass) case, s = E2,, > 4m?, t < 0, and u < 0, where Ecm is the total energy in the center of mass. The internal lines are never on-shell (s,¢, # m?) for physical (on-shell) external momenta, so one can drop the +e. It is implicit that the external momenta satisfy the four- momentum conservation p; + p2 = p3 + p4. The second, third, and fourth diagrams in Figure 2.3 are said to have s-channel, t-channel, and u-channel poles, respectively. 2.3.4 Kinematics and the Mandelstam Variables Let us digress to generalize to the case of a 2 —> 2 scattering process 1+2 > 3+ 4, where we allow for the possibility of inelastic scattering with unequal masses for 1, 2, 3, and 4. In the absence of spin, the scattering amplitude can be expressed in terms of the Lorentz invariant Mandelstam variables defined in (2.30). s, t, and u are not independent, but are related by stt+us mj + m3 +m} + mi. (2.31) Of course, s = m3? + m3 + 2p1 - pa, etc. The kinematics is simplest in the center of mass (CM) frame, which is more accurately the center of momentum, in which the total three-momentum of the initial and final state vanishes: Pi=(E1,Pi), P2 = (Ea, Pi) p= (Eni), p= (Buf), ex) where p; and py are respectively the initial and final three-momenta; the energy and velocity of particle 1 are BHaprtm, =F, (2.33) Ey and similarly for 2, 3, and 4; and the CM scattering angle 0 is related by __ Di By = pips c08 8, (2.34)16 The Standard Model and Beyond . 3 3 2 PE Be 1 4% q emt 2 3 \4 i "@ (i) (si) FIGURE 2.4 Scattering kinematics in (i) the center of mass, (ii) the lab, and (iii) the Breit frames. as shown in Figure 2.4. In the CM frame, s = (E, + B2)? = (E3 + Es)? is just the square of the total energy. In the physical scattering region, s > (m, + m2)? and s > (m3 + m4)?. Using p2 = pi + p2 — pi one finds _stm}—m} vi B= ys mam 2” (2:35) so that. BP — mi = 1+m2)?]*? [5 = (m1 = m2)? ee 2v5 (2.36) [s —4m3p}/? m=m2 2 , with similar expressions for the other particles. This is sometimes written as A¥/?(s, m2, m3) an (2.37) where Aa, yz) =a? +-y? +2? — Qey — 2ez — yz. (2.38) The ¢ and wu variables, which describe the momentum transfer between particles 1 and 3 and between 1 and 4, respectively, are given in the CM by t =m} + m3 — 2E, E3 + 2pips cos —2p?(1 — cos @) = —4p* sin? 6 a< 7 <9 mi=m3, ma=ma 2.39) u=m} + mj — 2E\ Es — 2p;pz cos 8 (2:39) a —— = — 4p? cos? % me 2p?(1 + cos 6) = —4p* cos : 0) where the last expressions are for elastic scattering (m, = m3, m2 = m4 or my = m4, m2 = mg), for which p; = py = p. Note that t and u are negativeReview of Perturbative Field Theory 17 at high energies (e.g., the last expressions in (2.39) hold with p ~ \/3/2 when the masses can be neglected), but may be positive at low energies if the masses are not all equal. Fixed target experiments are carried out in the laboratory frame, in which 2 is at rest, Pi =(E1,Pi), pe = (m2, 0), (2.40) with 2 2 = 82m —™ = (2.41) ‘A sometimes useful relation between the CM and laboratory variables is pi = |Pilma/Vs, (2.42) where p; is the CM momentum in (2.36). From energy and momentum con- servation, E3+ Ex = Ey +m oe (2.43) Bal? = |Bal? + |psl? — 2lpi||P5| cos 4s, so that Ez and E, can be expressed in terms of s and the laboratory scattering angle 63 for particle 3. The relations between the laboratory variables and t and u are straightforward. For example, t = m3 + mj — 261 Es + 2|pi||Ps| cos 6. a a Pa |LB3| cos Os (2.44) u= m3 + m3 — 2m2Es. These formulae become especially simple in the special case my = m3 = 0 and m2 = m4, eg., E; 1 S83 = —___-______ t= -2F, F3(1 — cos 63), 2.45 Ey 1+ (1 — cosy) Fa 2) ae with |pi| = Ey and |p3| = Bs. Yet another frame, especially useful for theoretical purposes, is the Breit or brick wall frame (e.g., Hagedorn, 1964; Renton, 1990), in which the scattered particle 3 simply reverses the direction of 1. For m; = m3, the momenta are pi=(Ei,P), ps =(E1,-P), (2.46) so that t=—4\p/?. (2.47) We will see an example in discussing the simple parton model in Section 5.5. 2.3.5 The Cross Section and Decay Rate Formulae In this section we sketch the derivation of the relation of the transition am- plitude M,; to the cross section or decay rate. The results apply to any field theory, not just Hermitian scalars.18 The Standard Model and Beyond Two-Body Scattering Let us first consider the cross section for the 2 + n process i > f, where |i) = |Pipa) and | f) = |py, ---Ds,), as shown in Figure 2.5. (Particle-type and spin labels are suppressed.) =, Pi Ej =~ Bf, ++: = Le Pin _ Bin Pr Pa . Pr FIGURE 2.5 The 2 — n scattering process pipo — py,--*py, (left); 1 > n scattering Pi — Pf,---Ps, from a potential, represented by a cross (middle); and the 1—+n decay process p) — py, ---py, (right). As described in Appendix B, the transition matrix element Uy; and transi- tion (scattering) amplitude My; are related by (B.1), so the transition prob- ability is 2 [Uye? = (2.48) (2n)*6*(S 0 pp, — Px — Pa) My E To interpret the square of the delta function, it is convenient to temporarily assume a finite volume V for space and a total transition time T, which can be taken to oo at the end. Then 7 2 dix ef De Pre —Pr—Pa)t Vir = VT (2n)54(S> pp, — Pi — Pa), k (20)*5*(> py. — Pi — Pa) k (2.49) where we have used one delta function to replace the integrand of the other integral by unity.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 19 The differential cross section to scatter into [], d°py, is then 5 (ser) (ze) [I ey ar (2.50) _ nye Phe 4E, Bal; — Bal =e) Py _ OP Tanem, L Gny28;, | Ml. In the first line, |Us:|?/T is the transition rate, |, — |/V is the relative flux, the 1/2EV factors correct for the normalization of the covariant states’, and the n factors of V/(27)° represent the density of momentum states of the n final particles. Note that the factors of V and T’ cancel in the final expression in (2.50), and that all the particles are on-shell (E? = #? + m?). The flux factor |; — Jp] is evaluated using 8; = p;/E;. It should be intuitively clear that the differential cross section is the same in the lab frame and in collinear frames related to the lab by boosts along the P) direction, such as the CM frame, but is not the same in arbitrary frames. This can be seen by the fact that the factor Ey £2|; — A2| in the denominator is equal to the Lorentz invariant quantity ((p1 - p2)? — m?m3]*/? in collinear frames. In fact, the cross section formula is often written in terms of that quantity, though that is only strictly valid in the collinear frames". The 54 function and the scattering amplitude My; in (2.50) are manifestly Lorentz invariant. The final state phase space factors are also invariant, as can be seen in (2.4). The differential cross section can be integrated over the ranges of momenta of interest. The total cross section for the specific process is obtained by integrating over all final momenta, =JJ% | a, (2.51) fe I] f where the statistical factor S; = 1/l! must be included for any set of | identical final particles to avoid multiple counting of the same final state. Now, consider the example of 2 — 2 scattering in the CM, as illustrated in Figure 2.4(i). For a given CM energy /s = Ecm, the initial and final momenta pj, py, and the energies Ey, a = 1---4 are fixed by (2.35) and (2.36). It is convenient to introduce spherical coordinates, with the z axis along ;, so that py has polar angle @ and azimuthal angle y. For spin-0 particles (or unpolarized initial particles with non-zero spin) the scattering amplitude My; is independent of y by rotational invariance. Fhe inner product (p|p’) = (2m)?2E,63(p—p’) = 2, [ dae~HP-F')'? goes to 2EpVEg5/ in a finite volume V. ‘In applications to astrophysics one is usually interested in the thermal average of o|41 —52|, so the flux factor cancels (e.g., Kolb and Turner, 1990).20 The Standard Model and Beyond The differential cross section is given by (2)464(p3 + pa — Pi —p2) 93 Pp, 7 ee ——— [Myil*- 2.52’ GEE) Ox)82E5 Gnyi2By Ml (2-52) In the CM, Ey Es|B; — Bal = Ey Ea Bi (& + =| = pi(E, + E2)=pivs. (2.53) The implicit py integral can be done using the four-momentum conservation, Ory Op, ap 54(p3 + pa — Pi — pa) SP = 6( Bs + Ex — vs) 2 E3 Es E3E4 (2.54) 2 ; = _ py Padps = Br deos0 6(Es + Ey — va) BE, where E3 and Ey represent \/p3? +m and \/p3? + mi, respectively. In the last expression the azimuthal angle has been (optionally) integrated over, i.e., 433 = dp dcos 6 p3dp3 + 2x dcos 6 p3dps. The remaining delta function determines ps. Using ps dp3 = B3 dE3 = Ey dE, d(E3-+E4)/dE3 = 1+Es/Es, and the identity (1.24), the quantity (2.54) is equal to 2m dcos6 e (2.55) The differential cross section is therefore ' do 1 Pry, 2 [Myil? = —— ff \m,,? —— fl. 2.51 Teos6 = Bins p, Mal mms” 32n8 (256) The initial momentum p; is given in (2.36), while py is of the same form with m, — mg and mz — m4. The last expression in (2.56) is for elastic scattering, for which p; = py. Closely related quantities are do 1 do C2 tz dt pip dcos6’ = dQ: Iw deos6” (2.57) where ¢ is the Mandelstam invariant given by (2.39), and dQ = dp dcos6 is the solid angle element. The second form is useful if dy is not integrated over. In our example of the Hermitian scalar field with V; given by (2.21), the differential cross section at tree level is obtained from (2.29) and (2.56), do 1 dcos6 32n8 , (2.58) where 8 = Eby =4(p? +m), t =—2p?(1—cos@), u= —2p?(1+c0s8), (2.59)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 21 and p = pi = py. The total cross section is then 1st do +1 dg o ae aGze doose = f aca dcos6, (2.60) where the 1/2 is because the final particles are identical. One can also use (2.52) to calculate the cross section in the lab frame, using Ey E2|B; — Bel = Exma|fi| = prime. (2.61) The phase space integral can be carried out explicitly in the lab frame, or can be obtained by Lorentz transforming the CM result. In analogy with the derivation of (2.55) @p3 Bp, 2n\p3|dcosO3 54(p3 + pa — Pi — Po = ; (2.62) E; E, az, 3 Ey Ey ja + 4B where 63 is the laboratory scattering angle of particle 3. dE,/dE3 can be calculated using the second equation in (2.43), yielding do _ _|Myi? Ds deos6s 32mpymz Ey + mz — 22 cos 03" (2.63) Potential Scattering Consider the 1 — n scattering of a single particle from a static source (i.e., potential scattering), as illustrated in Figure 2.5. This may be an approxi- mation to scattering from a heavy target particle. In particular, suppose £ contains an interaction term £1(z) = Lp(x) (0,2), (2.64) where ©(0,Z) is the static source and Lp involves ordinary quantum fields. Then, in analogy with Eq. B.4 from Appendix B, the tree-level transition amplitude for i — f, with |i) = |pi) and |f) = |py, ---By,), is Une f tx (Hie p(2I1)90,2) 1 - (2.65) = ap [aie Pa shel ndapelorn-o, where aq) = f az'e4*'900,2' (2.66)22 The Standard Model and Beyond is the Fourier transform of , q = (0,@), and we have used translation invari- ance for the matrix element. Then, carrying out the x integral, Uys = 206 (Ey — Ex) Mi, (2.67) where : Myi = (fliLp(0)|i) ®@y — Pi) (2.68) and py = Dc, Pp,- Proceeding as in (2.50), the differential cross section is 2 7 3 do = WH? Ve ( 1 ) II app, _V T (fi) \2EV 2Ey,V (2n)8 kt i (2.69) Qn 2n6(E2 — E1) -E,) & J 2 = |My: 26 |i I L ays2n, Mn so that energy but not 3-momentum is conserved, as expected. For the impor- tant special case of elastic scattering, ie., n = 1 with mz = m, and p2 = py, |\Pi2| = BE, 2 =p, with B= [Ai]. (2.70) But, 5 (Ez — Ey) dp = p2E2d cos Ody, (2.71) where and ¢ are the polar and azimuthal scattering angles. Therefore, dg 7 do 1 : . Teostdp ~ Ten?! Mal Teosd ~ 3x Mail’. (2.72) The last form holds when My; depends only on \@/? = [Be — Bi? = 2p? (1 — cos) = 4p? sin? (2.73) as in the case of spinless or unpolarized particles and a radially symmetric source. As a simple example, consider 1 Lr= —3P7®(r), (2.74) where ®(r) is the spherically symmetric Yukawa potential eur x ann 90,7 — == 2.75) (0, z) : (7) +e (2.75) with r = |z|. can be thought of as arising from the exchange of a heavy scalar of mass jz between a nucleus and the scattered particle described by ¢. (This could be an approximate model for the contribution to pion-nucleon scattering from the exchange of a heavy scalar resonance, such as the o or the fo(980).) From (2.68) and (2.72) we obtain My; = 6(¢) and do _ ann? Zoos = G+ (2.76)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 23, Decays One can also consider the 1 > n decay process with |i) = |i) and |f) = By, --- Bp.) (Figure 2.5). Similar to (2.48) and (2.50), one has |U pi? = VT (20)464 (Xr = n) IMgil? (2.77) F and differential decay rate — gi Wal? ry Pte Wa=d7 =p Gey) [se ob 2m) (20/464 Ppe = PL) TY Il aD, IMpl? rest frame 2m, (anP2E,, (2.78) where I’ is the decay rate of particle 1 and 7 is its lifetime, and the second expression is specialized to the rest frame of the decaying particle. The total decay rate is obtained by integrating over the final particle phase space, T=][S far, 2.79) IIs / (2.79) where S; = 1/l! is a statistical factor for | identical particles, analogous to (2.51). As an example, consider three distinct Hermitian scalar fields $;, i = 1---3, with masses m;. If m > m2 + mz it is possible for particle 1 to decay into 2+ 3 as shown in Figure 2.6, provided there is an interaction term to drive the decay. The simplest appropriate Lagrangian is Pa Bs Pi FIGURE 2.6 The two-body decay of the spin-0 scalar 1 into 2 + 3, and the associated Feynman diagram corresponding to (2.80).24 The Standard Model and Beyond £= 57} [(0,9.)? — mP02] — nordabs, (2.80) i=l where the kinetic energy and mass terms generalize (2.19). No counting factor is needed in the interaction term because the fields are distinct. The tree-level decay amplitude is therefore My; = -ir, (2.81) i.e., the coefficient of ¢1¢2¢3 in iL. The decay rate is T= “f (2n)464(p3 + p2— Pi) _d* Pe apy 2m (2n)82E2 (27)92E3 Eads 7 _ Pp (9.89 -son fe [BEE a + Ba —m) = eee (282) Laks ‘pp _[mP(rma ems )?]!/2 [mp (rmg—mg)2]/2 gpa tebcimaena A lpi mana where E23 = \/f2? + m3, in the second line, and the expression for pe is analogous to (2.36). More general techniques for evaluating phase space integrals are discussed in Appendix D and in (Barger and Phillips, 1997). 2.3.6 Loop Effects In addition to the tree diagrams shown in Figure 2.3 for the potential in (2.21), there are a large number of loop diagrams. A sample of the many one-loop diagrams is shown in Figure 2.7. Of course, the relative strength of these and higher-loop diagrams depends on the magnitudes of and x?. The first diagram is shown in more detail in Figure 2.8, with the momenta labelled. The external lines are on-shell, while the two internal lines are not. Four-momentum is conserved at each vertex, so only the single momentum k is integrated over. From the Feynman rules, this diagram contributes _ (-id)? | dk i i 7) Qn)i Poms opompoman = (53) to the scattering amplitude, where the } is due to the identical particles. The techniques for evaluating such integrals will be illustrated in Appendix E and are developed in detail in field theory texts. Here we just note that the integral is logarithmically divergent for large k (the integrand goes as d*k/k4). Fortunately, the theory is renormalizable!', so the divergences can all Nn a renormalizable theory all divergences can be absorbed in a finite number of quanti- ties, which can either be measured or drop out of final expressions for observables. Non- renormalizable theories, on the other hand, encounter new divergences at each order in perturbation theory.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 25 FIGURE 2.7 Examples of one-loop diagrams contributing to the process pjp2 — p3p4- be absorbed in the observed (“renormalized”) values of m, , and the “wave functions,” leading to finite and calculable quantities. The pure ° theory (ie., A = 0, « # 0) is super-renormalizable: the only divergent diagrams are the two one-loop diagrams shown on the right in Figure 2.8. (These may appear as components of larger diagrams.) It should be noted that the modern view of divergences is that the integrals are not truly infinite. Rather, they reflect the view that a low energy field theory is an approximate description valid below some energy scale A, such as the Planck (gravity) scale Mp = Gy? ~ 1.2 10!9 GeV, above which there is a more complete theory. A logarithmically divergent integral such as (2.83) is therefore proportional to A#In(A/m). As long as this quantity is small, the sensitivity to the new physics scale is not great. In addition, the leading logarithmic contributions can be summed by the renormalization group equations. This will be further discussed in Section 2.12.2. ee 2.4 The Complex Scalar Field Now let us consider the complez, i.e., non-Hermitian, scalar field ¢ # ¢, which describes a spin-0 particle which is not the same as its own antiparticle. For example, ¢,+ annihilates a x* or creates 7, while ¢,- = ¢!, is the corresponding 7~ field. The Lagrangian density for a complex scalar field is L=L! = (0,9)!(0"#) — m®4td — Vi(o, 94), (2.84)26 The Standard Model and Beyond FIGURE 2.8 Left: a typical one-loop diagram, with the momenta flowing through each line labelled. Right: divergent (sub)diagrams in the super-renormalizable ¢* theory. The second (tadpole) diagram contributes to the d, term in (2.20) and must be included in the field redefinition that eliminates it. where the (Hermitian) potential V; is given by"* Vi(0, 4) = Xoo? + non-renormalizable. (2.85) There is no } in the kinetic energy and mass terms for a complex field, and the 1/4 in V; is for later convenience. Keeping only the quartic term in Vr, the field equation is : 6L bl yd gap jar Onggage 0 > +m) d+ 30(6'6) =0. (2.86) A complex scalar field ¢ can always be expressed in terms of two real fields d= 91, i= 1,2, byt ai Gis) (287) a (1 +id2), dt = oR In terms of these, £ in (2.84) can be expressed 2 Zt Ob)? — m9?) — Ae +43). (2.88) “*There are other possible renormalizable terms in Vy, such as on{(¢)" +(¢t)"], n=1---4, oF pm{(¢)™ + (¢t)™]o'd, m = 1,2. These would not allow a conserved charge, and would lead to processes such as x+x* — n~n~. Equivalently, they would not exhibit the U(1) phase symmetry discussed in Section 2.4.1 ttIt is a convention whether ¢ = (1 + i¢2)/V2 is identified as ¢,+, as is done here, or with ,-- In later chapters we will often take the opposite choice, especially to be consistent with isospin conventions.Review of Perturbative Field Theory a7 This is not the most general renormalizable Lagrangian for two real scalars, because the masses are the same and the potential is of a special form which Jeads to a conserved quantum number. The solution for the free complex field (i.e., A = 0) is 7 oote) = fea, [ate + oppor a (2.89) = | aang, Me + a1 er"), where al (p') and bt (') create 7+ and 7~ states, respectively, as in (2.7). They satisfy the commutation rules in (2.2) and (2.8). a and b can be expressed in terms of the creation operators for the real fields ¢19 and 29 by 1 1 (@) = Fela@) + ia2(P)], 6H) = lar (B) — taa(H)] a ce (2.90) al(p) = Fel) -iahp)), o@ )= Fglel@ (p) + iah(P)). The Feynman propagator for the complex field is f/f (2.91) ‘2m)4 k? —m? + ie , (OT [40(2), 64(2')}]0) = Ar (e — so that an internal line carrying momentum & in a Feynman diagram is asso- ciated with the factor iA p(k) defined in (2.28). In Feynman diagrams, the arrows represent the direction of flow of positive charge. For example, an external line with an arrow going into the diagram may represent either an initial state 7+ or a final state 7, and conversely for an arrow leaving the diagram. Each vertex is associated with a factor —id and must involve the same number of entering and exiting lines (charge conservation). It is conventional to label internal momenta so that the arrow also coincides with the direction of momentum flow, while the momenta for external lines are the physical momenta, which are entering the diagram for initial particles and exiting for final particles. Thus, the physical momentum flows opposite to the arrow for a m~, as illustrated in Figure 2.9. We also introduce the symbol p for the momentum flowing in the direction of the arrow, i.¢., Ppt = +pz+- 2.4.1 U(1) Phase Symmetry and the Noether Theorem ‘The Lagrangian density in (2.84) is invariant under the phase transformations Oe) + O(n) =e O(a) > Ole) + 642), (2.92) where 5¢(z) = i8¢(z), which means that L(d, 6) = L(¢', 6"). (2.93)28 The Standard Model and Beyond xt (i +B, x (Bs) q ™* (Bs) iAr(e pa), (@o) : *. - 7 Cid a A : a a iAr(k) \ xt (ii) (Pi) 7m” (P2) FIGURE 2.9 Left: tree-level diagram for n+ (pi) ~ (Ba) — * (Ba) (Pa), where Pi,2 (3,4) are the physical initial (final) momenta. Right: an example of a one-loop diagram. Ap(k) is defined in (2.28). The invariance holds for all 8, i.e., £ has a U(1) symmetry group. U(1) is the group of 1 x 1 unitary matrices, which is a fancy expression for phase factors. The symmetry is global **, ie., 3 is a constant, independent of z. According to the Noether theorem, any continuous symmetry of the action leads to a conserved current and conserved charge. For example, translation invariance of the action under z, — z/, = 2, — a, leads to energy and momentum conservation, with the four-momentum operator P# = (H, P) in (A.5) conserved (see, e.g., Bjorken and Drell, 1965). In the present case, invariance of £ automatically implies that the action is invariant also. As will be shown below, the Noether theorem then implies that 5£= —Ba,J", (2.91) where 5L = L(4',6') — £L(, $4) =0 (2.95) is the change in the Lagrangian density under (2.92) for infinitesimal 8. In (2.94), J# is the conserved Noether current J# = ~i[(0"4)'¢ — stand] = sgt D9. (2.96) In the last expression, we have introduced the symbol ‘Q“, defined by a'3"b = ad"b — (d"a)b (2.97) for any a and b. The Noether charge Q= [ez (x) (2.98) The derivative terms in £ would not be invariant for @ = G(x). Later, we will discuss how to modify L to yield local (gauge) symmetries, under which ¢(z) — e'(=)g(z).Review of Perturbative Field Theory 29 js then conserved, assuming there is no current flow at infinity, because 0Q _ OJ9(x) _ | as aCe) @ = faz - fas + ¥- Jo) integral =0 (2.99) S [ez 0,J"(x) = 0. This is most easily interpreted by explicitly calculating Q for non-interacting fields ¢o, for which one has easily that Q= {aan {a'(p)a(p) - bt()W@)] = Ne+—Ny-. (2.100) That is, the conserved Noether charge is just the total number of particles minus the number of antiparticles, which coincides with electric charge for the specific example. It is straightforward to show that the conservation law continues to hold in every order of perturbation theory provided that the interaction term respects the symmetry (commutes with Q). Derivation of the Noether Current for the Complex Scalar Field Under the infinitesimal phase transformation (2.92), the change in the La- grangian ou is 6L 6L 14 sc=$ 66+ 0,0) 50) + sos ia spr (Gu)', (2.101) where (x) = i8o(z), 5(2)! = —i80(z)t 5(8,4) = 180,.0(z), 6(0,.6)' = -i8 (8,0(z))*. (2.102) Using the Euler-Lagrange equations (2.18), this is _ _— Ly c= 18 [2s (559) -% (par) (2.108) = -60,,J", where the Noether current is ee Oee ie otal =~ [aay aa ~ 5, val = +igt B49. (2.104) Finally, for a symmetry", one has in addition that the Lagrangian density is unchanged, i.e., 5£ = 0, so that d,J# = 0. *The condition for a symmetry is actually weaker. It is sufficient for the action in (2.17) to be invariant. We will see examples of this for discrete symmetries in Section 2.10 and Chapter 6. For a continuous symmetry, it is sufficient to have 6£ = —G0,a", where a transforms as a Lorentz four-vector. In that case, the current J — a! is conserved.30 The Standard Model and Beyond er ee 2.5 Electromagnetic and Vector Fields Define the electromagnetic vector potential A" (zx) and the field strength tensor FeY = FYE = OM AY — av AM, (2.105) related to the electric and magnetic fields E and B by 0 -E, -Ey -E. E, 0 -B, By wy Peale po te (2.106) -B, B, 0 In the absence of sources, one has the free-field Lagrangian density 1 1 =e nya tp, pow a) (pe pe Lo(AY) = — 7 FFM = 5 (é B y (2.107) leading to the free-field equation of motion DA — 34 (,A”) = 0. (We have omitted the free-field subscript 0 on F and A for simplicity.) Lo is gauge invariant, ie, FH” = FY = OHA” — BY A’, and therefore Lo(A#) = L(A"), where iH = AB Zope), (2.108) and A(z) is an arbitrary differentiable function of (t,). (The 1/e factor, where e > 0 is the electric charge of the positron, is inserted for convenience.) This is known as a U(1) invariance because there is only one function A(z). The U(1) gauge invariance will continue to hold for the full Lagrangian in- cluding interactions. It is convenient to work in the Lorentz gauges, 0,A” = 0. This still leaves the freedom of making a further gauge transformation pro- vided G8 = 0, and one can exploit this freedom to simultaneously choose A° =0 and V- A =0, the Coulomb or radiation gauge. The radiation gauge does not have manifest Lorentz or gauge invariance, but is attractive in that is doesn’t involve any unphysical degrees of freedom. The two non-zero com- ponents of AM are transverse to the photon momentum and correspond to the two polarization directions. In the radiation gauge, the free-field expression for the vector ea is Ae)= f ashe or Be FON NE + NAME Netw], (2.109) where Ey = |p|, a and at are bosonic annihilation and creation operators satisfying [a(B, d), at (@", N)] = (2)°2B, (7 — B’)Orw’, (2.110)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 31 \ = 1,2 refers to the two possible polarization states, and @(j, A) is the photon polarization in the direction of the photon electric field. The radiation gauge condition V - A = 0 implies (2.111) and the normalization is €*(p, A) E(B’) = day (2.112) For a linear polarization basis, the (J, \) are real and can be chosen e(B,1) x €(@,2) =p. (2.113) Thus, one can choose @(p, 1) = 1 where f, is an arbitrary unit vector orthog- onal to #, and @(j, 2) = p x p.; eg., for pin the z direction, @(p, 1) = (1,0, 0) and @(f,2) = (0,1,0). One can also use the basis of left- and right-handed circular polarization vectors €(P,1) $ i€(B, 2) é = ; LRP) Vi which correspond to photon helicity (spin measured with respect to the mo- mentum direction) +1, respectively. It is useful to introduce the polarization four-vectors ¢#(p, 4) = (0,€(#,d)), where p-(p,4) =0 (BA) €B,X') = —Say- (2.114) (2.115) Thus, the free-field expression for A# is obtained from (2.109) by replacing eB.) — Hd). From (2.109) one sees that the amplitude for a physical process is of the form ¢#(p,) - M,, for an initial photon, or ¢#*(g, 4) - M,, for a final photon, where the amplitude M,, depends on p, and the other momenta and spins in the process. (The rules for constructing M,, will be described in later sections.) Often, the initial photon beam is unpolarized, or a final photon polarization is not measured. In that case, one averages (sums) over the initial (final) photon polarization directions, yielding a rate proportional to A=12 [= EDN, s| M,M;, (2.116) with an extra } for an average. This is easily evaluated using YS AG Ne"(B,A) = - 9" + A=1,2 (2.117)32 The Standard Model and Beyond where p, = (Ep, —P) so that py -p = 2E2. One can use gauge invariance to show that p“M,, = 0, so that the second term in (2.117) does not contributet, ie., (2.116) is just —M,M#* The Feynman propagator for the free photon field is (OIT[AM (2), AY (2')]|0) = ig"” / ane (2-2") Dp(k) + gauge terms, (2.118) where Dr(k)=- pt — pt — AH (2.127) in the Lagrangian density in (2.84), where q = e > 0 is the charge of the «+, and identifies the additional terms with £44. £ will then be invariant under the generalized gauge (or local) transformation 1 ee Ale An AM All = AM — Z0G(2) om 6 bl = ei @leg = eiBl2)4, ie., £(¢, A) = L(d", A’). (2.128) generalizes the global symmetry of Section 2.4.1, ie., ¢ > e*% where @ = constant. Using the minimal substitution, £=((0, +igA,)6l"(0" + igA")6 — mgt — Le, F™ — Vi(¢,4") eS 4 (8,-i9,)ot (2.129) 1 = [Dyd]"[D"4] — mgt — FFF” — Vil, 9"), where : DY = 0" + igA* (2.130) is known as the gauge covariant derivative. The gauge invariance of (2.129) is obvious except for the first term. Under (2.128), Dig > Dit’ [o" + igAH — i1o"B(0)| (<0) = i=) pag (2.131) (Dyud)' + (Dud)! e* 0), That is, the shift in A“ compensates for the change in 0“¢ due to the derivative of G, leaving £ gauge invariant. Thus, gauge invariance for the charged scalar requires the existence of a spin-1 field, dictates the form of the interaction with A*, forbids an elementary mass term (i.e., }m%A,,A” is not gauge invariant), and restricts the form of the scalar self-interactions. It turns out that the theory is then renormalizable. From (2.129) one can read off iLya: iLea = —4("9)' GA, + 4(b'0"9)A, + iP ALAMOS +, 2.132) = 4(d' O"O)Ay + ig? A, AM old, ae)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 35 where it’O#¢ is the Noether current for the free complex scalar field’ in (2.104). The Feynman vertex rules can be found from (2.132), inserting the froe-field expressions for ¢ and dt in (2.89) and recalling that a(j') and 0(7) are the annihilation operators for x* and n™, respectively. For this purpose, it is convenient to explicitly display Ooo ~J expe Pa [-ipta(pen'?* + iptbt (pet? 7] (2.133) areh(o = | oe Gayinn, (PoP + ital pets], where p = (Ep,) with Ep = \/p? + m? as usual. ‘The vertices are displayed in Figure 2.10 for q = e. The three-point vertices include a factor ~iep!, for each 7* and a factor +iep"_ for each x. These are always the physical momenta, whether initial or final. They can both be written as —iept., where p,+ = +p,+ is the momentum in the direction of the arrow. There is also a four-point (seagull) vertex 2ieg"”, which is needed for gauge invariance. The Lorentz indices are contracted with e,(k, A) for an initial photon of momentum k, with ¢(k,A) for a final photon, and with igy,Dp(k) = —iguy/(k? + ie) for an internal virtual photon line. Each internal pion has a propagator iAp(k) = i/(k® — m? + ie), and there is an integral [ d*k/(2m)* over each unconstrained internal momentum. nK and rn Scattering As a first example, consider the electromagnetic scattering m— K+ — n~ K*, where K* is a complex field with the same electromagnetic couplings (but. different mass) as *. They are introduced here to avoid identical particle effects. We ignore strong interactions of other non-electromagnetic couplings. There is a single tree-level diagram, as shown in Figure 2.11. The Feynman rules lead to the transition amplitude Myi = ie(p1 + ps)" Yel C ie)(P2 + pa)” (p1 + Ps) - (P2 + Pa) ae u = Aig (PLT Pa) (P25 PA) _ aria : (pi — ps)? ( ) where a = e?/4r is the fine structure constant. The Mandelstam variables s, t, and u are defined in (2.30) and related to the CM scattering angle in (2.39). §interaction terms usually do not modify the form of the Noether currents. Gauge interac- tions of complex scalars are an exception because the interaction terms involve derivatives. For example, the conserved Noether current for £ in (2.129) is J# = i¢t DG — 2agt AHg, which appears in the field equation for A in the familiar Maxwell form 8,,F#” = qJ”.36 The Standard Model and Beyond (By) . ” tie(pi + Py)! peer WA, +2ie?gt” sg / a = (Bi) 7 2 Gy) = @,-) 7 7 7 FIGURE 2.10 Vertices involving charged pions and one or two photons. In the one-photon diagrams the initial pions enter from the bottom and the final leave from the top. Antiparticle (7~) vertices are obtained from particle ones by twisting the lines and replacing p by p = —p, where p is the physical four-momentum and p follows the direction of the arrow. The wavy lines represent photons. From (2.56) the differential cross section in the CM is do Liga? = ma? (e+ Leos’ dcos® 32ns' 4) ~ 25° 1— cos cos 8 aisle (2.138) ma? (3+ cosd Viomx 28 \1—cos6) ’ where p ~ (s — m)/2/8 since mx > my. The total cross section is oe a= f Fagg 288 (2.136) For r+ 1+ — a+ a+ there are two Feynman diagrams due to the different ways of associating the fields in iL44 with the identical external particles, as ‘The integral is divergent for forward scattering due to the massless photon propagator pole, i.e., the long range Coulomb force. This divergence is already present for classical Coulomb scattering, and disappears for realistic situations in which screening by other charges or the finite resolution of the detector are taken into account. Similar comments apply to ++ for both forward and backward scattering and to x~ 7+Review of Perturbative Field Theory 37 =P) Ke SL aN =) “K+ (2) Bs) mB) Bo (Bs) NU NO Vomee rcn 7h) “ath) et) “n* (Ba) (Bs) a aR) FIGURE 2.11 Feynman diagram for x K+ — x K* (top), xt xt — at (middle), and r+ 1- —+ n+ x (bottom). shown in Figure 2.11. The transition amplitude is — je2 [Pit Ps): (p2+ pa) | (Pi t+ pa) - (pe 7) a [ @—m? (ei (2.137) = dria [= +) : t u The differential cross section is again given by (2.56), but in this case there is an extra factor } in the total cross section because the final particles are identical. At high energies, /s > m,, one finds do _ 2na® (3+ cos?9\? 1st do = o = — (2 eos) 5 ( sin?@ ) + PBF. TeopGF8F = (2-138) ‘There are similarly two diagrams for r+ x~ —> n+ x7, yielding Mp = ie? [= +a) (pa +s) rac) (ie (ps — pry (pi + Pa) (2.139) . [-stuu-t . (3+cos? 6 7 = ria +——| =4ria (———— }.. t $ 1 cos In this case, however, the final particles are not identical. Note that the amplitude for 7+ can be obtained from that for s+ «+ by the formal38 The Standard Model and Beyond substitutions py — —p2 and pp —» —ps, an example of crossing symmetry. That is, the amplitude for an outgoing 7+ of momentum p is the same as that for an incoming 7 with momentum —p, as is apparent from the Feynman rules. Of course, the physical values of p are different for the two cases, since p® (—p®) must be positive for the first (second) one. Pion Compton Scattering Now consider pion compton scattering, (ki, 41) t+(pi) > 7(K2, Ae) #* (pa), with s = (hk + pi)?, t = (ko — ki)?, and u = (pp — k)?. The amplitude corresponding to the diagrams in Figure 2.12 is i Mye= ete [Fob +200)" (Fe) +290)" ' (2.140) ‘ ~ie(2p1 — hay ip — he)" (~ie)(2p2— ka)” + aierg, where €2 = €(ka, 2) and €; = €(F1,A1). It is straightforward to show that -¥(Ras 2) (Ba) (Ray An) *(P) ‘(Bas Aa) **(B2) oe a fete . i + * (Fas a) en =e) Ri) (Ry) ma) FIGURE 2.12 Diagrams for pion Compton scattering. The third (seagull) diagram is re- quired by gauge invariance. M,; vanishes if 1, is replaced by kiy or €$,, by kay, which is a manifestation of gauge invariance. This would not occur without the 2ie%g#”. Recall that our radiation gauge formalism is not manifestly Lorentz in- variant. It is convenient to choose A° = 0 and V- A = 0 to hold in the laboratory frame, in which p; = (m, 0). Then, pi - €: = pi: €} = 0, as well as ky - € = ky} = 0, so that My; takes the extremely simple form Myi = 8riac a1. (2.141) The kinematics simplifies greatly compared to the general mass case. From (2.43) one has (after an appropriate change in labelling) ky kp = —_— ___, > T+ B(1 = cos) (2.142)Review of Perturbative Field Theory _ where 67, is the laboratory angle of the final photon momentum kz and kj is the energy of photon i in the lab. Then, from (2.62) do 0 (ky\? . Teostg = mB (2) ler e3/?. (2.143) For an unpolarized initial photon and unobserved final polarization one must average (sum) over the polarization states 4, (Az), yielding da 1 do Tos, = 2 y Teos0z," (2.144) This can be evaluated using (2.117) for both the A; and Az sums!!, with AY = kx(1,0,0,1), kg = ka(1,sin 82,0, cos 61) (2.145) k= ki(1,0,0,-1), Ri, = ka(1, —sin@z,,0, — cos 6z), . yielding 1 1 3 & la-@)? = gt cos? Oy). (2.146) Da In this case, however, it is simpler to evaluate the sum using the explicit forms €:(1) =(0,1,0,0), —_ €2(1) = (0, cos6z, 0, —sin@z) (2) = (2) = (0,0, 1,0). (2.147) for the transverse polarization vectors. —— i 2.7 The Dirac Field The Dirac field a(x), where a = 1---4 is the spinor index, describes a four- component spin-} particle, i.e., # annihilates the two possible spin states for a particle and creates the two spin states for the antiparticle. In the absence of interactions, the Lagrangian density is Lo = U(t)a (¢9 — M)qg V(2)a = U() (69 — m) ¥(2). (2.148) The sum over a and is written in matrix notation in the second form, in which w is a 4-component column vector; the Dirac adjoint Bz) = o"(2)7° (2.149) "Since we have already evaluated My; in a specific gauge, we cannot drop the second term ‘on the right of (2.117).40 The Standard Model and Beyond is a four-component row vector; and a g= Voge =O, (2.150) where 7“, =0---3 are the 4 x 4 Dirac matrices, defined by {7,7} = 29h”. (2.151) (There is an implicit 4 x 4 identity matrix on the right side of (2.151) and after m in (2.148).) The 7 also must satisfy (tt = 97 = as (2.152) so that Lo = L}. It is useful to define Pawsiryyy, of 5h7'l- (2.153) + enters for spin and chirality projections, for coupling fermions to pseu- doscalars, and for axial vector currents in the weak interactions. From (2.151), 2 = ot, 74H = —7!99, and (75)? = I. 0M” is useful, e.g., in the description of electric and magnetic dipole moments. An arbitrary 4 x 4 matrix can be written as a linear combination of I,7°, 74,775, and o#”. E.g., 047° is given in Problem 2.3. 2.7.1 The Free Dirac Field From (2.148), one obtains the free-field (Dirac) equation (ip —m) Y(x) =0. (2.154) The solution to (2.154) is . 2 oa) = f me, LLB) a s}er* + oF SE seMe], (2.155) where at(j,s) and bt(p,s) are the creation operators for e~ and e* states, respectively**, al, 8)|0) = |e~(B,)) st@5))0) = let Gs). ed **By convention, we are taking y = ,— to be the e~ field. The e* field Y° = W,4 is of the same form as (2.155) except a and b are reversed. Charge conjugation and space reflection will be discussed in more detail in Section 2.10.Review of Perturbative Field Theory a prefers to the physical momentum for both |e*(p,s)), and s runs over the two independent spin states. a and b and their adjoints satisfy the anticom- mutation rules in (2.9)-(2.11), eg., {a(p, s), at (p", 8')} = B(P— pbs. In (2.155), u(#, s) and v(p, s) are 4-component Dirac spinors (complex col- umn vectors). From (2.154) they are the solutions to the momentum space Dirac equation, i.e., (B— m)u(P, 8) = (puy* — m)u(B, 8) = 0 (B+ m)o(@,s) = 0, Ge where there is an implicit 4 x 4 identity matrix in the mass term. Taking the adjoint of (2.157) and using (2.152), [b= mult = uh Py — m) = wl (oy? ~ (9°)?m) 2.158) =i(f—m)y? =, (2.88) where a = uly and 6 = v!+° are the Dirac adjoints. Thus, ii(p, 8)(~— m) = v(p, s)(~+ m) =0. (2.159) Before proceeding to the electrodynamics of fermions, let us consider some properties of the Dirac matrices and spinors. 2.7.2 Dirac Matrices and Spinors Explicit Forms for the Dirac Matrices The Dirac matrices are defined by (2.151) and (2.152). For most calculations one does not need their explicit form, but it is occasionally useful to have one. For example, the Pauli-Dirac representation is useful for studying the non- relativistic limit of an interaction, while the chiral representation is useful at high energy and for Weyl or Majorana fields, encounted in neutrino physics and supersymmetry. In the Pauli-Dirac representation 71.0 70g 70.1 YT \o-1 T= \-ot 0 T=\r 0 k (2.160) oi __;( 9 oF a oF 0 w=" oio o> GE\ ok)? where I is the 2 x 2 identity matrix and o* are the Pauli matrices in (1.16). Similarly, in the chiral representation nO; i_(0 o s_f{-I 0 T=\r 0 T= \-ot 0 Tor ; k (2.161) oi _, (-o8 0 ioe, (% 0 si - 0 a on = €ijk 0 of)-42 The Standard Model and Beyond It is sometimes convenient to rewrite the chiral representation matrices as 0 oF om y ea o): (2.162) where =a), 6 =(I,-8) =o,. (2.163) Traces and Products of Dirac Matrices Most calculations can be carried out without using the specific forms of the Dirac matrices by using various trace identities, where the trace is Tr A = Yq Aaa for any square matrix A. Note that TrA = Tr AT = (Tr At)* and ‘Tr (AB) = Tr(BA). For any representation, (2.151) and (2.153) imply TrI=4, Try =Tr7y> =0. (2.164) Define the 4 x 4 matrix d= ayy" (2.165) for an arbitrary four-vector a,. Then, from (2.151) d¥=-d+2a-bF > dd =oel. (2.166) One has immediately that Tr(¢P=4a-b. (2.167) Other useful trace identities include (see, e.g., Bjorken and Drell, 1964), Tr(¢ ¥¢d) =4(a-b c-d+a-d b-c—a-e b-d) Try dh =0 (2.168) Tr (7° A Vg d) = diet”? aybycpde, where e#”?? is the totally antisymmetric tensor with €123 = +1 and 9173 = =1. Also, Tr(@i-+ dn) =Tr(7* i++ dn) =0 (for n odd) Tr(a +++ dn) = a1 - ag Tr (ds ay + a3Tr (dz da--+ dn) 2.169 ssh ay + OTe (fo+++ dnt) (for n even) (2.169) Tr (i do-++ dn) = Tr (dn ++ do i). Related useful identities are Maal, a Wy me dy (2.170) wd bo" =40-67, wd beyReview of Perturbative Field Theory 43 Finally, we record the identities Tr [ye dw V(1+A9*)] Tr [7 #9” d (1+ A99)] 64a-cb-d for + (2.171) -{ctaabete , where \ = +1. These results can be derived using the identities in (2.168) and Table 1.2, as will be shown in detail in Section 6.2.1. They are extremely useful for calculating four-fermion polarization effects, as well as for weak interaction decay and scattering processes. Spinor Normalization and Projections The Dirac spinors satisfy the normalization and orthogonality relations /) . a(p, s)u(p, s’) = —0(B, s)u(p, 8’) = 2m dye ul (p,s)u(P, s') = v! (B, 8)vR, s') = ra og (2.172) a(B, 8)v(P, 8") = ul, s)v(—P, 5") = 0, s)u, s’) = v'(B, s)u(—#, s!) = 0, which are just numbers (e.g., Bjorken and Drell, 1965). The projections Lous) Wp, s) =p +m Les) WF, 8) =¥—m, on) i which are useful in summing over spin orientations in physical rates, are 4 x 4 matrices. The form of (2.173) follows from the Dirac equation, while the nor- malization follows by taking the trace and using the first equation in (2.172). (The second equation (2.172) for s = s' then follows by right-multiplying (2.173) by 7° and then taking the trace.) The projections ud. s) alas) = (p+m) (142A) vas) 8.8) = (6m (44 #) are useful when one does not want to sum over spins. Here, s is the spin four-vector. In the particle rest frame, p = (m,0), it is just a unit vector = (0,8) (2.175) (2.174) in the spin direction, so that 2 = -—1 and p-s =0. Boosting to an arbitrary frame in which p = SE, = Am, 8 = (78-3, 73) + 81), (2.176)44 The Standard Model and Beyond where 8 = 3-8 and §, = 5—8) are respectively the components of é parallel and perpendicular to 8. Thus, s = (0, 8) for 8- for §- = £1. The latter are known as the positive and negative helicity states, respectively, or alternatively as right- and left-handed states. The projections in (2.174) simplify greatly for the helicity states in the relativistic limit: 5 5 (+m) (47) =p St b= Pap 2 , 5 (2.17) (pm) (*7P 4) 1ST yo Pia where the chiral projection operators Pp,z, will be discussed below. The Propagator From (2.155) and the spinor sums (2.173), one obtains the Feynman propa- gator for the free Dirac field't dak (2n)4 (IT (a), B(@')]10) = if e2-2) Sp(k), (2.178) where the momentum space propagator Sp(k), which is a 4 x 4 matrix, is 1 K+m $6) = Bom pie ~ P= mF ie (2.179) The last equality follows from (2.166). Explicit Spinor Forms Explicit forms for the Dirac spinors are occasionally useful, e.g., for consider- ing non-relativistic limits. In the Pauli-Dirac representation ui.) = VET se): (2.180) E,tm where ¢, is a two-component Pauli spinor describing the spin orientation. Thus, o-(). e-() am describe spin orientations in the +2 directions, respectively. ¢1, defined by Aa 1. G- Pbs =+5/P los, (2.182) The time-ordered product of two fermion fields is defined as in (2.26) except there is a minus sign before the second term.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 45 describe positive (negative) helicity states. Similarly, the v spinors are v(B,s) = /E,+m (=e) ' (2.183) where Xs = —i0765. (2.184) = (?). X2= (7) (2.185) represent spins in the -E2 directions. The positive (negative) helicity spinors, which continue to mean that the physical spin is parallel (antiparallel) to the physical momentum, satisfy Thus, ae lie o-Pxx = F5IPlxs (2.186) nie ‘The counter-intuitive results in (2.185) and (2.186) are considered in Problem 2.7 and in the discussion of charge conjugation in Section 2.10. Explicit forms for the helicity spinors are given in Table 2.1, using a phase convention for which io? SL =Fbz, to XL = Fz. (2.187) The explicit u and v spinors in the chiral representation are gs) = fEaem ( (I~ Bem) %) _ (vere. 2 AC eifa) oe] WP E,+m (r- BG) x -(: VP" eXxs ) 2A (+ abe) e] VP where o# and a! are defined in (2.163). ‘The second form is easily verified using (1.20). In the helicity basis, these are uta) = 72 (sf), vee) = 74" (2%), (2.189) where (2.188) 08,5) = Aa(p) = 1 aa (2.190) The chiral representation is especially useful in the case of massless or rela- tivistic fermions, for which the upper (lower) two components of the positive46 The Standard Model and Beyond TABLE 2.1 Explicit forms and properties of the helicity spinors corresponding to eae angles (0, ) for p. They are constructed using the rotation 5.(f) = R(9, y)sx(Z), where s = ¢ or x. The spherical angles of —p are (Ce ‘5 m+), so that —2 = (7,1). The orthonormality and completeness relations also apply to the fixed spin axis basis. rotation: R(8, p) = e717 Fe 1728 cies #(2)=-x- = ($) #-@=x@)=({) a —sin 2e-i¥ bel) =x) = (0) = xsl) = 7 me) Ge-iv a =—--9=(_ Sh) 0-9) =xat-0) = (25) $4 (6) = te*"be(—2) x4 (8) = beFPy5(—9) x4(6) = i064)" = 4-8) x-(@) = ~i0*6-(9)" = 648) orthonormality: #1 (B)4;(6) = 55 = x1 ()x5(B) completeness: Di 4i(8)9! (6) = Dix@)x!@) =1 (negative) helicity u spinors vanish, and oppositely for v, 5 0 = o- ua) ae VIE()), ul) ay VOR 0 bs 0 . Xe a 0 vn) > VB), o-) —y vIE(_L ). Chiral Fields For a fermion field #, one can define left (L) and right (R)-chiral projections it br = Pipa 2 dr = Pry= v, (2.192) where P? p = Ptr, PuPr = PrP =0, P} p = Pir, and Pr + Pr =I. vr and Wp can be viewed as independent degrees of freedom, with p = wz + vr. For a massless fermion the L and R-chiral components correspond to particles with negative and positive helicity, respectively, i.e, vz and 4p annihilate fermions with helicity h = =}. For antifermions it is just the reverse, pz and tr create antifermion states with h = +}. For mass m # 0 the chiral states of energy E associated with zz have admixtures of O(m/E) of the “wrong” helicity (Problem 2.9). The free-field Lagrangian density in (2.148) can beReview of Perturbative Field Theory L rewritten in terms of the chiral projections as L= bids + briPvr—-m (divert drdz), (2.193) where tx,r are defined by bt = (vr)'y? = vt Pry? = bPr i: a 2.194 br = (vr)'y° = Ut Pry = oPr. (2.194) The chiral projections z,z are also known as Weyl spinors or Weyl two- component fields. They can be described as above in four-component notation, i.e., as two-dimensional projections of four-component fields ¥, but it is often convenient to discard the superfluous components and work in two-component notation. As the name “chiral” suggests, this is most conveniently displayed in the chiral representation, for which r= (20), re= (29). (2198) v= (gL) sPw-(%), Pab= (gy): (2.196) where Wz,n are the Weyl two-component fields. The Lagrangian density (2.148) for the free Dirac field can be written in terms of the Weyl fields as Ly = Vhio"8, Vz, + VhioWO,VR—m (thee + Uhve) Fi (2.197) where the four-vectors o# and o“ are the 2x2 matrices defined in (2.163). The Dirac mass term couples the L and R components, while the kinetic energy terms are diagonal. The free-field Dirac equation becomes io"d,U, — mV 0, io#, VR — mV, =0. (2.198) Above, we introduced the chiral fields as projections of a four-component Dirac field. Alternatively, one can simply define chiral fields as those satisfying vr = Prvr or vr = Prin, ie., not necessarily as projections of another field J, and in fact this was done for the L-chiral neutrinos in the original formulation of the standard model. Equivalently, Weyl fields Vz or Up can be introduced independently of each other. For example, a single Weyl L field with Lo = Wtia#d,,z would describe a massless negative helicity particle and a positive helicity antiparticle. One can also define the chiral projections of the u and v spinors, ur,R(P,8) = Prru(P,s), —z,R(B, 8) = Pr,pv(P, 8). (2.199)48 The Standard Model and Beyond ue (S)em=(%): ur=(,)). (2.200) then uz,p satisfy the Dirac equation If one writes pou, = (Eyl +e p- our = (Ep! — Yun = mur (2.201) ‘P Gp) ug = muy. The chiral components of v = (vz 0p)? satisfy similar equations, only with m — —m. It follows easily that the solutions for u and v are given by (2.188). For m — 0 the equations for uz,p decouple. The u and v spinors of definite helicity given in (2.191) then coincide with the left and right chiral projections, Pru(p, +) =u(P,+), — Pru(p,—) = u(p, -) Prv(P, -) = oP, Prv(P, +) = (8, +), showing the flip between chirality and helicity for the v spinors, consistent with (2.177). The free-field expressions for Wz, or Vz,p are especially simple in this case. From (2.155) and (2.191) (2.202) wearne= | poe VEEp lest) ale z)e = x2 OW IEA), (2.203) which is similar to the free Dirac field except there is no sum on spins. * We will further develop the Weyl two-component formalism in Section 2.11 and in Chapters 7 and 8. Bilinear Forms Consider the bilinear form %2Mw,, where w1,2 are any two Dirac u or v spinors. They may even correspond to particles with different masses, which is relevant, e.g., for weak interaction transitions. M is an arbitrary 4 x 4 matrix. Then, (2.Mw1)* = Mw, (2.204) where M = 7M}? is the Dirac adjoint of M. One finds M for M = 1,7", 9", 0%” M =-—M for M = 7°, 044° (2.205) Mi M2 = M2 My > fy fa hn =n * fo th. There is an equivalent relation, a] I (oMd1)' = GMa, (2.206)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 49 for two Dirac fields, which may be the same or different. Then, for example, DY laMu? = Oo eMwuiMu 51,82 182 = Dae [M (* +m) M) tap (2.207) = fuca smn (2m) = Tr [M(p, +:m)M (2 + ma)] , which allow one to express a physical rate in terms of a trace. For chiral spinors Dr = (wir)! = wt Pray = wlyPa = OPr- (2.208) Therefore, for any two spinors w; and we, D1Pwoy = 0 = Dipl wor (2.209) for P = 1,7°, 0”, or 445, while WT wre = 0 = Digl wor (2.210) for T = 7 or y#7°. Equivalent relations for the chiral fields yn were used in (2.193). Thus, scalar, pseudoscalar, and tensor transitions reverse the chirality between an initial and final fermion, while vector and axial vector transitions maintain it. The Fierz Identities The Fierz identities are (Diryver) (Barbar) = —ne (Dirydar) (Garr Pe2r) (diny"ver) (dsr %utsr) = —nF (dinyvar) (Yar yuo) (dirvber) (sr yar) = ee (dirdar) (Pscd2r) (2.211) (dirver) )= & (Deva) (Garver) +2 F (dino var) (DsrouPar) s where yz and Yyp are anticommuting chiral fields and np = —1. There are analogous relations for u and v spinors, but with nr = +1, eg., (Garver (Wiry*wer) (Wsrywar) = — (Wiry*war) (War ywar)- (2.212) The Fierz identities are easily derived by expressing the 4 x 4 matrices such as borWat in terms of the complete set I, 7,7", 77, and o#”. A related useful identity is : : (dino er) (VsrourPar) = 0. (2.213)50 The Standard Model and Beyond The Fierz identities are frequently very useful in computations, and are often used in conjunction with those for charge conjugation (Section 2.10). i iii 2.8 QED for Electrons and Positrons Just as for pions, one can obtain the Lagrangian density for quantum electrody- namics (QED), i.e., for the gauge theory of electrons and positrons interacting with photons, by combining the free field Lagrangians in (2.107) and (2.148) and applying the minimal electromagnetic substitution, iO“ = p" > p4"—qA", where q = —e <0 for the electron field. Thus, B(x) (6D =m) (2) — FFP B(a) iP + eA — m) W(x) ~ 1 PH (2.214) W(e) (69 — m) (x) — eA, (a) JQ(z) - Th PM, where D=7"D,, Dy, =0,—ieA,. (2.215) Cis clearly invariant under the gauge transformation AM AMR Lope), pr FVBey = e~Hl=)y, (2.216) since D, > e~ 9) D,,a, in analogy with (2.131). In the last form of £ Jo(x) = —eb(2)y"H(a) (2.217) is the electromagnetic current. In Feynman diagrams electrons and positrons are represented by solid lines, with an arrow indicating the direction of flow of negative electric charge (or opposite the flow of positive charge). The interaction term in (2.214) implies three-point vertices involving one photon and two charged fermions, with a factor ie. Charge conservation implies that there is always one arrow enter- ing (i.e., entering e~ or exiting e+) and one leaving (exiting e~ or entering e*) the vertex. A final e~ has a factor w(f;,5,), while an initial e~ has a factor u(fi, 8;). The corresponding factors for a final or initial e+ are v(p;, 5) and 6(f;,8:), respectively. These are always the physical momenta and spin. An internal fermion line carrying momentum k corresponds to the propagator iSp(k) = igr#2#5;. The spinor indices always arrange themselves so that each fermion line running through the diagram is a bilinear form starting with @ or @ and ending with u or v. These rules are illustrated in Figure 2.13. AsReview of Perturbative Field Theory 51 ay, 8s) (Bs, 84) eM Y tery, 7 u(Bis 8) BB 81) Hl a(p-, 9-) Bes 84) tem tem u(p- (D+, 84) y FIGURE 2.13 Vertices involving the interactions of e* with a photon. The initial fermions enter from the bottom and the final leave from the top. + refer to a positron or electron, respectively. Note the crossing symmetry, i.e., up to an overall sign the amplitude for an initial positron can be obtained from that for a final electron except & — 3, always using the physical momentum and spin, and similarly for the relation of a final positron and initial electron. in Section 2.6 there is also a factor ¢%, (¢,) for a final (initial) photon, a prop- agator igy,Dr(k) = —iguy/(k? + ie) for an internal virtual photon, and an integral f d*k/(2m)* over each unconstrained internal momentum. Since e* are fermions, the overall sign of a diagram depends on the ordering of particles in the states. The overall sign is rarely needed, but there may be crucial relative signs between two diagrams due to the anti-commutation rules for the creation and annihilation operators. In particular, there is a relative minus sign between diagrams involving the exchange of two external lines, and a factor of —1 for a closed fermion loop, as illustrated in Figure 2.14. More complicated sign ambiguities are best resolved by going directly to the expression for the transition amplitude. em Scattering First consider e~ (k) 7+(p,) — e7(k2)+(f2). The lowest order diagram, shown in Figure 2.15, yields the transition amplitude Mys= iea(ha salraulhins) (GM) [-ieloa + mal (2218)52 The Standard Model and Beyond (Ds, 83) E(B, 84) U(Pa, 84) (Ds, 83) Pi— Ps ~ Pi— Ps u(Di, 81) ‘u(B2, 82) u(Pi, 81) ‘u(P2, 82) FIGURE 2.14 Top: relative minus signs between diagrams involving exchanged fermion lines. Bottom: a closed loop diagram, with an extra factor of —1. nd wit) BBs) 04 (Bas 84) = < T$ pitpe (By, #1) “at Bon) 5.+(Bn 00) FIGURE 2.15 Upper left: Lowest order diagram for e~ (1) «* (pi) — e7 (ha) (&). Upper right: Diagram for e~ (pi) e* (2) — f(s) f(s), where f # e*.Review of Perturbative Field Theory _ where the Feynman rules for the pion vertex are taken from Figure 2.10. Using (2.56), the unpolarized differential cross section in the CM is da _1 do _ 1 1 e)\_ lowe Geosd 2 2» deosd ~ 32x8 (5 mt = gags! MnP, (2.219) 1,82 where s = (p: + ki)? and we have averaged (summed) over 5; (s2). The squared matrix element is evaluated using (2.205), (2.207) and the trace iden- tities in (2.167) and (2.168), “(a + Pula te Y (ru) (yea) s1ys2 a2 = Mg? = 5a let = ae” + Pi)u(p2 + Pi)y Tr [y" (Fi + Me)7”(Ko + me)] (2.220) =25 (02 + Pi)u(Pa + Pade [Aithy + hy RE — gM” (ky « ke — me)] , where u; = u(k;, s:) and t = (k,—k2)?. This is easily evaluated using the kine- matic relations in Section 2.3.4. For example, ignoring the pion and electron masses, (2.220) becomes 16ma?({(s — u)/t]? — 1). e-e+ Annihilation Now, consider e~ (#1) e*(B2) > f(s) f(s), where f # e* is a fermion with electric charge Qe. There is a single tree-level diagram, shown in Figure 2.15, which implies ; = igh? . Mgi = (-#Qse tis yura) (=2) (+ie de%t1) _ ~iQye? 3 tis Yuva Doy"u1, (2.221) where s = (p; + p2)?; uz and v4 are spinors for a mass my; and vz and uy correspond to mass me. Averaging over both s; and sg, the unpolarized cross section is do _ — = ——_ 222) eos ~ Bans p, Mail's (2.222)54 The Standard Model and Beyond where [Np = i, > Mal = Be ae ule — mg) he +m) , x Tr (7"(#i + me)y"(B2 — Me)) = swe [PavP3y + PayPsv — Qur(Ps «pa +m)] x [pips + pips — g""(pi-pot+me)] (2.223) ea safe [Piao Ps + Pi: P32: Pa +m} pr - Pa], where m, is neglected in the last line. In that: limit, Pi2=(E,0,0,4E£), ps4 = (E, pz sin 9,0, +p; cos 8), (2.224) in the CM, where e— and Py = (2.225) Then, P+ Pa = pa * ps = E?(1 + By cos) . Pi Ps = po ps = E?(1 — Br cos) (2.226) Pi-p2=2E?, =m} = (1-67) B, implying dos 2s Integrating over cos 6, the total cross section is 4nQ}.0?s (3 - 6} 4nQ3a? 3s 2) a1 3s 292 a TQ50BS (9 _ 68 4 pt cos?). (2.227) . (2.228) Bhabha Scattering The diagrams for Bhabha (e~e*+ — e~e*) scattering are shown in Figure 2.16. The amplitude is 2 u, Doy"u: Ug YyUrd2y"V4 M = ie? | U8 tatatay tr _ auth Vay va 2.229 (pi + P2)? (pi — ps)? .Review of Perturbative Field Theory 55 e (ps) ay e- (ps) e*(ps) a - T3 pitpe as oy oy e(r) e*(p2) FIGURE 2.16 Feynman diagrams for e~ (p;) e*(p2) > e7 (pa) e+(p4). The relative minus sign between the two diagrams is independent of state conventions. Ignoring the e~ mass, the unpolarized cross section is then da/dcos0 = |My;|?/32m8, where 7 1 [My = 3 0 IMP spins _ ef [Tu Baw Bs -4 JT" Bry” Bo), THe Bry Bs)Tr(y" Pay” Pe) s? B Tu Bat Bor" Bry” Bs) Tr (Yu Br Bo" Bar” Bs) 7 & ] . (2.230) The traces are easily evaluated using the identities in Section 2.7.2, yielding do ra? ae st tu 2 dcosd os «| e “st (2.231) Electron Compton Scattering The Feynman diagrams for e~ Compton scattering (k1)e~ (p1) > 7(ka)e~ (p2) are the same as the first two diagrams in Figure 2.12 except that the pions are replaced by electrons. The corresponding amplitude is i wy ae" uy. (2.232) Bit i-me Bi— ke — me It is straightforward to show that the differential laboratory cross section averaged (summed) over the initial (final) electron spins is given by the Klein- Nishina formula da _ ra? (kp\" [ko | ht 2 =55(-) |@+2 -6)?-2). 2: Teosty = ind (2) EtRtha-4) 2] (2.233) M = Gyerw(ie)*ie [ k2/ky has the same form as in pion Compton scattering, Equation (2.142), except m — me. If one also averages and sums over the initial and final56 The Standard Model and Beyond photon spins, one obtains (using (2.146)) da ma? (ko\" [kz , ki 2 as fe ee 2.234) eos, ~ me (2) tm a > (2.234) which yields the classical Thomson cross section oto: = 87a”/3m? in the limit ka ~ ky < me. ———— i i 2.9 Spin Effects and Spinor Calculations We have so far mainly focussed on spin-averaged calculations. However, many experiments involve polarized initial particles or measure the final polariza- tion, e.g., by their decay distributions. The calculation of fermion polariza- tion effects can always be carried out using the standard trace techniques, which yield the absolute squares of amplitudes, provided one uses the spin projections in (2.174) and (2.177). However, it is often simpler to calcu- late the amplitudes directly using the explicit forms for the 7 matrices and Dirac spinors (e.g., Hagiwara and Zeppenfeld, 1986). Further simplifications are achieved because of space reflection invariance, which relates different spin amplitudes. (Even for the weak interactions, which violate reflection invariance, different amplitudes may be related up to an overall coefficient.) However, such calculations are carried out in a specific Lorentz frame and are therefore not manifestly invariant. Both techniques can be tedious for non- zero masses, so in this section we will illustrate calculations assuming that the masses are negligible. An example of a calculation for a massive fermion is given in Problem 2.19. The spin-averaged amplitude-squared for e~(ji)e*(j) — f(03) F(Ps), given in (2.223), reduces to |M1|? = QFet (1 + cos? 6) (2.235) for me = my = 0. Now consider the amplitude for definite spins in the helicity basis, which we denote by M(hgh4, hiha), where h; = +2 is the i particle helicity. For massless particles, by (2.210) the only nonzero amplitudes are for hy = —hg and hg = —hy, since vector and axial vector interactions do not reverse chirality. We will see in Section 2.10 that reflection invariance implies that there are only two independent amplitudes, and that or—~”—r——r—”—”—~——C“CStrrsrsiCiCi‘aCNCisCSXa‘iURRD where we have simplified the notation by only writing the sign of hy. Momen-Review of Perturbative Field Theory 57 tarily keeping the masses, the absolute square for arbitrary spins is |MP = ia [r+ (omy (APA) aca tm) (ata) xTr [9 (os + me) (AEA) oH hy me) (Ce). (2.237) where s; is the spin vector given in (2.176). Taking the masses to zero and using (2.177), this reduces to IM (+-,+-)? =|M(-+,-+)? - ue Tr (Ww Baru BsPL)Tr (y” Pi BoP) (2.238) ge (pi « Pa po Ps) = Qe (1 + cos8)?, where the calculation of the traces and contraction of the Lorentz indices was carried out using (2.171). Similarly, [IM (+-, +) [? = |M (-+,+-)? Qiet (2.239) = £ (P1 - Ps po - pa) = QFet (1 — cos 8)?. (2.238)-(2.239) reproduce the spin-averaged result in (2.235). Now let us repeat the calculation using the explicit gamma matrices and spinors in the chiral representation, given in (2.161) and (2.188), noting that Wy =, Py = 9 = (s a) ; (2.240) Then (using s = (V2E)4), M(+-,+-)= =a © 4(8)qq0-(8)0-()7u4 (1) (2.241) = ~1Q se? [64(3)tx—(4)x—(2)'b4 (1) - 64(3)to*x-(A)x_(2)to*64(D] , and M(-+,4+-) = + iQye? [6-(3)"x4(4)x-(2)'44-() + o-(alorrelx! Qo'oe(0)]- 2 From (2.224) and Table 2.1 the helicity spinors are a e=(G)> x-@=({). 640) = x00) = (2) a (2243) in 2 ns) WP). cos58 The Standard Model and Beyond The first terms in (2.241) and (2.242) vanish. The second terms are most easily evaluated using the SU(2) Fierz identities in Problem 1.20, 4(3)t0*x(4)x(2)o*6(1) = 24(3)'b(1)x(2)hx(4) — (3)x(4)x(2)'4(1), (2.244) yielding M (4+-,+-) = M (4,4) = 24Qy¢? cos? ‘ = iQye? (14088) (2.245) M (-+,+-) = M(+-,-+) = ~21Qye2sin? = ~iQye? (1 —cos#). A 2.10 The Discrete Symmetries P, C, CP, T, and CPT Space reflection and charge conjugation are symmetries of the strong and elec- tromagnetic interactions, but are violated by the weak interactions because of their chiral nature. The product CP is also violated in the weak sector, though more weakly, due ultimately to complex phases in the Yukawa inter- actions between the fermion and Higgs fields. Such phases may be large, but their effects are small because they require mixing between all three fermion families to be observable. Time reversal is presumably also violated, becduse of the CPT theorem, which states that any local, Lorentz-invariant, unitary field theory must be invariant under the product CPT (Streater and Wight- man, 1980). In this section we introduce the basic formalism for the discrete symmetries. Physical consequences and tests will be described in Chapters 6 and 7. More detailed descriptions of the discrete symmetries may be found, in (e.g., Bjorken and Drell, 1965; Gasiorowicz, 1966; Weinberg, 1995; Sozzi, 2008). Space Reflection Under space reflection (P) a classical vector changes sign, ¢.g., Ep-e% PDP. (2.246) However, an azial vector such as orbital angular momentum L = Z x pis left invariant, and it is reasonable to define spin and total angular momentum to have the same property : ue pl. (2.247) Both vectors and axial vectors transform as vectors under rotations. Scalars are rotational scalars which do not change sign under P. Examples are t,Review of Perturbative Field Theory 59 E, and |j|?.Pseudoscalars, such as J’- p, do change sign. In particular, helicity, h = 5p, is a pseudoscalar and reverses under P. Vector and axialt* four-vectors transform, respectively, as Ve ee (2.248) so that x = (t,@) and p = (E,p) are vectors. The fermion spin vector s, in (2.176) is an axial four-vector. The angular momentum J is part of a second ank antisymmetric tensor, L' = 4¢,;,L4*, where r y Beijk lL", Le = ap! — 2 pt Lay. (2.249) ‘A single particle state is assumed to transform similarly, Pips) =npl-Ps), — Piph) =np|—P —h), (2.250) where (in this section) s represents spin with respect to a fixed axis and h represents helicity*. The phase np is the intrinsic parity, which depends on the particle type. One must have np = +1 to ensure P? = J. Invariance of the action in (2.17) requires invariance of the Lagrangian, and therefore that PL (t,@)P-! =L(t,-z). (2.251) For the example of the free complex scalar, L = (0,6)! (09) — mot, (2.252) this can be accomplished for P$(t,2)P™ = npd(t, -2). (2.253) The mass term is obviously invariant. For the kinetic term, a a , 3402) — mp8, 02!) = np Ge Oe!) = MP Ger_-Ha) = NPAMOLe!), (2.254) where 2’ = (t,—é). Thus, |8,0(c)|? — |6),9(2")|?. (2.253) follows from the free field expression in (2.89) provided Pal(p)P"'=npal(—p), Pb! (pf) P~! = np! (—#), (2.255) where at(j) and bt(j) are the particle and antiparticle creation operators. The transformation of a Hermitian scalar field is the same as in (2.253) and (for at (j')) in (2.255). ¥We use the symbol A, both for gauge fields and for axial vectors. The meaning should always be clear from the context. "In the helicity form, there may be additional (#,h)-dependent phases, depending on the phase conventions for the helicity states.60 The Standard Model and Beyond For the free Dirac field, with L=U(t,2) [i P—mv(t,z), (2.256) we must choose Py (t,£) P~1 in such a way that P(t.) v(t, @) P = V(t, -4) v(t, -2) (2.257) and Po (t,@) Wo (t,@) P* = 0 (t,-2) yd (t, -4). (2.258) The lowering of the index on > compensates 0,, = 0’, analogous to (2.254), i.e., Be) P(x) = U(2') #’4(2"). These conditions can be satisfied if Py(t,@) P= Pvlt,-3) (2.259) > P(t, @) P= (14 (t,-#)' 7° = vit, at 9? = F(t,-4) 9°, using 7°77° = 7, from (2.151). (We have taken npy = +1 for simplicity.) For chiral fields, Pup (t,@) P7* = 7°vr,1 (t,-2) Purr (t,@)P7 = (dr (t,—-#)'Y = Gaye (t,-2) 7°. Using the expression (2.155) for the free Dirac field and the relationst Pus) =u(-#,s), — °v (Hs) =-v(-#,8), (2.261) which follow from the explicit spinor forms in (2.7.2), we see that (2.259) is equivalent to (2.260) ‘at(p,s)P~! = at(—p,s), Pbt(p,s)P-! = —-bt(—p, 8). (2.262) Thus, a fermion and its antifermion must have opposite intrinsic parity. An arbitrary fermion bilinear form transforms as Pua (t,£) Pus (t, 2) P~' = npanpstba (t, -€) YT y°vs (t,-@). (2.263) The values of Py = 7°T'y° are listed in Table 2.2. In particular, P = 1,7°,7", and 74° transform as a scalar, pseudoscalar, vector, and axial vector, respec- tively, for npanps = 1. As will be discussed in Chapters 3 and 5, the Yukawa interaction between a neutral pion 7° and nucleons can be phenomenologically described by Lan = igr (py*p — Ayn) 7°, (2.264) ¥For the phase conventions in Table 2.1, the transformations in the helicity basis are uP, o4(6)) = setlou 8, =(-B)) and 7%v (9, xx(B)) = Fe*#v (—P,x-¢(—#)), where ¢ is the azimuthal angle of p.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 61 TABLE 2.2 ‘Transformation of the complete set of Dirac matrices and of their related chiral forms under Hermitian conjugation (the Dirac adjoint F) in (2.206), space reflection (Ip) in (2.263), charge conjugation (I'.) in (2.291), and time reversal (It) in (2.320). The pseudotensor #75 is not independent (Problem 2.3), but is included for completeness. ——— r Tr reg ars T% Cty? 449 ere“ Trer-t scalar T T it T pseudoscalar 7° a ~ vector 7H ot _ a axial vector y#7° ty ® ytin® we tensor one on Cw -oh” ows pseudotensor oy — #5 ayy — o> y7® Pir Pr Pro Pir Pir Pir Pie Pre —IPRe WPLR oo’ PLR o Prt OyPre —o!”PLR —OwPLR where gy is a real coupling, and where p and n respectively represent the proton and neutron fields. Since the nucleon term is a pseudoscalar, reflection invariance requires that the 7° must be a pseudoscalar, i.e., 7; = —1. Of course, this was originally ascertained by experiment (see, e.g., Gasiorowicz, 1966), i.e., by the observation of the reaction *~ D — nn, where the deuteron Dhas J? = 1+ and the 7~ was established to be in an S-wave. The neutrons had to be in an odd-parity *P, state, since it is the only antisymmetric J = 1 state available. Similarly, the 7° was shown to have odd parity by the angular distribution in 7° + e+e~ ete~ (Abouzaid et al., 2008). The i in (2.264) is required by Hermiticity. The interaction terms in (2.129) and (2.214) indicate that the electromag- netic field AQ couples to vector currents, where in this section, we use the symbol AQ to distinguish it from an axial vector. Reflection invariance of the electromagnetic interactions therefore requires that AG transforms as a vector PAQG(t,@)P7 = Agult, -2), (2.265) which is consistent with the classical expectation E + —E and B — +B. Using the free field results in Section 2.5, this is equivalent to Pal (p, \4)P~' = al (-9, -An), (2.266) where the polarization label A, represents the photon helicity. This can be seen from the free field expression (2.109), using the relation eB, An) = €u(—B, —An), (2.267)62 The Standard Model and Beyond which follows from (2.113) and (2.114) under the convention &(p,A) = (-1)**1¢,(—p, A), A= 1,2 (2.268) for the linear polarization vectors. All of these results also apply to massive vectors, with three helicity states. The explicit transformations of the fields in (2.253), (2.259), and (2.265) were justified for free fields. However, the same transformation laws will continue to hold in the presence of the strong and electromagnetic interactions, or any others which respect reflection invariance. This is apparent in the interaction picture (see, e.g., Peskin and Schroeder, 1995, and Appendix B) in which the interacting fields can be formally expressed in terms of the non- interacting ones and the interaction Hamiltonian H;, and using [P, H7] = 0. To illustrate the importance of this, consider the matrix elements of the vector and axial currents, Ja7y.¥ and Jayy7>vs, respectively, where was represent strongly interacting fields such as nucleon or quark fields, and a can be the same as or different from b. (a(Pa, Sa)|Da7ue|b(Pb, 86)) = U(Pa, Sa)Py U(Ps, 56) (a(Pa; 8a)|Da7n7°bs|b(Bb, 86)) = U(Ba, Sa)P uP, s6)- The fields are evaluated at « = 0 (otherwise, by translation invariance, there would be a factor e(P«—P+)"2 on the right). In the absence of strong or elec- tromagnetic interactions, one would have I'Y = 4, and P'4 = 4,75. However, such _ can yield more complicated matrix elements. From Lorentz invariance, TV can involve linear combinations of Yu, pu”, Gus 5s Tus and qu, where q = pa — ps. Each of these can be multiplied by an arbitrary form factor that can depend on the invariant q?. Other four-vectors, such as those involving Poy + Psy are not independent (see Problem (2.4). However, reflection invariance of the strong and electromagnetic interactions restricts the possibilities. Assuming the same intrinsic parities for a and b, (a(Ba, $a)|bayuths|6(Po, $6) = (A(Pa, $a)|P~' Pay P* P|b(Bs, 86) (a(—Ba; 8a)|a7 141° Ws|b(—Pb, 86)) U(—Pa, 8a)" (q')u(—Pe, 5») = U(Ba, 8a)7°CV" (q')7°u(H, 56), (2.270) (2.269) Wl where we have used (2.261). The notation PY#(q’) indicates that it is evalu- ated using q/, = pl, — Ph, = q". Reflection invariance therefore requires Pi (q) = YTV. (2.271) Comparison with Table 2.2 shows that 'Y can only contain yy, 0,04”, and qu. Similarly, P'4 can only contain yy7°,o09"7, and qu. (Higher-order terms in the weak interactions, which violate reflection invariance, could induceReview of Perturbative Field Theory 63 the wrong terms. However, one can always treat such effects explicitly in perturbation theory, using P invariance for calculating the matrix elements.) ‘As another application, consider M(a;(p;,hi)), the matrix element of a scattering or decay process involving k external particles with particle types a;, momenta p;, and helicities hi, i = 1---k, some of which are in the initial and some in the final state. If the relevant interactions are reflection invariant, then it follows from the interaction picture expression that the amplitude is the same as the amplitude for the reflection-reversed process, M(a;(¥i,hi)) = 1M (ai(—fi, —hi)), (2.272) in which 7 = +1 is associated with the intrinsic parities. This result is es- pecially useful for k = 3 or 4, i.e., decays into 2 or 3 particles or 2 + 2 scattering, because in that case one can use ordinary rotational invariance to show that M(a,(—p;,—hi)) = M(ai(ji,—hi)). This is obvious in the center ‘of mass frame, or in a frame in which one particle is at rest, because the remaining momenta then lie in a plane and can be reversed by a rotation by x around an axis perpendicular to the planet. Therefore, for k < 4, M(ai(Pi, hs)) = nM (ai(Bi, —hi)), (2.273) which can be very useful in simplifying calculations. Charge Conjugation Charge conjugation changes particles into antiparticles, without affecting their momenta or spin, ¢.£., Cla(P, s)) = ncala"(,s)), (2.274) where a® is the antiparticle to a and Na is a phase factor. (It is basically a convention as to which is called the particle and which the antiparticle.) For a complex scalar field, this implies CoC" = need, — CHC = Neg dt, (2.275) since ¢t is the field for the antiparticle to ¢. (2.275) implies Cal (p)C~! = noob! (Bp), Cb*(B)C™ = nega! (B) (2.276) for the creation operators in (2.89). One can always make a phase transfor- mation ¢' = /Ence¢ so that the new field has nog = +1. For a Hermitian scalar, one must have nog = +1, cgCc1=+¢, Cal (p)C-1 = tal (p). (2.277) ¥To see this for an arbitrary frame, a violation would require terms of the form 1 - (2 x 93) in M. However, this would have to arise from a Lorentz invariant e!“?? pay.PovPcpPdas which would vanish for k < 4 by momentum conservation. Such terms could arise for k > 4.64 The Standard Model and Beyond If one expresses a complex scalar ¢ with ncg = £1 in terms of two Hermitian scalars ¢1,2, as in (2.87), then Nog, = —Nc#, = £1. Results similar to (2.275)- (2.277) hold for the transformation of a vector field A,,. For QED the gauge field couples to a C-odd vector current, so one must choose Agy + —Agy. (C is not conserved for the chiral theories that will be introduced in Chapter 4, which involve both vector and axial currents with opposite C transformations. It is nevertheless useful to define the transformations of the gauge fields in this way.) The intrinsic C’ phases can be determined experimentally for (C- invariant) strong and electromagnetic processes. For example, 1° decays to two photons, so 1x0 = Ne, = +1. For QED, the electron state is transformed into a positron, Cle” (6, s)) = ncele* (P,8)), (2.278) and similarly for other fermions. One requires CYC = neyo, — CHC = ney" = ney (¥°)' 0, (2.279) where ~ is the e~ (or fermion) field, and f° is the e+ (or antifermion) field. Only the relative phases of different fermion fields in bilinears are usually relevant; in the following we will set ncy = 1 for simplicity. From (2.155), the free fermion fields are given by v(e) = [oe In) 3K > [ulB, s) a(p, s)e—?* + v(7, s)bt(p, set” 7] v0) = a i > [uG@ 5) 6G, se"? * + oH, s)al(B, s)e"?*] , (2.280) so one must choose Cal (p,s)C-! = bt(p,s), Cb*(p,s)C~! = al (p, 5). (2.281) From (2.280) it is apparent that 7° is related to the Hermitian conjugate wt. The precise relation, which is extremely useful even if a theory is not charge conjugation invariant, is ye =CeT =C (wt)? = CYT yiT, (in indices, ¥§ = Capp = (C71°") wh). Cis a 4x4 Dirac matrix, which can be determined by the requirement that the free Lagrangian density in (2.148) is C-invariant, i.e., CLoC-! = (2) (iP — m) v(x) = Lo. (2.283) =-y"c1 (2.282) SMajorana masses, which we will encounter in connection with neutrinos in Section 7.7, and supersymmetry in Section 8.2 are an important exception.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 65 (2.283) is satisfied if and only if C satisfies CoC = 9 (2.284) where one must use the anticommuting nature of the fermion field, and the fields are considered to be normal-ordered so that c-numbers can be ignored’. Consistency between (2.280) and (2.282) (or between (2.157) and (2.159)) further requires that the u and v spinors are related by vu(p, 8) = Ca(p, s)7 = (C7°") ups)", ul, s) = Cd(p,s)7, (2.285) which implies u(P, s) = —v(p, s)7 Ct, O(p,s) = —u(p, s)7ct. (2.286) ‘These relations hold both for the case of a fixed spin axis or for helicity spinors. The explicit form of C depends on the representation used for the -y matrices and is seldom needed. However, C takes the simple form C=C =-Ct = -CT = tiy?7? (2.287) in the Pauli-Dirac (+i7?4°) and chiral (—i7?7°) representations. The off- diagonal nature of o? accounts for the extra minus sign in (2.186). For arbitrary fermion fields Wa, (with the same intrinsic phases), ChatweC = doartyf = oT C7 y"Cdy . . e (2.288) = 4b TES = — Borba = —(Bards)*. In particular, the electromagnetic current Ig = De Ne (2.289) in QED transforms as CIQC™ = Wer "ber = +he-Me- = — IO, (2.290) so that the interaction ~eAg,,Jf5 in (2.214) is invariant for Agy + —Agu- An arbitrary fermion bilinear transforms as CHP sc = PVG = dP cba, (2.291) where T. = (ene)? =crt-". (2.292) ‘TFrom (2.282) and (2.284) we have that » and © have opposite intrinsic parities under space reflection, consistent with the comment following (2.262) and ensuring that C and P commute.66 The Standard Model and Beyond The Tare listed in Table 2.2. The spinor identity corresponding to (2.291) differs by a sign, i.e., wT wy = —wETwS, (2.293) where each w can be either a u or v spinor, and u(p,s) = v(p,s), — v°(B,s) = u(,s) (2.294) is the charge conjugate spinor. The chiral fermion fields transform as CurC = v5 = Pry’, CubrC7! = Wh = Pav’, (2.295) where ¥£(W%) is the field that annihilates a left (right)-chiral antiparticle or creates a right (left)-chiral particle. From (2.282) and (2.295) VE= Prd =CR, Va = Prd = CUE VE= URC, d= -¥TC, wherell, e.g., BE = [(ve)t79]” = 1°T(vr)'?. Thus, vf ~ vf, up to Dirac indices. Similar results hold for the transformations (2.285) and (2.286) of the chiral spinors. The flip of chirality in (2.296) is at first confusing. It is associated with the fact that C does not change the spin or helicity, but the relation between chirality and helicity is reversed for antiparticles, as can be seen in (2.191). E.g., in the massless limit 4 and gf, both create positive helicity particles or annihilate negative helicity antiparticles. Note that y“ and 79° transform with opposite signs, so that a left-chiral current is mapped onto a right-chiral one, Chary bore * = Very vbr = —Yory bar: (2.297) Thus, the charged current weak interactions, which only involve left-chiral currents, violate both space reflection and charge conjugation invariance. Sim- ilarly, (2.296) Charter = Virén = +doVar Charo” vorC = Vio" Vir = — Dero" Yar. The relations (2.291), (2.293), and (2.297) are frequently used in conjunction with the Fierz identities in (2.211). For example, combining (2.211) and (2.297), (Barrer) (Pee Ywar) = (2.298) (Diver) (ber rubar) - - 2.299) (izrvan) (eunve,). — 099) iiSome authors use the notation Up’ or (Wa)” rather than PF to emphasize that the Dirac adjoint operation acts on pp rather than on y.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 67 The transformation laws for boson and fermion fields continue to hold in the presence of the strong and electromagnetic interactions, which are C- jnvariant. Even including the weak interactions, which violate C, the same relations hold for the unperturbed fields when the weak effects are treated perturbatively, analogous to the discussion of reflection non-invariance. The spinor identities in (2.285) and (2.286) are valid independent of whether C is violated. ‘The implications of C-invariance and the related concept of G-parity for strong transitions and for matrix elements of operators will be discussed in Section 3.2.5 and Appendix G. CP Transformations It is straightforward to write Lagrangians that violate P or C, but more difficult to find ones that violate C’P invariance, at least for a small number of fields, due to the combination of Hermiticity, Lorentz invariance, and the fact that the overall phases of physical fields or states are not observable in quantum mechanics. In particular, one can always choose the phases of the ficlds so that any given term in a Lagrangian is manifestly CP invariant. CP violation can therefore only emerge when two or more terms clash and cannot be invariant simultaneously. Note that C and P commute. To make this more explicit, the P and C transformations of spin-0 fields ¢ and generic spin-1 fields W# defined in the previous sections always imply oe) sp mele’), — We) so nivW@"), 2.800) where 2’ = (t,—), ng and nw are products of C and P phases, and the f are omitted for Hermitian fields. Similarly, = -mcyi?(c') VaR) Sp MY VEL (®) = —MCVETR2’)- Ye) > nyu (e" cr” (2.301) Thus, CP maps 7z,n onto its own Hermitian conjugate. In contrast, P and C each maps a chiral fermion field onto a different one, Uz.z > RL VLR > Uf, ,. The elementary fermion bilinear forms Ja (2)P'ys(z) for the I’s in Table 2.2 all satisfy Gala) vo(2) S>> nfavto(a! Pale’) = nas [Bala’Pvol2')]', (2.302) where nf, = nanfnr, with np = +1 for T = 1 or 7°, and np = —1 for T= 74,9979, o#”, and o#”75. It is understood that Lorentz indices in T are lowered in the second and third expressions. (2.302) can be easily verified from the transformations in (2.206), (2.263), and (2.291), along with Table 2.2. The upshot of (2.300) and (2.302) is that any Poincaré invariant term in68 The Standard Model and Beyond Li(z), such as lehdsl?, 2, LAudsW*, —arhebe, Da tuto", (2.303) as well as a mass or kinetic energy term, is mapped onto its Hermitian conju- gate evaluated at 2 up to an overall phase £:() > ny Li (c'). Furthermore, the 7 phases can always be chosen (or the fields redefined) so that n; = 1, and therefore £;(x) + I(x) _ Li (0') + Li(a") (or just L;(z) op fle!) if it is Hermitian). CP invariance of L results if this can be done for all of the terms simultaneously. Let us illustrate by an example involving two complex scalars ¢q and $p, with L= SS (ldudrl? — mPlbrl*) - V(bas $0): (2.304) co For the special case V = gassbadt + 9rdhol?, (2.305) one has V Sp gawenen CLO? + gersnani bade (2.306) The model is C’P invariant even if gas» = |gasole* is complex because we have the freedom to choose the C'P phases 7q,». For example, £(x) — £(2') for the choice na = exp(2ia) and 7 = 1. This can be cast in a simpler form by a field redefinition, in which one rewrites L in terms of a new field $q = ¢a exp(ia), so that . p . V = Igassl (ad + dhol?) , (2.307) with the other terms unchanged in form. This is invariant for jj =m = 1 (for which the transformations of ¢q and dq are consistent). On the other hand, the potential V = garvba$s + Gaavbabs + Gaaada + h.c. (2.308) with complex coefficients is not CP invariant because the two CP phases a,b are not sufficient to make all three terms invariant (except for special cases such a gaaa = 0 or all phases = 0). Equivalently, one can perform two phase redefinitions of the fields, but that is not enough to make three coefficients real in general. This example illustrates the origin of CP violation in the standard model, in which there are not enough quark field redefinitions to remove all of the phases from both their mass terms and the charged current weak couplings simultaneously. Time Reversal and CPT Under a time reversal (T) transformation, classical trajectories are replaced by their time-reversed ones, zt) p> a-t), P(t) > -P(-4), I(t) I). (2.309)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 69 The electromagnetic current and gauge potential satisfy Tau(2) = JO(@"), — Aqu(a) = AQ (2), (2.310) where x” = (-t,@), so that E(x) > E(x”) and B(x) + —B(x"). Time reversal is more complicated in quantum mechanics. In analogy with (2.309) one defines a time reversal operator T' so that TrT\=2;, TpT'=—pi, (2.311) where x; and p; are the position and momentum operators. However, con- sistency with the canonical commutation rules [x;,pj] = #5;; (or with the Schrédinger equation) requires that T is antiunitary, ie, TeT—! = c* for any c-number c. This extra complex conjugation significantly complicates many calculations. ‘The antiunitarity is also required in field theory for the consis- tency of the canonical commutation relations for the fields. A consequence of antiunitarity is that (alO|b) = (TalPOT-|7b)*, (2.312) where © is an operator and |Tb) and (Ta| are time reversed states. For example, T\a@, s)) = |Ta(P, s)) = +|a(-#, -s)), (2.313) for a single particle state with spin orientation s measured with respect to a fixed axis. For multiparticle states, T also interchanges initial (in) states with final (out) states. Invariance of the action under time reversal requires TL(x)T-! = L(z"). This is ensured for free spin-0 fields for T$(2)T~! = nree(2"), (2.314) where ¢ can be either Hermitian or complex, and nrg is a phase. (In the complex case ¢ = ($1 + i¢2)/V2 this requires nr1 = —nr2 for the Hermitian components ¢; and ¢2.) For an electrically charged complex field, (2.314) implies that (2.310) is satisfied for the contribution JEP (a) = ig0! (a) DH 6(@) — —igd! (2")'D#6(2") = JB, (0") (2.318) since 04 = —@". Similarly, TW*(2)T— = nrwW,(2") (2.316) for an arbitrary Hermitian or complex spin-1 field. For a Dirac field, invariance of the free field action or the requirement (2.310) for Ja implies TY(a)T~' = nryTV(0"), (2.317)70 The Standard Model and Beyond where T is a Dirac matrix satisfying THT = T= 9. (2.318) In the Pauli-Dirac and chiral representations T=Tt=T 1 =-T* =i'y. (2.319) A fermion bilinear therefore transforms as Tha(a)Pvy(a)P-! = Gala" Pere"), Te = TET, (2.320) assuming the same T-phases for Wa,,. The values of I are listed in Table 2.2. Implications of T-invariance for matrix elements will be discussed in Appendix G. The u and v spinors transform as Tu(p,s) =u(-B,-s)"e, — Tu(p,s) = v(-p,-s)*e, (2.321) where a and are phases that depend on s. For the conventions in (2.180) and (2.188), exp(ia) = exp(i8) = ¥é for s in the +4 direction. The CPT theorem, ie., (CPT)L(z)(CPT)-! = L(-a) for a Hermitian, local, Poincaré-invariant £, can be demonstrated heuristically by an extension of the discussion following (2.303). There it was argued that CP mapped each term onto its Hermitian conjugate, up to a phase depending on the phases of the complex coefficients and the intrinsic CP phases of the fields in that term. The same occurs for C’PT, except that the phase can always be chosen to be +1. To see this, by combining the transformations for T, P, and C} we find that 62) or ‘waa ve) opr vv. (—2)! (200 Y(@) Sop Fite Poa), where the upper (lower) sign is for the Pauli-Dirac (chiral) representation, and # = nrnpng. Analogous to (2.302), the fermion bilinear forms transform as Bolo )PU0(2) Se tras [Val—z)Pvo(—2)]", (2.323) where fras = Ativir, with jp = 1 for T = 1,7, 0%”, or 04°, and fir = -1 for T = 7 or 77°. CPT also complex conjugates any coefficients, and of course 327 — aoa Therefore, if one chooses the phases so that jy = +1 for all $, fjv = —1 for all V, and jy = —1 for all w every Poincaré invariant term in £(z) will be mapped onto its Hermitian conjugate evaluated at —2, leaving the action invariant. (Any universal value for fjy, would suffice for a fermion number conserving theory, but jy = real is required for manifest CPT invariance in the presence of Majorana mass terms.) More rigorous derivations of the CPT theorem may be found in (e.g., Streater and Wightman, 1980; Weinberg, 1995).Review of Perturbative Field Theory n The CPT theorem implies that the mass, intrinsic properties, and total lifetime of a particle and its antiparticle must be equal (see, e.g., Sozzi, 2008). However, CPT does allow partial rate asymmetries (Okubo, 1958) if CP is violated, i.e., the decays rates '(a — b;,2) for a decay of a into by or by can differ from the corresponding antiparticle decay rates T'(a° — bf 2), provided that the sums of the partial rates are the same. This is important for many models of baryogenesis (Chapter 8). Experimental searches for CPT and Lorentz invariance violation are reviewed in (Kostelecky and Russell, 2008; Amsler et al., 2008). OO 2.11 Two-Component Notation and Independent Fields Weyl two-component fields (or Weyl spinors) were briefly introduced in (2.196) and the subsequent discussion. The description of the discrete symmetries for fermions is somewhat simpler when re-expressed in the two-component language. First, consider the case of a four-component Dirac field , written in terms of two-components Weyl L and R fields as in (2.196), ie., » = & ' R Using the explicit chiral forms _ (~io? 0 o_ (0 ~io? _ e=( 0 ie): Cr" = lio? 0 ye 74 the transformations under P and C in (2.259) and (2.282) become Viz) > Yavle’), — Ya,n(e) > Vial2), (2.325) where x! = (t,—#) and we have set npy = Ncy = +1. The charge conjugate Wey! fields are defined as = io Wt, WE =—io WR, (2.326) where « is a shorthand for {T, ice., Wir =Ve Re (2.327) is a column vector with components that are the adjoints of those of ¥p. (2.825) and (2.326) require that Wj, (x) => —Wh,z(2"), i, the fields and their charge conjugates have the opposite intrinsic parity. Both P and C map one Wey] field onto another, e.g., Vz is mapped unto Wz or ¥}. On the other hand, C'P maps a Weyl field onto its own adjoint: Ur (2) Sp Wale’) = +i? V5 (2') (2.328) Wala) Sp Vile’) = -i? WR(z'),72 The Standard Model and Beyond with the io acting like a raising/lowering operator on the helicity indices (cf. Eq. 2.187). Thus, the CP transformation always exists, even in a theory involving a single Weyl field, while P and C are only defined when one has both W, and Wp. Under time reversal, Vale) > -0W1,r(2"), (2.329) where 2” = (—t,#) and we have used (2.317) with nry Combining (2.328) and (2.329) Vi R(®) Sop FLR(-2)", (2.330) consistent with (2.322). Fermion mass and kinetic energy terms are expressed in two-component notation in (2.197). Some important fermion bilinear forms become Dart = Who", + Ul po" Wor Bayo = V1.5" War + Vigo" Wor Das = V1, Won + Vin or Bar» = Wh Vor — Why Vor (2.331) ie pao by = Vi HY Yor + Vin st Wor 1- pet ibe = Wi, Won — Vin! Wor, : where o” and 6“ are defined in (2.163), and w= ; (o4a" — oa"), ay = ”_G%H) (2.832) a s¥ = 45 = theunot, (2.333) The transformations of the bilinear forms under the discrete symmetries can easily be rewritten from those given in Section 2.10 and Table 2.2. Especially useful are the charge conjugation identities such as Wein = Via, — ViLo"W5, = —W}po"War, (2.334) analogous to (2.297) and (2.298). The Fierz identities for the two-component fields can be read off from (2.211) or derived directly from Problem 1.1. For example, (wha"Wsx) (wtiau¥ar) . (wio"War) (wtiauiter) (WlaotWon) (Wiauar) = -2 (Wt aWar) (WL ee). (2.335)Review of Perturbative Field Theory 73 Combining (2.334) and (2.335) one finds identities such as (wiLo" en) (Wtiau¥ar) =2(Wikwar) (i ¥en) . (2.336) As a very simple example, let us repeat the calculation of the amplitude for e~ (#1) e*(B2) + f(s) F(Ps) given in Section 2.9 one more time, using two-component notation. The QED interaction for the e~ is L=-cA, Js = +eAy (whan + Vho"Wn) ; (2.337) and similarly for the other fermions, so that ~iQse? —(F+(3)F- AW ho"Wa|0) (OW po, Wales (Les (2)) M(+-,4+-) = tay? M(-44-) = “2 F.(HIWL a" L100 onWales (1° (2) (2.338) in an obvious notation. Using the free field expression in (2.203), the ampli- tudes become M (+-,+-) = ~iQye? [6+(3)t0"(—x_(4)) (—x-(2))fon04 (1)] M (-+,+-) = ~iQye? [4-(3)"(+x4(4)) (-x-(2))'ou0+(1)] 5 which reproduces 2.241 and 2.242. We will mainly utilize the two-component notation in connection with neu- trino masses and for displaying the interaction terms in a supersymmetric theory. Much more extensive expositions, including such topics as Feynman rules and propagators in two-component form are described in the books on supersymmetry and in (Dreiner et al., 2008). A more compact version of the two-component notation will be introduced in Chapter 8. (2.339) Independent Fermion Fields It was emphasized in (2.192) that the left- and right-chiral projections z,n = Pipi or their associated Weyl fields Vz,z could be considered as indepen- dent degrees of freedom. However, from (2.282) and (2.296) it is clear that the conjugate fields ° and ¥f, p are not independent, but are related by o° ~ pt and Yi, ~ Uh, In many cases it is convenient to work in terms of the }r,r (or Wz_R) fields, as is conventionally done for QED, quantum chromodynam- ics, and most treatments of the standard electroweak model. However, it is sometimes easier to work in terms of the L chiral fields for both the particles and antiparticles, i.e., x and ¥f, (or Wz, VG) instead, regarding the yp and Wh as dependent. This is typically done when discussing grand unification or supersymmetry, for example. To illustrate this, the QED electromagnetic74 The Standard Model and Beyond current J@ can be written in a number of equivalent ways, including Ber We = + Dee Bee = ber Wer — Ber Ver = — Beret + Berk berks (2.340) where . and ec = Yf are respectively the e~ and e+ fields. In two- component notation Jb = 01 o"*Wer — Vigo" Wer = Uta" Wer + Ulepo"Weer. (2.341) Similarly, a fermion mass term can be reexpressed as -L= mb =m (dre + dads) =m (GiCdG" + Vi7Cvr) =m (vive +ut ¥) =m (viiotue = Viio*W,) : (2.342) where we have used (2.296) and (2.287). The two forms in the second line emphasize two different interpretations of a Dirac mass. The W!, Uz, expres- sion, for example, can be viewed as annihilating an L chiral field and creating an R chiral one, while the equivalent —V"io?W;, form can be interpreted as the annihilation of two distinct L chiral fields. 2.12 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) Quantum electrodynamics represents the merger of three great ideas of mod- er physics: classical electrodynamics as synthesized by Maxwell, quantum mechanics, and special relativity. The basic formulation of QED was com- pleted by 1930; it combined the Dirac theory of the electron (with its correct predictions of the lowest order electron magnetic dipole moment and the ex- istence of positrons) with the quantization of the electromagnetic field into individual photons. A workable prescription for handling the divergent in- tegrals by renormalization of the electron mass, charge, and wave function was completed by the early 1950s by Bethe, Feynman, Tomonaga, Schwinger, Dyson and others (Schwinger, 1958). QED therefore became a mathemat- ically consistent and well-defined theory, which was subsequently tested to incredible precision. In order to consider QED seriously, one must include higher-order (loop) ef- fects in perturbation theory, both because of the precision of many of the tests and because some effects (such as light by light scattering via the interaction of photons with virtual charged particle loops) only occur at loop level. The calculation of higher order effects is greatly complicated by divergences and the need to renormalize (while maintaining gauge invariance). A systematicReview of Perturbative Field Theory 6B study is beyond the scope of this book, and only brief comments are made. The subject is studied in detail in standard texts on field theory. Another complication is that strong interaction effects are very important and cannot be ignored in studying the electromagnetic interactions of strongly interacting particles (hadrons), such as protons, neutrons, and pions. They even enter at higher orders (through loops involving virtual hadrons) in the electrodynam- jcs of electrons and muons. Fortunately, a great deal can be said about these strong interaction corrections using symmetry principles. 2.12.1 Higher-Order Effects ‘Analogous to the Hermitian scalar case in Section 2.3.6, QED has logarith- mically divergent diagrams such as those shown in Figure 2.17. To take this 2 1 FIGURE 2.17 Electron-photon vertex (top left), and one-loop corrections, corresponding to the vertex correction (top middle), the vacuum polarization (or photon self- energy) correction (top right), and electron self-energy corrections (bottom). into account, let us modify the notation in the QED Lagrangian density in (2.214) to - 1 i L=U(a) (i + eo — mo) (2) — FFF - 1 (2.343) = (a) (9 — mo) ¥(@) — CoG Ay — GFF,76 The Standard Model and Beyond where Jo = —y"z is the electromagnetic current operator defined in (2.289) and 7 is s‘the electron field. e9 and mo are the bare positron charge and mass, respectively, i.e., the parameters that appear in £. We redefine e and m as the physical parameters, i.e., the ones actually measured. The renormalizability of QED implies that the divergences enter only in the relations between the bare and physical parameters and in the unobservable wave function renor- malization of the fields**, and that observable quantities are finite to all orders in perturbation theory when expressed in terms of e and m. The one and higher-loop vertex corrections imply that the lowest order electron-photon vertex ieoy# is replaced by a function ie9 [4(p2,p1)/Z1 that can depend on the external momenta. Z; is the (divergent) vertex renormal- ization constant, defined by the requirement that [¥ = +“ at the on-shell point p? = p? = m? and q? = (p2 — pi)? = 0. Similarly, the electron self energy and vacuum polarization diagrams modify the electron and photon propagators so that on shell they take the same form as the free ones except they are multiplied by divergent wave function renormalization factors Z2,3, a igh” Dr(q) > -ig"” 3, (2.344) Sp(p) + —2— Be) gear: P tic where the position of the pole in S(p) defines the physical electron mass. It is convenient to associate a factor of Z,/? or Zj!? from each electron or photon line with the vertex. The other Z!/? is associated with the vertex or external state at the other end of the line. The overall vertex factor therefore becomes 4/2 A . Zod: iegy" > ie9 253 T* (po, pi). (2.345) The renormalization factors Z1,2,3 can be combined with €9 to define the physical charge e. The Ward-Takahashi identity ensures that Z, = Zp to all orders, so we can identify Z, ae e=e a = e9Z)/?. (2.346) It can then be shown that I'(po,p1) is finite to all orders when expressed in terms of e and m, and in particular, [@(p2,p1) = 7“ + O(a) where a = e?/4m ~ 1/137 is the fine structure constant. The charge renormalization depends only on the photon vacuum polarization diagrams and is therefore the same for all particles, e.g., for electrons with charge —e9 — —e, and for **In addition to the ultraviolet divergences (associated with large momenta in the integrals) discussed here, there are also infrared divergences associated with low momentum virtual photons. These can be regulated by introducing a fictitious photon mass; they cancel against similar terms associated with the emission of soft real photons at energies below the threshold of the detector.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 7 u-quarks with charge +2¢9/3 — 2e/3. Similarly, after removing the Z2,3 fac- tors, the electron and photon propagators behave like the free-field ones near the physical p? = m? or q? = 0 poles, but can have momentum dependent corrections away from the physical masses. These can also be shown to be finite to all orders when expressed in terms of ¢ and m. The vacuum polariza- tion corrections will be discussed in Section 2.12.2 in connection with running couplings. The relation of such renormalized quantities to physical on-shell amplitudes and matrix elements is considered in field theory texts, but it should be plau- sible from the above discussion that the on-shell matrix element of —Ja(z) between physical electron states is just (Ba s2lb(a)y"Y(x)|Pi 81) = UaT*(p2, pi)ure'**, (2.347) where q = p2 — p: and the x dependence follows from translation invariance, Eq. 1.14. The form of I'(p2, p1) is strongly restricted by symmetry consider- ations (which continue to hold in the presence of the strong interactions). In particular, Lorentz invariance implies that the r-h.s of (2.347) must be a four- vector, which can only be constructed from p*, p#, and the Dirac matrices. The Gordon identities in Problem 2.4 indicate that it is sufficient to consider pig in the combination q# only. Furthermore, QED (and the strong inter- actions) are reflection invariant. Therefore, using (2.271) the most general allowed form is : iow” aT" (Pa, Pian = ti |o*Fi(g?) + Fa Fa(@?) +0F@)] um, (2.348) where the form factors F,,2,3(q”) are Lorentz invariant functions of q?. Charge conservation, 0,J{ = 0, which can be derived to all orders from the equa- tions of motion or from the Noether theorem of Section 3.2.2, requires that @’F3(q7) = 0. One does not expect a 5 function to develop to any order, so F,(q°) must vanish. Also, the Hermiticity of Jf implies that T*(p2,p1) =" (pi, 2), (2.349) where ™ is the Dirac adjoint. From Table 2.2, F;,2 must therefore be real. Finally, we have normalized so that F,(0) = 1. We have seen that eF;(0) is just the physical electric charge. To interpret F,(0), consider the interaction of an electron with a static classical gauge potential A,,(z) (cf (2.64) and Problem 2.17). The matrix element of the interaction Hamiltonian H = ~e9 [ 2 Ha)y*v(e) Ayla) (2.360) between one-electron states is (Pa 82|H |p; 81) = eT * uy [Ame ter= ~eiig*u; A,(7)- (2.351)78 The Standard Model and Beyond Expanding the fermion bilinear in (2.351) to linear order in the non-relativistic limit |j;| < m, this reduces (Problem 2.22) to Oh, (-2medo(@) + (Ai +) AW) +e [1 + FA()]F- BZ) b,, (2.352) where $5, are the two-component Pauli spinors and B is the Fourier trans- form of the magnetic field B = Vx A. The conventional non-relativistic interaction Hamiltonian for an e~ in an external field is Hy = -eAo(# #) + 5 (B- Ag )+ Az) -) — jie B(#) + O(e?), (2.353) where ji, = —gup5 is the electron magnetic dipole moment operator, gp = e/2m is the Bohr magneton, § = 4/2 is the spin operator, and g is the electron g-factor, which is not predicted in the non-relativistic theory. The three terms correspond to the Coulomb interaction, and the orbital and spin magnetic moment interactions, respectively. The momentum space matrix element of Hy (corrected to agree with our covariant state normalization) is esalHifi ss) =2m f P2764, Hrd, (2.354) with the j operators in Hy replaced by the 2,1 eigenvalues. This coincides with (2.352) provided that one identifies the g-factor as g = 2[(1 + F2(0)], where the 2 is the relativistic Dirac contribution (from 7“F,(0)), and F(0) = (g — 2)/2 is the anomalous QED term, usually denoted by a. The leading contribution, from the vertex diagram in Figure 2.17, is F2(0) = a/2n, as first calculated by Schwinger. The calculation is sketched in Appendix E as an illustration of the techniques for calculating Feynman loop integrals. The relation of field theory matrix elements to non-relativistic potentials is further discussed in Problem 2.24. 2.12.2 The Running Coupling We saw in (2.346) that the renormalization of the electric charge is due to the vacuum polarization diagram of Figure 2.17, with the divergent parts of the electron self-energy and vertex diagrams cancelling by the Ward-Takahashi identity. Now, let us consider the vacuum polarization as a function of q?. The one-loop vacuum polarization diagram in Figure 2.18, can be added to to the tree level photon propagator to yield (see, e.g., Peskin and Schroeder, 1995) =89w 62 _, —2Iww 92 [, _ ae a ge Og ©! io 3 n= tesla?) , (2.355) where we have also included a factor of e2 from the outside vertices. A is an ultraviolet cutoff of the divergent momentum integral. In practice, theReview of Perturbative Field Theory 79 FIGURE 2.18 One photon exchange and one-loop vacuum polarization “bubble.” cutoff must be introduced in a way that respects gauge invariance, such as in the Pauli-Villars or dimensional regularization schemes. II(q”) is a finite function that vanishes at q? = 0, so we can identify the photon wave function renormalization factor as BM Ze [: -34 m5] . (2.356) which diverges for A -» oo. The r-h.s. of (2.355) can be rewritten Howe 2 fy 4. SB g%)] ~ dee —__ (2.357) 2 Zs ¢ 1-em@ : where the corrections to the last form are higher order in e3 or e”. One can show that this form holds and is finite to all orders, provided II(q?) is expressed in terms of e? and m?. The e?"II" term in the expansion (1 — e?II)~! = 1+ e7II + e*II? +--+ corresponds to the diagram with n separate vacuum polarization bubbles along the line. This illustrates how the divergences disappear from the expressions for phys- ical observables when they are written in terms of the renormalized quantities. However, one may still have a nagging doubt about the underlying diver- gences. In fact, the modern view is that the “divergent” momentum integrals are actually cut off physically at the scale at which the theory is replaced by a more complete one, and that A should be associated with that scale and not taken to infinity. One can then interpret the renormalizations as finite quantities describing, e.g., the difference between a coupling as measured at a scale much smaller than A and the value it would have at A. A logarithmically “divergent” term in a weak coupling theory such as QED is then actually a small effect, e.g. 7irIn4y ~ 0.08 for e2 ~ e? and A ~ Mp ~ 101° GeV (the Planck scale). Most of the divergences in renormalizable theories are of this logarithmic nature, and results are therefore insensitive to the details of80 The Standard Model and Beyond the new physics above Att, Non-renormalizable theories, on the other hand, typically encounter new divergences of order A?" at n-loop level, and are very sensitive. The function II(q?) in (2.357) is : 2 ea — 19?) = 55 cea a : (2.358) which vanishes as II(q?) + —q?/60x?m? for q? — 0. Is is well behaved for @ <0 (ie, t-channel exchange, as in Figure 2.18), but has a branch point at q? = 4m? associated with the ete~ threshold in s-channel processes. In the limit Q? = —q? > m? (positive for t-channel exchange), @ > sins. 2. pa as (2.359) 11?) The replacement in (2.357) is universal for all photon exchanges. It is use- ful to introduce a running or effective fine structure constant ders (Q?) ~ (Q?)/4m = a/(1 — 4mall(—Q?)). Such considerations are most useful for large Q?, so we will actually define the running quantity as a(Q3) a (@) = —ey oF (GB) 1, @ - oS In (2.360) where Q3 is an arbitrary reference scale, such as m?. This coincides with aesz for Q? > Q3 ~ m?, and approaches the bare coupling ao = €3/4m for Q? — A? (up to higher-order corrections). (2.360) is equivalent to 1 1 7 — =a -l aay ~ aOR” OF where &/ = 4b = 1/3m. Thus, @(Q?)~? runs linearly with In Q? at large Q?. (Higher-order corrections to the vacuum polarization bubble lead to small non- linear effects). The running a(Q?) therefore increases logarithmically from its value ~ 1/137 for small Q®, so the QED interaction strength should be larger for high energy processes. This was motivated here for spacelike momentum transfers q? < 0, but continues to hold even in the timelike region, where higher-order corrections are minimized if one uses a(|q?|). Equivalently, the effective Coulomb interaction scales as a(Q ~ 1/r)/r, and therefore the ef- fective a increases at smaller separations. There is a simple interpretation of this: an electron charge in a dielectric medium is screened for larger sep- arations, leading to an interaction strength falling faster than 1/r. At small (2.361) 1 The quadratically divergent (but renormalizable) corrections to scalar self-energies, such as the Higgs mass-square in the standard model, are a critical exception. This will be discussed in Chapter 8.Review of Perturbative Field Theory 81 separations, however, the screening is less effective and a test charge feels the full electric charge. The same mechanism applies here, except the dielectric is really due to the quantum fluctuations of the vacuum, as represented by the virtual ete~ loop. We will see in Chapter 5 that the gluon self-interactions in quantum chromodynamics have the opposite effect of antiscreening (for which there is no simple classical analog), leading to a decrease in the strong coupling at large momenta or short distance (asymptotic freedom). The running of a(Q?) is described by the renormalization group equation (RGE) da(Q’) din@? where b! = 1/3m is due to the one-loop diagram in Figure 2.18, and the other terms are higher-loop contributions to the vacuum polarization bubbles. (2.361) is the solution in one-loop approximation. The running in (2.361) is valid for Q* > m?; there is little effect for Q? $ m?. However, for Q? > mj, where m, ~ 200me is the muon mass and m, = m is the e~ mass, one should also include the effect of the muon loop in the photon propagator, i.e., vf + 2/3m, and = Bq) = ¥'a?(Q) + O(a*), (2.362) 1 2 ge a(@?)~ a(m2) 3x" m2 for Q? > mj. Thus, b’ changes discontinuously and 1/a has a kink near the particle threshold. (‘The exact form of the threshold, including constant terms, whether it occurs at m, or 2m,, etc, depends on the details of the renormal- ization scheme.) Quark loops also contribute to the vacuum polarization and the running. If one could ignore the strong interactions, then a quark of flavor r (eg. u, d, 8) would contribute a term 3g2/3m to 6! for Q? > m2, where gr is the quark electric charge in units of e, m,. is its mass, and the 3 is because there are 3 quark colors. Thus =E Lod, (2.364) mr

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