TOOLS AND THEIR USE
RELATED TRAINING FOR HEP ELECTRICAL AND
MECHANICAL APPRENTICE
Released by + DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
Division of Operations& Maintenance « Techsizel Development SactionraTOOLS AND THEIR, USES
Introduction
Tools and their uses are very important to a mechanic, Therefore,
the subject of tools is the logicat starting point of any maintenance training
“program,
‘The use of handiools and of portabls power tools is basic to any main-
tensnee job classification, For the person whe dasires to become a sidlled
mechanic it is essential for him to develop his abilities to properly select,
use, handle, and care for the hand and power tools made available for him
to use in the performance of his work.
This chapter is designed to present, in a concise form, the basic
operations required for the performance of a wide variety.of jobs. Few jobs
consist of a single operation, but when the separate operations are properly
learned, it becomes a fairly simple matter to combine separate operations
so as to meet the requirements of specific jobs. For exataple, the overhaul
and repair of a damaged pump requires the knowledge of several operations;
measuring, threading, layout, cutting to size, and use of a variety of tools,
‘The mechanic trainee who nas learned to do the individual operations should
have no trouble with the various combinations of operations necessary to
perform the overall job,
‘The individual operations described in this chapter cover the following
broad areas: measuring skills; layout skills such as testing, checking, and
setting; woodcutting siills; grinding and ‘fling: and metal cutting skills, A
description of how this chapter may be used to the best advantage by the
maintenance trainee ia shown below:
2, When you are assigned a job that involves the use of any of the
handtools covered, study the text material relating to the operation
and study the illustrations.
2, Study the description, illustration, generel uses, and meintenance
procedures for the toal or tools involved in the jeb.
3. If possible, practice each operation for a few times, before starting
the job, Have an experienced mechamic check your performance
after you have practiced each operation.
4, As you perform in each skill area, keep track of your newly developed
proficiencies until you have successfully covered all of the normal
operations involving the use of Handtools and portable power tools.5. Some of the hand or power tools described in this chapter may neither
be avallable nor needed in certain job classifications, Some of the operations
and skills relating fo the use of a particular tool may either be not permitied
or not accepted as standard practice in certain areas because of a conflict in
craft responsibilities. Always check with your supervisor in these doubiful
cases.
6. The last step is cereful practice, until you have mastered the various
skillg involved, ‘The end result must be that you become Capable of perform-
ing the required operations, and of meeting the standards established by your
supervisors.
Remember--tools ere a mochouic!s best friend if treated as such, but if
mistreated or misused through ignorance or carelessness, they will not oaly
be short-lived, but can prove to be dangerous adversaries.
MISTREAT US coo WILL YOU?COMMON HANDTOOLS
‘There are certain tools that ace
common to many jobs. Regardless of
what your classification {2, you
should become familiar wich the coumon
tools and thefr uses, Sonetime during
your career ycu probably vill be called
upon to do a job where one or wore of
tha tools discussed here will have te
ve used. ”
HAMMERS
A voolkic would noc be complete
withoot at least one hamsr, and in
most cases tvo of three hamers are
included, Hammers sre destguared
according to weight without tha handle,
and style or shape,
‘The shape Will vary according tothe werkfor
‘which they are intended, For the purpose ofthis:
Aiseussion hammers will ba hroken Into three
classes; machinists hammers, cazpeater’s
hammers, and mallets and slecges.
MACHINISTS EAMMERS
Machinist's hammers are used primarily by
people who work with metalor arcund machinery.
Machinist’s hammers maybe further drvidedinto
two classifications HARD-FACE and SOFT
FACE,
‘Tne hard-face hammer is made offorgedtoal
steel, The best general purpess mechinist's
hammer {s the ball-peen hammer. (See fie,
1-2-1.) The Alatend ofthehead is called the face.
‘Tnis end ts used for most ofthe hammering fobs
you will have. The other end of the hammer is,
called te peen. The pegn end Ls smaller in dl-
ameter than the face and 1s therefore useful for
striding areas that ere too small for the face to
enter. The peenisatsc useful for bradding rivets.
Ball-peen hammers are made in differert
weignts, usually 4, 6, 8, an 12 ounces and 1,
11/2, and 2 pounds. For most work-a 11/2"
Ball-peen hammer.
“1
pound and a 12-ounce hammer will suifice. How.
ever, a 4 or -ounce hammer will oflenbe used
for light work and especially useful for gutting
gaskets out of sleet gasket matecial,
‘There are variations of the peening hammer
such as the croas-pcen and the straight-peenas
shown in Zig. 1-1-2.
The soft-taced bammers, used bypeople whe
are working with metal or around macbinery, ar
kammers that have a head made from brace,
lead, or atightly rolled strip of rawnite. Plastic-
tipped hammers, or solid plastic withalead core
sor added weight, are becoming increasingly
popular.
Softtaced hammers, (fig. 1-1-3) should be
used when thare is danger of damaging the sur—
face of the work, 2s whenpounding ona machined
surface. Most soft-faced hammers have heads
that can be replaced as the need arises, Lead-
faced hammers, for Instance, quickly become
wattered and must bo replaced, but have tha
advantage of striking a solid, weavy nonrebound-
ing blow that is useful for such jobs as dniving
shaits into or out of tight holes, If a son-paced
hammer is not available, the surface tobeham-
mered may be protected by covering it with a
piece of soit brass, copper, or hard wood,
Figure 1-1
-—Variations of the tatl-peen
hammer.
Simple as the hammer is, ters is a right
and wrong way of using It. (ee Mg, 1-1-4.) The
most common fault is holding the haniie too
close to the head. This is kaown a3 choking the
hammer, and reduces the force of the blow. It
also makes it harder to old the head in an up-
Tight position. Except for light blows, bold the
handle close to tho end to increase the lever
arm an¢ preduce a more effective blow. Try to
Ht the object with the full face of the haramer.Figure 1-1-3.~Soft face hammers.
Hold the hammer at such an angle that the face
of the hammer arid the surfaceof the object baing
it Wul be parallel. This distributes the force
of theblow over the full face and prevents damage
ta boll the surface being struck and tha face of
the hammer,
Figure 1-1-4.—Right and wrong way touses
‘all-peen hammer.
CARPENTER’S HAMMER
‘The carpenter’s hammer is either a curved-
claw or straight-claw hammer, The aco maybe
either a bell-taced or plat faced. (Gee fig.
1-1-5,) The carpenter's hammer generally used
a3 the curved claw, bell-faced ham
mer, Tho hammers may have either a steel or
wooden handle; however the stenl handle is
most common, The primary use of the car-
penter’s haminer ia to drive ordras (pall nails,
Figure 1.1.5 —Bell-faced and plain faced claw
hammers.
MALLETS AND SLEDOES
‘The mallet ia a short-handled tool used to
drive wooden-iandied chisels, gouges, wooden
pins, oF small ataliog, It is alac used to form
Gr saape sheet metal where hard-face nammers
would mar or injure the finished work. For
example a rubber-faced mallet is used for
imocking out dents in an automobile. Its heads
are nude from a voit material, usually wood,
ravhide, or rubber, It is cylindrically shaped
with two Gat driving facea that are reinforced
‘with iron bands, (See fig, 1-1-6,) The maltetana
hammer are used in the samo way. Never use
a mallet to drive nalls, screws, oF any object
that may eause damage ta the face.
The sledge is a steet headed, heavy duty driv-
ing tool that ean be used for a number of pitr=
poses. Short-nardled sledges are used to drive
bolts, driftpins, and large nacls, end to strike
cold chisels an small hang rock drills. Long:
handled sledges are used (o break rockandcon~
crete, to drive spikes, bolts, or stakes, and to
strike rock drills and chisels.
Ths hoad of a sledge le ganerally made of a
high carton steel and may weigh trom 6 to 16
tb. Tha shape of the head will vary according 10
the Job Jor Which the sledge fs designed.Figure 1-1-5.—Steel reinforeed wooden mallet.
MADSTENANCE OF STRIRING TOOLS
Hamers, sledges, or mallets should be
cleaned and repaired 4f necessary before they
ave stored, Hammer and siedge faces should be
free from of] or other material that would cause
the tool to glance off mils, apikes, or stakes,
‘The hammer heads should be dressedto remave
any battered edges, Inspect the handles of strik-
ing tools an¢ make sure they are secure to the
head and do not bave any cracks or splintors.
Never leave a wooden or rawhide mallet 1m
the sun, as it will dey ovt and may cause the
head to erack. A light {lm af off should be left
on the zaltet to maintain a little moisture in the
head,
Replace Hammer Handle
‘When 2 hammer handle becontes damaged or
loose in the nammerhead, it should be replaced
befora the hammer.is used. A serious injury to
yoursell can result from using a
hammer that has a bad handle,
‘The first step fn replacing a hammer haadle
ig to remove the old handle. Ifthe handle is tight
in the head, aaw off the old handle nex! to the
head, Gee fig. 1-1-7,)Do not saw the handile off
soclose to tha head that the 2aw tooth will touch
te head ville sawing, thus damaging the set of
the saw. A acksaw may also be used for this
PUrpOse.
Place the head of the hammer In a visa and
diffi a hele in the part of the bande that re-
mains in the head. Remove the restatihe handle
by driving it trom the head,
‘The new handle should fit snugly in the ham-
merhead, Use wood rasp to shape the handle to
tit the head. Check the fit of the head on the
handle cceasiona!y, and make sure you do not
Femove too much material from the newhandle,
‘After the correct fit hac been altained, seat the
handle fiemiy in the head by hitting the end of
the handle with a mallet. (See fig. 1-1-6.) saw
off the projecting portion of the handle, and use
a smal! wood chisel to cut slits for the wedges,
if wooden wedges are used. Either wooten or
metal wedges may te utllized. When the wedges
have been driven in the handle, grind the end of
‘the handle even with the head.
COMMON MISUSES
Never strike 2 hardened size] surface with
a hammer, This misuse Is a serious satery
hazard. Small pieces of sharp, hardened steal
aay break from the hnamner and also from the
hardened steel. Besides causing damage to the
work and/or the hammer, 2 serious eye injury
may resul:.
Do act useahammer hendie forbamping parts
to assembly, and never use as a pry bar-Such
abuses will Catse the handle to oplit, anda split
Jundle can produce bad cuts or pinches. when
a handle splits or eracks, do not tr7to ropair it
by binding with string of wire. REPLACE IT.
WRENCHES
A wrensh ia a basic tool thatia used to exert
a twisting force on bolt heads, nuts, and studs,
‘The special wrenches designedtadocertainjots
are In amost cases variations of the basic
wrenches that wiT he deseribed in this aection,
Some ratings will naburslly have mare use for.
‘wrenenes in doing their jobs than other ratings;
however, practically all
‘will have cecasion, irom time to time, to
use wrenches, It is necessary, therefore, that
all hands have 2 baste understanding of the des-
eription and uses of wrenches.
‘The best wrenches are mude of CHROME-
VANADIUM STEEL. Wrenches made of this
material ere light in wolght and almost un
breakable. This is an expensive materizl, how~
aver, s0 the most common wrenches
are made of forged carbon steel or
molybdenum steel. These Iatier materials make
gaod wrenches, but they are geverally built a
little heavier and bulider in Order to achieve
the same degree of sirangth.
‘The size of any wrench used onbolt-neags or
nute is determined by tho size of the opening
between the jaws of the wrench. The upentug ofa
wrench ig manufacturered slightly larger than
the bolt head or nut that it Is designed to fit.
Hex-nuts (sirsided) and heads are measured
across opposite fats, A wrench that isdesigned
to fit 2 3/€-inca mut or bolt usuallynas a ciear-
ance of from § to 8 thoxsandths of an ineb. This,
clearance allows the wrench to slide on ard ott
the nut or bolt with a minimum of play.” If the
‘wrench is too large, the points of themut or bolt
hoad will be rounded and destroyed.
OPEN-END WRENCHES
Solid, nonadjastabls wrenches with openings.
in ore or both ends are called open-end wrenches.
g Gee fig. 1-1-0.) Usually they come in sets offrom 6 to 10 wrenches ranging from 5/18 to
Linch, Wrenches with small operingaare usually
shorter than wrenches with large openings. This
proportions the lever advantage of the wrenca te
the boit or stud and helpsprevent wrenen break-
age or damage to the bolt or stud,
‘Open-end wrenches may have their ;awspar-
allel fo the handle or at anglas anywhere op to
90 degrees. ‘The average Is about 18 degrees.
Handles are uswlly straight, but may be
curved. These with curved handies are called
S-wronches, Other open-end wrenches may have
offset Handles, to reach aut or bolt heads that
are surk below the surface.
Figure 1-1-0.—Seating hammer handle in head,
‘One af the wrenches show: In gure 2-1-9
nas us that are set ona lt-segree ane tothe
EigdoTae one lta Is on 40-degreeangla. The
Tiree tty the yates ave plased at a1 angle De=
Sense? Syrioua ven you hare to work ix clase
aces
, ‘There are apecial open-end wrenches, called
‘TABBRT WatsueHES, wnisn are Yer? tha and
re ere Long bandied. Pheyare used to aust
the” appets "ot engine valves, These tarpot
BS aches ave of ght constraction ad te [ots
SEER concn Sil Spread eusty,iberefore, they
Sea never be used for any purbase other tha
fat tor which they ave incondea.
open ~ eno
WHENGH
1 is
DISTANCE ACROSS
(A riers
— \
ACO
Ey RIGHT ANGLE i
WRENGH
Figure 1-1-9.—Open-end wrenches.
ROX-END WRENCHES
Box-ead wrenches nave either 8, 8, 12, cr
16 points inside the head. (See fig. 1-1-10.) The
number of points determine the strength of the
Read, SIX aid eight polat wrenches are used for
heavy duty, 12 for medium duty and 18 for Light
Guty work. The 12 point box-ead wrench is
the mast common and can be used with a tmin'—
mum sing of 20 degrees.
There is little chance of the box-end wrench
slippisg off the nut when the proper size wrench
is used, Because the sidesof the “box” opening
are so thia, this wrench is suitable for tarning
auts which re art to get at with an open-enit
wreneh. The offset bex.end wranch (fig.1-111)
1s especially useful in dhls-respect.
‘There is one disadvantage ta using box- ard
wrenches, You lose time if you use itto tura the
nut afl the way off the bolt once it is broken
loose. You must lift the wrench completely off
the nut after each pull, then place it back an in
Figure 1-1-11,—Box-end and combinatin
“wrenches,
another position. The only time this procedure
fg not necéssary 1s whea there is room to spin
the wrench ina complete circle.
‘After a tight nut ia broken loose, ft canbe
onsereved much mare quickly with am open-end
wrench then vith a box wreneh. This 1s where
2 combination box-open end wrench comes in
handy. (See fig. 11-11.) You can use the tex
‘end {oF breaking uuts loose or for smugging them
dour, and the open end for faster turning.
For heavy-cuty work, there are lorg-handled,
single box-end wreache’s. They are made only
In the larger sizes, and you can apply all the
pressure you need.
‘Tha cerrect use of open-end and box-end
omencies can be summed up in a few simple
rules, most important of whieh is tobe aure that
the wrench properly fits te nut or belt head.
‘When you have to pull hard on the wrercn,
as in loosening a ightavt, make surethe wrench
ig seated squarely on the Hats of the nu.
PULL oa the wrench—DO NOT PUSH. Dush
Ang a aeeneb 1s 2 gocd way to skin your knuckles
Hf the wrench slips or the out breaks loose un-
expectediy, Itt 1s inpossible topull the wcexeh,
and you must posh, do it with the palm of your
hand aext hole Your palm open.of
‘Orly actual practice will telt you ir you are
using the righ! amourt of force ox the wrench.
The best way tw tighler a aut fs to turn it until
the wrench taza firm, solid feel This ill
turn the aut 10 proper tightness without stripping
the threads or twisting off the bolt. This feel
1s developed by experience alone, Practied until
you have mastered the feel.
Hammering on wrenches ia strictly taboo—
with one exception, ‘There 1s 2 special type of
bor wrouch, made strong and heavy oo that you
ean hammer on it, The handle 1s snort and has
a steal pad on which the aammer-blows are
struck. This wrench Is nownag a sl
or striking wrench. Never place 4 piece of
pipe over the handle of a wrench to increase
leverage. This practice will damage the wrench
and/or the gut or belt that you are trying to
tighten ar leesen.
SOCKET WRENCHES
Early models of sockets were square or
hexagonal _scekets integral with 2 T or offset
handle, Gee fig, 1-1-12,) This type wrench 1s
still in use but 1s generally made inlarge sizes.
Socket sets presently used contain anassortment
of individvat sockets made to fit different
handles, There are several types ofhandlesand
exensions (fig, 1-t-13), such as the T-handle,
ratchet handle, soreudriver grip handle, and 2
‘Speed handle. These handles artsucketsean
ha aasembled in combirations that will do most
any job quickly ar easily.
Ps
Figure 1-1-12.~Socket wrenches.
‘Thonut opening ofthe seckeat fs usually Bor 12
points similar to the box-end wrenen, Six~point
sockets are still used for extra heavy-duty
sockets or for large sockets, The end of the
socket opposite the nut opening (fig. 1-1-14)has
a square hole into which the handiefits, The size
Of the socket set is designated by the size of the
square on the drive ond of tha bardle, A apring
toadled ball on the handle snaps into a groave ir
the socket to prevant {t from falling off.
Sockets are usually furnished In sets for a
range of different size nuts. The standard sizes
are 3/8, 7/16-, 1/2- and 3/4-inch drive, The
Jarger sizes bave sockets that are desizned for
eavier work and larger size outs, For oxtra-
heavy-duty Jos larger size sets are available.
Sockets with thin walls may be obtained for
use in extremely close quarters, but their Use
is not recommonded for general ork.
A universal joint (hg. 1-115} mequeatty
comes im handy when working cn mute in places
‘where a straight wrench canact be used. The
universal is placed between the handle ard the
socket and enables you to work the wrench
handle at an angie to the socket. This comes in
‘very handy wen working in close places.
Large socket wrench sets also contain a sot
of extra deep sockeis, generally 3 to 5 inches
Jong, These sockets are especially useful wien
removing or replacing spark plugs cr when re-
moving or replacing nuts that are a long wey
down on the bolt,
‘Torque Wrench
An accessory for the socket wrench ia a
handle for the sockets that measures the aincunt
ef pall you exert on the wrench, This is calted
a “torque wrench.” (See fig, 1-1-16.) ‘This
‘wrench is not supplied with the regular socket
sagt but may bavpurchased separately.
Yost modern-day machinery 1s assembled
with closetolerances,therefore it is important
that the correct amoust ofpressureteputon the
ruts and belts that hold it together, Mamfse-
turers! manmala generally specify the amount of
torque that Is to be appliedtothe nuts. A torque
‘wrench enablog you to tell whonthoss specitica—
tlens have been met,
The accuracy of torque-measvring depends
a let on how accurately the threads are cut,
and the cleanliness of the threads, Make sure
you inspect and lubricate threads in order togot
the most accurate torque reading possible.
+ ADJUSTABLE WRENCHES
A handy all-round wrencn that fs generally
3ncluded fn. avary toolbox Is the adjust=ble epen-
end wrench. (Sez nig, 1-1-17,) This wrench 19
not intended to take the place of the rogular
‘solid open-end wrench for steady, bard service.
One Jaw of the adjustable open-end wrench 19)
Soxed; thy other jaw Is moved along a slice by a
screw adjustment. The angle between te jaw
opening and the handle ie 22.1/2 degrees. The
wrenches are available in varying stzes ranging
from 4 to 18 inches in length.
‘When using the adjustable ead wrenchte sure
te pall on the side of the handle attached to the
fixed jaw, Make sure the jawso{ te wrenck are
adjusted to closely ft the mut, A Jose fit on the
nut ‘all tend to round off the corners of the nut.
Wren rolatiag round work 2n adjustable pire
‘wren (Sdllson) may deused, (Seeflg. 1-1-18.)
Ta movable ja on a pipe wrench is pivoted to(Ges J, TD TF
Nur sons
CN im
=
aTCHET HED,
Socket end oriva end
Figure 1-1-14.-12-point sockets.
permit a fripping action on the work. These
tools must be used with digeretion, as the jaws
are serrated and always make masks on the
work. The jaws should be adjusted so the bite
cu ihe work will be taken at about the center of
the Jaus.
A digferent type pipe wrench, usad mostly
on large sizes of pipe, is the ehainpive wrench,
Gee fig. 1-1-19.) This tool works inone diree-
tion only, tut can be backed partly around we
“6+
tT BE
r
cues
sont
Socket wrench ratehets, kanties and extensions.
Work and a fresh hold taken without freeing the
chain. To reverse the operation the grip Is
taken on the epposite side of thebead. The head
4s double ended and can be reversed when the
teeth on ane end are worn out.
The strap type plve wrenca is sometimes
used for tuning pipe, Tt is similar to the chain
pipe wrenen but uses a Leavy web strap in place
Of tho chain, ‘This aranch is used where you do
not want t mar the surface of the work such
as fittings. and pipe that are chromium plated.
‘The old fashioned monkey wrench (fig. 1-1-
20) te still used. It
‘works well on large square ruts, but is too bxliey
for most small joos. ‘The Jaws makean angle of
£0 degrees with the handia, and should zlwaye
point in the direction of pull. Insame modezs at
Thr monkey wronchffsjawsareséfustedby turn
ing & knurled vu, la others the kandle is turned.
SPANNER WRENCHES
Spanner wrenches axe wrenches that aro
used on special nuts. They are not generally
jnclided in a teolldt but are leptin 2 centralFigure 1-1-15_—Universal jcint for sockets.
Maes SE eA ae ‘Figure 1-1-19.—Chain pipe wrench. ~
. toot en, Theycanbe dram afar ase wen he
5g) GEO ae ee ane trea number ef types of
a 3 spanner wrenches. The HOOK SPANNER (tis.
fence nf TR) co nian snes
eS sou we of notches cutinits outer surface. The hook (ug)
cnet ee thee nlcbos and te tae
Eats Wooden oc tanta be it Fig oi-72
SE A aor i ieearqpamée, he Bot
wise seesea unsgedasctnatt wil Be vars
Figure 1-1-16.—Torque wrenches ‘or use with {oun sizes of nuts
wet
Figure 1-1-21,—Kook Spanner wrench.
Figure 1-1-1
Figure 1-1-22.—Adjustable hook spanner
wrench.
Figure 1-1+20.—Monkey wrench,HEX. WRENCHES (ALLEN)
In some places itisdecirable to useracessod
heads on setscrews and capserewa, This type
Screw is used extensively on office machines
‘and im machine sueps.
Recessed head scraws usually have a hex
shaped (six-sided) recess. To remuve or Ughten
fs type scraw requires a special wrench that
will OF In the recess, This wrench fa called an
Allen-type wrench. Allen-type wrenches are
imaile trom hexagonal L-shaped bara of tool
steel. They range in size from 1/8 to 3/4 inob.
When using the Allen-type wrench make sure you
une the correct size to preven: rounding or
spreading the head of the serew,
NONSPARKING WRENCHES
Nonsparking wronches are wrenches that will
not cause sparks to be geaerabed when working
Qin steck nuts and bolts, They are generally
le from a copper alloy (broue). Hoxever,
thoy may be ade from other nonsparking ma~
terlals,
Nonsparking wrenches must be usedinzreas
where Hatameble msforiais ore present. These
fools are used extensively wnen Working around
gascline-carrying vehicles and when working
around aireralt.
RULES FOR WRENCHES
‘There are a few basic rules that you should
eep in mind when Using Wrenches. They aze:
1, Always use a wrench that fits the nut
properly.
2. Keep wrenches clean and free from of),
Otherwice they may slip, resulting in possible
serious injury (0 you or damage to the work.
3. Da aot ineréase the leverage of 2 wrench,
‘py placing a pipe over the bandio. Increased
Joverage may damage the wrench or the work.
“4. Provide some sort of kit or case for all
wranehes. Return them witat the completion of
each job. ‘This savas time and troubleand facil-
tates selection of tevis for the wext ob. Most
important, st eliminat. sthe possibility cs leaving
them where they can ez ae infury or.damege to
mis or equipment.
3. Determine which way 2 nut should be
tuned hafore trying to loosen it. Mostnuts are
turned counterclockwise for ramoval, This may
seem obvious, but even expertenced men have
bon observed straining af the wrench in the
tightening direction when they wanted to loosen
tk
6, Learn to select yaur wrenches to it the
type of work you are doing. If you are not fa~
miliar with these wvenches, maice crrangaments
to visit a shop that has most of them anc get
acquainted.
METAL CUTTING TOOLS
‘There are many tyyes of metal cutting tools
used by akilled mechenics of allratings. As you
become better acquainted with vour rating, you
will probably discover many tools that you ase
for cutticg metal that are not described in this
tex, Sh this text, only the basic hand metal
cutting tools Will ne considered, No matter how
technical your work ix you will find that certain
jobs are done better anc quicker with the basic
Randiool, The hoy todo certain jobs will be
explained in a later Section of this text
SMFS
One of the handiost tools for cutting light
sheet metal is the hand stip (lin snips). The
STRAIGHT HAND SNIPS shown in fig, 1-1-23
have blades tat are straight and cutting edges
that are shazpened ig an 85-cezree angie. Snips
Like tte can be gblained in different sizes
ranging fram the small 6-inch sntp to the large
TMeinch, They ace designedto cut sheet metal wp
to one-sixtzenth inch in thickness, They will
also work ou slightly heavier gages of soft metals
‘such as aluminum alloys.
Snipa will net ‘remove any metal when a cut
is made, ‘There 1s danger, though, of causing
minute motal fractures alorg the edges of the
metal during Whe shearlsg process. For ‘his
reason it is hatter act to cut exactly on the lay~
Out line In an attempt to avoid too auch finish
work.
Cutting extsemely heavy gage metal always
presents an opporcunity to spring the blades,
Gace the blades ara spring, rand snips are
useless. Use the rear partion of the blades
only, when cutting neavy material, This not onty
avolis tie possibility of springing the bladas
‘but alao gives you greater cutting leverage.
Figure 1-1-23.—Straight hand snips.
Never use tin snips to cuthardened steel wire
or other similar objects, Such use will dent or
nick the cutting edges of the blades.
It is hard to cut circles or smal] ares with
straight snips, There are snips expecially
designed for circular cutting., They are calledCIRCLE SDIPS, HAWKS-BILL SNIPS, TROJAN
SNIES, and AVIATION SNIPS, (Seo fig. 1-1-24.)
Use these snips in the same manser as you
would use straight snips and observe the same
precautions. Like straight snips they come in
many different sizas.
‘Many snips have small serrations (notches)
on the cutting edges of the blades. This tends to
HAWKS-BILL SNIPS
TROJAN SNIPS
AVIATION SNIPS
Figure 1-1-24.—Snips for cutting ciretes and
prevent them from sligping backwards when a
out is being made. Althouga this feature does
make the actual cutting much easier, (timars the
edges of the metal slightly. Yor can remove
these small cutting marks if you allow proper
clearance for dressing the meta! to size. There
are many other typea of hand snips used for
special jobs. The snips discussed here can be
used for almost any common type of work.
Learn to use snips properly, ‘Thay should
always be olled and adjusted to permit eaze of
cutting and to produce a surtace thatisires trom
purrs. H the blades bind, or if they are too far
apart, the snips should be adjusted,
Never use snins as screwdrivers, hammers,
or ary bars. Thoy break casily, De not attempt
to cub heavier materials than te snips are de-
signed for. Never toss snips in atoolkox where
the curing edges can come into contact with
Other tools. This dulls the cutting edges and
may even break the blades. When snips are not
in use, bang them on hooks or lay them en an
uncrowded shelf or bench,
HACKSAWS
Haskeaws are used te out metal thet iz too
heavy for snips, Such things as bolts snd metal
bar stock ean be cut with hacksaws, There aro
two parts to 2 hacksaw; the frameand the blade,
Common haeksaws have sither an adjustable or
solid frame, Gee fig.1-1-25.} Since hacksaw
blades are made in different lengths, masthack=
sans are of the adjustable
frame type. Adjustable frames can be made to
held blades trom 4 to 16inehes long, while thoco
swith solid frames take only the lengtn blade sor
which they are made. This length is the dis-
Figure 1-1-23,—Hacksaws,
tance between the two pins that hold the blade la
place,
Hacksaw blades are mado of high-grade tocl.
steel, hardened ard tempered, There are wo
types, the all-hard and the ‘Sesible, All-hard
Dlades are hardened throughout, whereas ony the
teath of the flexitle blades ara hardaned. Hack-
saw blades are about one-half inch wide, have
irom 14 to i2 teeth per inch, and are from 6 to
16 inches long, Tae blades have a hole ai each
end which hooks to a nin in the frame, All
hacksaw frames whichhold the blzdes either par-
allel or a( right angles tothe frame are provided
with 2 wingnat or serew to peradit tghtening or
removing the blade.
The SET in 2 saw refers to how much the
teeth are pushed out In opposite directions from
the sides of the blade. ‘The four different kinds
of set are ALTERNATE set, DOUBLE ALTER.
NATE set, RAKER set, and WAVE set. Three
of these are chown in figure 1-1-28.Goole
ALTERNATE SET
Sooo
RaKER SET
ooo ooo
WAVE SET
Figure 1-1-28.-"'Set" of hacksaw blade teeth.
‘Tue teoth in the alternate set are staggered,
one 1g the lest and one to the right throughout
the Teagth of tha blade. On the daubla-alternate
set blade, two adjoining teeth are staggersd to
the right, two fo the leit, and so om, On the
raker set blade, every third tooth remains
straight and the other two are set alternately.
On the -vave (uindulated) scthlade, short sections,
of teath are bent in opposite directions.
‘The main denger in using hacksaws Isinjury
to your hand if the blade breaxs. The blade will
break if too much pressure is applied, when the
saw is twisted, or when the culing speed is to0
fast. [the werk is nct tight in the vise, it will
Sometimes sip, twisting the blade enough to
‘preale it.
CHBELS
Chisels are teals that can bo used for chip-
ping or cutting metal. They are made from a
Jou! grade tool steel with a hardened outtlag
edge an a beveled head, They will cut any metal,
that Ig cotter than matarials of which they are
made, When it is skiZifully used, the chisel can
be made to do most any job that a milling ma-
chine can do, although itis perhaps less accurate
and requires greater time aad en2rgy.
‘Usually the Ear stock from which 2 chisel ia
forged is octagonal (etght-sided), Cold chisels
are elasaified according t the shape of their
Poluts, and the width of the cuiting edge denstes
their size, The most common shapes of cutsels
are flzt (cold chisel), caps, round nose, and
lamond point. (Gee fig. 1-1-2.)
——
——
Figure L-1-27.—Metal-working ehisels.
‘The type chisel most commonly used is the
ft cold chisel, which serves ta cut rivets,
split mits, chip’ castings, and cat thin metal
Sheets, Also used for special jobs is the cape
chisel for cutting keyways, narrow grooves ant
square corcera, the round-nose chisel for gemi-
cireular grooves and lor chtpping inside corners
with a fet, and the diamond-point for cutting
‘V-graoves afd sharp carners.
‘Aa with other taols there {s 2 correct tech.
niqle J9r uying 4 chisel Select chisel that 1s
Jarge enough for the Job. Be sure to use a ham
‘mer that matches tha chisel; that is, the larger
the chisel, the heavier the hammer. A heavy
chisel will absorb the blows of a light hammer
and will do virtually no cutting.
‘As ageneral rule, hold the chisel in the left
hand with the thumb and frst flnger about 1 nen,
trom the top. Tk should be hold stzadily iat net
tightly. The Linger muscles should be relaxed,
40 sf the hammor strikes the hand st will slide
own the tool and lessen the effect of the law,
Keep the oyes on the cutting edge of the chisol,
not on the head, and swing the hammer in the
same plane as the body ofthe chisel. If you have
at of chiseting lo do, slide a piece of rubber
hase over the chisel. This willlessan the shock
lo your hand,
‘When using a chisel for chipping, always
wear goggles to protect your eyos. ifoihor mon
are working elase by, see Matthey are protected
from flying chips by erecting 2 screan ar shield
to contain ihe chips. Remember that the Une
to take these precautions is before you start te
Job.
FILES
‘There are a number of citferent types
of iiles in ccmmon use, areleachtrpe may range
im length from 3 to L# Inches. They are graded
according lo the degree of fineness, and accord
ing fo whether they are single~ or double-cat.
‘The length of @ Mle is the distance from the
ip to tha heel, aad docs act include the tang. (Seo
fig. 1-128.)
Taye senor —
Figure 1.1-28.~File nomenelsture.
In eelecting + file for 2 job, the shane of
the finished work must be considered. Files
come in different shapes, hoth culline and cross
Sectional shape. Same of the crocs sectional
Shapes are shown in fig, 11-29.
i!
CJTRIANGULAR files are tapered Congitudi-
nally) cn all three sides. ‘They are used to ile
foute interas] angles, and to clear out square
corners. Special triangular Mlesareused tome
sa teeth,
MILL fies are tapered io both width and
thieknass. One edge has no teeth and is noun,
as a SAFE EDGS, Mill fies ere used for
smoothing lathe work, drawfiling, and other fine,
precision work, Mill files are always ainglo-cut.
FLAT files are general-purpose files ant
may be efther single- or double-cut, Thay are
tapered In widta and thiciness, HARD files,
not chown, are somewhat thicker than flat tiles.
‘They taper slightly tn thickness, put thelr edges
ave parallel.
4 8
sik sie
Ss
Figure 1-1-29,—Crass-sectional shapes of
files.
SQUARE files are tapered ou all four sides
and are used to enlarge rectangular-shapedholes
and slets, ROUND files serve the same purpose
for round openings. Small round files are often
called ‘rstial?” Silos.
‘The HALF ROUND tile ts a gener2)-purzose
tool, ‘The rounded side is used for curved sur-
faces aod the Mat face oh flat surfaces. When
you file an inside curve, use a round or half
round file whose curve most cearly matches the
curve of the work,
Kits of amall files, often called Swieg Pat
tern or Jewelers tiles, are used to Htparts
of delicate mechznisms, and for filing work on
jastcuments, Haradle these stall Mes carefully
because they break easily.
Cuts and grades of files vary greatly, As
mentioned before, they have either single-cut
or double-cut teath, ‘Tho difference is apparent
‘when you ccmpare the files in fig, 1-1-30,
ocustz cur
Figure 1+1-30.—Slagle and double-cut ites.
Single-cut tes have rows of teeth eat par-
allel ta each other. These testh are set at an
angle of about 65 degrees with: the centerline.
‘You willuse single-cut les for sharpening toots,
Einish {ling, and drawfiling, They are also the
nest tools for smootning the edges of sheet
metal,
Files with erisserossed rows of teeth are
double-cut files. The double cut forms tecth
that are diamond-shaped and fast cutung. You
will use couble-cut files for quick removal af
metal, and for rough work,
Files are also graded acrarding to the spac-
tg and size of thelr teeth, or their coarseness,
anil fineness. Some of thesegradesarepictured
ia fg, 1-1-31. In addition to the three grades
shown, you may use some DEAD SMOOTH ities,
which have very fine teeth, and some ROUGH
files with very coarse tecth, ‘The fineness or
coarseness of filo teeth te also influenced by
the length of te Me. When you nave a chance,
compare the actual size cf the festh of 6inch,
single-cut smooth fle and 4 12-Inch, singte-cut
smooth file; you will notice the Bainch file has
Bore tee por inch tan the Lz-iueh ie
swcuton
= Be
Be 22
oe
aousitoo
Figure 1-1-31.—Grades of file teeth.
The fat or hand Jes mostoftenusedare the
double-cut second cut file for rough work and
‘the single-eut, stacolh file for finish work.
For smoathing soft metals, suchasaiumiaum
aud bearing metal, you may be supplied with a
FLOAT-CUT file, ‘It has large curved testhand
is Worked with » planing action,
‘Never use a file unless it 15 equipped with 2
tight-fitting handle, I! you use 2 file without the
handle and tt bumpa someting or Jams toa sul-
den stop, the tang m2y be driven tnto your hand.
To put @ handle Ona file tang, dil) « hole in the
handle, slightly smatier than the tang. Insert
the tang end, and then tap the end of the hanéle
to seat it firmly, Make sure you get the rancle
on straight.
‘As you file, the teeth of the file may loz
we with some of the metal filings and seraten
‘Gur work. This condition is known as PINNIDG.
You ean prevent pinning vy Feeping thefile teeth
clean, Rubbing chalk between the teeth tl help
prevent pining, too, kur the best method is to
clean the Mle frequeatiy with a FILE CARD or
brash. 2 file card ifig. 1-1-32) has Ane wire
bristles. Brush with a pulling motfon, holding
the eard parallel to the rows of teeth,