Experiments in Modern Physics - Melissinos, Adrian C. & Napoli - 6429 PDF

EXPERIlVIENTS IN
MODERN PHYSICS
Second Edition
Adrian C. Melissinos
Jim Napolitano
RENSSELAER rol. YT£CJINlC INS1TI1.TrE
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03 04 ()~ 06 07 08 9 8 1 /] 5 4 3 2 J
E ls ~1t11J1 1'oii 1rtrrpOs }.!OV
KWViTTavTWou 1. }!~~wov
To the memory of my father

Jiusto Napolitnno
Contents
Prefuce XI
Preface from the First Edition xv
1 E:tperiments on Quantization
1. 1. Introduction
1.2. The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment 2
1.3- The Prank-Hertz Experiment 10
1.4. The Hydrogen Spectrum 20
1.5. Experiment on the Hydro.gen Sp~trum 25
1.6. The Spectra of SodiumftDd Mercury 33
2 Electrons in Solids 45
2.1. SoIid Materials and Band Structure 45
2.2. Experiment on the Resistivity of Metals 54
2.3. Expe,riment on the Hall Effect 63
2.4. Semiconductors 71
2.5. High Tc Superconductors 81
2.6. References 88
3 Electronics and Dara Acquisition 89

3.1. Elements of Circuit Theory 81)
3.2- Basic Elcclronic Equipment 104
33- Oscilloscopes. and Digitizers 110
3.4_ Simple Me.a..suremeDis 116
vII
viii Contents
3.5. Op4;rnllonal Amplifiers 119

3.6. MeasUlCIUe.ms of Johnson Noise 122
3.7. Chaos 133
3.8. Lock-In Dete.ction 144-
3.9. Compu1e.t Interfaces 147
3.10. References 150
4 Losers 151
4. L The Principle of Laser Operation 152
4-.2. Properties of Laser Beams 156
4.3. The HeNe La~er 159
4.4. Measurement of the Trnn!:lverse Beam Profile ]64
4.5. The Michelson Interferomeler 167
4.6. The Fabry-Perot Inlerfercmeter 172
5 Optics Experiments 179
5.1. Introduction 179
5.2. Diffr.tclion from a SUr ISO
5.3. Calculation of the Diflr.tCtion PaUem 185
5.4. DiBmction from a Circular 188
5.5. The Diffraction Grating 192
5.6. Fourier Optics 198
5.7. The Faraday Effect 201
5.8. Berry's Phase 210
5.9. References 2J4-
6 High-Res(Jlution Spectroscopy 215

6.2. TIle Zooman Effect 218
6.3. Hyperfine Structure 228
6.4. The Line 236
6.5. The Zeeman FJfect of the Green Line of J98Hg 238
6.6. Saturation Absorption Spec:tro~copy or Rubidium 243
6.7. References 250
7 l\{agnetic Resonance Experiments 251
7. L Introduction 251
7.2. The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions 255
7.3. Absorption ofEnc.rgy by rile Nuclear Moments 262
Cont~ nts j"
7.4. ExperimenlII.l Observation 0 r the NllcieM Magnetic

Resonance of Protons 273
7.5. Electron Spin Resonance 283
7.6. References 293
8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay 295

ft I. General Consideralions 295
8.2. Jntcrnctioos 0 r Ch:lrged l>".nticles and Photons
with Mauer 298
8.3. Gaseous Joniz.ation Detectors; the Geiger Counter 320
8.4. The SciotiHlltion Couoter 333
8.5. Solid-Stale Detectors 344
8.6. Nuclear Half-Life Measurement.. 354
8.7. Referenccs 364
9 Scattering and Coincidence Experiments 367

9.2. Compton Scattering 369
9.3. M(\~bah~r Efte~l 3R5
9.4. Detection of Cosmic Rays 399
9.5. y-y Angular Correlation M~urements 409
10 Elements from the 171e01}, of Statistics 423

10. I.Delini tiuns 423
10.2. Frequency Functions of One Variable 431
10.3. 'Estimation of Parameters and Fitting of Data 445
10.4. Errors and Their Propag.ation 454
10.5. The Stati!\I.i~!\ of Nuclear Counting 465
10.6. References 473
Appendices
A Studenls 475
B A Short Guide to MATlAB 477

B_1. A MATI..AB Review 47&
B.2. Making Fancy Plots in MATLAB 4g1
It Contonts
C Laser Safety 483
D Radioactivity and Radiation Safety 485
E Optical DefectiDn Techniques 489

E.l. Pbo\.Ographic Film 439
E..2. Photomultiplier Thbe$ 490
E.3. Photodiooes 496
F COM/ants 499
G Exercises 501
Index. 511
Preface
In the nearly forty years since the first ooition of this book was published..
the fundarnent:1l oollcepts ure of c~~un;.t: unchanged while many of the
detaIls are Jadicully dilTcrenL Thi~ new edition aIrempl~ 10 maintain the
emphasis On the fundamenlal importance of experimental physics and lnb-
oratory technique. while updating Lbe equipment and tools used to set up
the experimenlS and 10 acquire and aIlalyze the data.
A:; much as possible. this revision is in keeping with the style of the
original text. The importance of eAp erirnenlill investig-J.lion and );ounJ. lab·
oratory technique, as a way for &Iutl~ts to connect ad vrulccd physics topi~
to measurements carried out with their own hand. is emphasized. If any-
thing, this ilpproocn 1$ even more importarlt than il was fony years ago.
Curricula have roctlsoo more and more on "intemctive" tedtniques in the
introductory sciences, and the advnnced laboratory is a primary way to
e5rlend this approach ro upper revel courses.
We have incorporated many ofthe changes that have oC(;urred in experi-
mental techniques. ChilpteJ 3 collects topi~s in basic hlbol"oltory electronics
(including some simple e1.perimenlJ5 wilh demcnt.ary citCuiLS). as weU 3..'1
the somewhat more advan('(:d topics of OpAnlps. lock-in amplifiers. and
computer interf~cr-..~. ChapLer 4 focuse.... on lasers and optical instmrneors.
Data analysis and presentation is generally carried out with the progrnm
MATLAB; analysis programs are avnilable from the authors. Throughout
the hook. we make use of compute-IS and computer-controlled hanlware,
as well as various commercial software packages. as illust:rative options
for building such experiments. Also.. a collection of exercises. suitabl~ for
homework or examinations is included in Appendix G
xi
xii Prefa~e
New experimeJ\lS have been added and the material has been reor-
giUllzed. A number of new experiments in condensed matt.eI have bee.~
introduced in Chapter 2. including mea1lurements of the resistivity of met-
als using eddy currents. the Hall effect in bismuth, electrical, and therron'
properties of diodes. and high Tc superconductors. Chapter 3 includes new
eJ( periJnetlrs on Johnson noise. and chaos. Olapters 4 and 5 arc completely
new cmd several eApcriments involving lasers are di&C1J!lsed. These include
classical experiments on difftaction and inlCrferometry as well as a mea-
surement of the Faraday effect and of Berry's pha.(je. ChaptCis 6 and 7 have
been updated and an experiment on saturation absorption spectroscopy ha..
been introduced. The materi al on nudeiU" physics and nuclear techniques
has been reorganized into Chapters 8 amI 9 and some new measurements.
including cosmic my e.xpcriment..~ and muon decay have been added.
Space limilation~ have forced us to drop scveml experiments. nod other
material, from the first edition. We have eliminated experiments on thcpho-
toelectric etTect. thelmionlc emission, the Hall effect in semiconductors.
Ruthcrforu scattering. and ... docity nod particle identification measUD>
ment... Some det.ailed discu!>sions of experimental techniques., such as the
prism spcctrograph and vacuum pumping, have also been removed.
One of the most dramatic developments since the first edition has been
the use of computers forrklla analysis and presentation.lndeed, today there·
~ a multitude ofbolh commercial and free programs that run on a variety of
platforms. all of whkh would be suitable for the experiments we describe
here. In this text. for JMoy cases. we have chosen to use the progrnm
1vlAl1,A,B (nttp;{/IIVWW.mathworks.coml) to illustrate the analyses. Th~
student vcesion is inexpensive and well documented, and provides some
sophisticllted routines for things !luch as nonlinca r fitting and data presenla-
tion. (Appendix B gives a brlefintroduction to the program.) However. we
emphasize that all of the necessary tools, including plotting, linear fiUing,
and so forth, are ~sily accessible through any number of programs.
This revision is built on advanced laboratory COUf8CS at the University
of Rochester and at Rensselaer Polylechnic Institute. as well as labom-
tory components of upper level leclUre courses. Our $tudents take part in
interactive cou.rses at the introductory level, and they extend this exposure
with this advanced laboralory material as they continue their education.
10 maoy cases, the ellpel"iments are developed. built, and debugged by
studenlc; who bave already gone throogh a dedi~ted advanced laboratory
COtmiC. In most cases, the data presented were acquired by students. These
students arc listed collectively in Appendix A
We iltegraleful to many of our colleagues for their help Olod suppOI1. In
particutar, A.C.M. than!::s Todd Olalock. Glen Hallit. and Cmis: Spencer.
who were in charge of the "senior lab" in receot years. He also thanks Judy
Mack for chccrfwlilld efficient [ypiog of early vel1lions of the mam.L<;;cripL
J.N. thanks Thh-Miog Lu for his 5tlppOn of this COUI"!\t:. Peter P~IS fo r Ws
efTorts 10 tenc:h and extend the laoorotory and fo r conrributing his notes on
U.<; illg 'MATlAB. aod Tom Shannon fur his maintenance aflhe equipment .
•
A.C.M., J.N .
Rochester. New Yurk
Troy. New Vorl::
Preface from the First Edition
rt is generally accepted thai training in the sciences, especi:llly at the

undergraduare level, is nOI c:ompler.e without it fair QlUounl of Jabof'll1ury
experience. This is particularly true in physiclS where the bnsic freshman and
wphomore courses are supplemenred by concurrent laboratory exerches.
At the j unior and senior level. however, lAboratory lfilining becomes
more important and forms the subject of an inde.pendent COUISC. R.,ther
than simple Jabor.;llory eXeJdses. the students now perform comp1ele.
e xperiments a.nd one c uuhl lilSt the aims of tbe course as follows:
(a) To Teach the srudcnt the. melbuth and procedures of experimenl::lJ
physicsal;m advanced level; :lild 10 gi .... erum coafidcm:e in his own ability
to ffif'415Ure physicn1 emitie... and rel::II..ionships between them.
(b) To familiarize lhe srudenl with modem rc::>caIch equipment and it<;
lL'ia; also It} make him aware of the most ba.l;ic l.CChniques pre.senlly used
ill widely varying, Ilelds of physics. ~
{c) To convinc.e the siudenilhat the matetial he studied J.Ild covered in
his lecrure course& call indeetl be tested eAperimentally; and 10 give him
the s."Cisfactioo of doing so himself.
On the other hand the real professional training fur srudellts who will
b~COtJle experimental physicists takes plac.e in gmduale sebeol during their
the!:.]$ wOTk; this is a period of intensh"e involvl!nll-'l'It in research bu[ within
a highly specialized field. It therefore appears that the best oppertuniry for
(t brosd look at the general e~perimental methods of physics still remains
in the junior and senior labor..tory cour!.es.

-
XVI Prefa c e tmm tile First Edition •
-
The present texlis-an outgrowth of such a laboratory course giveo by the
author at the University of Rocbester between 1959 and 1963 _It consisted
of a one-year course with two 3-hour meetiogs in the laboratory and two
I-hour lecture . weekly: the students had access to the laboratoJy
at all limes and. in gcner.ll, worked during hours of their own choice weU
in excess of the. scheduled periods. The students w()rked in pairs. which in
most cnses provides a highly motivating and successful relationship.
The material included io this course was selecWi from dlOse experiments
in atomic and nuclear physics that have l;tid the foundalion and provided
th~ evidence for modem q l1anrum theory. The experiments were sct up in
such a fa-won that they ,maid be completed ina lWo~ to four-week period of
norma] work taking into account the other demands 00 the sruden('s time.
A frequent tendency of students (especially the more enthusiastic ones) is ·
to become involved in experiments that are "almost original" or in setling
up new experiments; this, however. requires constructioo of lhcir own
equipment and can result io consider.ilile "gadgeleerinS" as well as leadi fl£
to extended involve. nem, which a scnioreannotaffonL We found this to be
a common trap evenlUnlly teadiog to frustration and discouragement with
a. srudcnt having only a "progres~ report" or ~ marginal resllh to show for
one term of work.
For these reasons we used, whenever possible. comm(:rcial equipment,
and all eJlperimcnts were carefully tested before being handed ovct' to
the &tudent. The emphasis \V3.' 00 the "physics" of the experiment and the
interpretation of the results obtained; dc.arly, to obtain COIl~t result.. the
student had to properly adjust, use and understand his equipment. Furthe.r-
T
more, a time limit could he set so that eight to ten ilifferell( e.xpcrimenL~
could be completed in one academk ycar. This variety nol only brings the
student in contact with a broader seglnent of phys;cs and of techfitqu~, it
also gives him the (lpporrunity of a ·'fresh start" severnl times throughout
the course; and. most important, it keeps the student continuously inter-
e8ted in spite or any setback or difficulty he may encounter in one or more
experimenb>.
The experiments described in the first four chapters of this texl are, in
general. e~icr tharl dle ones discussed later; each can usuafly be completed
in a one-week period, and at the University of Rochester are performed
io the second tenn of the junior 'This leaves then the two temls of
the senior year for the more advanced experiments described ill the later
chapters. The various experimenrs have been grouped accenting to the basic
physical principle rather than the special technjque. For each experiment
Pre fac e frolll tile first '£diticn nii
the W\derlyins theoretical ideas are first iotroducc:J, then thl:! experimen-
Enl app::ll1ltus is dc-<;cribed in coosider.lble detail Md, tinnlly. the resulls
obtnined by the ~ lUdem.s are given and di!.<;;us~d . fa dtis respect we believe
that this te.ltl is not 0 iobornlory mrmual "; instead we have airw:d i1t :l
fairly coherent presentation of c.KpcrimenLal physics in spite of the limited
and occasional ly nnOOm selection of the experimenu. We feci thai. OUT
IIpproach is similaI to that of G P. Hamwell and J. J. Livingood in their
classic text " fuperim~nl"l AtOmic Physics," which appeAred- originally in
1933.
The leader may occasionally be surpri sed by the great de1o.il with which
we describe arpa r8 lu ~ or special procedure::; for anaJysis of data. We have
done 50 lO a... sisl those who Wil)' wlsh to sel UJ') B similar L1.borntory ilnd
bec:!usc r.h c~e.are the details the :.:tulknt ha'l u...ually 10 find oul by himself:
but :'tlro we believe that only through such demil can one ilCtiuire the real
tlavorof e.xperimen(;:l) phy~ic,. We have placed special emphasis on nurner·
ical results and on 1:.implc calculations, emphasizing the usc. of dIe correcl
units.
Contmry to acccplcd practice we have indtu.led only 3 minimum number
of refen: n~~ : instead, wc hJ.ve giv ~n 3 selected bibliogrnphYlOl!ach subject
through which the interested reader may nnd all pertineot inform&l.tion. It
is, h()we\,u, expected Ih.at the :student i ~ familiar or is concurrently taking
it co~ on modem physics. The usual InBthemaOcalleveJ of culculn!> j ~
c.onsidered as a prerequisite and is freel y used throughouL
As meotiooe<i before. modem co nunercicl equipment is used whenever
practicable: this is lhe S3fIle rype of equipment ~ u...e:d in prt::sent-day
n::se.arcb amJ frequenlly is the basis for iI !luccessful teaching laboratory.
U is true. however, thar similar equipmenl can be obtained [rom ~everal
manuracturcrs 8I1d mat special appmlUi is preferably built in one's own
:shOp. We do have aD file the prinlol; of all such spec.i.l.I equipment an.;! \....c
will be glad TOsupply them on reqllest.
The list of c.xperimcnlS in this text is Dot complete. For clC3Jtlple. we
have oot included a discu...~ion of"c ohuent scilucring" (diiTraction) e.ltper-
imenls, of "electmmagne:r.ic specrrometen," and of '....·isual techniques"
(bubble chamber, spark chamber, and nucleAr emulsion) in spite of their
successful perfomutnce by se.ver.d ::;tudenlS. We bope to be able to remedy
the$c omk-.ions in a fu ture edition. We also .-ewe that in some C~5 a
beller, or more eduC<1.lional. I cchn~que might be avaibble for the cxpcti·
menlS presented bere. We w(luld be grateful to our n:..wel1l if lhey wish 10
indicate to us these altcmalives.
)(Viii Preface frOIl1 the First Edition
•
rn Hne with our original inteotion, all the dam and rc.<;llhs preseLlted
in lhis book were obtained by sruOOOlS of the "Senior L;lboratory" of the
Unive~ity of Rochester and the approprio:lte credit is given in the (ext. The
results presented here could not have been achieved wittlout the support of
the Physics Dcparullcnl of the University of Rochester; also major equip--
ment was pun:hased l1uough a grant from the United States Atomic Energy
Commission and a trUllching funds gr..\Jll from the National Science Foun-
dation. As is at ways the OlSe. whatever success this labor..llory did enjoy is
due to the oombirtoo efforts of many indi viduals. a large pan of which was
supplied by the participating srudenl,\. It is a special pleasure to thank from
bt,"I'e the graduate assi~f.aIl1S during lhe 1959-1963 period. On;, E. Grirtio.
J. Robbins, J. Mochel, and J. Reed. for tbeir contributions to the laboratory.
More than to anyone else the laboratory is indebted to Mr. F. L Reynolds.
who has been in charge of aU technical maueni and has kept the equipment
to operating condition; 1 wish to expre.<;s to him my personal gratitude
for his friendship nrul ror many heJpful suggestions connected with tbis
texL I al80 wish (0 acknowledge discussions with many of my t,;olleagues
in Rochester and, in panicular, Dr. W. P. A1ford. Dr. M.. F. Kaplon. and
Or. R. E. Marshak.
In the preparation of the manuscript [ benefited from the an work of
Mest)1S. Yu .Chang Lee. W. Stinson, and J. Pinero; most of the manu!:Cript
was typed by Mrs. B. M. MaISh, and to all of them r express myappreci.
ation for lheir excellent work. [ nm 011&0 indebted to the following of my
co \leagues fur reading early parts of the manuscript and maktng many valu-
able suggestions and. conections: Dr. P. Baumei stet on Clmptcr 2; Dr. T.
Castner 00 Chapter 3; Dr. D. Cline on Chapter 5; Dr. R Ellsworth 00
ChilPt.c:r 6; Dr. L. Bradley OD Cha.pter 7; Mr. C. Cook Of) Chapter 8~ and
Dr. J. Reed OD Chapter 9. Still. however, the responsib11ity for aU c:rWnI
is mine and I would appreciate it if thc readers could indicate thell} to me.
Finally, [ would like to thank my wife, Joyce, for her encourngemefll and
assiistance durillg the course of this W'OTk.
A.C.M.
Rochester, New York
..... .... .
- ~.
:4:<. '
.. .
··......
.......
~
CHAPTER 1
·.. Experiments on
·. .
Quantization
Lt. INTRODUCTION
A defining characteristic of present-day physics is that many of the quan-

tilic!l. used 10 describe physical pllenomena are quantized. Thai j!;. such
quantities cannot take any OtIe of a continuum of values. but are restricted
10 a set (perhaps aD infinite set) of discrete values. Common ex.amples are
lhe inlensity of radiation of lhe ele ctromagnetic (icht. lhe energy of alomic
systems, or the electric chllrEe. Strong evidence for such quantizlltion is
obtained from ex.ptriments that will be ~,;crjbed in dus chapter:
(a) Millikan's experi.mI:Rt by which the charge on individual oil droplet~
is measured. The experiment shows that the charge is <llwuys an integer
multiple of the SIIlaliest charge observed; this is idtmtil1c.d with the chruge
of the electron.
(b) The Frank-Hertz experiment on the C;(citalion hy electron bom-
bardment of atomic vapors. It is found that only for discrete bombarding
2 t h~erim8Rts on Quantizatloll
,
•
energies is such excitation possible. and the first excited state of the mercury
(Hg) atom is thus messW'ed.
(c) A measorement of spectra' Jines in the visible. In particular tbe
Balmer series of the hydrogen atom. as wei las the more complicated spcctra
of sodium and mercury wil1 be d'scussed.
All three experiments can be canicd out with commercially availDble
equipment from 5Cveral manufacnneI's. For insfance the Model AP~210
Oil Drop Apparatus" from PASCO Scic:ntific (Rosevi1Je, Cpr.)
is a fully assembJed system that yields excellent resul~. Two vari-
elies of Millikan are available from Tel-Atomic. Incorporated
(http://wWVII.telatom;c.comf). A Prank-Hertz tuhe with its oven can be
obtained from ELWE LclJrsysteme (Creuilingen. Geffi\any). Klinger Edu-
cational Products als-o offers a complete Frank-Hertz experimental setup.
PASCO Scientific also markets a "Precision Student SpectIometer" Model
SP-9268, which is fun), oquivalent to the spe<:trometer uscO to obtain tile
data described in Sections 1.5 and 1.6. Of course such an appanl.tus c.m
O1'SO be built in-house. and we shall describe the apparatus and data-takiTlg
procedures in sufficient detail.
1.2. THE OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
1.2.1. General
In 1909. R. Millikan reported a reliable method for meMuring ionic charges.

It oonslsts of obst,...rviog Ihe motion of 1IJlU!1l oil droplets under the influence
of an ~lectric field. Usually the drops acquire a few electron charges and
thus conventions I fields impart to them velocities that pennit isolation a or
drop and continuous observation for a considerable length of timc~ further.
the mass of the oil droplet remains rumosl constant (there is very slight
evaporation) during these long observation time~.
In principle., if we measure thl;: force due to the electric field E,
Fe. = qE = neE. (1.1)
we C<ln ohtain ne: repeating this measurement for several (or the same)
drops but wilh differeDt values of the integer n, we call ex!n,ct the charge
of the electron e.
The electlic fore-e call be m~swed eilher by a nun method that is.. by
balancing the drop ngalnst the gravitational force ' or, as will be described
II . . . . ,
• IIIII. .
• . , , •
• IIII •..• 4 , .
~m/
1.2 The Millikan Oil Drop Experimint 3
:::::: : :here. by observing the motion of the drop under the iofluem:e of both fOICe:'.
::::;:> Oil droplets in air, acted on by a constant force F. sOOn reacb a terminal
::::: : : .velocity gi vr:n by Stokes' law •
··.......
"
, .
,
,
F = 6;rat}v. (L2)
··.. .
,
,
: : : . where a i~ the radius of the (assumed spherical) droplet, J1 the viscosity of
:":':' the illr. and 1.1 the terminal velocity. To obtain the radju~ of the drop (needed
:::::: in Eq. (1.2») we observe the freefa11 of the drop; the gravirotiooal force is
···...
,
(1.3)
··..
,
,
···....
,
,
with p and (J' the density of air and oll and g me acceleration of srolvi1y.
Schem:llically, a."l'ihown in Fig. 1.1 the apparatus consists of IWO parallcl
···... ,
,,
,
J
phltes thal can be ahemntively charged to a coostant potential + V. - V.

Of' O. The drop is then observed (with" telescope), lUlU the lime t il takes
to travel through a distance d is mc~urcr.l Let F+ ~'1l0Ie lhe foree on a
~egatively charged drop with electric field up (time t+. electric force aiding
gravjty) and F_ the force with electric field dowll (time L, electric force
opposing gravity). Then
F± = ±nt~(V Is) - ~JI'a'~(P - o)g =6rrar;d (lilt·)

0.4)
4 3
Fo = -3 rrtJ (p - o)g =61'ralld(l/IO).
where the sign cOlJvention:s. hr;.ld jf t i~ considered >0 when the drop
moves up. and I <: 0 when it is moving down (recall thnt e is oegative).
+V
E e--.
iF, 1S
~-...!-tFg-------,--
I
t
FIGURE 1.1 Foo:cs on II dl1rl"gOO ail drop between \be pJates of a Millikan IWlIflItuS.
4 1 Experiments Dn QuantiZ8r\Dn
•
A convenient method of analysis is to write Eq. (1.4) as

1 Ve
(n): ±An - B A == -,---~
t± 6nra'1 d
(1.5)
B == ~ a (p - o")~
1 2
-=-B
It) 9 Tjd
so that A and B can be ea~ily delermined.
Indeed a plot of lIlt) against n reveals lhe Iinenr relationship and the
fact 'bnt only infegervalues of n appear, proving that the drop has acquired
one, two, three, or more elecuic charges of value e. llild never a fraction
of that value. Thus we have clear evidence that the ionic cbarge picked
up by !he oil drops is qUQ1Jrized. FurthelJilOre, the absolute value of this
minimal electric charge is in good agreemeot with inferred
of the charge carried by the atomic electrons. t and thel dore is accepted as
the most accurate value of the cbarge of the electron.
1.2.2. The Experiment
The apparatus used in t.hil> labomtory (Fig. 1.2) consists of two parallel
brass plates tl4 in. dUck and approximately 2 in. in diameter; placed in
a lucite cylinder held apart by three ceramic spacers 4.7 rum long. This
<lSsembly is in tum enclosed in a cylindrical brass housing with provisions
for electlical conneclionf> and contalning two windows, one for illumina-
tion of the drops and one for observation. The top plate has a small hole in
its center for the admissioD ofihe oil dro~~ which are produced by spraying
oil with a regular a1ouUzer.
To charge the plates, a 500· V DC power supply and a switch
are used, the plates are shunted by a 50·MQ resistor to prcvenl them from
remaining cbarged. when t11eswitcb js open. For observations a lO-cm fecal.
length microscope is used (Cenco 72925), while illumination is provide d by
a Mazda) 0 17-W inrnp and condensing lens. To avoid convection currents
inside the apparatus, a heat~absorbing fitter (Corning infntred.absorbing)
is placed in the muminating beam.
The plates should be made perpendicular to the gravi18.tional field by
means ofthe three leveling :screws at the base of the apparatus and a le\'e1
• II1II • ,
:.:::: :
1.2 The Millikan 011 Drop Experiment 5
11::: Ma...--da 1017
, .. +
,. .
·.
, ...
,, ..
, ..
·.. Burgess u-320
SOOv lapprtl.l.>
·,,·.......
,
,
..
..
·...
lJ
,
· ..
·..
··.. ,
\\
·. Oil openinog
· .. 1tOV
··...
Be
·.. FIGURE 1.2 Millikan oil drop cl.~riment ~hcm:ilcJc of the app:uatus..
placed on the top plare. Being fI cosine error. the deviution introduced hy an
angular displacement of the gravitational component from perpendicular
by gil is 1%. A value for the plate spacing s may be obtained by using the
~tage micrometer. The micrometer should be focused all a wjre inserted in
the oilholein tbe center of the lop plate, and the cross hnirofthemicromeler
should be moved illong Ihe length of the wire. Severnlmeasurements should
be taken and their tCsults averaged.
The velociticR aie determined by measuring with a stopwatch tho time
required for the droplel to cover a specified number of divisions of the
microscope ~C!3Ie. Crue musr be taken 10 avoid dr.lrts and v·ihrations in the
vicini ly of the apparatus: for thilt re<1oon and because of Brownian moliol}.
the drop may wooder or be displaced out of the field of the microscope. It
may (hen be necessary to reposition the microscope between measurements
on a single drop. Moreover. the drop should be kept in focus to avoid
parallax errors.
Both tbe microscope and the lighl source may be <*djuslcd by viewing a
,
~
..
, '
:>m.dl wire inserted in [he oil hole. The light should be adjl.lsled so that the
focal poinl i ~ somewhat abe.!ld or behind the wire and the wire is more or less
evenly illuminated. To light the scale., a smaUlighl is pJaced next to the sIll
jml ahead of the eyepiece of the microscope.. The acruaJ distnnce to which
a scale division corresponds may be found by using a microscope slide
•
1 Exp eriments on Quantization •
on which a subdivided millimeter scale bas been scratcbed. 2 The eyepiece

focus of the microscope should not be chaoged during a run. since moving
the eyepiece dlaogcs the effective distance of the scale. (To bring the drop •
•
back into focus tho entire micro~ope should be moved.)

It is impOI mnt 1.0 he.tparing in the amounl ofoil sprayed into the chamber.
In addition to gumming up the interior more quickly. Jarge quantities create •
•
so many partic1c.~ in the mil;roscope field that without excessive eyestrain

it is virtually impossible to single out and foUo\'{ a ~ingle droplet.
Under the jnftuenoe of gravity, droplets will fall nt vilriOUS limiting
specds. If the plates an:: charged. some of the drops will move down more •
rapidlYt whereDs others wHl reverse their dilcction of mOlion !>ince in the
process of spraying some drops become posi live1y ch,u:gc.d and others nega-
tively charged. By concentrating On one drop dult can 00 controlled by the
field, and manipulatin g the sign of the electric field so that this particulaT
drop is relained. it is po!l~ibte to remove all other drops from the field.
The limiting velocity is n~chcd very quicldy and the measurement should
be started near the t()P or bottom of the p!aLe. Measurement should be
completed before the drop has reached a point in its travel whcre appli-
cation of the reverse potential is insuffici<mt to save tbe drop from being
"gobbled up." •
•
3 3
The den5ily in air of the oil used was 0.883 ±O.OO3 g/cm . It is desirnble •
to tak-e mca~urements in the shortest possible time $ince, as previously

mentioned. the JlUISS of the drop changes through evaporation. •
It is also important to make measurements on as many charge.....

on the ssme or difieJ cut drops as possible. Thul'> after four or fi ve mc:asure~
ments of t!:l, t~II). and t" have been taken. the charge on the drop must be
changed~ this is accompljsbed by bringing cJose to one of the windows a
60 4
radioactive source (10 to loo J.l Ci of Co will do). The droplet should be
brought close to the top plate and allowed to f<lJJ with Ihe field off; on its
way down it will sweep up a few ions created by the source. This can be
che(:ked by occasionaJJy luming the field on to sec: whether the charge has
changed; rarely will a. drop pick up any charge when the field is on.
The power supply vohage should be checked with a 1% digital ntulti~
meter (DMM); microscope cnIibration should be checked before and after
57
2Note 'hat Ihe f ocalleagth of the micmsr.upe must not be enanged. bUl lrlstead !be slide
shCJUld be brought into the r~1 plane.
3This may be round by u simple mMsuremcnt.
4Ci == Curie"" :3.7 x to til di$in~tion~ per sccontJ.
•
~ ..
I ....
'M ..
I .. ~ .
~
•
, -..
. 1.2 The MillikBrl Oil Drop Exp~lim~ot 7
I" •.
~
,- .
,. .
1.92
15'
lea
C' 166
E
i;l
.,Z I.Sot
I
D
~ I.s;?
~
I.B
1.78
1.78
10 15 20 ;'!:S :)0
T~mpe.rahlre {"C}
FlGURE 1.3 V.LSroIijl)' of dry !!.ir a... (l fllncJl(1I'I M t(:/IIpernhllC. The. data poinlS are laken
from D. PnUl:li .mLl C. Gutlillger. FMd Mccluulic9. Cambridge Uni\,. Press. C-.J.mbrid~e.
UK. ]992. Thbk B-1. Th~5(: points are tittecl ta a serond-«rler }XIlyl\Umil'lllnintrl'p<!lBlC: I()
tlle lernperarure in the laboratory.
the measuremenls. The same h.olds true for air tempernrure and pressure.
which arc needed for a correction to Stokes' law.
Indeed. when the di~mctcr of tbe drop is comparable to the mean free
pa.th in air, the vj~co~ily ." in Eq. (L2) s.houhl bl: replaced b y5
t}(T) = t1o(T) [ 1 + aP
b ]-1 (1.6)
where rJo(T) is the V1SCO&ity of air a~ a function of T (Fig. 1.3), b =

6.17 x 10- 6 • P is the air pressure in centimeters of mcrcwy. and a is the
rndius of the drop io meters (00 the order of 10-6 m). In analyzing the
data it is convenient t{) calculate ao by letting T) = l7o(T) in th~ ~econd of
STb.ls formula.. alt.e.roatively parameterized with hi P = Ai, "'here I h the mean-free

pa.1h of th~ n:it molt:eulcti, wa:s tb~ ~ubj«:1 ofmucil rc=-rh Dr Mil..ti1::m and many clhers.
S<=~. fClr example, R. A. Millik..lIl. Plrys. Rfl'. 2l, ] (1923). Our v:iliJe fot b j~ taterl fI"O!"n Y.
Lquda. Pltys. Re~. 21. 550 (1m). Table I.
8 1 Experi me nts on Qv 8 rltinliDR
•
Eqs. (1.5); ao is then inserted in Eq. (1.6) to obtain 1)(T} and thus a more
•
accumtc value for G.
1.2.3. Analysis of the Data
Thble 1.1 is a sample l1 r data obtained by a student Two drops were lLc;ed
and :icvernl charges were measured; for each chilI&e six. measurements
were perfollllCd and averaged, wilh the results shown in Fig. 1.4. The drop
radiu... a was determined from the average values of llf{). Tbe viscosity 1J
~e.c; the correction from Eq. (1.6). Values of n that give consistent values
for A::: [(1/1+) - (1/t-)]f2n were identified The pertinent pacameter.q
for these data were •
Pistm,.ce of fall d'"' 7.6:J )( 10-4 m

•
Tempc:.awre T _ 2S'C
Pressure p = 76.01 tm Hg
Density p' = fJ -0 ~ &&2kglmJ
P\)tuJli:lJ V." 500 V
Plate scpar.U jol1 1 "" 4.71 )( lO-3 m
•
TABLE 1.1 Data fnom the MiUikan Oil Drop &pcrimcnt

• • •
• • • •
•• • •
0/'+) - (I/L)
~
fa ~) ~}
+ /I •
2n
- •
• • • • • •
Drop 1
-27.9 +&.69 -5.65 J -O.l46
-29.6 +1.36 -1.18 5 -O.lSS
-28.2 +3.66 -3.00 2 -O.JS2
-29.3 +0.;5 -0.7l6 IJl -0, l5l
-29A +2.35 -1.97 3 -0.155 •
•
;} Cl "" 4.66 x 10- 7 tn

Drop 2
-24.22 +3.91l -3.071 2 -0.144
-25.75 +9.73 - 5.6.5 I -0.140
-2So4 +2.5 -2.12 3 -0.145
-25.22 +9.67 -5.42 1 -0.144
-25.22 +4.1 -3.07 2 -0.143
-;24.4 +1.73 -1.73 4 -Q.I44
-24.4 +9.9!i -6.02 1 -0.133
=* 0 = ,'L04 x 10-1 m )) ~ l.60 )( \0-:; N · slm1
• • • • • • •
,
,--........
,·..
,
,·..
.. 1.2 TI1~ Millikan Oil Drop Experiment .9
,
,
..
·...
Drop 1
(1.5 Flelo Opposmg Gravity
-•
~
£
;:
-1l.5 Fi&1d Aiding Gravity
-1
-t..5
-10 -5 Il 5 to
II (Number of ale.::1!'an ehargas)
0.8
Q.6
0.4
1l.2
..-.
I
0
~
...
~
-0·2
~O.4
-0.6
-0.8
-5 4)
n (Number 01 Alac:tmn l:ha!g~)

FIGURE l.4 Plots of 1/l+ and l/f_ versu~ 11 whewn is IIIl integer. Negative valuc;s of n
Itre us.cd III n=pte.<;t:I'lt !he data IfIke:n With ll1e -electric field pointillS downward (i.e~ 1+). The.
data lIJ'1: from Table J.1.
10 I Exptl rim s nts 011 Quantization •
Averaging the appropri81e columns in Table Ll (See Eq. (1.5)) we find

that
AI = -0.1526 ± 0.0046 g-I HI :;: 0.0346 ± 0.0009 S-l
Ie! == (1.52 ± 0.05) x 10-\9 C

•
Az = -0.1419 ±O.0042 s-l B2 = 0.0401;1: O.OOH> s-I

19
Ie! == (loSS ± 0.05) x 10- C,
where the values of (: are calculated using the ,'aluc of A and the drop
radius as obtained from the value of B. They arc in good agreemenr6 with •
tJle accepted value •
leI =::: 1.602 19

X 10- C,
Errors on A and B are simply taken to be the slandard deviation of the set
of mea."lll'eIT1ents. (See Chapter I 0.) The data are plotted in Fig. 1.4 along
with the sbaight lines predicted hy Eq. (1.5) using tJle \'alues of A and B
derived above.
The realization dIat tile elemental)' (hDdronic) panicles nee composites
l
of qnnrks that have ekctric charge of or ~ of the electron's cb;uge led to a
revival of the MiHOOl.n experimenL Automated versions of the e.~periment
1
have been built nnd ro.n for along time without revealing any such frJctiornll
charges.
•
1.3. THE FRANK-H ERTZ EXPERIMENT
1.3.1. Gl:neraJ
From the early spectroscopic work it was clear that atoms emined radiation
at discrete frequcnci-es; from Bohr'S modellhe frequency of the radiation
v is related to the change in energy levels tlrrough /:t.E = hv. Further
experiments demons.trated that the absorption of radiation by atomic vapors
aJso OCCW'IOO only for discrete frequencies.
-
611 is seen thAt in thh ~peci~1 case (partly bec;!llJ..o;£: of the: low voltage). . th~
drops iss!> sm:dl Ihat tho oorreciioo to the Slolc.ts ~1l3[i0lJ, i.e •• Eq. (1.6). i$ considerable
(aboul7%).
7See, fOTeumple., N. Mar ~I IlL, Plrys. Real D 53, 6017 (1996).
{,,'-~-.'.', .
~?:r\ 1.:3 The Frank-Hertz Experiment 11

:=::-:.:.:
t:~.... ,..
~~::::::: II is then to be expected that th~ transfer of energy to atomic electrons by
:::::::'MY mechanism should always. be in discrete amount,,8 and related to the
~::::::~d.Olnicspect.\"l1m through the equati-oo given above. One such mcchMism
~-:::: :6f energy transfer is by the inelaslic scauering of e1ectrons from tile entire
{:::::'iliom. u the atom that is bombarded does not beoome ionized, and since
~:::: :"littJe energy is needed for momentum balance, olmost the entire kineric
::::::: 'energy of the bombarding electron C1lll be trnru;ferred to the atomic system.
::::::::::-1. Frank and G Hertz in 1914 sel out to verify these coils.i.derntions.
:::::: :immely that (a) it is possible to excite <lioms by low-energy e1ectron bom-
~::::: baniment, (b) th.,.l the encryJ transferred from the electrons to the atorm
::::::: 'always had discrete values, and (c) Ihat the ... alues so obtained rorthe energy
::::::: levels were in agreemenl whh the spectroscopic rcsuhs.
:::::::: The ncces~ary apparatus consists of an c1ectron·cmini ng ti lament and
::::::: 'an adequate structure for accelerating the electron.~ lO a. desired (variable)
:::::: :jx.tenlial. The accelerated electroD:5 are allowed to bombard the atomic
::::::: ,Yapor under investigation, and the excitation of £he atoms is studied as a
:::::: : function of accelerating potential.
::::::: . For detecting the e...'I.citation of the atoms in the vapor it is possible to
:::::: : observe, for example.. the mdi atian emitted. when the atoms rehlm to the
:::::: : ground ~we. the change in olbsorplioo Or:l gl\len spcctmlline.. or some other
:::::::'l,eIatcd phenomenoo; however. a much more ~ensilive technique COOSiSlS
::::::: ·of observing the eleclCOn beam iL"elf. Indeed, if the electrons have been
::::::: accelerated lO a polential jusl eqUl11 to the energy of the firsL excited level,
::::::: some of them will excite atoms of the vnpor ill] d as a con:;equence will
::::::: Jose nlmosl all their energy~ if 11 small retarding potential exists before lhe
::::::: collector region, electrons that bave scattered inelastically will be unable
::::::: to overcome it and thus will not reOich the anode.
::::::: The~e conditions are cre4led in llle experimental arr.mgement by USI!]g
::::::: two grids between the cathode and oCf.lllCClor. When the potentials are dis-
::::::: tribulCd as in Fig. 1.5a. the beam is accelerated between the cathode and
:::::> grid l~ then il is allowed to drift in the interaction region between the two
::::::: grids and finally musl overcome the retardi.ng pOlentia.l between grid 2 and
:::::::the anode. When the thresbold for exciting the first level is reached, a sharp
::::::: dec.reOISe in electron current is observed, proportional to the number of col~
:~:::: : lisions tbat have occurred (product of the atomic density and cross section).
:::::: :Wben the threshold of the nextlevel is reached. a further dip in the collector
8Wh~n !hey F:main oollncJ ~fttr the C<JHi&i(JI'l,
: , .. . . . . I
12 1 Experiments on Quantization
Grid 1 Grid 2
Calhode' I Anode
I I
(a) V,,,,-- I
I
I
•
f
I I
, I
V. ce - ___ 1. .. ___ =. 7
(bl I
I
f
I 1
I . I
{c) V~~'- -- ':""-- ." -
I
,
,
------------------ •
FlGURE 1.5 Different cun~rlIlill!lS of the potential in II Fl'lI ok -Het tz JU't'<lJlg<!II,errt:

(n) For<'lbstlvatio.o of II single e.,'>citlilioll., (b) for oh.~etValion ofa mulljple elcilAtion, and
(c) for measuring ilie ioni:raoOl'l potenlial
on a monotonically rising curve; indeed lhe number of electrons reacbing

the anode depends on Va,",". inaslUUch as it reduces space charge effects and
elastic :5caneriJlg in the dense vapor. In addition, the dips are not perfectly
sharp because of the distribution ofvelocitie." of the therrniooically
electrons. and the energy dependence of the excitation eros:. section.
An alrernate distribution of potentials is shown in Fig. l.5b. where V:. cc
is Dpplied at grid 2 5.0 that an electron can gain further energy after a col-
lision io the space belween the two gridR. In this case when V~cc reaches
the first excitation flQlcntial. inelastic collisions are again possible and the"
decrease in eJeclron is observed at the llJlode~ when. however. V"ce
reaches a value twice that of the first excitation potentia}. it is possib te for
an electron to excite an atom halfway between the grids, lose aU its energy,
and then gain anew enough energy to excite a second atom and Wlch gTid
2 with practically zero energy. Thus it is not abl~ to overcome the rerarding
potential to reach the anode, giving rise to a second dip io the current.
•
w.
::::::.......
••......
~~:~:) 1.3 The- Frank-HerU Expe r~ment 13
::::::.:.:. :
:::::::::~: .The advantage of thi ~ !>elllp i8 that the current dips are much more pro-
~::: )~,ouDc~, ~nd it is easy to obtain r.vcfold ~r. even I~.brer ~ultipli~ty in.
;..:.:.:.j,be excItation of the first level. However, 1t tS pracucally lmposslble to
~:::: :A»:serve the excitation of higher levels. As before. a slight retarding poten.
::::::: ";iil..1 is applied between grid 2 and the anode.. and an acceJerating potenlial
,.::::: Jl~l;\Vecn -the catbode and grid 1. sufficienl to overcome space charge effects
~::::: :M~ to provide adequate clcchon current. It is evident that the densiry of the
~:::: )~ic vapor through which the electron beam passes greatfy affects the
~::::::~rved roS.UIK Low densities t'e!;.ult in large electron currents but very
::::::: "~all dips; jll contrast, hjgh density has as It cl.Jn~cquence weaker ~urrents
::::~:: :!,\u,t pIoportionnlly Jnrger dips. Whell mercury vapol" is used. adjustmenl of
::::::: 'Uie.lube temperature provides control of the dens1ty.
::::::: >. Another important point is that in principle the experiment mlL~l be
:,.:..:.: 'performed with a monlltomic gas; si nee if a molecuJar vapor is bombarded,
:::::::3i is possible for the electrons to tIansier energy to the moleculnr energy
::.:::: :t~vc;ls which f onn almost a continuum. Some of the preferred elements for
~::::: .the FlUnk-Hertz experiment are mercury. noon. and argon.
{-:::: :: .. The !:atne apparatus aan be lL..ed for the m~~uTcment of the iol'lizrltion
::.:::: .potcntial-that is, lbe energy required to remove :ao electron completeJy
::'::::.·f~m the mom. In this case. iDstead of observing the bombarding cleo-
~::: :r,ron beam, it is easier to detect the ions that are foooed. The djiitributlCH1
...::::::of potentials is as shown in Fig. 1.5c, where the anode IS made l>lightJy
~::::: 'neg<ltive with respect to the cathode; no electrons can then re!lch the
~:::: :.. noc.lc, which becomes an ion collector. The accelerating potential is
",:·:·>incrcased until a. &harp rise in the ion current measured at the anode is
........... b
....
~
:.:.·.0 serve.d
... I • ...
~::::: : In both types of measurements the val nes ohtrunoo lor the accelerating
X::~poteDtial have to be corrected for the conlacr porential difference (Cpu)
::::::: .between cathode and anode. 9 If in the excitatioD experiment the same level
::::;:::has been observed two or more times. however, the potential differenre
:::::::: bel weco adjacent peaks is an exact measure of the excitation energy, since
~::::)he contact poteI1tiul difference shifts the whole voJ1.'\ge scale. Once the
~::::: :excitation energy has been found tho contact potentiul difference is given
~:~:.: by the difference between this troe value Md the first peak: in turn the
~. . . . . . l
....
..~....:.:.:
~.-
:.>-'---
"
~:::::' 9BIiefiy lhisj~ becaus~ the "wott fllflctioo" fat the metal of which the: SJlOOC is made is
::::::: . usually hig~t th!Ullhat (If t.h~ ~1I'to<k. Th<: work £lmCt.ion.is a measure of the "ionization
,.:.:': .potentillr ufthc: metal. that is, of the CUl~ Deeded to e:ttrl!A:t:m electron from it
~." •...
::::-> :
::!=~:::
~ ....
X·: . :·
'.
::::~:: :
14 1 ExpiHim9nts 0 n Quantiution
contact potential difference so round can be ust:d to correct the ionization

potenlial measurement.
1.3.2. The Experiment
In this laboratory a lnercury~fillc:d tube made by the Leybold Cowpany

(55580) was used. the electrode configuration is shown in Fig. 1.6. and
thc circuit diagrams for the meaSUlelUent of e~citation and of ioniultion
poteotial are given in Figs. 1.7a and L7b, respectively.
As seen in the cilcoit diagram. grid I i~ operated in Ihe neighborhood
or 1.5 V, and the reta,uiflg potentitil is of the order. The anode ~ur
rents are on the oroer of 9
10- A and are nl.e<!sured either with a Keithley
610B electrometer or with a high·input impe>Cinnl!e digital multimetef. f()r
instance. Hewlett-Packard 3440IA; adequate Wielding of the leads is •
required to eliminate AC pickup and induced voltages. The diagnun (')f

Fig. 1.7a uses the distributioo of potentials shown in Fig. L5b, and the
accele,atiog vollage can be mea.<;ured with a DMM in steps or 0.1 V.
The Fmnk-Henz tube is placed in a small oven. which is heated by li1U1
voltage through a variac: it should be operated io the vicinity of 200"C for
the excitation curve and between 100 and 150°C for the ionization curve.
To measure the temperaruce a ooppe.r-constantan thermocouple should be
FIGURE 1.6 Skt'lCh of a cyiindri(;w Fral1l:-Hcl1.Z tuk

m::::::::
m~~~~<
m:·:-:.:
~.3 The Frank-Kertz Experiment 1!i
~:::::::::'" .(a}
;."...::.:.:-:-:':' :
f:::::::::::::: .
:B:::::::::::::' ,
::::::::::::
;.:••..... ..:: :.. , '
'
,
~::::::::::~ ~::
~ ........ ~.,','.
::=:::::::::::: :
~:::::::::::: -=-
+-...,q,~~-¥.rv--"'"'\I\~-~ 11ClV de:
~- ----..(-=-
~._" ..... ~
;':.' .. , ' "
I','.
.....
;.: ' , ' , ,
~ ""'.
........... ', .
r.-
III • • • ,
I
•
::==.. " .
::?::::~: :.
::?: : ::: (h)
;.::.:.:.
~./
.......... ,'
'
. r---''P~~----+..;::;4~A:;:.1'"-_-..... 10 Kollhly
ekidrometBr
I' .' •. , ' .
:z:::::
....... :. , ,
X:::::::: I
~:.:.> :.
~..-" .. ~, .
Z·:·<~:·' 6V
:?::::> Sloraga ....._!,,'.,..---"N-.--.... ~11OVde
:::•••• ,''. ,
........ banery '--.-... 10K He~po..
1 20W_1_0_K_--,r.=-
..:.»
~:
::::.:.: .
::::::~flGURE 1.7 Wiring diagram f(lJ" the Frank-Hertz experiment {a) fur observation of
.
......Z·:-:<·. .
..:.:..:¢JtitaJion.
.,
.
and (b) for observation of ionization .
,
~:~::Irisertedthrough the small hole of the futltace. The JUJlction should be

Z::::positioned on the side of the tube ncar the eJectrodes. The other JUTlction is
~:.:. :immersed in a themos of ice and water baLh. The potential developed across
:::::: :Jtie thermocoup]e is measured with a DMJ....I; Fig. 1.8 gives a calibration
;.:.:. :c'ucve for the copn.f·r-COflstnntilll
....... J •1"'-
thermocouple •
~:::::' The resoiulion and definition of both tbe excitation and ionization curves
0::::: :i~ a function of atom density (temperature) and electron beam density (filil-
,,::::~~ent and grid 1 vo]t."lge) and the e;~perimcnter must find tbe optimt.lm
::::::~¢~lIdili(lns.. However. for l.:l.rgc beam dcn~lies. a discharge OC<:Ol"S. which.
:::::::?bviollSly, sho~ld be avoided.
;:::::::: ,A snggc.'\tcd adjustment procedure is to set grid 2 at 30 V and then
i':::: :~vance grid J until the discharge sels in. as evidenced by the immediate
~ ...... ,'
-:' •.. , .
I . :. . . . I'
......
;::::::
........ :: ',
X":JI:·
•
16 1 Exp 9rim&nts on (luantintion
1:2 12
I!! l' 11
~ 10 10
§ 9
~
9
~
c. a a
T 1
6 6
1)
4
3
<?
1
•
-"20 40 60-'-"'""80 100 120 140 160 100 200 2OW--' 0 •
Junctiut\ lempefatlJra (0C)
FlGUl~E 1.8 Calibrati(ln of wpper·t:onstanla 0 thermoc()\)ple using ia: Sf!!od:url.
build-up of the anodecu.rrent. Grid 2 should then be quickly returned to OV

and grid 1 set slightly below th~ discharge voltage; a reasonable filament
voltage is hetween 4 and 6 V. To determine whether the tube is overheated
it can be Laken out of the oven for about 30 s; the con~torcw(ent will then
increase and maxima may appear if such is the case. If the tube is too cool.
the emission cuITCnt be large, and the maxima., particularly those of
higher order. will be washed ouL
It is pos~ible to use an oscilloscope for a simultaneous display of the •
electron or iOD curlleJlt again.st accelerating porentiaL The sweep generafOr

(~awtoO[b) output is fed to the o~elenUiDS grid. white it synchronously
dri yes tbe hOO zonW sweep: the output of the clectroDlelCr is fed to the
vertical input. An excitation curve and an ionization cucvc obtained by a.
student in this fashion are shown in Fig. 1.9. Altentately a ~implc ramp
circuit can be bui It to drive die accelerating grid and the digitized output
of dte electrometer read directly Jnto a computer. .
•
1.3.3. Analysis of tbe Data
Two sets of data obrained by a student for the-excitation potential arc shown.
in flg. 1.10; both clmles were obtained al a temperature of 195 C and with·
Q
+ I Y on grid I. The filament voltage W/J..<; 2.5 V fur curve C and 1.85 V for
1.3 The Frank-Herb Experiment 11
18 I ExpeJiments on Quantization
is noticed every time the potential on grid 2 is increased by approximately

5 V. thereby indicating that energy is transfeue- I from the beam in bundles
("quanta") ofS eVonly. Indeed, a prominentlincin the spectrum ofmercmy
exists at 253.7 D m. c()rrtspondiog 10 1237.8/253.7 - 4.86 e V. arising from
Ihe transition of the 6s6p;' P, excited state (0 the 6s6s LSo ground state.
Our interpretation is that the electrons itt the beam excite the mercu..-y atom
from rhe ground state 10 the 1 PJ state. thereby losing 4.86 eV in the process.
The location of the peaks is indicated io Fig. J.1O and wa.~ measured i~
this case with a DMM. The average value oblainoo for the spacing between
peaks is
5.02 ±O.l V.
to be compared with the accepted ~pectroscopic va1ue fur the energy level
difference (as iurencly mentioned) of 4.86 eV.
Ulling the value found for the spacing between peaks and the locatiOl1
of the tint p~k, we obtajn the contact potential
(6.65 ± 0.15) - (5.02 ±O.l) = 1.63 ± 0.18 V.
As discussed in Section L.3.1, with the configur.ltion of potentials llsed
(Ag. L5b) it is more probable that the same energy level will be e~citecl
twice tatb"or than that several levels will be exciled; indeed, this
is the way in which the data in Fig. LIO bave been illterpreted. This is .
not l>urprisinS if ODe considers me excitation probabilities for the energy
levels lying closest to the ground state of mercury. It iR possible, howeorcr,
by llsing different grid and volt.qge configurations (for example. Fig. l.5a)
and improved resolution. to ob.'iervc thee~citations to other levels, n.1.IJl.ely;.
3
6 1'2. fi3 PO. and 6 Pt.
1
.
For the ionizatioo potential. dCtta obtained by a student arc sbown in
Fig. l.U. A word of cant ion is to be added to the interpretation or such
ionization curves, which seem strongly dependent on filament voltage and
vapor pressure; indeed, the very sharp increase observed in jon curreut is
due to an avalanche (regenerative effect) of the ejected electrons ionizing
more atoms. the thus-ejecled electrons ionizing still more atoms, and so
on. This ava1anche does not neceSSarily occur as soon a~ the iooi:mlion
threshold is crossed. If the vapor is too dense. the ions recombine before
reaching the anode, thus masking the effect until complete breakdown
sets in. •
The curve shown was takeo at a temperarnre of 155°C wiLh a filament

vollageof2.6 V. If. then. theonsclofion current is taken to be at 11.4±O.2 V:
!tW·
W:::::::
1.3 The Fr.1nk- Heru Expe riment
:X.:.;. ;."
~~:::
,::z ;.:-
,~.-- ....... ....
' .'
...... .· .·. .
I ~..... . . . . .
......:-:.;.
'W·
I... . . ..... .-<
,.....,...:... . . /I
,,""••'l.....
.... .. . .. .. T
0
':-:.:-:-:.... ::.
'......... .. ', .
:.:-:
1:
... :.-: .-: .. . ;;e fi
•
..:. . .... ~:.> . 0
.. .r• . . .
'.·r.·.·.·
'....... ' . ..
I;
51
4
'..%.•..,..
'~,,""'. ' , .
::--;::/ .'. ,
I ...... .
,:---",~,:- > ,
.
.
. .r....
. . . ... ..
,......
I
. .. . .
.. ... /
......
,,........' .... .
...... ,\-==~='--:::--_-.J.
' . . . . ....
........ . .
•,:-... :. :.:. ' ,
(I !j
G\GzAoc&lereUt'lgM
10 15
'X'-' '.... .
::::::: ~'J.~~ I.Il l!Jn(lI~n' ~m~ :1(,:o,:II:'l1.li oo;: .'Oltagein the FruIk-Hcro:u:pcri mClll.llI~
I....;..:. ~~· QI
....."',.
8 V 15 due 10 the photoelectric effect
.......•.....
, ' ..
.
~~:: ~~d usi~s: ~he v:J.lue (or Ihe conlrnct POle~ti.1.1 p~viQtlsJy d.ete~n~ (from
:...... ..
.-:·:·:the.c.'tCltalJUll
, curve). 1.63 ± 0.18 V. the lo nl~lUn poteoh ...1IS obtalOed as
........:.:.;.:.
......
...... . ..
,0/..... ,'. ,'. ( 11.4 ± 0.2) - ( 1.63 ± O. IS) = 9.77 ± 0.25 eV
..... .........
;:::;::.~!uy in fail apeement with the nccepled vllue of 10.39 eV.
:::.-::::: : ;~ additional [elture of the curve Fig. 1.11 is a "knee" in the ion cur-
:::::::·r.~~lt. setting in :uapproJl:imau::ly 8 V: the obsctV:l.tionoflhis "knee" as weu
'~·-:' 5S·.$trongly dcpcnoonl on the U'lmpcr:ll.JJfC 3nd Curronl densily. b\.ll can be
~:: ~ci·n sisll~:m.ly reprodUO!!d over a consjderabte range of these paramcll::ro. In
~::.o/der to understand thls behavior we remember lh:tt the arrival of ions 0'11
~:: 'qieanode is equivalent to the depatture of electrons; indeed, the ob.~erved
~::~havior is d ue 10 a photoelectri<: effect produced at tbe 11llode, by short-
~::~;t\lelength liCht quanta (tbe e lutrons are furthf'.r ilccelernred by grid 2).
~~::~hen Ihe electIon beam rC:3ches 8 V. it can excite the 6 t PI leve l (lying at
~;::~:7 eV above the groum.l statc. plus 1.63 v fur contact po1ential difference),
«::: ~~· the mercury a1Om~ radiale the ultra\o10kl liuc llt 184.9 nm when returning
,::::::J~ . the ground stale. 'nlese quanta an:=; "ery efficient in ejecting pbolueie.<;-
:X:: .~& from the anode, and the cylindrical geomeuy of the anode is most
:x;: ~\'ombl c rOT this process.
:::.-:~:. :-
~f:: ::
::::: . . .
,:--~:.;. ;.
:............:-:.
1.4. THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
The hydrogen atom is the simplest quantum-mechanical system. It consists

of an electron bound, due to the Coulomb force, to a proton. It is character-
istic of bound quantum-mechanical systems that their total energy cannot
have any value, but that the system is found in one of a discrete set of
energy levels, or states. Transitions of the system between these states may
occur~ Such transitions must satisfy the basic conservation laws of electric
charge, energy, momentum, angular momenrum, and the other relevant
symmetries of nature~
Transition from a higher energy state to a state with less energy can occur
for an isolated system, and the larger the probability for this transition, ,
the shorter the "lifetime~' of that excited state9 During such spontaneous ,-,'
,
,
,
transitions of a quantum-nlechanical system to a lower energy state, a '

quantum of radiation, or one or more particles, can be emitted, which will
carry away the energy lost by the system (after recoil effects have been taken
into account)~ In the presence of a radiation field the quantum-mechanical
system can either gain energy from the field and change into a state with
higher energy, or lose energy to the field and revert to a lower energy state.
For all quantum-mechanical systems there exists a lowest energy state,
called the g round state.
By observing the quanta of radiation, or the particles emitted during
such transitions, we gain itlfoIlnation on the energy levels involved. The
typical example is optical spectroscopy, which consists of the accurate
determination of the energy of the light quanta emitted by atoms. Infrared
spectroscopy deals mainly with the quanta emitted by molecules, nuclear
spectroscopy with the quanta emitted in nuclear transitions, and so on. In
nuclei, however, the separation between energy levels is much larger't so
that the emitted quanta of electromagnetic radiation lie in the ganuna ray
region; thus different techniques are employed for detection and measure-
ment of their energy~ It is also very common for nuclei to decay from one
energy state to another by the emission of an electron and neutrino (beta
decay) and for certain heavier nuclei by the emission of a helium nucleus
(alpha particle). Similar processes take place in the interactions or decay
of the elementary particles.
The idea of energy levels and their structure for the hydrogen atom was
first introduced by Niels Bom in 1913. However, a complete theoretical
interpretation had to wait until the introduction of the Schrodinger equation
in 1926. Even then~ for theory to agree with observation it is necessary to
1.4 The Hydrogen Spectrum 21
~~:~~~~s;a:~dditiOnal small effects such as the fine and hyperfioe strucrure.

.~ motion. and other higher order corrections. These corrections
derived using the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) so that
iodlayw"ean theorelically calculate the energy leve ls of the hydrogen atom
che amazing accuracy of I part in lOll.
We will use the Bohr thcory to predict the hydrogen energy levels.
!>e,;ause it is so simple. even though it assigns the incolTcct angular momen·
the states . The posrulates of the Bohr theory are (a) chat t1'te electron is
in a circular orbit around the nucleus such that the angular mornen·
is quantized in integral units of Planck's constant (divided by 2Jt');
; ~.an:leIJI. pr = mvr = n(h/21t} = nli; and (b) that the e lectron in this orbit
not radiate energy, unless a transition to a different orbit occurs. We
then calculate the radi i of these orbits and the total energy of the system,
~::;~~~P~;IUS k.inetic energy of the electro n. The attractive force between
~,1 (charge - e) and the proton (charge+c)or a nueiell.'1 (of charge
is the Coul omb force, which is set equal [0 the centripetal force.
total mechanical energy of the electron is
E=T+V
1 2 l Ze 2
= - mil - - - - - . (1.7)
2 41l' to r
m, v. and -e are the e lectron's mass. vel{)(,;ity. and electric charge.

is the charge 0 0 the nucleus, and r is lhe "orbital radius" of the
t~~,~~~. HI T he potential energy. of course, is just the attractive Coulomb
}: octween the e lectron and the nucleus. We can relate the velocity
.. ,to the other variables by using F = rna, where F is the Cou lomb force
tI is the centripetal acce leration . That is
I Ze2 v2
- - - - - m-
47l"to r2 - r'
implies that
2
2 I Ze
v =-----
m 41t EO r
(1.8)
ItlWe ~ume that the nucleus is infin itely heavy.

.•.
"-'1
',
, .
,.
,A
, " ..
,A
,.
,.
,A
22 1 Experiments on Quantization ,.
" A
, .
• ,A
., .,.
,·,,.
,A
,A
•
"'~ " A
:::A~
If we introduce this result into Eq. (1.7) we obtain ,"
," ...
A
,•
,• .
A
~ -~ IVI.
2 2
E= 1 .Ze _ 1 Ze = -.::.! 1 zil = (1.9)
241t8o r 4iT80 r 24Jr8Q r 2
At this point we can impose the Bohr quantization condition
Ii
r .-::.. n ... m,
(1~10)
mv
to eliminate v in Eq. (1.8). Here n is the principal quantum number. We
obtain
~ --- nO' • _ _ __
II'
m 2r2 m 4JrBQ r
or
1 m 1 2
- = 2 2 "" ""'" Ze (1.11)
r n /i 41f 80 •
.
Inserting this result in Eq. (1.9) we find for the total energy
2
mZ e 4 1
En =- 2(4Jl" eo)2h2 n 2 ' (1.12)
For the hydrogen atom where Z = 1, the expression in brackets in

Eq. (1.12) equals 13.6 e V. This is the energy required to take an electron
in the ground state (n = 1) and separate it from the nucleus completely
(E = 0). We refer to it as the binding energy of the hydrogen atom. It is
customary to introduce the Rydberg constant (wave number) through
1
En = -heRoo 2't (1.13)
n , •
,••
,••
where ,••
,••
,••
,••
,••
,•
Roo = 109737314534 m- 1 ,••

,••
~
,••
,••
, •A
,•
· ··:. ,
, ~.
and thus ·. , ~.
,•~.
·. , ~.
· .':.
,•
,
•
·•.,~
,,
El = -13.6057 eV. · ..•
· · ,.
,
,
,
· • ,"
· · •..
.• ,
Fwthennore, from Eq. (1.11) we can write for the radius of the orbits in .':::,.
.. ,
hydrogen ','.~~'-;"
, , ,~,
·· •
.ol~ol
,•
· •,. , ,,
·• , ,•
·, ,
·· •, ,,
,
,
,,
. ·,,••
•
·· ,
··•,•• "
,•
• • ,
• ,•
•
••,
-,
•
•,•
•
•,•
•,
•,
•
•
' .4 The Hyd r ollen Spectrum 23
f----------0-3
~\~(:
0.,: r---------------- 0 - 2
%: •
~:~::
I',
l iCe
-13.6 eV"----------------- 0-1
~}::~.GURE J .12 Boergy-level diagram of the hydrogen alom iJCcording 10 the simple Bohr
,~:.:.:. theory
~$::' .
~x;;::: with
I: a", = ~ 4:;0 = 0529 1772 x 10- 10 m,
t\\\?fatlcd we Bohr radius.

:):::.:. The energy levels of the hydrogen atom that we deri ved can be rep-
:.~;.
~;" :.reseDtcd by Fig. 1.12. However. the lines observed in the spectrum
@;>correspondlOtransitions between these levels; this is shoWD in Fig. 1.13.
~~:: ; ~bere arrows have been drawn for aU possible lraositioos. The energy of
~::: ::a line is given by
~f\·
,...... ..
~::::.::
~.:-:-.
llEU = hcRoo (~-~),
nI ";
(1.14)
~: ::, :,
, ...
V:
~:.; :_ where the subscript~ j and f stand for initial and final stme. respectively.
%-:
~:::' Since the frequency of the radiation is connected to the energy of each
Bfquanrum through
~lr_.:· E = hl1
t\!)i:te finds that
E
I
v
m:::
v...x:
r,:{:
24 1 Exp e rim e nts on au a ntizati 0 n .
....
I
t t Y Pa
,...
I
E
(.")
U) ..... tt Bet
0
~
)(
r-.... - La
CD
0
.... •
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1:./1 ,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
<,
•
t, "yti" ,
•
;0 , •,
•
•
,
,
.
•
,
,
FIGURE 1.13 Transitions between the energy levels of a hydrogen atom. The lines La., , ,
,
,
,,
,
Lf3, etc. belong to the Lyman series~ Bey;, Bp, etc" to the Balmer series, and Pat P~, etc.,
t
,
,
to the Paschen series, and so forth. ,

,
, ,,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
.
and ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1 1 1 ,
,
- :::::.! Roo - .. (1.15) ,

,
n~
,,
n 2 ,,
f Ai! I
,
,
,
,
,
Indeed~ the simple expression ofEq. (1.15) is verified by experiment to a

,
,
",
,
high degree of accuracy. ,

•
•
•
From Eq. (1.14) (or from Fig. 1.13) we note that the spectral lines of •
,
,
,
,
hydrogen will form groups depending on the final state of the transition, and ,
,
,
,
that within these groups many common regularities will exist; for example, ,
•
•
•
in the notation of Fig. 1.13 •

•
•
•
•
v(Lp) - veLa) = v(Ba).

,
,
Ifn! = 1, then
, n?1
Ail = 91.1 ----""" nm n'l -> 2
nf~ -1
and all lines fall in the far ultraviolet; they form the (so-called) Lyman
, ,
series. Correspondingly if n f = 2, then ,
n'J.I
Ai2 = 364.4 . 2 nro
n.l -4
1.5 Expe riment 01'1 th e Hvd ro gen ,S pectrum 25
all lines faU in the visible part of the spectrum. forming the Balmer
}'••nos. Forn I = 3 lheseries is named after Paschen and falls in tbe infrared.
·1.5. EXPERIMENT ON TIIE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
•
measure the frequen cy of the radiation emitted by atoms one can use
a grating or a prism 00 di sperse !.he different wavelengths. When
a prism. one exploits the variation. wi th wavelength, of the refracti ve
of certain media. Prism spectrometers are limited to wavelength
for which they are able to transmit tbe radiation; for example.
the infrared, special fluoride or sodium chJoridc prisms and lenses are
In the ultraviolet. the opucaJ elements are made of quartz. Also, the
Sen.siti,i" y of the detectors varies with wavelength. so thal different types
used in each case (lhemlOpile, photographic emulsion, photorube, etc.).
In this laboratory a small constant-deviation prism spectrograph and a
. reRection gra1i.ng spectrometer were used. We will consider in detail a
lm""",ement of the hydrogen spectrum with the grating, since an absolute
for the wavelengths can be obtained and visual detection is used. A
discussion of prism spectrographs is given in Section 1.5.4.
From Fig. 1.14, it is evident that the path difference between rays 1 and
+dter reftocti,," IS
BD - AC = CB sin Or - CB sinBi .
C B is the grating spacing d. The angles 6j and (Jr are bolh taken as
~:~:~:.~w;;h~:e~:n::th~ey lie on opposi te sides oflhe normal. Since for collstruc·
··t the path difference must be a multiple of the wavelength,
: we obtain the condition
n). = d (sin 9r - sin Bi). (1.1 6)
It can be shown ll
that the resolution of ~h e gratiog is given by
).
- = nN,
t>).
is the order of dirfraclion and N the total number of rulings. The
. apply to a transmission gratiog.
11 See Chaplcr S. Scction 5.5.

26 1 Experiments on Ouantizatlc~n
.- c
FIGURE 1.14 Schematic diagram of a reflection grating. A parallel beam of radiation is

incident along the rays 1 through 4 at an angle (:iii, with respect to the normal; the refiected
radiation is observed at an angle Or. The spacing between the grooves of the grating is d.
Grating
Focusing lens Collimator lens
Source ~::::11~-::::::::;
Slit Telescope position 2
FIGURE 1.15 Diagrammatic arrangement of a grating spectrometer.
The grating is mounted on a goniometer table in the general arrangement

shown in Fig. 1.15. A slit and collimating lens are used to fonrl a beam of
parallel light from the source, and a telescope mounted on a rotating ann
is used for viewing the diffracted lines. It is obviously necessary to ensure
1.5 Experiment on the Hydrogen Spectrum 27
:[I41""""""'" of the incident and reflected beams, nonnality of the grating.

so on. A suggested alignment procedure is as follows:
• (a) The viewing telescope is focused for parallel rays (on some distant
(b) Then with the grating removed, the slit is viewed with the telescope
position 2) to ascertain that the slit is aligned and in focus; in this way
collimator lens is adjusted. '"
(c) The source and source lens are placed in position and the align-
and focusing are again checked The cross hairs are aligned with the
.• :. (d) This position of the telescope is carefuUy noted since it represents

0° position. The readings on the scale should be made to one minute of
by using the vernier and a flashlight.
(e) From now on one may have to work in dark, or by draping the
with a black cloth.
(f) The grating is placed in position and aligned for normal incidence
= 0). This can be done by "autocollimation"; a strong light is focused
the slit and a cardboard mask with a narrow slit is placed on the
:1oiL.:JJWU.J ....Jl lens. The grating is then adjusted until the reflected image of the
....... ~.v~~ slit coincides with the slit itself.
Finally, the lines of the grating should be made parallel to the slit
the cross hairs); this can be done by viewing one edge of the grating
the telescope in position 1.
With any reasonable grating it is possible to observe the visible lines of
spectrum in several orders; thus we expect the measurements for Aid
be self-consistent, since
. A A A
sm8m +l - sin 8m = (m + 1) d - m d= d (1.17)
ma.ep~mOeml} of angle of incidence ei, or order. 12 The grating spacing

is usually stated by the manufacturer; for example, the grating in tills
I <Ih ...... o.t ......... , had rulings on the order of 7000 to the inch (d = 3.629 x
0- 6 m). However, d can be obtained by using one or more standard lines
known wavelength.
12Provided that both 8m and Bm+1 are taken on the same side of the nonnaJ.
28 1 Experiments an Quantization
The following data were obtained by a student using the grating spec-
trometer. The source was a low-pressure hydrogen discharge tube (Cenco
type 87210) operated at a few thousand volts; a 5-kV transformer and variac
were used to provide the variable voltage. The useful life of these discharge
tubes is limited because of the appearance of strong molecular bands after
some hours of operation.
1. 5.2. Deterl11ination of d
To obtain the grating spacing d, s-odium (Na) was used as a standard, and
measurement on three lines (for the shorter wavelength of the doublet) gave
the results shown in Table 1.2. Since for all the above measurements Oi is , -.
.
, • !
,
,
, • !
the same, it follows that "

!
•
,
I. J,i
I
,
~ J,i
•
..
!
..,....
I ~ J,i
, • 1i,J
!
, • ,
,
! , ..
! • ,
,,
! , •
!
•
!
•
,
"
•
• 01
, "
! "
! ••
! , ,
.. .,
! . ,
,, ,
! , ,
,. 4
· ..•
!
,
·,.,..
•
+a
! , .
and a least-squares fit to the linear relation fJx = y can be made; we , ,' .. ".;i,
, ,
·.....,.
·.....
, , ~
have ,
,
··,...
,
! ...
, ,.01 ~
,
·.......
,,
,·,..
••
, ..
~
........
~
1 N L:(nkAk sin Ok) - L(sin Ok) L(nkAk) ,

, ",
, ", ~ .,.
........
-- " ",i 7 i:=., h
, (1.18) ,,
,
••
.."' ~
d N E(nk Ak)2 - [E(nk Ak)]2

,,
,,
,
..."'
"
,, ..."'
...
,
,
,
,
,
...
~
,
,"
, ~
, ~
"•
·...."'
,"
, ·....
, " Jl
, ~ ·.....
,"
, ~
,
·. .....
•
,"
...
...
,
•
TABLE 1.2 Diffraction Angles from a Sodium Source ,"
,
, ,• ..
'* Ii
! 7
, ; , !
"
, ,
,,• .
,,
..
en
~
,,
linnm Ordern 0i = 19° 12' ,,
,, ..
...
• ,,
,,
,
615.43 1 29°42'
, ,•
,
,•
..
2 41°27'
"•
, •, .
, •,
•
.•
3 55°58' ," .•
.·..
"
,•
,
! ,
..
,
589.00 1 29°14'
! ,
!
, •
,
! ,
·
! ,
,,
2 40°21' !
!
,
!
,
,
. ,
0
53 49'
! ,
3 !
!
!
·,
,
•
•
•
4 75°15' ,
! •
! •
! ,
,•
!
, •
,
,
!
, ,
568.27 2 390 32' !
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
3 52°12' !
,
,
,
,
,•
,,
4 70°48'
=, ',*: ii' lite: ii'
- ,: .. !
,•
,
,•
,•
•
·
! !
,
,
,
!
,
•
·
!
, ,
! ,
,
! ,
! ,
! •
! ,
,
,
,
,
! ,
,
! ,
,
,
1.5 Exp!niment on the Hydrogen Spectrum 29
where the sums are over k, k = 1, 2, ... , N and N is the total number of
measurements. From the data of Table 1.2 we obtain l3
~ = 2.708.5 ± 0.009 x 105 m- I (1.19)
in good agreement with the manufacturer's specification.

Some care must be exercised when comparing wavelengths, since they
do depend on the refractive index, n, of the medium in which they are
measured,
I c(vacuum)
c =----
n
hence
I l(vacuum)
1 = .
n
The wavelengths listed in most tables are given for dry air at a pressure
of 760 rum mercury. However, any theoretical calculation, such as in
Eq. (1.15) predicts the vacuum wavelengths. The refractive index of air
at stp is
n(air) = 1.00029. (1.20)
1.5.3. The BaJmer Series
Measurements on the first four members of the Balmer series, which lie
jn the visible region, can be made with the spectrometer described above.
The data obtained by a student and their reduction are given in Table 1.3.
We observe that the obtained values for the wavelengths of the Balmer
series are in agreement with the accepted values at the level of 111000. We
can now test Eq. (1.15) and obtain the Ryd berg wave number. We note that
......
~1 = [~-~]
,.....
RH .
4 n2
So that from a least-squares fit
" 2
RH=~'
LAiPi
13 In reaching this result we have constrained 8j = 190 12'.

,
,
, ",
, ",
,
,
,•
,•
30 1 Experiments on Quantization ,"

,•
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
TABLE 1.3 Data on the Balmer Series of Hydrogen as Obtained with a Grating ,
,
,
,
,
,"
Spectrometer ,"
,"
,"
.l; tit , 'II II Iii ; u, ,•
21 liS
Ii '. ,"
,•
Calculated .. Accepted Balmer series ,•
,•
,"
,•
Color
,
Order A ).. identification , ,
"
• • If; 'Ii au • 'Ii OJ
",
,
,
,
Violet 33°12' 0.22199 2 410.75 ± 6 41n.l7 Hs , ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
0 ,•
41 15' 0.33378 3 , "
",
"
,,
,,
,"
..
Blue 26°16' 0.11698 1 , , ,
,
,•
..
433.82 ± 8
,
,
34°06' 0.23483 2 434.05 Hy ,
,
,•
, .
,•
42°42' 0.35259 3 ,•
,•
,
,
,•
..
,
,
Green 27 10'
0
0.13001 1 ,
, ,
, •,
,• .
, ,
36°04' 0.26316 2 485.75 ± 10 486.13 Hp , ,

, , ,
, ,
, , ," ·
, "
46°09' 0.39559 3 , ,
, ,
,
., "
'"
..
, ,
,
,
Red 30°11' 0.17720 1
42°57' 0.35579 2 657.94 ± 14 656.28 Ha n ·1 -- 3, .
59°29' 0.53532 3
L us II Ii II ii i ' , Ii " fa 51 7 lid 'I
Note. All wavelengths are in nm. These measurements used d = 3692.1 ± 30 nm as detenn..ined
by the previous measurements on the sodium standard lines, and sin 6i = 0.32557.
where
4nf
l
Pi = 2 " 4"'
n·1 -
• •
gtvlng
7 i
RH = (1.09601 ± 0.003) x 10 m-
in good agreenlent with the accepted value 14
Jd 7 -1
RH = 'll Roo = .1.096776 x 10 m .
M+m
",
Here M is the mass of the proton and m the mass of the electron. ",
,
,
,
,
,
,
1.5.4. The Prism Spectrograph ,

"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Long before gratings becanle widely available.. prisms were used as the ,
,
,
,
dispersive element in spectrographs. Prism spectrographs are handy for ,

,
,
,
viewing a large span of the spectnlm and come in various ingenious optical ,
,
t.,.. _
14The difference between RH and Roc is due to the motion of the electron about the' ,.':
center of mass rather than about the proton.
IT
W"
1.5 Experiment on the Hydrogen Spectrum 31
~.'..,.
@f A
~.
~>
~r
w; ••
llit '
liiF
it: •
Mi:
110"·
0::(
",.,.
~', ... '
~W AGURE 1.16 Diffraction of 11 ray III minimLim deviation throog.b II prism of apex Ingle A.
mY
~E:: arrangements. The dispersion of a prism is a function of the refractive
~(.-. index ; thus it cannot be used fOT absolute measurements without careful
~>. calibration.
l'?(~,:-:
~n, In the case of a simple prism at minimum deviation (see Fig. 1.16) the
~f~~:::,: ~~raction angle (J is given by
1\\\:.,:.
m ::;:::: : sin 9j
w.{~:::,,::: -.- = n 2J)r = A
~':;{::,:::' sm Or
W::':-:"::'"
~t><thus
?:::::;::'
;::~;::.:
~•••••
(1.2 1)
where 8; and Or are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

~:>:
and A is the apex of the prism. In Fig. 1. 17 the refractive index of flint
glass as a functioo of wavelength is given. We note thai in the delcnnioa-
Ii.
~~::;:-: -
~}:{::
tion of wavelength from the diffraction angle the relation is by no means
linear and is in general of serious complexity. Further. most modem prism
spectrographs do nOt consist of a single dispersive clemen[, but of some
rp: combinalion of prisms. The instrument used in this laboratory was of the
J§:~:} "constant-deviarion" type. and Fig. 1.18 gives the optical paths for an inci-
~~}: "dent ray. It may be seen lhallhe angle of incidence and the aogle of ex it can
~f{: rema in fixed for all wavelengths by an appropriate rotation of the prism:
lIt:::·
%::::::..
this
bas obvious advantages for positioning and alib'Tlment of source and
@.:::::: detector.
W<·.·: The rotation of the prism is calibrated to give rough wavelength indi-
Wtr··cations. but measurements are made on the exposed photographic plate
~{::::.'
e::~':':.
l{;;;;:
111""·
~J...
~;.:
2.2
2.0
Flint g~ass
.'
Crown glass
1.4
2000 4000 6000

Wavelength (A) .
,
,
,
,
,
FIGURE 1.17 Refractive index of various materials as a function of wavelength. ,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.,
FIGURE 1.18 A constant-deviation prism and the diffraction of a ray passing through it.
or film. A known spectrum is superimposed on the spectrum that is to be

investigated, and an interpolation between the known lines is used.
The general arrangement of the spectrograph is shown in Fig. 1.19.
Source, lens, and slit should be aligned and the SOl:lrce focused on the slit.
By viewing through the eyepiece and varying the prism position, one can
get a feeling for the dispersion and the range of the instrument. To obtain
photographs of a spectrum, the telescope is replaced by the camera assem-
bly. Several exposures can be had on the same plate; to distinguish different
spectra superimposed at the same location on the plate, the "fishtail," which
controls the length of the slit~ can be used.
1.6 The Spectra of Sod ium and Mercury 33
"- - I I
rvcUS ng ons I Cofl9!aflt-devlallon prism
so~r-;-- --&------ ----j-------

Slit
,,,. ,
, ,
Camara lens:-¢-"T
Bellows i 1 i 8
: J i
Plate holder c ,,I I 0
E , B,F
FIGURE 1.19 Schemalic arrangemenl of tlle corulant-<ieviatioo spectrograph.
,
I
I
I ,
~ " •
~ ~ ~• d
•
i .z:;;::::..":!"«~"'!:::,.":': : :; .: :~'
FIGURE 1.20 A spocuugnun of the fiffi four lines of the Balmer series of hydrogen IL'i
oblained with the tonslaIlt-dc";ation $pCClI'Ograpb.
rt: sure containing hydrogen. sodium, and mercury lines is shown in Fig. 1.25.
b~(
~*~
r@}
"
1.6. THE SPECTRA OF SODIUM AND MERCURY
?A::::. l.6.1. General

rf{
*~;}: Mention has been made in the previous section of the spectrum of sodium
ffH:(Na) and mercury (Hg); a brief analysis will be given here, since both
Ii
, ,
, ,~·· .....
, ,~
,
, ,
, ~
.
··.......
, ,~
,
, , ....
, .....J
,
34 1 EXperiments on Ouantization , ,.....J

".
·..
.~,
··..
, ~ ,
..•..
, • ••
, ,
,
.·....
, ....• 11.1
, ,
.· ..
, ~
, ,
,
,
elen1ents have been investigated in detail and are repre-sentative of the one- .
~
' ',/
, ,. .
, ... "'1
'·.''/
.••
~
~
electron spectrum (Na) and two-electron spectrum (Hg) correspondingly. ,•
,,
~ ·....
,..
• ••
~
• ·••
• ·••
~
Sodium has 11 electrons, so that the n = 1 and n = 2 shells are com- • ·••
, ·..
~
~
,· ...
,...
~
~
pletely filled and one electron (n = 3) is found outside closed shells. In ,·...
, ~
,·..
~
.....
~
,• •
this respect the sodium spectrum sh,?uld be equivalent to that of hydrogen

.~,
,
·...
, ......1
, ,
· ".
, ..
, • ...
, '" .~.
except for the central charge that the free electron sees. Indeed, since the , •..
,...
••
••
, •..
~.
, • ...
••
nucleus with Z = 11 is "screened" by 10 negative charges (the n = 1 , I
·•••••.
••
..
~
ifill
,.
..........,
," .1Ii",
and n = 2 electrons) the free electron sees a potential -elr when far «
,
,
, ..
, ..
·.....
iii
01 ..
oj
from the nucleus and a potential (-Ze)jr + C when close to it, where C
,
,
,•
.....••.. ....
,
,
, ,
, ..........
,001 ..
,
,
, ,, ........
is the potential generated at the nucleus by tile other electrons. However, ,
,
,
, ...........
, .. II
.......
,
,
whereas in hydrogen only one energy level was found for each value of ..-""
,
,
,
, ,' ..
, .....1
, 'J{",
,- .. :;.:
n, a more complex situatioll arises in sodium, with severa11evels corre- "
,
,
,"
,"
,....
. . ...
... ,
, ......II
sponding to the same n. This splitting is to be atttibuted to the fact that the ,
',
,
, .. i'll,,,,
..........""'" ",
, ".~
time-independent Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen-like atom, , , .... rI.",
··.-",
, ," .. -.i
,
.......
,"
,
,
, , ' .....If
...,
, ,.... 'III'"
2 2m ....."
, , ' ....,f
·...
V 1/1 + 1i2 (E -- V)t/I
,,
= 0, ,
, ,,
,
....••. .. III iii
, ,
,• ...
......
..
, ,
,
, ,
....... • II
iii •
.... .............
, , iii ..
, ,
, II. •
,
,
admits solutions with a principal quantum number n, and angular momen- '
,
,•.. iI;.t'
...•
tum quantum number I, sucb' that n.. 2:: .[.,+ -'1; when the potential that the
,
,• ...•
....
, ,'
,.. -.
, ,' .....i
, ··......
,
electron sees is exactly of the 'Coulomb type as in the case of hydrogen~ ,
,• ••
,
..
··. . ~
where V = 2
(-Ze )/r the energy eigeri~alues
,• •• ~
.........
, ' ....J
, ,,
,,
, ~ ··....
~
~
···......
, ~
, ~
2 4 , ~
mZ e 1 , ~
, ~
, ~
··....
·..
En =- , Ii
(1.22) , ~
, • • •A
,• • ....
....
,• •
,• •
,• •
, ' .. lllIIIIi
, •, .....
, .... "1IIIIi
•
are independent 15 of 1, and agree with the Bohr theory. However!l the ....
,
'"
• •
,• ·.•••..
·•..
~
•
, •.•
screened potential that the free electron sees is no longer of the simple •
, '·
,.
.... ~
,·.
Coulomb type~ and the energy of the level depends on both n and l. Orbits
~
••
,·.
•
,·.
~
,·.
~
,·.
~
with smaller values of l are expected to come closer to the nucleus and , ·.
,·.
~
~
,·.
~
,·.
~
thus be bound with greater strength; as a consequence their energy will be ,·.
, ·.
~
~
,·,.
~
~
lower (more negative)" , •, .•

~
•
,.
,·,.
~
,.
,, ..
~
The energy level diagram of sodium is shown in Fig. 1.21, where the ,
.,
, •,..•
,
.. ~
,.
levels have been grouped according to their I value. The customary notation
,
,
,..
,
,..
,
,
,..
,.
,
,
=
,
, ,..
is used, namely, 1 = 0 -+ S state, 1 = 1 )- P state, 1 2 ,,> D state,
•
,.
,
,
,..
,
, ..
,
, •.
,
1 = 3 _.) F state, and so on, alphabetically. The last colunm in Fig. 1.21 , •.
,..
.
....
,
,
,
gives the position of the levels of a hydrogen-like atom. ,•
,•
,•
,• ....
•
,
,•
,
,•
,•
...
15This is the so-called Coulomb degeneracy: a peculiar coincidence for the Coulomb
,•
,•
,•
,•
......
potential when used in the Schrodinger equation.
,,
,
, ...,,
...
,
,
,
,
,
,•
,
,
.,
,
,
,, , .,.
,.
,
,.
,
,.
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
..
, ,•
,, ..
,,
,, ..
,,
,, .
,•
, .
,::: 1.6 Th' Spectra of Sodium ,,' Mercury
"
r 1=0
'=1
'=2
SSlale
Pstate
Dstate
1=3 Fstate
,
.,-- .,-- .-,-.= .-,- .-.-,-

0
's 'p 'D 'F H ~
..
~
10
.- !.!.:.l ,- •
•
.-
."
'e
30
'-'-'
.!!..!.!
3
2
~
o
AGURE 1.21 The energy-level dia.gram of sodium, grouped according 10 Ihe orbital
angular momentum, The lasl column give.~ !.he corresponding position of the levels of
bydrogen. The le ft·nand scale i.~ in lOS m- I , referred to 0 for the singly ionized sodium
alom: !.he rigbl-band scale is in eleclIOll volls refelTCd to 0 at the ground sUIte of the sodium
a Lam.
We note that the higber ,the vaJue of 1. the smaller the departures from
the hydrogen-like levels (as suggested q uaJitalively previously). and that
for given I the energy levels for different n 'S follow the same ordering as
the hydrogen-like atom, but with an effective cbarge Z* , which for soclium
is as follows: S states Z" '" 11/9.6; P states Z· '" 11/10. 1; D states
Z· ..... I; F states Z" '" 1.
1.6.2. SelectioD Rules
The spectral lines iliat we observe are due to transitions from one energy
state 10 a lower one; however, in analyzing the spectrum of sodium, il
, , '-
........
A •
, • A
, •, ••
,
........•
, ~ ••.J
,,
,, , A •
,•
,
,
, A
,
•
•
....
A
A
•
..
, • A
,
,
,• •
,• •
•
.... A
,
, 'A
....
,• A
, • A
, ....
,•, A•
, ....
becomes immediately evident that not all possible transitions occur. Thus ,• A
,• •
,, ......
........
,A
certain "selection rules'" for atomic transitions must be operative, and it is , ,,A
, • A
,,
.... ,
,• •
found that for all spectral lines 16 .
.. ,• •
,'A,
, • ••"J
"' ,
.
,,/
"A
, •••J.
, ,
........
, • A
, .... W",
,,,
.til = ±1. (1.23)
......
, • A
,
,
, •• A
A
,•
......
, A
,
,• A
,,
, • • ••
This selection rule is readily explained by the quantum-mechanical theory , A

, • A
,, "
,
.....
:.:......
..., ," .).
of radiation; it then means that only "electric dipole" transitions occur. , ,
·..
·..
,
"
,..' , . .....
.... iii
Indeed, the transition probability for electric dipole is larger by a factor of ,,,
,
,,
, ......... ....
......
,
,
,,
,
...,r
' ......
.. III
(c / v)2 (c, velocity of light) from the next order, while under no conditions ,
, ...........
do transitions occur in which the angular momentum does not change at all
,
,
,
'
,
,
..
..... ~
'''.~
,' ," .:;..:
, ," .oil-:
(~l = 0). By applying the selection rule ofEq. (1.23) to the energy-level
, ,"."".,J
,
, ,".Ii-:
, .Jl"",
, .....
diagram of Fig. 1.21., we obtain Fig. 1.22, which gives the principal lines , ',:.:::
, .~
, .. i'"'""
""Ii ..
, ...... ...-.
'''.~ ,
of the sodium spectrwn; since l must change by one unit,. transitions will ,
,
.... ,
,:.,:..:
}
, .::.a:
, ,".. .rl
always occur between adjacent columns and never within the same one. ,•
, " •• ,;A
....,o •
Figure 1.23 is a reproduction of the visible part of the above spectrum

, ', ""
, , .. .1""
,
,
,
....
...
, • '.1',
J'.
......
·....
obtained by a student with the constant-deviation spectrograph. Beginning
, '''.~
,
',"ii.~
,
,
, ........... ..
~
, .. Jl ... .
01 •
,
,
,, .. .
from the top (long wavelengths) we recognize the following lines (where
, , .. .II... .
'''.~
· ...
,'. ~
, , , '.:;..\ .
the wavelength is given in nanometers)
, • AJ
, .. "'"i'"',
,'
" ,..
,".:;.:
~
, .,oJ
,
',"
,
.......'..-,.
..... '4
, ...:..oJ
, ,
(a) Red 615.43-616. 07 nm ,, .....••

.....
, .. li".J
,•
.
....
,• A.I
(b) Yellow 589.00-589.59 (famous Na D lines) ,• '.1
,• A •
(e) Green 568.27-568.82

, • '.1
,• A • ........
,• ••
,,,
,
........
(d) 514.91-515.36 ,
,
,•,
~.AI
.......•••
• A
..
(e) 497.86-498.29 ,,,

,,
•
...............
,
,, .....••
(f) Blue 474.. 80-475.19 ....•......•
,
, •, • OIl
,,
..................
,,
(g) 466.49-466.86 , ,,
,,
,,
(h) Blue-Violet 449.43 449.77 •

.......•
', ~
......•
,,
,•
,• A
,• A
......
' • A.t'
,•
,• A .........
........
,• A
,• •
, •, •A
1.6.3. Fine Structure ,
,• A ...
' •• A.t'
......-..
, • A
,• •
, ,A
, "..
The data in Table 1.4 on the red, yellow. and green lines of sodium, viewed :~:~...... ,"
with the grating, were obtained by a student simultaneously with the data ,,:~~~~.. ,
used for the detennination of the grating spacing d of Eq. (1.19). In the ,}~. , ,
above data two wavelengths were given for each sodium line. Indeed, by'):;...• ,•
viewing through the constant deviation or the grating spectrometer it is ' :):.. ,
easy to resolve into a doublet each of the lines that appear in Fig. 1.23; the '):... ,
,
,
spacing is on the order of several tenths of a nanometer. '::~:~.

,
, ,,
,
,,
........
----"", ,
,,
'."' .....
16Exceptions (such as quadrupole transitions) are found in steller spectra )~
, • oM
, ...••
,
,•
,•
, .........
,
,
,
,
,
, .........
,
, ,
,
, .,...•
, ,
,
,
,
•
........
,
,
,
,
,
, .......•
,
,•
, .
',.
1. 6 The Spectra of Sodium Bnd Me r c{Jry 37
7
6
5
10
30
40
n =3
FIGURE 1.22 The "allowcd transitions between the energy levels of sodium. The lVave-
M
leogths in nngstroms (10 A = I run) of some of the principal lines are indicaled. NOli: thai
the P stales bave now been shown in two coltlJlll1s, ant: referred 10 as PZ(l1he othe r as
Pl/2; fbe smaU differenc.e between their energy levels is the ~fine strucrure."
....••-
,
,•
,
,•
...••
·... ~ .
, -
,·..-
" ~.1
.
~
, "- ~.1
, • .-.I
, ..
-••
,~
~
38 1 Ex per i men ts 0n Uu ant i z·a t ion ,

,,
•
•
,
.-.....
••
~
,~."~ ·.-
··.--
, ~
,
,
, ... -,
~
~
~
, ·...,
, ....J/l,J
, , .....J/l,J
~
616.1~ ·-.....
, • ~.J/l.J
, .... .J/l~
--
," ~
.
615.4"· =- ,,• ~'.1
,.-
• ••
",.~
," ~
....-.
," '.1
...
, ... WI. ..
, '.t~
589.6'- ,"
, ~
, • A
, •,
,,
.-.-..•• ~
·...,
~
589.0 " ....J

,
, ......J
~
...;:..:
,,
568.8 ...
, , . WI. .J
··...
- .
,
.~,
, ...
· ,
,
...
- ,
,
,
. . . . )Ii
,·...
56B.3 ...
·•,.-"JA
I
, ,....
,
,
,.~
.....
.....
~
,
, ... .. .
,
,
, . .
, • '.I'
,'.;...~
,
, , . "",
I • • •: ' ;
.
·· '.*01"
,
·,
,,,
, ... I
"~
, ... I
.......
514.9 ', ..... '"
I.
, .".1 ",.I
,,
' , , .".1
, , .".1
...'''./
,, ,, ./
498.3 · ,
'
,,
, .......
497.9
· ,•...,JA
, ,•...;,t
,
,
,
,
.......
.........., ,.....
,
· , , • '/L
",. ....
.......·,.::-:...,
,, ,.oJ'
,
475.2 · . ' • ..JI",

' "'AjJ,
' • .o .. EJ
· ' . ~..j'. ' • .o •• J
474.8 ... ,~ .... oofj
::.-:
,
· ' ,••:::J.
'.'.:.:
·',··X
,
466.9 :.:,~
• 'JI".
,'",
.'
J'
, ;,;'
, ,•...;t'
....
466.5 · ,•...;t'
, .. ,AjJ,J'l
,
· , ' :::-:
....•....
449.8 , , • "j
,
,'
' ...•• ~
..}
, ''"....
•
....::1 .}
' ~ ......
449.4 ,' ........~
.
,"":-:-1. ~.
"2
':.;=..:. .
' ... • •
FIGURE 1. 23 Photograph of the visible spectnlm (in nm) of sodium as obtained with a ,"
,,
:.:.~
....
..... ...
.·..... ....
....
,
.......
~
......
, ,, • '.1'' . ~
constant-deviation spectrograph. ,
,
, ~.·....... ..
, .... ··iII
,
·.......
, , ~... ...."...
·....
,
••.
,•
....
·".....
~
,
,•
,
,"
...••"
............"
,"
,
........
," ,~
••.
.....
·.."...".
,•
"~
..
,
~
,"
,
,"
...."
TABLE 1.4 Data on the Fine Structure of Sodium as Obtained with
a Grating Spectrometer
,'
,
' ..
.•.-J"
·.......-.. .
.-...........
,
,
,
, ,, • ill
! " , , , ,
ii' Ii ,
lle (radians)
, •• ..!IIill
Line Order 81 fh•

, •• "ill
·..
, ....ill
. -- ,. .'" 'I
" .l u- , ~
, •• "ill
, •• -iII
Red 2 41°27 1
41 °29' 5.8 x 10-4
'~."'iII
,• ....•
...
," ~~
, • •~
,• •~
3 55°58' 56°00' 5.8 , .,
,• •~
....,.
, • • •oj
· ,,
·
,
,
, , ,
....
,
, , ..
Yellow 2 40°21' 40°23' 5.8 ,· ,
, ' ..
3 53°49' 53°52' 8.7

, , ,
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
, 'A
.......
4 75°15' 75°23' 23.2
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
,, , ....
, •,•
,, ,
, .....
.......
,
,, ,
, ·.
,,
Green 2 39°32' 39°33' 2.9 ,
...,...
,
• A
,,,
0 J ,
4 70 48 70°56' 23.2 ,
,,'
.....
·,.
Wi US !II
Ii Ii s: II
- II·
,
, ,
, ,
,
,,
,
,
.··,,..,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
......
, ,
,
, • .•
,,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ..,,
,,
, ,.,
,
,
.
, , .,•
,
•
,.,
,.,
..
,
,
,
,
,
.
,·,
.
,
,
,
,.
,.
· ...
..
,
,
,
,
,. •
, .,
, ,
,
, •,
, .
1.6 The Spectra of Sodium and Mercury 39
To reduce the data we note that
where OJ is the angle of incidence. Also

•••••• • fh = 01 +t::.6
iji(:' py letting sin t10fc ~ nOk. cos 60k ~ 1.
I~;~~: ~
Wm: ·
3,692. 1 nm an;:~e~::gC:::":::;s wiiliIDeoch ~e, 0:::
:·z··· . (1.25)
:;;':: ':'
~ ·/~e obtain for {).).:

§~!::/: UM
oil).. (F"xpminent, nm) .0.).. (Elt&t valu~, nm)
U.·.·. Red 0.57 0.65 1
tee
%::
: Yellow 0.63 0.597
:»:;:::
%.:.:'
Green 0.59 0.555
W( The experimental data are thus in '" 10% agreement with the exact vaJu~.
;:::::::-: " This splitting of spectral lines was named "fine structure" and must
{{if ·reflect a splitting of the energy levels of sodium; if we express the wave·
11fC lengths of the :;odium lines in wove numbers (ii = II" = vic, i.e.,
;:::::::: ,in a scale proportional to energy since !:::.E = hct::.ii), it becomes evi·
f:~~j} 'dent that the spaciog in all doublets is exactly the same and equal to
sf I ::&ii = 1.73 x 10 3 m- i . Indeed, the doublet STl1Jcrure of alilhe above
~lf~f ),incs is due to the splitting of only the 3 P (n = 3. 1 = 1) level as can be
;.:~.::. ~een by referring back to Fig. 1.22. The splitting of the 3P level is due
~~f:·jo the effect of the electron "spin" and its coupling 10 the orbital angular
~:r ( inomentum (designated by l). According to the Dirac theory, the electron
Wi \ Possesses an additional degree of freedom, called "spin," which has the
?Ftpropertiesofangular morneorum of magnitude s = fi/2 (and therefore two
~{k:,possible orientations with respecl to any axis, fns = +!
or m s = -~).
Wry~be spin s can then be coupled to I according to the quantum-mecbanical
~H)~Iles of addition for. angul:rr momenta; ~s will result in a rotal angular
~p::~oroentum of magrutudc J = 1 + or } = 1 - ! !,
and tbe energy of the
~:}\ate will. de~nd 00 j. I.n the cas~ of sodium, the 3P level splits into two
!
&'e }evels, With J = and J = ~ designated as 3PI/2 and 3P3/2 separated by
~~)~.v= 1.73x 103 m- I .
I~i
I~ ;
@,"
i»0.~.:
,
, ..
• A
~
,
,
,
, ..
•
•
A
A
~
,,
,
,
..,.....
,•
•
•
A ~
A
A
~
40 1 Experiments on Quantization ,
, , .......J
,
·....,.. ~
·...
, , ...A"J
,
, 1O .... J
,
, ,.J ....
...., ,J
... 1O .. rIi.J
, , ".II rIi,J
·...
......J
1.6.4. Electron-Electron Coupling; the Mercury ,

'
', •.. -.I

,.~
...,..,.,
.,..,
', •......1
Spectrum ,
,".. -.I
,.... ........ )11
,
,,
,
, ............
..... )11
,•
, ......••
, , ,..
The mercury atom (Z 80) has 80 electrons. These fill the shells n = 1, :::J.
'fI';
, ,..
=
n 2, n = 3, and n = 4 completely (60 electrons), and in addition, from \~~ .. ,
'.,..
the n = 5 shell, the 1 = 0, 1, 2 subshells account for another 18 electrons. ::::~

• ''.1'
.. ,
The remaining two electrons instead of occupying the I = 3 and I = 4' · }~

• 'j'
11O.-;r.
subshells are in the n" 6 shell with I - 0, giving rise to a configuration ::::~~ , • '.Ii
equivalent to that of the helium atom. , ':~i~~ , 1O.

••
J
We thus have an atom with two electrons outside closed shells ~n contrast ":~~~~
to the one-electron systems of the hydrogen and sodium type. In the two- ' ',)~
electron system., we can hardly speak of the n number of the atom, since ,}~ , 0 • J
each electron may be in a different shell; however we can still assign a .::~~~
total angular momentum J to the system, which will be the resultant of ., .:)~
the values of each of the two electrons, and (as we saw in the previous .)~
section) of their additional degree of freedom, their spin. The addition of)~
these four angular momenta, II, 12, S1, 82, to obtain the resultant J can .:}~
be done in several ways. For the helium or mercury atom, the Russell-)~~ , '.J'
Saunders coupling scheme holds, in which 11 and 12 are coupled into a ~ ::'~~~~
resultant orbital angular momentum L and S1 and S2 into a resultant spin S; ',:~~~~
finally L and S are coupled to give the total angular momentum of the :~~~~
17
system J ~ Since S1 and 82 have necessarily. magnitude !,

the resultant S . :~~~~
has magnitude S - 0 or S = 1. It is customary to call the states with :~:~~
S = 0 singlets, those with S = 1 triplets since when S = 0 for any ,(~~
t
value of L, only a single state can result, with J - L + S = L; when :j~}~

S = 1, however, three states can result with J :.... L + S, L, L - S, namely :~j~~
J = L + 1, L, L - 1 (provided L #- 0). In systems where energy states :)~
have total angular momentum J, the selection rules for optical transitions }~
are different, namely )&·......
··..............
,
, ~
, ' • till,.,
, ·....11
'
. .......""'.,
..
, ~
6.L = ±l ,
,,
, ....1
8.J=O,±l but not J = 0 .> J = 0;

( 1.26) ..
, '<-::-:
::::~
, , """.11
':J.
, ,'..j/,
PI
, ,••.r.J""
" ....
''''''''
'.1".
,, ,'.j/,
o
J
and in principle no transitions between triplet and singlet states occur.
•
, , ,111•..• ,J
,'.:-::.:J
•
,
• ' , . OIl
•
,
,oj
,
,'j/,
....
111
oj
...
•
f i;
.· ',-.. J
,'. J
.. .: .::.-:
, 'Jo:
17ln the ensuing discussion the quantum-mechanical rules of addition of angular momen- · . ,.• J
......
·' ".:J.J
• . . . . oj
, . . . .1
tum are used. Even if the reader is not familiar with them, he can infer them from following ,,
......-..
• , oj ..-
• 111 ...
...............
• , oil •
,
, , ...
the development of the argument. ,
, o ••
,'
, '
','.t'J
,'.t'J
' ..
','.t'J
, ,'.t'J
, ' ,'.t'J
','.t'J
,'.t'J
','.t'J
•.t'J
.: •.t'}
,'.t'J
,•.-'J
oN
.: •.t'}
,'.t'J
":%
,::a::
, ::~
.~
1.6 The Spectra 01 Sodium and Mercury 41
With these remarks in mind we consider the energy-level diagram of

Since there are two eleclrons oUlSide a closed shell, in the ground
both be in then = 6.1 = 0 orbit, and bence (due to the Pauli
must have opposite orientations of their spin, leading to S = 0;
spectroscopic notation is I So. For the excited states o ne should expect
a ramily of single t states and a family of triplet Slates; Ibe singlets.
" = 0, will be
•
I So for L = O. and necessarily, J = 0
J PI for L = l , and necessarily. J = I
I D7. for L = =
2, and necessarily, J 2 etc.
the spectroscopic notation , where the upper left index is 2S + l.

jneli",rielg the lotal spin of the slate; the capital letter indicates the total L
the, at,om. (a,ccc>cding; '0 the convention); and the lowerrighl index stands
J . For the triplels, S = 1, and the stales are
forL = O,J= 1
forL= I,J=0.1,2
for L = 2,} = 1.2. 3 etc.
The energy levels fo r mercury are shown in Fig. 1.24 with some of the
's~,on!:es, lioes of the ~pec trum. It is seeD that the selection rules on t::.L
t::.J always bold. but that transitions with AS f. 0 do occur. It is also
be nOled that the fine SiJ'Ucturc . ilial is, the splitting of the 6s6p 3 P
is of considerable magnirude: .1.iiepo - )PI) = 1.9 x 104 m- 1;
A",-e, - 3Pz) = 4.6 x Ilf m- 1. Figure 1.25 is a reproduction of the supcr-
) )rDptJ,sed spectra of bydrogen (longest lines). mercury (medium length).
sodium (shortest lines) obtained by a student with the prism spectra·
. B eginning with long wavelengths (from the left) one identifies the
OU" Wing lines of mercury:
(a) Red 690.75 nm

(b) Yellow doublet 578.97-576.96
· (c) Green 546.07
· (d) Blue triplet 435.84
· (e) Violet 404,66.
D~____1_$o~______1P_1~_____1_D~2_______1F~1__~___3_S~t_______3_P2________3P~1~____~3R~O~_____3_D3~______3D_2~______
3D_1______3_F.~~~3t_2
3F
--
10 I--
20 I--
30 as6p 'P1
-EI
4078
(.) 40 3P2
c:':)
....
0
6s6p
50 sPo
co•
Ol
60 ~
.....
~
?"f:Jr#J"
70
80 J.-
6Jjs 1.90
FIGURE 1.24 Energy-level diagram and the principal lines (in A) in the spectrum of the mercury atom.
'.
- - . " - . . - . -- . - .. ",". -- - - .". . - - - '. -. - - ~ --

- - . - ~ ~ ..... -"' -. L-. -. -~ -.. -. -. -"' -. -. -. -. -. _.0. -. -"' -. -. -. -. -"' . "' -. -.-. -. -. -.. _._. _. "._ .... _..... _.•. L.L ~ _~ L: _:,.:_:.:,.:.: . :.: L:.:,. :.:L:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: .:.:.: .:.:.:.:.:.: ..:.:.:.:.:.:<. :<.: . . .:.: .~.:.
- - - - - - - - - - -.' •• • _. -. • - •• - • •• - - - - •• - - - - - - - - - - • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - • - - - • - •• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ."_- ". - - ••• - - _ •• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ___ _ _ L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - •
~ :.:;~ ::~~::~~::~:~~~:~:~:::::::~:~:~::~~:::~:~~~::~~~:~~.:~~~~~:.:L~'~"~":~~':~~~~~~~:~~~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:::~::::~ :~::::~.:~:.:.~.: ~.:.:.:. ~.:.~.:":II:< .~II:.::~~:::::~:"~ :~: .:~:~~~:~::~~:~:~~~~.:.:

1.6 HIe Spactra af Sodium and Mercury 43
Phologrnph of the superi mposed spe<:tra of hydrogen (long slit), mcrcury

.~o';",n . ,', length), ~ n d sodiu m (short sli t).
This concludes our discussion of the spectra and energy levels of

sodium and mercury atoms. The same treatment applies to all other
or two-electron atoms, as wel l as to those with a one- or two-electron
Qefici"n" y (hole) from a closed shell. Aloms with more elecrrons OUtSide
are treated on analogolL(, lines, but the coupling schemes
i~~::~::lm~ ore
complicalcd, giving as
rise, in the case of the rare earths, to
f complex spectra.
•
• _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L _ L L _ _ • • • • • • • • • • • I
_ _ _ _ _ .!.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L L _ L _ L ___ L L L _ ••••••• L ••••••••••••• ~ II II II II II II II II II
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - • • • ~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • II • II • II II II II II II II II • II • • • II • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CHAPTER 2
Electrons in Solids
SOLID MATERIALS AND BAND STRUCTURE
>}~o" mauer, as it can be perceived with our senses, consists of systems

very large numbers of interacting particles. In matter in the gaseous
the distance between molecules is great. and therefore the forces arc
In solids, however, the forces are much stronger. Understanding of
thermodynamic properties of "bulk" maner~ based on the microscopic
[he constituent molecules or atoms. was first achieved through
mechanics developed by Boltzmann. Because of the immense
of interacting bodies. the statistical approach is quite valid and has
highly successful. C lassical statistical mechanics. however. was
to explain several phenomena until quantum-mechanical principles
incorporated. As we know. particles with half-integral '!>l'in-such as
" electrons---obey ''Penni-Dirac'' statistics, while particles with integral
~.~ii!'--"" h, "'photc,nsand helium atoms-----obey ••Bose-Einstein" statistics.
fundamental distinction is that the former type ofparticJes must have
~.~'ODlpl,tely antisynunetric wave fU':lction, whereas tbe latter ones must
"
46 2 Electrons in Sol,ids
have a symmetric wave function. This leads to a different distribution

function for the probability that a particle will occupy a certain cell in phase
space.
The experiments in this chapter are primarily concerned with the elec-
tronic properties of solids. Since these properties are deternlined by
the behavior of their electrons!! it is Fermi statistics that are relevant.
Most solid-state materials have a crystalline structure; that is" the atoms
form a periodic lattice. Advantage can be taken of this periodicity so , :
that the macroscopic behavior of the crystal is predicted from the gen-., :':
eral parameters of the lattice and the atoms that forIn it. It is found":' , ,
that the free electrons., instead of occupying distinct energy levels -as ":
they do in atoms and molecules . .are contained in certain energy bands~" ,: :
Knowledge of the "band structure'" is necessary in most considerations ' :
of the solid state and specifically in the understanding of the behavior :i
of semiconductors~ The motion of the free electrons or holes (contained :', ,
in the valence band) through the lattice can be studied in tenns of a,::'
single-particle approach~ Such phenomena as scattering and the absorp- :,:
tion or emission of vibrational quanta (phonons) are invoked and are : :
useful in explaining further details in the macroscopic behavior of the ":
sample. i
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
2.1.1. The Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Let us consider a large ensemble of free Fermi particles (such as electrons);

I
the assumption is made that in phase space there exist many states that
these electrons can occupy. Each ucell" has a phase-space volume of h 3
(where h is again Planck~s constant), so that the number of available cells

for a differential volume of phase space is
.,
According to the exclusion principle, however, each cell can be occupied

by two electrons (one with spin up and one with spin down), so that thE:
number of available electron states is 2n~ If we integrate over the spacf
,. .
1Phasespace is a space spanned by the momentum and position vectors of a particl(

Thus a particle moving in ordinary three-dimensional space will have six components j
t
phase space.
2.1 Solid Materials and Band StrLlcture 47
.co<"din'<es and divide by lhe volume, we obtain the number of states n'
unit volume per differential clement in momenfUm space:
0' ~ ~f!
V
[dO ~
OXYl
(2,)
h
dp,dp,dp,.
.p'''"''', we can obtain the Dumber of states per unit volwne per unit energy
] .'lerval d Wi ~
nl 2 1
ni = - = - 3 41lp 2dpi -
dWi h ' dWi
since for nonrelativistic velocities

p;
Wi=-
2m
dN(w,) _ _ 8n ~
= ni - -h
3
y2mJwi. (2.2)
dWj
Equation (2.2), which was obtained from very simple considerations•

•i<J"eser'lSthe number of states per unit volume per unit energy interval (at
given energy) and is called the "energy density of states." We note that
a simple ensemble of free Fermi particles (a) ail energies are pemrissi-
<1>1. (sm""d N(w)/dw is a continuous and not singular function), namely,
energy is nol quantized; aud (b) the uumber of states i.ncreases with
••~~~1:~~e~n~e:rgy~.
further to specify our system. we wouJd like to know which
• many slates are occupied, orin a statistical fashion, what
probability that a state j of given energy Wi will be occupied. This is
,lhe F'enni--Dim distribution and is given by
N, [ (WI - WF) +1 ]-'

- = ex.p (2.3)
2n kT
k is the Boltzmann constant, T is lbe temperature of the system,
IIIFis a characteristic energy, called the Fenni energy or Fermi-level
interesting to note the properties of this function, graphed in Fig. 2.1:
It is properly bounded, so that il can represeot a probability
0< Nr/2n < I.

I
, • ••
, •
... ;II
~
~
...
~
, • •• ~
, , .I" II
,
, • •• ......... ~
:-:~
·,·........
,..I. ~
, ,.
48 2 Electrons in Solids , • .'.1'
~~
~
I
, . ..I ....
~
I·.·~
, .
,·..
I I • I11III
, ·....
~
~
~
I
· . ..J..
, ....
~
,• '~.i
•
, I ....... .J
,• '~.i
, •
,.~
....
,• '~.i
•
'," .....J
......
' ..........J
, , ....II"
....."
T=O ".
,,
...
, , .. ..II"
·.......
, ,
,
,
.......
..
.. ..II ..
;II "
1 1-----__ ~......,
,
,
,
......••
, ..
,•
..II ..
,
...
·.
,.......J'
, .. ..II ..
~.r
·........
·....
I ...... iii
,
, ~
, .. ill . .
I ' .. . . . . . . JJ
, .. ~J
I
,' ......:--;
. . . .~
';·:"4
,....-0
.......' ':.-::::
, ....ttfj
! , . . . .:.-:
,
,".
, • 0
,'
::-:
......
,'
"'1..
' , ' ••••.J
".":1
".01:..; ,
"':";
Ut W "';:::;,-=
,,.iF
,
' .....
......•
, ,
,,:-:~
,
,;/"
' ".;J'. •
FIGURE 2~ 1 Probability of occupancy of a state of energy wi as derived from Fenni-Dirac ,:~:~:§

,.,.... ~~
· ..
,
,
statistics. , , •I•
"
I·
•..1
U",
...~
,::::~
'J'~
,
", ·....
~...
".iJ
',,::::~
,..«
(b) For large values of Wi it assumes the fonn of the Boltzmann ',)~
':~::~
distribution ::::;~
.:·:. z , . ";.r.
,'''';=~
.:·.......:. z
Const X exp{ -Wi / kT). ,
,
, ,'
,
,
.....
"",,.
~
~
:::~~~
,
, . ''':-:
.....
: :::~.::::
(c) For T = 0 it is a step function, with '
, , ".rl*J
, • '"'.I'J
.<.:.~
, ,"' .....:j.i.
,·. " '. z
:~:;::::
Ni/2n = 1 Wi < WF .;.:..:::
:::::~
:::::::=
Ni/2n = 0 Wi> wp. ,;.:. a:
::::::::
. ::::;,:,o:z
..
(d) For T '# O~ WF has the property that N (WF) = !,
and as many states
' ,·''',:,0:
.: .. :. :;:
,.....,:,0:
'::::::;
above WF are occupied, that many states below WF are empty. '~::;:::
::::::::
(e) In solids and for average T :f:. 0, the distribution function is only :::;:::
::::::::
slightly modified from its shape at T = 0 (for solids wp is on the order of :::;z
,...
....1'.
=
a few electron volts, while 1/ kT 40 eV- at T ~' 300 K).
1 '
,
:~::h
......~
,""zjt
.. ~.
·,·..............
, " ~.. --iI
...';':...Jo:J'
':;;':
~
Combining the FenIu-Dirac distribution (Eq. (2.3)) with the energy .. .. ,

• •
• • ......
jt
density of states (Eq. (2.2)) it is possible to obtain any desired distribution~ .....
· ....
......---.. "
,• "
, " ~
•
,"',,"'
· ....';..:" ,'JO"'JII"'.
,,
For example, the number of electrons per unit volume (density) at an energy , .... ' .. *",~jt
',-..z , ,
w in the interval dw is given by . ....... '',-..

, ,
~J'
, , .. oIIf
,
, •• .... JI'.
, ,
,,
,
• .l'"1A
~
.... .
............. .
.....
-1 , ,
, ',
,
~
... . ......
W-WF ,
exp ,
+1 dw. (2.4) <~~~
...
kT ....
,
, ,-....:J'A
, , - ..........
,
,
"~
,
, .....
• OJ'
~
If we express Eq. (2.4) in terIns of the Cartesian coordinates of the velocity, ',)f~§
vx , v y , and VZ!I and integrate over Vx and Vy; we obtain the number of ,)~~
electrons per unit volume with a given velocity in the z direction, V z (in the , )J§•• •
"...,.
, * ....""
, .. I I .
""
, • ••
···......
,...
,
, .. JI •
,
,
.....
....
,
,"
J
, , , ' JO •
," ,'"
..·.......... .
* ..
, , , --
,
, ............ ....
·.........
,
,· ...7
, ,
, ,· ...7
,
, •, ......
.iO
.. JIj
2. 1 Soli d Mallriats and Band Structu re 49
N(w) N{vJ
r. o
•• ~",-;]""""T,::. 0
\ ... ,/Tz>T,
\
\
.
.\,
w
1'1 101
(a) Number of electrons with an energy w in the interVal dU). (b) Number
." ,'",.,"' with l component of vl:llocity liz in the ioterval du z _
'inl.",'aJ duz). The result of this integration is 2
N(U t}dv z = ~: m_~_T_ 10 (I +C'P (WF -k;v;12) I dv, (2.5)
!'B" Thelwo distributions given by Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Even though the majority of the elecuons in a solid are not free (as we
? :~;~~~ assumed), Fermi-Dirac statistics are applicable, especially to
I In metal s 3tleast one electron per atom has several slates available
in !.he conduction band), so that it call be considered free; since there
be 6 x J021 free elecD'ons per gram mole. statistical methods are weU
.. Elements rrom the Band Theory of Solids
to now, no account bas been taken oflhe interatomic or intramolecular

that rnight act on the free elecuons. Indeed, we expect (from previous
that the consideration of some potential in tbe region where
move will result in the appearance of energy levels ; bowever,
of the periodic shUctuIe of this potential, instead of energy levels,
bands appear, and only the states contained in these bands can be
lA. SOlIUDerfeld. Thumrxiy1Wmics wuJ Sratistical Mechanics, p. 285. Acade mic Press,
, 1956.
, .· .. ,,
,
, .,
....
~
, • A
,
• • ••
,A
,
, • A
• ••
, • A
, • •• ~ ,
50 2 Electrons in Solids ,
,
,
,
• • ••
, ......
A
• • ••
A
.l
.. III ..
..
, • A
, • • ••
,
,
, • ••
A
..
..
.....
~
, • •• ~
,
, , ,• A
,
, • • ••
. ~
iii , • ••
A
..
,
, • • ••
,
A
..
.....
, • • ••
,
,
A
...
..
b .,
~
,
,·..
, • A
,• ••
, ..••
• A
0 ,
, ••
•
.••
A
...
,• ~
,• • A
,
••
...
, ~
~ , •• A
,
••
........ .
, ~
, • • ••
A
,
',"
',"
- Va , , ......J,
I
·• ...
', ••..11.",
.....
.....
J
••
, ,• A.I .
I . . . . . . .../
'........1
.....""'"
,
,
·.........
..... J
,
,I
, '
,'"
...... . ..
... J
FIGURE 2.3 A periodic potential !bat may be considered as an idealization to the actual' J<~~
potential of a crystal lattice. ,,<~~~
. ....
'" .
. ....
, ,
••
'" .
..... ,•
.......••..,
, ,
•• , • . . . Ji
'" JI
, , , ....
, •
...•• , , 01 ... .
,
,
,• ....1
;,r
occupied (with any significant probability)~ In the following paragraphs ...••, ,
, ....1
' ,
I ... • •
· ..
I " ....
,•
. "
, I 01 .... .
we will sketch two approaches toward the understanding of the physical .............
I .... .
I·.·~
,
" ' ~
,
,
..... ,
,' ~
-
origin of the energy bands. .....

... .
,' .... '.JI
~
...
','
', ...... .t'
·
Consider first the one-dimensional problem3 of an electron moving in
~
. .. ,
, ' •••" ;;;/J;;;/J'
,
....
,
", ......~j\
••
... J
'
a potential consisting of an infinite sequence of "square" wells of depth

I .....
,•.t·..• l
, I· .....~
, -: .~::::
Vo and width b and spaced at a distance 1 from one another (Fig. 2.3). , ' . III",
,
' , •• 01..~
, ," .......
tI . . . .
'.I.'"j
:.:
The solution of the Schrodinger equation for such a potential gives for the
' •• r"J
, ·oI~"iiI'"
,'"
, ' .... 01
• • ;OJ
... .rl"J
,
,
,
... "'. ::-\
.........
" " '. . .1
electron wave function ..""'. ::::::.a: ,.}
..•
,',
.. ," ...oi..
,- ::--:
,,"••......"""':it:
:i':
,. ··,..z
(2.6) :::::~
:~:::~
'<::%
'. . . x
witbk = 2x/A ,,,.- p/lithewavevectoroftheelectron~ This wave function :~::~z
, • A~.
ikx <.:. .~
consists of the plane wave part e , and Uk(X), which must have the '~::~~
:~::~~
periodicity of the lattice, namely, Uk(X ± l) = Uk(X). If there are N lattice
'.'.A:.:
':::~a:
';::::::
sites, the length of the crystal is NI and we impose the periodic boundary :;::::::
: :::~:::
condition "'k(X + Nl) = Wk(X) .. This leads to e ikNl = 1, or " :~::~~
:::::a:
':::~z
:.:.... .giiI".
•••••••.
, .........
kNI '" n2rr
, JI . , - .
:':a:
:::":::
k=n2rc/Nl n = 0., ± 1, ±2., ~ .... (2.7) , ....::::~:.:
'::::9.
:;:;:;::
:...~
~:: ~
Equation (2.7) determines the allowed values of k, which foml almost ".:·:. z ,I:-~~
..•
....... .-..-.. ,
a continuum because of the very large integer value of N. Note that for ,',..........7-g
,'
,
N = lone obtains the familiar "particle in a box" energy levels., with -:'...
: »"z
,','".... :=:
,
• • r""'"
'
• • "JI'
, .........
, ' , •...,,/jJI
',' ..• g
"~·"h
,<·:·z
, ........
, ,.:·:·z
.......:JI:..
,..... ,
. z
. . :. a:
'''~·
'."~"JI'
,J, ••• :=:
:=:
' '.' .~",.".
,J, ....
! ! iii i ,',......:=:
'.' .~",.".
:=:
$
' ~",.".
3E. Merz.bacher~ QuanmmMe.chanics, third ed., Wiley, New York, 1998.

,>, •••
:,;~:~;:::
::::~
,', .••:=:
• • "JI'
",...:=:
'.' .~",.".
.
'.' .~ ,.".
'
" '...?
,
'
>, :.~:::
:..:-~x
.
'::::~
:::::~
, :::~~
.•
,•
• •
: :.
2.1 Solid Materials and Band Structure 51
.'
:: :
::::. Having determined the wave function, it is possible tosolve the Schrodlnger
.:. equation for the e nergy eigenvalues
0' (2.8)
where H is the one·dimensional Hamiltonian operator

/i 2 d 2
H = -lmdx 2 + V(x) •
and V(x) is now the potential of Fig. 2.3.
Tbe solution of Eq. (2.8) is given in graphical fonn in Fig. 2.4. We nole
: '.' the following:
(a) Even though all vaJues of k are aJlowed. discontinuities arise at k =

::: nrcl/ (note that for lhi s particular electron waveleogth, Bragg reflection
from the lattice will occur with a haJf-aogle (1 = 90"; nA = 71 sin hence e,
). = 2iln, and since). = 2n / k, it follows thar. k = nrr/ l).
(b) Not aJl values of the energy are allowed, but only cenain ''bands'';
other bands of energy are forbidden.
(c) The relation between E and p (or k) is no longer the familiar
parabolic
(2.9)
I E
I
I Allowed energy bands
-3". -2n -ff 0 ". 2". 3".

-,-i7 TTT
k_
(.) [b)
flGtlRE 2.4 Re.~ults of the solution of the ~implified one·dimensional lattice probleJn.
Plotor energy £ versus wave Dumber Ie = pIli for an electron in a crysta.llattice. (b) The
f'''""d and forbidden energy bands.
• ••
,• ..--
·....-.-
, • II
, , ... ~ II
,
,
.-
, •• III
, • A
, • • II
,A-..
,
,."'
52 2 Electrons in Solids
I
, ...........-.
,•
. . . . II
III II
.."" ..
, .. Alii
,
,'"
, • • IIIIlI
,.-.-
......
, ,,.A
,"'
...
·........
,"'.·"...
....., .. A ..
' • • • A ..
,,J ..... .J
,
,
, ,J
,
,
..· ...."
• • III
...
"
..
.. I
I
E · ...
,
,
,
...
, ... lflii
"A
I
, ' •• ,,"",J
.... .,
, ,,..
, •• ...JI,J
....
, ,........ ..
,
,
~
,•
••
•
......
.... lflii
lflii
,
,•........ • • lflii
,
, .......
• JIll
, • • lflii
, • ....1
•••'.r.
·, ....-
~~ .J
, .... ,111
-
, .... III
, ,·, •.A.I
, .... III
, . . . III
, • • III!
, . . . li
...... , • • l1li
--2s ,
....
, , ..
•
• A.I
-.I.
"
, .. " :"r",.
..}
, ,, ..........
· .. .
' .. ..
I I
~
~
.... .
, ",•..oI.l''''
,
..
,,-.
",,•.oI.l''''
,
'
, • 01 III
,
.•.
..
. . . III
.01 . . .
·' ."~~
........
• " 01 III.
,
,'.
,
,
.., """,--.
, , "
• .01.--
".... .
,'.·oI.Ja:
,
..........--,.
" .0: .. .
.... ........
,', -;/'
---1s , "
, "
, .. 01 III
,
-
, , , " " ...-_

, .. 01 .-:
, , ,,"'--,.
, " 01 .-:
, , ... ".-_
..
, , " 01 .-: , • ",--II
,
,
,
, • " ...-_...
, .. " 01....-:
-_
•••.•
, "
., ~ ...
-:
::::~:~
Interatomic spaoing "'.;i
· • • •..1
, ...., .....'
,' ~
.......~
', .... ::.:
','
, , II ..
FIGURE 2.5 Energy levels of a system of six similar atoms placed in a linear array. ' ,........
,, ' ,,.......II.':':
~
::.:
":.~.~
:.:"':...
,
:.:,'.'.~..:.:
.:.·:.....:..:
. , '.::j=--:
, .01 ..
~
We can, however, r~tain this relation if the mass m is assumed variable and ::::~~~ , , ... •••.J
'. :".?,
a function of k., narriely, .' :,::;~~~
..:-: ','
, . ,."'....
·:.'.:X
,.",
:-:
, ..........:-:
,... -II1II:-:
'·.-1111~
(2.10) ::;;:a
'... -~
':::::3~~
,
'~
.• J' .-
.... ~
,,'.A~
The same fonnalism is carried over into three dimensions, but now >~~
"X
the bands are replaced by allowed (Brillouin) surfaces and the axes of }:~
':.A~
symnletry of the crystal must be taken into account. . ,};a

:~: :~:::
A different approach is to start with a molecular wave function and study ::::~~
':.A~
its behavior as the number of identical atoms is increased. fu Fig. 2.5 are }:~
plotted the energy levels against interatomic distance for the Is and 28 }~ill
' :.A7.
states of a linear array of six atoms (after Shockley). If, then, in the limit '\~~
the (almost infinite) array of the crystal is considered~ the energy levels <~~~
',' <~.o:
coalesce into bands. This is shown in the left-hand side of Figs. 2.6 and };~
2.7, where the energy bands plotted against interatomic spacing are given . )~~
· '~
for diamond which is an insulator (after Kimball}, and for sodium (after }~~*
Slater)~ which is a conductor. If the lattice spacing for the particular crystal <~~ili
" ••J'
is known (from experiment), it is possible to read off from the graphs the : :)~*
.:.-: ,
limits of the energy bands~ This is done diagrammatically on the right-hand :}~:~
side of Figs~ 2.6 and 2.7; also indicated is the position (in electron volts) . .)~~~ . .• J'
of the Fermi level (as it can be calculated, for example, from Eq. (2.4) and .)~~
the electron density within each band). . ::~:~~
•.'.. j'J'
....
· •••
,
z
'" .:1'
:,<·~• ..Mr.
· '.'llJ'
, .
....1".
..-.
.z
,
• .. oil •
.:·~
: ,".rJ'
, ,' .•.""g
.....1".
".' ~
.:
,. , "·,,lilJlj
. .~... :::
:::~*=s
....
, '
,
· ~
2. 1 Solid Mate r ials and Band Structure 53
Ol81T1Qnd C (lSJ9.2s)2(2p)2
4
•
5.4 eV
2.
Valence band (2s (2p)f).
D;aQrammB~C &kett:h
Sodium Na(1S)2(2.s)2(2P)8(3s)
Valence !)and
~r------- 2P
~j~? LaIlit:1I spacing Diagrammatic sketch

~{. FIGURE 1.7 The energy band structure of sodium (conductor) as a function or I3ttitt
~i 5paciIJg. The observed lattice spacing and ~sition of the Fermi level are 31so indicated.
llik
@
t1t/
i{~·:·
From these consideralions il is possible to understand the difference
~\ between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. For diamond, for
f@::: .example. the valence band is completely fiUl!d (this fact follows also from
W¥:: the atomic structure of carbon and the deformation of the energy levels).
~=.:.
'I;
x~:::
,,
,.......
, ,,
, ,., ..
• •
, ,, ,.
, ....
54 2 Electrons in Solids .......
, ' • a,.j
, ,,
, , .,
,,
,,
..
.....
• •
, ,, , .....
, •,.,
, ,
•
..
The next available states are approximately 5.4 eV higher and hence can- ::). ,, .,
not be reached by the electrons, with a consequent inhibition of their }~.. ,
mobility; diamond therefore behaves as. an insulator. For sodium, in con- }~.
.. ,, ,
trast, the Fermi level lies in the middle of an energy band, so that many',::;:::. ,
• •
,
states are available for the (3s) electron, which can move in the crys- :):~.
.. ,,
tal freely; sodium behaves as a conductor. Pure semiconductors, such ?:~ .... , ,
as gennanium., have a configuration such that the valence band is COffi- ::').. ,
pletely filled, but the COl1duction band lies fairly closely to it (0.80 eV) .. :,)~~... ,
At high enough temperatures (that is~ on the order of a few thousands ":i~~~~~
of degrees), the electrons in the valence band acquire enough energy to:)~... ,
cross the gap and occupy a state in the conduction band; when this hap- :'\~~
pens the material that was previously an insulator becomes intrinsically ':,::'~~~...... ,
conducting. ':<~~~
Both the electric and thermal conductivity of a solid depend ori the ,',::')i~ ..... ,, ',
density and mobility of the free electrons. Completely analogous to the ,:):~~
motion of electrons is the motion of "'holes"; holes can be thought of '.:,<~~~ .... , , ,
either as "vacancies" in an almost-filled band, or as electrons with negative >~~~~

effective mass. Due to their the'mlal energy, the carriers have a random :<~~~
4
motion characterized by (3/2)kT E = =

m*v /2. When an electric field :' }~~~
2
is applied, a drift velocity is superimposed on the random motion of the ',<~~~~ ...... ,
carliers, resulting in a steady-state current flow. :}~:

. , ,,
,
..
......
.. JI ..
~
,
, ..
.
Oil
.. .II
. ..
, . . . . IIIIiI
, ~
, • •• ~
,
".
....••
, ..
...
,•
,,
, .. ,,....
.....
~
2.2. EXPERIlVIENT ON TH E RESISTMTY ,, ~

~
,,
..
~
,, ..
, .
,•••
..
, ,..
~
, ,..
~
OF METALS , ,..
......
.~
~
, ,, ,..
~
, ,,.....
, , ..
~
..
, • .• ~
In this experiment we will explore the physics behind electrical resistance :{:.. ,
in metals . What's more, we will do it with a novel technique that measures ':):.. ,
the resistivity of the metal, a property only of the type of material and \~~. ,
independent of the size or shape of the conductor. This technique, in fact, >~.
.. ,,
can make measurements of the sample without actually touching it,. and :::::. ,
has found a lot of use in modem applications. It is based on the paper ' :(.. ,
C. P. Bean, R. W. DeBlois, and L. B. Nesbitt., Eddy current method for <:}... ,,
measuring the resistivity of metals, J. AppL Phys. 30, 1976 (1959). ,\~
, .
First, we make the connection between resistance and resistivity. We ,:)..

,,,
assume that Ohm's law is valid, that is, V = I R, where R is independent ):.
,
.,....
,,
, .
,
, ,
, '.
...
,
''- • ,
,
,
,
4This can be seen from Eq. (2.1 0) and the negative curvature of some parts of the E (k) . <~~. ,
curve of Fig~ 2.4a. . ::;:..

, ,.
,
,
,..
,
,..
,
,
,.. ,
, ..
,
.. ,
,
,..
,
, •,
, . ,
, ,.
,
,.
,
,.
,
,
...
,
,
, ,,
,
, ,
...
,
, ,
,
,•
. , ,
,
,
2.2 Experiment on the Resi stivi ty 01 Metals 55
):-----
L
FIGURE 2.8 An idealized resistor.
of voltage or current. Consider the idealized resistor picrured in Fig. 2.8.

The resistor has a length L and a cross·sectional area A. A voltage V is
applied across the ende; of the resistor. A current I of electrons flows from
one end to the other, against a resistance R, which is due to the elecrrons
interacting somehow with the atoms of the materiaL
Consider Ohm's law on a. microscopic level. The magnitude of the elec-
tric field setup across the ends of the resistor is just E = VI L. The elecrrons
that cany lhe current will be spread out over the area A, so at any point
within the resistor the currfm density is (magnitude) j = I I A. Therefore
Ohm's law becomes
E = jP. (2.11)
where
L
R = p-
A
and p is the "resistivity," a properry of the material that is independent
of the dimensions ofthc resistor. Equatioo (2.11) can be derived (Tom the
:~: '" lheory of electrons in metals. Tbe resistivity arises from coWsions between
: ::' the electrons and the atoms of the material. In a metal, the electrons are
. essentially free, so without any coJIjsinos they wou ld continually accelerate
~: ::: under the applied fi eld with an acceleration a = tElm, where e and mare
the electron charge and mass. However, the collisions cause the electrons
to stop and then start up again, until the nexi coltision. if the time between
collisions is called T, then the "drift" velocity Vd is just
eE,
Vd =aT = --. (2.12)
m
Now if there are n electrons per unit volume in the resistor, then a total
cbarge q = (nAL)e passes through the resistor in a time t = Llva.
I'~·.-.J"
....
-..
, .......
, •-A.r-
,,
,,, •--A.r
,
,• ••A.r
. , ,' ...
......
......
-..
~
, ...
,, .......
56 2 Electrons in Solids ,
· -- '",
, , ,." .
~
.....J
, ,. "',,1";
,'.11 • .1
, , .... J
, ..
,......
.
-Jl"'"
,
,, ... ..
.....
, • JI
• "]I.
]I.
...,.. ...
, I . . . . '"
,, .. JO . . ...
T.ABLE 2.1 Electrical and Thermal Properties of Metals ,

11 ....... "j
",;'
.
, ... JI ...
• a _
'''
e .. "
• • • 7
Electrical
- : :
Temperature
'I Ii
Therlnal
, :
• ,
,
'
, '-.r
,,..
'-.r
,•
,
•
.....
••A.r
.....
...
·I.". 11
•
• "'"
. -
reSIstlVIty
"
coefficient conductivity eo
, ....
11
,11 11·.. .J
.... ......Ji
• -JJ
.,,/",
,,
,
..••
, ..... .J
11 "."r'.
A~
.....:.-:
•
Name z A (~Q · em) (lO-3/K) (cm:1t·:s) (K)

,
',
,
• 11
11
A
A
..
." .
_. , :,
• " • ';
=
,
,
..
,.j
,
11",.
11
11
•
... .
...
...
.. ..
.. J
..
.
,.• Y-
11 11 . . •
, 11 ... . .
'
2,,65 .
~
AI 13 26.98 4.29 0.53 395 , " .r

, :.-:
• A
'
'.
, 11" ."L..
..... .
• A
,
......
l . . . ..
Fe 26 55.85 9.71 6.51 0.18 420 ,

,
,
~
11
}
........
11
11
11 . . .
.....
.... '
I
Cu 29 63.55 1.67 6.80 0.94 333 ,,' ...

.. '"''''.~
",.",
" ...
",
" ·'-1
... ..... ~
~
Zn 30 65.38 5.92 4.19 0.27 300 ,

"'·A...·~
, ,
. 11
,. '" .-.
Sn 11.50 4,,10 0.16 ...." 60 .....~ , ' ,11 ."'.:,:

,'~
50 118.69 ... ,', .."' .... .r
', ••••• 11
, .......
Pb 82 207.19 20.65 3.36 0.083 86 ',' .......:.:
......1'
, 11 • ~.J'
, . .
, " .. 11
• iI"•
... _
.; ~
Bi 83 208.98 106.80 0.020 118 ' ' :.:.~~

_ _' _ i l_ _
Ii _'=_ _,, _ _:; _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 111_ _ _ _ _;;_-
_ _ _ _ _' _ _" _ ._ ': ;=;::x; ., .......::;::
:' :'::~a::x:
,
,
' ,"
.........
,........
:.~
.}
I
,
, • III .-.
'::::~:=::
Therefore~ the current density is "':;:111~%
, '.I':fi.
",".111..~
.; '<.;...~z.
..... ~
, '. '.I'~
. I 1q 1 nALe ',::::~~
J =.
A
= -A ---'t = A . .Ljvd
. = nevd,
Ii
(2 •13) .:}w.
, ... ..trl
':':~.1
, ::::~~
.: ::~~:<=
and therefore, ' .: :::~»xJ'J'
", ...,;::::
, , ,,,."7)'
:':'.».]i}',
m 1 , '.'.;"~
, ... ",."J
p :=: .. 2-· (2.14) :::::;~

,
,':':A:x:~
ne r .A~""
,'';';A::Z
. A:X:
,,:-:-:~
, • A:-r...-:
Often the "conductivity" (j == 1/ p is used instead of the resistivity. ,:.:A::p'
:.;-:z:~
, .... ..
5
Electrical resistivities are listed for various metals at room temperature
..;.:-:».r.r
,~ .»
, ... r"J"
, .... .1''-
', ......:.:::
, - - -1'
in Table 2.1. Also included are some thennal properties, which are closely ::::::~
:, :::::~:?~
related to the resistivity through the underlying physics. 6 One of these' ':,::::::z
. . .»
... ;r;r
,'-.r.r
is the temperature coefficient of resistivity, defined as {I / p )dp / d T. This

,::::~»
..»
.. /'.1-
.':,:»
quantity is in fact temperamre dependent as we shall see~ and the quoted :::;~§
, ',/,.1-
... :; ... ~
numbers should be valid near room temperature. .--::::
::::::?
"
'~.jt)i
:;:;:a:
Clearly, the fundamental physics of resistivity lies in the values for the ::::~~
:.;';;.~
collision time L . The interaction of the quantum-mechanical electron waves :-:'~aa
~ II jt)t
::::~~
and the quantized lattice of the metal crystal accounts for the collision time ,::;:~
:;::;~
::::::::;
, '::::~~
5Values for Z. A, resistivity, and thenllal conductivity are taken from L. Montanet <)~
et al. Review of particle properties" Phys. Rev. D 50, 1241--1242 (1994). The temperature ::::~::::
.. -.,:..: ' ,
coefficient of resistivity, and all data for Zn and Bi, is from D. R. Lide, eRe Handbook of ': ,:.~~
Chemistry and Physics, 56th ed., p. F-166, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1975. The DebyeJ~
temperature is from E. U. Condon and H. Odishaw (Eds.), Handbook of Physics" 2nd ed.~ ': ::::~~'.I'! , ".I II..
Part 4, Tab1es 6.1 and 6.3, McGraw-HilI, New Yor'k 1967. '::}~
6An interesting exercise is to plot the electrical conductivity 1/ p against the thermal '::j~
conductivity (see Exercise 30 in Appendix G). ...U~*
,". -"::A:
, ":':
,
,•• •
'
'.rI"
, •• AI..
, • <IIi"",.
..
....
, • • )<
, ...."", '.J'A.
, , ,...•,ill.jII.
'
..•.
, , , iI".
j
::.:
, , .. "JII
,
........
,
, ,' . . . .?
.....
, ....... ,J'A
',' ~
,....... ;JJ
.....
,, '.....:/1:
,<·:"h~
, .. , ~
2.2 Experiment on the Resistivity of Metals 57
in a pure metal crystaL If there are impurities, then the scattering will
contain an additional contribution. We can write
1 1
=----+----
T TCRYSTAL "(IMPURITY
The scattering from the crystal depends crucially on the vibrational energy
stored in the crystal lattice, and therefore on temperature. The impurity
::::: scattering is essentially independent of temperature.
I"..::~...!; F~:;~~::,u~:~:~:~~~~r~i~i~:~:::~Yi!~!~e~i: ~~i~~o~

'>
•.•..: ....:!:••"",:::,,,,:.,..
surrounds a magnetic field that changes with time. That is, we measure
a signal V(t) that is proportional to some dB/dt. The magnetic field B
W:. is generated by the "eddy currents" left in a metallic sample when the
W: sample is immersed in a constant magnetic field that is rapidly switched
[{, off. Figure 2.9 shows how this is done. In Fig. 2.9a, a cylindrical metallic
~::::: bar is placed in a constant magnetic field whose direction is along the axis
..::I! .:~· ~~I~~~r:~~S::::;I;~e~~:a~s i~~: !:::~~:!~~~e~~::a:e~~

..•:).,,:'.:.•,:, ,.'
is filled with electrons that are essentially free to move within the metal.
(:~ i:.· ~:. :, i:.' the

m::~t ~~~eU:~~~n~~a~~~~!~ ~~a:~:~~a~~~:~tr~::n~e~~
external magnetic field. These so-called eddy currents are loops in the
f:: plane perpendicular to the axis of the sample, and they generate a magnetic
Ii~::::::':
jo:~:.: :
·z·:- .
i-:-:':-.'
?:::::::
~~~~{
B
(a) Field on (b) Field shut off
FIGURE 2.9 The eddy current technique for measuring resistivity. (a) A magnetic field
BO permeates a cylindrical metal sample. (b) Eddy currents set up when the field is shut off
generate a field B of their own. The eddy currents, and therefore B. decrease with time at
a rate that depends on the resistivity.
®.:.:.;.
fit:
~
I
··• ......
............
••
~. . .
.II
~
~ ~
I .II "'~I
• • ,.,J
I I~ •• ""~
I .II ...~I
• • • ,J
I ' / " .... .J)
58 2 Electrons in SoHds -
I 1".11
I
, .......,."J!
.II ...~.
~
I I~ •• "~
...... -III
I ......
- ~.11 . .~
I,:.~,,~
.~
...,~ :...... :~
I
.t
field of their own~ See Fig. 2~9b. However, as soon as the external field is_
I I .II .. ..
I .... ~
I .... iii
, • .,J ~
~I
, I • . . . ..,J ~
I' ....... .Jj
gone, there is nothing left to drive these eddy currents~ and they start to
I .II . .. . - .
I" ..... oJ
I ...... ..I
I .II .... . - .
• • •.J'
1~~".~..Ij
·.x
I .II ....~..
decay away because of the finite resistivity of the metal. The time it takes -:::~~
:.:.:~
, ....... ~
for the currents to decay away is directly related to the resistivity, as ~e '," ...r....:
.~
...·:.~~
- ," .•~.'"j
shall see. , ,':-:~:-:
I "~.J
. ~
... .
, • • • .J
I
, ' ....... ~
We again use Faraday's law to detect the decaying eddy currents. The ', .. ~ .II
~
~%
.. I11III
:.:.:.:::
:t.r
magnetic field set up by the eddy currents also decays away with the same '
:.'~ :::=
I
I~ ". 11.::'-':
' / ...
. . . .~.
" ,",~x
time dependence as the currents. Therefore, if we wrap a coil around the ,

,:::~"w.»
,,:-;.. ~
I .. • :r~
sample, Faraday's law says that an induced EMF shows up as a voltage

I .. • .-:.-:
, ' •• .:;.•.1
',' :.:~X:~
..~
drop across this coil. This voltage drop is the signal, and the rate at which
,',".
,
. ,''%
'
::~~
.~ ....
....:
~
it decays to zero is a measure of the resisitivity of the metal sample~

,
,
"
,· . .x....
'::::~~~ ,:-:..~
'.~
,:::::~~
In order to determine the voltage signal as a function of time, one needs
'?%
, ,,'.'''':=;
to solve Maxwell's equations in the presence of the metal. The derivation ...........: ,
:-:.:';..z.
...::
I ...
':.':~~::':;
is complicated, but outlined in Bean et aL (1959), where a series solution ,
,'-:·~,..'.,'xx·«-
,
is obtained by expanding in exponentials. For a cylindrical rod, this series , ••

:.'::~~~
.I'.
-:' :::~ffi
"
takes the form

,-:'".::.::::
:)%
00 :
' ,
'
::-::::::
....::;::
::::~m
V(t) C( exp(-l;at), ':':-:.:~~
~ :-r.....::
"'::::~ill
"".* "".~
I ...
~ ,
i=l "' '. ',... u:

Y"': ~
:~::~:*
~ . %
where Ci is proportional to p and the A are roots of the zero-order Bessel <:~.r:.--~~....:'
," . .y,r:
',",~%
function, i.e., Al = 2.405, A2 = 5.520~ A3 = 8.654, and so on. Since the ::?»:*
" "':-r..r:
A increase with each tellO, for long enough times, only the first term is ' "'. ..x:
'
jr.r:
~
::::::~
I~.·
,',:-:~x:
.. .....
X. '~
significant because all the rest die away much faster~ That is, the falloff of . .... .
,,·<.:~:»
I
I
....
.....
. . -...
V (t) with time will look like a single exponential if one waits long enough, ,.. '~. . 0:1".:
:<.:.x::•
,I<.:~*:.t"
."~"'I.... ~~
but will be more complicated at shorter times.
' ;'.*
: .........
I .....
.~
:~:::~
For a cylindrical metal sample where the external magnetic field points
along the axis of the cylinder, the result is
I
,,:.~»
"'~*""""
-:-:':y;
I
...
...
~~
..
............
',
, , ...•:.-....
I~ . . . . . . .~
I
I·.·.. . . . . .~. .
:.r~
t tE :::;*~-z.
V(t) = Voe- / , (2.15) I
"
I~ .....
.....
... .. rIIIl~
..
I ....... ~
::=::x
:::;:x
where :::::t:
:::::=*
9 Q. s r2
, ''''';'~~x
,'...·'·x
, ,
.......
'
= 2.17 x
, ,.~
.. :.-...
tE 10- '.. , (2.16)
"
....
,".'
.. .
~
. . :';x~
em p ', ............
,
.,.» ,
',",' .~
'
I .. .
, "
....... ...
. , ...
'
, I ••
I· ......·~
Vo = lONpBo,
"
(2.17) ,
....... ...
I ... ..
..... ..
, I· .....::.-:
,.
....
, "
,,
, ~
, ....
.••.....
I . . . . . ..
I I ...... ~
,
and t = 0 is the time when the external field is switched off. fu this '
.,,•
I
~
~ ..
.......
.~
I
... ...
I ........
I~~""
"'X
equation, r is the radius of the cylinder, expressed in centimeters, and p ,
'
,
,
.,,
,
'
I
,
,~
..
. .....
, ,..
...
.~
is the resistivity of the metal, expressed in ohms-centimeters. Also, N is

I .........
'I~~""'~
" I~··"X
','.'
., ~ ......
·,.....,..
,
,
I ... ..
,
, I . . .. .
"
I
....... . ..... .
· , ...
,'
,
I
I
~ .... .. ...
.... .
.
,,...
,
....... .~
,
, ' , '~
,
,
,
,,
~
.........
I . . .. .
, .~
, ' , '~
· ,.......
,....
.........
.~
"
, ,"~
,
,~
,,I~·"X·
.,.'x
, r_ '
I ...... _
the number of turns in the detector or "pickup" coil and Bo = /Loin (in SI
units) gives the magnetic field Bo set up by a solenoid carrying a current i
through n turns. This equation is only valid for times t on the order oftE or
larger. At earlier times, there are transient terms left over that cause V (t)
to fall off more rapidly than given by Eq. (2.15).
2.2.1. Measurements
The lifetime tE given by Eq. (2.16) is on the order of tenths of milH-

seconds. Therefore. the magnetic field must be switched off considerably
more rapidly than that This is hard to do mecilanically, so we will resort
to an electrical switch, using a transistor.? The circuit that produces the
switching magnetic field is shown in Fig. 2.10. 8 A garden variety 6-VI
2-A power supply puts current through the solenoid, creating the magnetic
field Bo. However, after passing through the solenoid, the current encoun-
ters a transistor (32 I!TIP 122) instead of passing directly back to ground.
The lead out of the solenoid is connected to the collector of the tran-
sistor, and the emitter is connected to ground. The base is connected
through a l-kQ resistor to the 600-Q output of the HP 3311A wave-
form generator. The waveform generator is set to produce a square wave,
oscillating between around -10 V and + 10 V with a period of a few
milliseconds.
Consider the current through the solenoid. First, the DC power supply
is connected so that the solenoid is always positive with respect to ground,
thus the collector voltage is always above the emitter voltage. Second, the
base-emiuer acts like a conducting diode, so there will be a voltage drop
across it of around 0.6 V when it conducts. Also, if there is no current
through the base, then the base-coUector junction is reversed biased and
•.... no current flows through the transistor, or therefore through the solenoid .
-~ ,', . That is, the switch is off. Now when the wavefonn generator is at +10 V,
the current through the base is iB ~ 10 VII kQ = 10 rnA. This turns the
switch on and lets the current flow through the solenoid pretty much as
if the transistor wasn't there, so long as Ie « {JIB = 10 A. You might
want to measure the resistance in the solenoid coil to make sure it does not
7This transistoris actually a "Darlington pair," which effectively gives a single transistor
with a gain parameter hFE = =
f3 = 1000 or so. VeE 6 V does not exceed the specifications.
8For students with minimal experience in laboratory electronics, Sections 3.1, 3.2, and
3.3 should be consulted.
,", ,, ......
,
," , .....
....
, , " ,
,
,", ,, ~
.......
~
,~ ..·oJ
,, , ..
60 2 Elee t ron sin Sol ids ," ,
,"
.. .. ~
.......
,"
," "
,,
l
·..
..
, "
~
...
,,
,"
..
..
"
"
, •,
.. ..••••
,•
,
.
..
.......
....•
~
,
,,
- . ,,
,,
,• .....•
~
......
~
•
, " ~,
Lo
,
, " ,
"
... ..
.. ..
~
HP3311A Coax to scope channel 1

, ," ,
,,
... .....
...
...
,
,,, "
,,
,
...
Hi " •• ~ ..•••• ~
600 Ohm ,
, ,"
,, ......... ~
,• ...••.
.........
~
,
, , "
," ~
, , "'
,
,•
,
....
..•• ~
III
.•• ~
c B
t
,•
...
I ......... 111
," ~
~
Solenoid I
, .. II
~
..
.-,r..
I .......
I
• ~ •II.r
..
, , ~
I ~
E
I
,. ."i·.
' ~ • II oJ
· ,,~ ...
" '~·.tttlJ
, , .... .
",
Lo . ..
R=1K ..."".
· ,' .......
...
, , ttl .JI
, • III 01
, .. 0I.JI
6V 2A
, .... 01
,
,
,
, .... . ...
....... 01
Hi ,,
· ...
..·....
. ....
, • 01 •
-- ...
, • • 01
, ,
,
Ground at ,
,,
, .. ....
.......
.I ..
HP3311A
,
I
,
,
• III ..
,
, ...
... .I
.I ..
.I ...
" , • .oI. i••

ol·"
Test point ',"
,
I
I
' ....
'.
...... III .i,}j..
,
, I
.... ..
.01 .. I
(Probe to scope channel 2) , ,.01....'"

,'.- .....""
., .........'"
,
FIGURE 2.10 Switching circuit for turning the magnetic field on and off. It is a good idea
•
, , ,. ,.
....
I
,
...
..
...
III .. ..
~
~
.
• .. .. II
I • .01 •
· ......
I , .... .01
I • III ..
to check the current through the solenoid by measuring the voltage at tlle testpoint timed
t
,
,, .... ....
....
• .01 wi
. . . . .01
,,
,, ............... III .. .
.01 .... .
against the HP3311A square wave generator. ,

,
..,...................
,
,,
,......
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
.. . , ....... ..
. . . III
,
"
,
,
,,
,
,
I
....• • III
..........,
........ . ....
.... .
', ...... :J
"
"
........'"
, ,.,/Ii...'"
.......'"
'
,
draw a lot of current, but since you are using a 2-A power supply, it is a :J~~
good bet that you are in the clear~ So, when the square wave generator is ::::::~
at +10 V., the solenoid conducts. However, when the generator swit~~es to ,}~~~
.. .. .. III
-10 V (or presumably anything less than around 0.6 V), the solenoid and ',}~~~
..... :- ,
the magnetic field shut off. This is, t = 0 in Eq. (2.15). :~::::~
r. : ,:.:.. jII
, II
The pickup coil is wound on a separate tube., which can be inserted inside ):~;~ , , .. ".,fA
the solenoid. One can then introduce and remove different metal samples ::~:~=~ , II 1I.,ti
from inside the pickup coil. By connecting the terlmnals of the pickup ::)~
· ...
coil to a digital oscilloscope, we record values of V (t) corresponding to :{~ ·. ~
Eq. (2.15)~ There is one complication. The magnetic field shuts off so fast :}~~ .
·...... , ~
that the instantaneous induced voltage in the pickup coil is very large~ That :}~ ...... ,
is, At is so small that dB fdt ~ llB / 6.t and therefore also V are very <~~
large. An oscilloscope would typically have circuitry that protects it? but }~~~~ . . , ""
one should take some care to avoid damaging the equipment. To fix this :}~:;
. . , .. "'OIl
, ""
problem, the simple circuit shown in Fig. 2.11 is used to connect the pickup ,,}~;~
coil ternnnals to the oscilloscope input. The two diodes are arranged so that ' ")~~;;
.. , ""
any CWTent is taken to ground~ so long as the voltage is bigger than +0.6 V ':<~~;
or smaller than -0.6 V, for diodes with VF = 0.6 V. That iS the circuit:~}~t
~'clamps?' the input to the oscilloscope so that it never gets more negative, :tJ~~
but still big enough to make the measurement. . .~;)~~
., , ......
..... ,,
....
,
,
,
..........
....
.... ~
, ,
,
, ...
,
,
,
...
........... ....
..... OIl
,
,
,
,
, ......
...... ....
, • 01 ..
,
, '. 'II ..
, ,
,
,
, , ' ..
........... til
........ ......
, .... .I
,
,
,
,
.......
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
"
, ' .. of
,
In (from pickup coii) Out (to scope)
FIGURE 2.11 Clamping circuit for the oscilloscope input
Sometimes we see the signal "ring" just as the switch shuts off. That is,
we see the decaying exponential but a rapid oscillation9 is superimposed
on it, and this gets in the way of measuring the decay time. If the ringing
goes away while the signal is still decaying exponentially, just use the data
past the point where the ringing is gone. Otherwise, a resistor should be
attached in parallel with the scope mput. It is best if you can get a variable
resistor, and play with the values so that the exponential decay is unaffected
but the ringing is thoroughly damped out.
Before measuring the resistivity, one should know what the solenoid
circuit is doing. Connect a probe to the junction between the solenoid and
the transistor collector. View this on the other channel of the oscilloscope,
and confinn that you see what you expect That is, when the square wave
is high, the solenoid is conducting and the voltage at this point should be
around + 1.2 V, i.e., the sum of the two forward voltage drops for the C B and
BE diode equivalents for the transistor. On the other hand, when the square
wave is low, the solenoid should not be conducting and there is no voltage
drop across it, so the voltage at this junction should be around +6 V, i.e., the
voltage of the DC power supply. This probe should now be removed since
the oscilloscope channel is needed to make the resistivity measurements.
Next, connect the pickup coil to the clamping circuit and plug it into the
second channel of the scope. Do not put any metal sample in just yet. You
should see a voltage spike, alternatively positive and negative, when tbe
magnetic field switches on and off, clipped by the diode clamping circuit.
N ow insert a sample into the pickup coil. Watch the pickup coil signal
on the scope as you do this. The effcct of the decaying eddy currents
9The circuit has lots of "loops," each of which is essentially an inductor. Any capacitance
somewhere will cause oscillations, but the exact source can be hard to pin down. One should
take care to wind the pickup coil in a way that minimizes the inherent capacitnnce. A good
way to do this is to crisscross the windings of each layer.
, .
..
... ..
~
iii
I
,~ ..
, ~
I
I
I
....
...
~
.....
... I
.. . .
..
J
I
~
I ......
...
....J. ..
62 2 Electrons in Solids I
~ ~
I~
I • ill •
.....
JIIj ......
•....oJ'
.1
I I~
,
I
.• ...
•
.....
...
~
~
..
·.
I I .II ..
I .....
I .......
~
·, ..
I I .II ....
I .....
I • ill
~IIIIi
~
I I ... iii
1~~------~----~r-------~------~--~ ..
....:-:
I ~ .......... .J.
,'
,
I • ill ..
.J
••
I I I . " .....
1~.JIIj . . ".J
I "',1
.II
I . . . I11III
I ... .
••
I . . . ..
I • • ..... .1
... ...
~ .II .... .
I ... ..
,, ~
··.... .....
••
I .II .... II
I . . . ..
, ~
I ...
.... ....
.II .... iii
·· ..
I
I ... I11III
I . . . . . I11III
•
~
I .II ... IIIIi
I
~
..... ..
•
I· ........ oJ
I ~ ......... oJ
I ~ . . . ...... .J
• .II .. .
....... I
I
I
•
...
...
.II ..
..
..
.
---c:a
> ..Y-
,' .•
• .II . . .
I .... ..
•• •
I
. I
'
~
..
.II
..
..... . .
......
iiA· ...........
, , ....
, ... .
~
~
c ......
... ..
~
,
, I ,. . . II
C} ,
,
, ~
......
...
, ',
,
- ...
.-,
. , ....:;.:
~
-
...... , , '~
,,
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........
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..........-...
, ' , • ........J
~
......
....
.... .
...
,
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, ,
,
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,
,
....... ....
....
............r.....
~
, '~ ... ".. ".JI

, ... ~
...
,
,
.
,,
,,
,
,
...... .. .
.....
~
~
~
, ,''.......
·r.:.-:=--:
, .......... ...,:..:.
, '~.""
,',
~
,'
,'~
,'.. .r.....'
......,:..:
"
, '~
,~ .....
.......
~
~
" ......::.-: ,
, ',
,
" .. .r.,:.:
.....
.......
...
...
.. .
. .
. ~
..... ..
....
, ,
0- 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
~ ....
......
.
,
,
, " ,
,'
,'
...
...... .
... .
'"
~.
~.
J
T;me (ms) ... ....

,':.': ;-:::=::
, ,
,
, ' ..r ~.
...,:.......;..:.
FIGURE 2~ 12 Resistivity data taken with a high purity aluminum rod as the sample. The ,. .....
,.....
..
........ ~,
, ,
, ,'.. .r... .....
.... . . ~
......
........ .
,
decay is clearly not described by a single exponential at the earlier times. .. .

,
,
,'~
,
,, ~
....
' .........
......
~
,
,
, , , , • .r••,,
','
....
....
....
.... .
. .
~
..
~
' ..... .
, ,
,
, ,.,
, .....
....
....... . .
,
,
,
I ' •
.... . .11 ..... :::.~
I
I .II" ..•
.II.
shou]d be clear~ You may see some transient oscillations of the signal
I ....... .
I . . . . ..
I . . . . . . . . III
• • I11III ..
I .II . . . . III
I ~ ... ..
I . . . . . . III
I ~
. . . ..
I ........ ..
right after the field shuts off, but there should be plenty of time left aft~r
I ~ .... ..
I . . . . . ..
I . . . . ..
I .II . . . . . . . .
...... ..
· .... ..
, ~
I ..... ..
I
. . . . ..
· .... ..
~
these oscillations die away for you to get a smooth curve~ Figure 2412
I ...... ..
I . . . . ..
I .II .... ..
I ...... ..
I
I
~
.... _
...... ..
. . . . ..
~
..... ..
I ...... ..
shows data acquired with a 1-in. diameter high-purity aluminum rodiO at

I . . . . ....
. . .. ..
.......
~
JII ..
· ... .
I ••
, ~
I .... ..
I ...... ..
room temperature as a sample~ The data points are the output of a digital
I . . . . ..
~ .II .... . .
I I .... _. .. . . .
I . . . . . . ..
I . . . . . ....
I .II . . . . . . . .
I .... ..
I . . . . ..
oscilloscope displayed using MATLAB. Note that at the earliest times, there -
I .II .... . .
· . ..
I . . . . ..
I .... ..
I .II .... . .
· .... ..
I . . . . ..
I .... ..
I .II .... . .
are higher order contributions to the signal (as deSClibed by Bean et al.), and · ..... ..
I ~ . . . ..
I .II .. ..
-
. . ..I
~
· ...
I ..... ..
I . . ..
I •• JII
one must choose a suitable range over which the data are indeed described
I I . . . ..
I . . ..
I ...... ..
I . . ..
... . .
I I . . . ..
I . . ..
~
I . . .... .II
I
.... ..
by a single exponentiaL
I . . ..
-
~ .II . . . .
I . . ....
. . ..
I .... ..
I . . ..
The fit shown in Fig. 2.12 yields a decay time tE = 3~051 x 10- s~ 4
I . . ..
I
. . . ..
I I ...
. . .. ._
I . . ..
I . . . ..
I J ..... . ...._
I I .. ....
I I . . . ..
Then, from Eq~ (2.16) we find for the resistivity

I I . .
. . ....._
.
I ~ ••
I . . . ..
I I . . . .. ._
.
I ~ ...
. , ....
I . . . ..
I . . . ..
,I . . ..
,
,
,
I
I
.. •
....
III ..
..
,
I
,
I
....
~
I . III ..
•
III ....
III ..
.....
I I ......
I • III ..
, ~
I • III ...
I ~ .. III
,
, .II" I
~
.....
. ..
I • III ...
, I ......
I I • III ..
I • III ...
,
,
I
,
I
I
~
I
I
•
•
....
.....
.....
III ...
III ...
I • III ..
, • .II ....
I •• ~
where we used the fitted value of tE and r = 0.635 em. This compares ' .::i}~ , I • III
well with the value listed in Table 2~ 1. ,: :::j , ,

I
I
I
.....
~
•
.....
III
, I • III
I ......
, I • III
I .....
, I
• III
I .....
°
, I • ..
I •• III
.. ,,
.,.....
, ~. III
1 Prom the Alfa Aesar company, http://www.a~fa.com/~

I ~ .. III
,
I I ....
, I ••
,
., ,
I
I.
• •
III
III
, .,
, I • III
, •• III
, .. III
, .,
I I •
, ~ • III
, ..
, ~ ~ III
,
, ., ~ • III
I
, .. I • III
, ~ • III
, ..
, I . III
, . ....
, I • III
,
, ~
III
, .,
I I •
, I ...
, ~ • III
, .....
I I • III
,
, I ...
, , ~
, .,
, .....
.,
I .....
,
III
, .,
I I •
, I ••
, •• III
2.3 Experiment on the Hall Effect 63
The main source of systematic uncerlainty is likely to come from the

times over which the decaying voltage signal is fitted. At short times, the
decay is not a pure exponential because the transient terms have not all
died away, so we want to exclude these times when we fit. At long times,
there may be some left over voltage level that is a constant added to the
exponential, and again, a pure exponential fit will be wrong. Varying the
.upper and lower fit limits until we get a set that gives the same answer as
a set that is a little bit larger on both ends is one approach. One"should be
convinced that the results are consistent. For example, use aluminum alloy
rods of the same composition but different radii, and check to make sure
that the decay lifetimes tE scale like r2. This should certainly be the case
to within the estimated experimental uncertainty.
Having learned how to take and analyze data on resistivity. we can now
investigate the temperature dependence. It is best to start simply by com-
paring the two samples of !-in. dianleter aluminum rods, one an alloy and
the other a (relatively) pure metal. Vary the temperature by immersing the
samples in baths of ice water, dry ice and alcohol, and liquid nitrogen .
. Boiling water or hot oil can also be used. These measurements are tricky.
One must remove the sample from the bath and measure the eddy current
decay before the temperature changes very much. Probably the best way to
do this is to take a single trace right after inserting the sample, stop the oscil-
loscope, and store the trace. Then one analyzes tbe trace offline to get the
decay constant. One might also try to estimate bow fast the bar warms up by
making additional measurements after waiting several seconds, e.g., after
saving the trace. This would best be done with a sample whose resistivity,
. and therefore t E, can be expected to cbange a lot with temperature. Pure
aluminum is a good choice. Remember that the temperature dependence
will be much different for the pure metal than for the alloy. Try to estimate
the contribution to the mean free path of the electrons due to the impurities.
2.3. EXPERIMENT ON THE HALL EFFECT
In Section 2.2 we saw how collisions of electrons with the crystal lattice
lead to an electrical resistance, When those electrons are forced to move
under an electric field. If one also applies a magnetic field, in a direction
perpendicular to the electric field, then the electrons (and other current
carriers) will be deflected sideways. As a result an electric field appears in
this direction, and therefore also a potential difference. This phenomenon
,,
,,
....
,• •
,
..
, •,
,
..
, •,
,
,, .
...
64 2 Elee t ron sin Soli ds ,
, ,
, ,
..
,
,
,,
, ....
, ..
-
,•
, ..
,
, ,
• .
is called the Hall effect, and has important applications both in identifying ,:) , ,
•
the current carriers in a material and for practical use as a technique for ,i~; , ,
measuring magnetic fields. i:'~

·. , .
Let us rewrite the microscopic formula for Ohm's law, but this time :,: :. ,,
taking care to indicate current density and electric fields as vectors, and i,:~. ,
,
to also note the negative sign of the charge on the electron~ Following :'i::.
.. ,
,,
Eqs. (2.12) and (2~13) we write ....
- ~
,,
,,
I I~"
·.,. ,,
.....
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
(2.18) ':,::'.:: ,
, ·...
,,
,.,.
,
.
.
,
,..,
,•
,·.
or
,
, ,..
,
, ·..
, ,..
, ,,..,
_m_V_d = -eE~ (2.19)
,
, .
':',:~':
, .
,..,
,
,
t' , , .
.
~ ~'
, .
, I
, , .
,
·.
It is clear that in Eq. (2.19) we have made an approximation, replacing ,::,),; ,
the time rate of change of momentum, i.e., dpfdt = mdv jdt, with an '::)::. , ,
expression that uses the average aCGeleration Vd/ T. This is how we have, ",:'.<, ,
taken into account collisions with the crystal lattice. -:':):. , ,
It is straightforward to modify Eq. (2.19) to take into account the effect i). . ,
of a magnetic field B. We have : ,» , ," .

......
• •
•
, •, '.
,,
mVd ,, ..
= -e{E + Vd x B). ·..
,• •
, ,
, ~
,• •
,
....
,~
T ,• •
,,
,• • ..
,
,•
,•
..
If we assume that the magnetic field lies in the z direction~ and define the ,:~:
•
cyclotron frequency We == eBjm, then we can rewrite this equation as :/.,
...
•
, ,,
,,
,,
,•
,•
,•
,•
•
,,,
,
,•
,
,
,•
,•
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Consider now a long rectangular section of a conductor~ as shown in ',:

Fig. 2.13. A longitudinal electric field Ex is applied, leading to a current'
density fl owing in the x direction. As this electric field is initially turned ':
on, the magnetic field deflects electrons along the y direction. This leads to '
a buildup of charge on the faces parallel to the xz plane, and therefore art
electric field Ey within the conductor. In the steady state, this electric field
cancels the force due to the magnetic field, and the current density is strictly,
I
z
Magnetic field 8 2
~x
~l· i :> t t t t t
~~~}\
(a)
Section
perpendi~ular
, jx
':.:.:.»:. drift vefocity
@(:lue,t starting up.
(b)
~~~r?·
~{>:. + + +
-E~
+ + + + +
Section
f:::::::>
@\parpendiCUlar
@~i::/ . d:~:~~
t;::::::::iri steady state.
8::::::::::>
~{<; (e)
W~~~::::
~::;:::::::
AGURE 2.13 The standard geometry for discussing the HalJ effect (after Kittel),
~~~j~::::in the x direction, hence Vd y = O. From Eqs. (2.20) we therefore have

r::»
~::::::::
~::::::> Ey =
mwc
--Vdx = --
mwc (er ) e Bi
--Ex = -wcrEx = ---Ex·
;::::::::::: e e m m
~:::::::::::
~t<;I'he appearance of the electric field Ey is the Hall effect
M?:: A CO Ilvenient experimental quantity is the Hall coefficient RH. defined as
®t> Ey
i~!~jj:r RH == jx B (2.21)
mf?i'he quantities Ey. jx. and B are all straightforward to measure, and in our
~~~~~~~~<~jmple approximation for electrons in conductors we have (from Eq. (2.18»
~~~~>jx = ne2rEx/m; therefore,
!?:Il~i:]~: : RH = e~T Ex/m = (2.22)

~r::: (neTEx/m)B ne
1?:':-:'»
W;:::>
!t.~~::
@.:;::::
m:::::::
W1k
:&:.... '.
I
,
, ~
.... ~
....
..
I
,• .II
~
II
~
I
, ....
~
I
,• .II II
I
, ~
. ..
~
~
II
..
I . . . II
'L .....
I . . . II
,
~
I
,. . . II
·, ..
~
I .....
, ..
I . . . II
~
I ~ .. II
,• .••
, .
~
I .....
, • .••
~
, .
~
I ~ ....
~
I . . . II
That is, the Hall coefficient is the inverse of the carrier charge density~ In (~~~. , ~
fact, the Hall effect is a useful way to measure the concentration of charge' ::)~. , ~
carriers in a conductor. It is also convenient to define the Hall resistivity as· ::~t I .....
the ratio of the transverse electric field to the longitudinal current den~ity, }} ~ I ~ .. II
that is~ ',}~:

. I
, ~ ....
...
~
.II ..
I
, •
~
I
, .....
PH == Ey/jx = BRH, (2.23) >~~~

·. I
·. . . . II
~
~
I . . . II
which depends (in our approximation) only on the material and the applied::::J I • III III
magnetic field. ': :~~J

·., ,
, I ~ ..
I ....
, ~
·, ..
, I ...
, . . . III
~
III III
, .
I •
~
, • III III
,
I
,
I
I
....
~
~
...
~
III III
•
2.3.1, Measurements ,
?:~:
I
....
~
• III III
,
, I ••
III III
I
, •
~
, , • III III
, I ••
I • III III
, I ...
I • III III
In order to nleasure the Hall effect, one needs a sample of a conductor~':/~~

but not an especially good conductor. This is because one also needs a:)~~~
relatively low carrier density ne in order to get a sizable effect; this of\t I • III •
course leads to a relatively high resistivity~ As seen in Table 2~ 1, bismuth'<~~~

is a good candidate metal~ and we describe such an experiment here. 11 ::r~~~
. , ~
Tile setup uses a bismuth sa mple with rectangular cross section~ mounted ,)~~~
on a probe with attached leads for measuring current and voltage. A ther;..::)~~~ I . . . II
mocouple is also attached to the sample so that temperature measurements ':~~j ·. ~
can be carried out The magnetic field is provided by an electromagnet.'}~:~

capable of delivering a field up to ----5 kG over a volume roughly 1 cm . ,:)~~
3
I .....
The bismuth sample probe is shown in Fig~ 2~ 14~ The width of the bismuth ':}~: I .....
sample is w = 6.5 mm and its thickness, measured with a micrometer,- :(:~:

is t = 1.65 x 10- m. The effective length of the sample is the distance,; )t
4
. , ~
between the leads used to measure the current ("white" and "brown~ as. )~~ . H
,
shown in Fig~ 2.14). In our case, this distance is e = 7 rnm~ Current is {:?
~
• ••
I .....
supplied by a DC power supply, connected to the sanlple through the "red~'· (:~:
n ·. I . . . II
~
and "black leads. The Hall voltage is measured with a digital multimeter~ }~:~ ·. ~
using the "green" lead and the output of a potentiometer used to balance }~:~. , ~
the voltage on the ·'white and "brown~' leads~ A separate bundle of wires- /~~
U
are cOlll1ected to leads that carry current to the heating resistor, and to a.:: :~t I • III •
thermocouple that measures the temperature of the bismuth sample. :)~~

Begin by determining the Hall coefficient at room temperature and for a>j~
relatively high magnetic field. Tum on the electromagnet power supply td·<t ,
,
I
I
,
I
.
......
.....
III •
~
, I • III •
• ·,'wlol ........'YI'I'I'I.m L' , , ~ .. .
I . . .~
11 Semiconductors also make good candidates, with a very low carrier density compared.: )~?
to a metaL For a desctiption of such a senlp, see A. Melissinos, Experiments in Modern,:)~~
Physics, First ed .• Academic Press~ New York, 1966A ' ,:}~
.. . ,
I .... .
·,
, I .. .
I .... .
~
I .....
, I III •
, I • III ..
, I ••
I ....
·.
.... .
, I III •
I • III •
~
I •••
..
, ~
I • III ..
, ~
I .... ..
, ~
I
·, .... .
..
~
, I ....
, ~ III •
I .... ..
, ~
I .... ..
I ~ III •
, I .... .
I ... .
... .-
I ... .
I ~ III •
, I .... ..
,
... .
, I ... .
I ~ III •
I ... .
,
I • ..J.~
2.3 EXlJeriment on the Ha ll Effect 67
'"~ "
" "
l'l'OURE 2.14 Schematic of the probe used 10 make meR.SuremeolS of the Hal l effect
bismuth. Electrical connections are made to the bismuth sample using co pper leads. A
r"~rno<o,<pl."" weU as a resiSlorwhich acts as 11 heal source, isal5(l auacbcd to the.~ample.
, _'__ .'~_ .. bundles of wires emerge from the probe, one of which is used excl usively for
::"~""' the sample and for mr:as urin g its lempcrarurc.
:;,"",md 4 kG. I! will likely need an hour or so to stabilize. In the meantime,

the sample probe removed from the magnetic field, 1\10 about 3 A
;~:l~::: the bismuth sample, and adjust tJie poteotiometer so that the Hall
:~::' is zero. Return the cUrrent through the sample to zero. The sample
get quite hot while iT is conducting so much current. Be careful not TO
iT, or to touch il to anything else.
When the elcclJ'omagnet is stabilized, measure and record the magnetic
by some other technique. Now, place the sample
center of the magnetic field. Quickly ralse the CWTent I thro ugh
sample to 3.0A, and record the Hall voltage VA. Then, quickly, reduce
current by 0.25 A, and record the Hall voltage again. You should carry
series of measurements out rather rapidly to avoid leaving the bismuth
'saJmple at high temperature for any extended period of time. When you
reduced the current to near zero, and recorded the final va1ue of [he
•
•
•
•
•
_.
· ........ ,
, " '"
,
J.
J.
'"
.. "'" oil ..
..
'"
A
......
'" .. oil
... '"
• " ,. ..... III

"A" III
.JJlA",. J.
· '" " '" ... ...

·.,'"""'" ''"".....
... . . ...
" ,. A .. lOll
• , "A .. ..
·
2 E'ectrons in Soiids
·
· , ",. ""' · .............
• " '" .II ...-......
---
68 .' ,..../''0'
· ,, ",,'"JI.. .
• , JI A
~
..
...........'"
• " ,. ,.AI ..
• , '" '" III: ..

. ',
· ,. .. .J ,
• ' . . . . .JIi....
, " '" ,.AI
-,/"
.. .
'" ....
..
, " '" ,.AI , . •
· ,.11"'"
.. """' , "
·• ....
. "'.A=--:
,
"
"''' "'"
, " '" II1II
'" '" ,.AI ..
.. '"
'"
.... •
,
' , " • "',.AI
II
, , """'
..
lit '"
'" .. III: III
" .. ..
, '" "'" .. III
• , • """' .. litIII
., .....
" ....
, ... ""'''''
" ..
lit III
· ,
, " " • ,.AI lit III
, ... "'" ""
3.5 .........
......... •
,
,
,
"
"
.. III
..... lit ,
..... III .
".
· ....... .
• , " ..... III ,
· , ....... .
, , '" ... III III
'"
, , , .......
....... ...
, , '" ...... III
• . . . . . . III
..... , ,........
, . . . . . III ~
, .'" '"...... ...

• '" III .. ..
3 Slope=1.23 mV/A .....

~
, ....... . .
, . . . . . . . III
'" '"
....... ... , .. III ...
->E , ,.........
. ...
, • '" . . . . II
, '" '"
......
, , ,.. ..... . . ..
,
'" '"
. . . . . . . . III
'" '"
, II ...... ...
2.5 ,
'" . . . . III III
• '" ..... II
.... ...
. . . . . III III
· ,. .......
• , • '" .. II II
"--' •
, '"
' · .... 111
....... ....... ...

,
... • '" III .. ..
,
.a 2
..............
........
'.,...--
..--. . .
,
,. ..--....
...-...
, 1 '". ."'.
,,
III III I
.....
........... .---...
, • Ii . . . . .
,
, ,,
..... ...-...
'
....
......
......
,
...-.....
.. ,
"
-:c
>
"'ffi 1.5
......
...... .
.. ...-..... .
....-... .
.....
......
,,
,,,
,
,
,,
. ...-... .
, . . . . . . III
......
,..........
,"
, ,
,
,
. .....
......
, ,
. ..
, ..---
...-..
, ....... . .
, , • II ... • ...
,
......... ..---
, .. .---..
,... " ,
1 ,
....... .
·, ......
,
" II . . . . "
,
, .. II • • "
•
•
..
II . . . . ...
II . . . . "
, , • II . . ..
, • II ...-. . . .
, , • II . . ..
.....
..........
..... .
, ,
,
,
," II . . . . .
0.5 , • II • • •
...... .
,
, , • II . . ..
, • II . . . .
, , • II . . ..
,
" • II . . ..
......
...... . .
, • II . . . .
, , • II . . ..
.
, • II . . . . .
,
',
........ .., .. ,
....... .
, .. II . . . ...
,, '~ ' ...
...-....
o~----~----~----~~--~--~~~--~~ ,
o 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

, ,
,
, , ,"
,
..........
.---... .
, .. II . . . . .
• II . . ...
·..
......
....
.............
.---....
,
"
.---....
,
,.... JI • • "
Current through sample (A) ,

I
, , "
••
,
,
"
,,
"'"
"
.... .......
.---... Ill . . . . . ..
.---. . . .
"
'''.''''',r, ••
FIGURE 2.15 Sample of Hall effect data, taken at room temperature and with a magnetic ::~:)~~;~:
, , .•s- •.
field B == 4.42 kG . ":~:=:~~~:~~
..... "'"
..... ,
"
"
,
," ....
....
....
..... .
. -
.
,
",
, "
,
,
....
......
'Ill ""' • • "'"
."""'."
.............
• • • • ..Ii
........ . .,
"'"
"'",
. '
,
,. .........
...... . . .,
............
Hall voltage, remove the probe and recheck the value of the magnetic· \~~~~~~~~ .......... ,
field. /:::=:=::
........ ..
......... ,,
A sample of data taken in this way, at room temperature and with B =- ' :)t~~~~~
4.42 kG, is shown in Fig. 2.15. A free linear straight line fit gives a slope :':\~~~~~~~
of 1.23 m VI A .. with an intercept very close to zero. In terms of quantities ',\~~~~~~~
......... ,
related to our measurement, the Hall coefficient (Eq. (2.21)) is expressed by ,.:'>~~~~~~
...... . . ,
,
,
"
.......
...... . ... ..
..........
Ey VH/W VHt dVH t :}~~~~~~

RH =
- 'Pw= -_ =
- - - . - -_ a
,. ' ....................
' ....... . .
jx B I/(w X t)B 1B dl B >~:~=~:~
....... ..
, , ......... ..
, ......... , . . . . . . III
..
where we note that our data yields a very good direct proportional ,:':\~~~~~~ , .............
relationship between VH and I. Using SI units, this yields , ,<:~;~:~

...... ... .
........ ,
,
......
......... .. .
,
, ~
.....
-4 . , '«·Z,:
V 1. 65 x 10 m 7 3 ,:::::~~~~~
1.23 X lO-3 . = 4.59 x 10- m Ie '<:'::~~~~~~
A
, uu
,,:.:,~ '..I'~
O442 T
•
.....
..........
..... ,,' "
,',~ .....",r,..
..... ,
,,,, '" 01 . . . .
~
This is quite close to an accepted room temperature value of RH ~ 5.4 x<)~~§~

10- m /C for pure bismuth metal. The uncertainties in measuring the,:}J~~~~
7 3
dimensions of the sample can easily account for the discrepancy. ' <?~;~§
Of course, this sample and this setup can be used to determine the'::\~~~§ .......""'" , ,
resistivity of bismuth. Outside of the magnetic field; measure the' voltage»1~§

,
, ..... .
.....'""''""...."'""'"
, ,
, ,, ........
. ...
........ '" '""'""'""'"
.........
, ,
, , .
, , ,,; "'"
, ,
,, ,,; "'" "'"
, , III• • •
, II "'"
........
..... ..
,
,
, , • 01: "'"
, .... II •
, ,
, , "'"
, • II ...
,",
,
.......
....
........
• II ..
oj ..
,
•
,
•
,
,
......
.........
•
•
oj
oj
..
,
.....
.... ...
, • oj ..
, • oj ..
,
·, , " oj ... .
• , • oj . .
TABLE 2.2 Sample data. taken by a student, for the resisti vi ty p of

bismuth as a function oftemperature, using the Hall effect apparatus
T (oq T (K) P (f"n-cm)

-80 193 70
-60 213 85
-40 233 96
-20 253 110
0
20
273
293
121
134
..
40 313 150
60 333 163
drop along the length f. of tbe bismuth sample, as a function of the applied
current, and determine the resistivity p from the ratio
Ex dVx wt
p=--=--.
I, dl £.
The temperature dependence of each of these quantities can be detemlined
by heating (and cooling) the probe, and recording values as a function of
temperature using readings from the thermocouple.
Table 2.2 lists some results for the resistivity p in (~Q-cm) as a function
of temperature. To examine the temperature dependence it is best to make
a log-log plot of the data vs T since we expect a power law dependence.
Tills is shown in Fig. 2.16 and when fitted gives
p ex T152.
Note that at room temperature (T = 25°C)
p = 1.4 X 10-4 Q-cm
in reasonable agreement with the data of Table 2.1.

Indeed, one expects a T 3 / 2 dependence of the resistivity on the temper-
ature because of the following argument. From Eq. (2.14) the resistivity is
inversely proportional to the mean time between collisions, as long as the
carrier density remains constant. Now the mean time between collisions is
given by
r = A/V,
,' . ···-0
",, -:·:·:.0,...
..
•• .r-.r
•• ~ ~1'
, ' .l • ,,/"A .. -';r

>:, .•. :..·Z'-:
~
"':.-:.-:
:'-..r
"""~0
70 2 Electrons in Solids ........'
.......
,,
,', .........
.... ,
.......
JI",
.J"~
')III
..
,
,
,,
...... ..
...
....... ...
Ji . . .,("". .
Ji IIIi ... ...
,.JI..Ii .. ..
, ...... ..
.l ...... ..
, . . . IIIi lOll! ..
, .......... JIIII
......... ..
,
, .. ..Ii ... . .
,' . . :II..Ii:z
..... ,
, JI .. .AI ..
, ........ ,
, .l oI..AI ..
........
........ ,,
,
' .. .....,
.AI : . - :
..Ii ..
, ,
.. :II ..Ii .. ..
, . . . . ..Ii . . ,
, .. :II ..Ii ....
,
,
,
,
...
.AI
...
,
,
.........
. . . IIIi . . ,
:II
......... .
:II..Ii
....
..
..
........
........
........ ..
.AI . .
, .. :II ..
, ..... ..Ii . . . .
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
...... ....
. . . . ..Ii . . . .
.........
. . . . . . . ...II . . .
...
.. .. .AI . . .
- , ..... ..Ii ... . .
,
. . . . .AI . . "
, ..I '" ..Ii . . . .
-E
, . . . . ..Ii . . .
, , . . . . . . IIIi
, . . . . .AI . . .
.. .. '" ..Ii ... . .
, , "
, .......
1
.... .."
.........
.... ..Ii
.AI . .
.. "
, ... III ..Ii . . "

1 1 ...... _
u ,
..I
..
..
"
AI
..Ii
..
..
..
..
...
, .. III ..Ii .. "
1 ..I ...... AI
I
I
. . ..
..
'"
III
......
......
..
"
-
I I ...... ..Ii
I .. III ...... ..
.. .. ..Ii .. ..
I .. III .... ..
I I . . . . . . ..
I . . . . . . . . ..
....Ii . . . . ..
I ..All . . ...
....
I III . . . .
J ..
I .. ..All ..
.. ,II
.. .. ..Ii . . . .
, I . . . . . II I
I ~ '" III . . .
I .. III . . . . ..
I , ...... .
I .. III ..... ..
I
,
I
I
......... ..
I •
........
........
III .. ..
..
..
...... ..
I I .. III .. ...
, I ......... ..
,
,,
,
....
~ ......
......
...... ..
.
III .. ..
,
,
,
,,,
~
......
..... . ...
...... .
~
, ..........
,
,
,
.........
...... . ...
.......
,
,
,
,
,
,
~
~
.......
...... .'".
....
.......
...... . ..
,
,
,
,
.......
.....
......... . ...
, ,
,
, , ......
......
..... ..
. . .
,
, ,
, ,
,
....... .
...... ... ..
.......
,
, , ......
.......
...... . ...
,
,,
,
, ......
...... .. ...
........
.....
p (25QC)~139 (~ ..cm)
,
, ,
,
, ,
.......
......
......... . ..
..
, ,
, , .......
....... ..
. , ,
.....
.... .. ..'"
........
,
,
, ,
,
"
......
....
......
......... .
..
~
. .. .
, ,
,
, ......
..... .. . .
~
.
, ,
,
, , , .....
.......
.......
.....
~
.... .
102.4 .
, ,
, ,
, ..
.......
....... .. ~
.. ..
.... . .
~ ...
, ~
,
, ,
, , ........
...... ... . .
Temperature T (K) ,,,
~
....
.......
.........
...... . .. .
~
,
,
, ,
,
~ .......
.....
......... . .
...
,
, ,
~
....... ..
FIGURE 2.16 The resistivity of bismuth as a function of temperature, taken with the f!:aU\~:~:~~~
effect apparatus (data from Table 2.2.) The data are fitted to a power law form. ' ",:::~:~~~~~~
........
......
....... ...... , ,, ,
,
....... ... .
......... ,
, ,, ...... . ..
........
, ,
......... , .........
........ .
, ,
,
, ,
.........
......... .
, .......... ,.
,
,
where A is the mean free path for scattering, and v the thennal velocity of}f~~'
.. , ",. ",. ,
the electrons. For v we can use }::~:::::

...
.... ..
...
·....
....... . , ,, ",. ,
,
........
......
",.
, , ",.
1 3 ......
...... .......
,, , ",.
= J3kT/~'~
, ,
2
-mv = -kT
,, ,
or v .....
... ..
·....
.. . . .
,,
,
.
.",.
",.
",.
2 2 , , .. .
.",.
...
.....
...
.....
. .
. ,,,
.
• ••••
.
",.
....
. . .. .
",.
,, ",.
The mean free path, A, decreases as the collision cross section increases,)}~:~:
• ••••
namely as the lattice vibrations increase with temperature. It is found that::){:

......
.... ,
A is inversely proportional to the temperature~ and therefore :(:~:~:~

......
....... .....
, ,
..... ,..
,
~
",.
3 2
t ex: 1/ T / )~~)
. ... .
... .. ..... ...
, ..,
.. .
...... .. ..
,.... .
, .... .
, .
.......
. ,
or using Eq. (2.14), .. ... ... ..
, ... .II •
,.. . . ....
..... .. ...
, • .II ...
, ,,..
, ,........
, ,. .......
.......
....
,
,,
,
.......
,! . . ...
...... , ..
••••
.II ...
, ,
,
, , ......
We can also examine the temperarure dependence of the Hall coeffi-)(} ..... ,
cient In this case it is best to plot RH on a semi-log plot vs 1/ T. The<t<

reason is that the Hall coefficient (see Eq. (2.22)) is directly inversely pro-}\( .. . . , .
portiona! to the carrier density; and we expect the carrier density to depend,::<{. .. , .
on the temperature by an exponential factor, such as for instance shown.::»: "... ,
in Eq. (2.28). The data are plotted in this way in Fig. 2.17, and we recog~,:?}~
nize two distinct slopes. As expected, RH falls with increasing temperature:<\> .. . . ,,
, .. ......... ~
.. ..... ,
~
, ,, ,.
, ,
,
,
. ...,
.., .... ..
, .... .. ,
~
, . . ..
, .. .. ..... ..
,
........ .,,
,
, ,, ,
, ,, , .. ......... .. ..,
,
,
,
, ,
,,,
, , ..
...... .. ....
........... ....
, ..
, , ..
, , ..
, ,
, , .. ..
, , ..
.. ............
. ... .......
,
, , ..
, ..
, , ..
,
2.4 Semiconductors 71
2 2,5 3 3.5 4 4.5

1IT(K) X 10-.3
FIGURE 2.17 Measurements of the Hall coefficient as a function of temperature.
because the carrier density increases. By fitting the data to the form
n ex exp(-Ej2kT),
we find for the two regions
low T, E = 0.02geV
high T, E = 0.120 eV.
Such energy differences are typical of the excitation of impurities. It is
also relevant to note that the camer density at room temperature is
n = l/eRH = 1.35 x 10 19 cm- 3 .
This is quite high and typical of a conductor.
2.4. SEMICONDUCTORS
2.4.1. General Properties of Semiconductors
We have seen in the first section how a free-electron gas behaves, and what
~an be expected for the band structure of a crystalline solid. In the second
.. ..,, ,
,,
,
, ,
..
.. .
,, .
..... ,
~
,
,, ..
... ,
~
, ..
,
,
..
~
..
, J •
72 2 Electrons in Solids • ••
, ,, ,
,, ......
..
~
..
~
,,
,,, , ..... ~
,, ..
.......
..
....
,
, ,
,
,
,
section we applied the model of a free-electron gas to the behavior of the;}~:~.. ,
resistivity of Dletals. In the present section we will study some prQperties.::}~.. ,
of semiconductors that can be verified easily ill the laboratory, where wei; :~}.. ,
will make use both of the free electron gas model and of the band structure:,.::}.. ,
of the material. As mentioned before, a semiconductor is a crystalline ::/ • •
solid in which the conduction band lies close to the valence band~ but is,:}~ .. ,
not populated at low temperahlres; semiconductors are unlike most metals ?~~~. , ~
in that both electrons and holes are responsible for the properties of the;\~~.... ,
semiconductor. If the semiconductor is a pure crystal, the number of holes-,: :~~~~

(positive carriers, p) is equal to the number of free electrons (negative:::}: j ....
carriers., n), since for each electron raised to the conduction band, a hole,:)~: , .. II •
is created in the valence band: these are called the intrinsic carriers. A1ri:~:i: ,
,
,
..
•
II •
II
practically important semiconductor materials; however, have in them a:)~~

certain amount of impurities that are capable either of donating electrons-::;J~
to the conduction band (making an n-type crystal) or of accepting electrons}~~~j
from the valence band, thus creating holes in it (making a p-type crystal).}~~~~
These impurities are called extrinsic carriers and in such crystals n ;;fo p-..>J • , , • III
Let us then first look at the energy-band picture of a semiconductor as ir\~~

is shown in Fig. 2.18; the impurities are all concentrated at a single energy,(~~ .. , iii ..
level usually lying close to, but below, the conduction band. The densitY</~ .. ,
of states must be different from that of a free-electron gas (Eq. (2.4) and,:?~.. ,
Fig. 2.2a) since~ for example, in the forbidden gaps it must be 0; close to'i>~
the ends of the allowed bands it varies as E /2 and reduces to 0 on the edge.,': \~.
1
....
, ~
• •
..
.....
, ,,
, ,, ~
..
,, ~
,,,
·....
, ,,
,
,
~
·..
, .. ,
~
,
,
..
..·..
, ,,
,
,
~
•
JI
JI
,
,, ...... ,
,.~
,
, '" " . ·.... ,, ~
, • •• .
.. .
~
, .. JI •
·..
,
, ,,
,
, , -
-
...
..
....
,
, .. II • ...
......
·..
, • •• ~
, -
, • ••
,, -
, , ,- ..
·..
......
~
,, ,
,, ,
,, .,
,, , .....
,
,, , ,
......
,. II ~
,, ,
, .....
,, , ,
..., JI ~
,
, , ,.
, ,,
,
,
,II
'11 ..
, • ••
.
j
......" ~
, , .
, , ,...... .. '" "
....
,
, , ,......
,
, , ,. .
.. '"
, ,
.... 11 ..
, , , ,......
, ,,
,
.. '"
. ......"
..........
, '11 ..
,
, , , '" ,
, , .. 11 ..
Other fined D(/E) , ,

,,
, , III ..
, , , .. Ii. "
bands ........"
,
, , . .. .
, ,
, ,, .
, " , ....
, , ,. .
FIGURE 2.18 Energy band structure of a semiconductor without impurities. On the left~;:::~:: .... , ,
hand side the Penni distribution for a free-electron gas is shown~ 011 the right-hand side the~:::::~
acmal density of states D(E) is shown.
..
.... ,.
,>:;::......
,
..
, ..
, ,..
,
,
,,
......
, ''''
.... ,
, ,
,
.. ,
, , .. ,
,
, ,
,,
,,, ..... .. ,
.. ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
........
,
..
.. ,
JI
11
..
·...
,
, , .. ,
,
,
,
,
......
, 11 ..
,
....
,• ••
, .. AI ..
,
,
,• , AI ..
••
, , .. II
••
,,,
•
..... -
the other hand, the Fermi distribution function, Eq. (2.3), remains the
The only parameter in this function is the Fermi energy, which can be
by integrating the number of occupied states (Fermi function times
of states) and setting it equal to the electron density. It is clear,
hr.'''P.'UPr that if we are to have as many empty states in the valence band as
OC(:UDIea ones in the conduction band, the Fermi level must lie exactly in
middle of the forbidden gap12 (because of the symmetry of the trailing
of the distribution). In Fig. 2.18, the density of states is shown to
right and the Fermi distribution function to the left. We measure the
VVO'H"'~'~ of the Fermi levelfrom the conduction band and define it by EF;
exact value of EF is
Ep
E
= -~ (m*)3/4
+kTln ~
2 m: (2.24)
Since the Fermi level lies below the conduction band, EF is a negative
quantity, Eg is the energy gap always taken to be positive, and mj; and m;
: are the effective masses of holes and electrons, respectively. If we and WF
. for the actual position of the conduction band and Permi level above
tile zero point energy, then
To find the density of electrons in the conduction band (or holes in the
. valence band) we simply substitute Eq. (2.24) for WF' into Eq. (2.4), multiply
by the density of states, and integrate over w from w = we to +00. When,
bowever, the exponent
Eg
-(WF - w) ~ "2 + E » kT, (2.25)
the Penni distribution degenerates to a Boltzmann distribution. (Here E

: . is the energy of the electrons as measured from the top of the conduction
. band; obviously it can take either positive or negative values.) With this
assumption the integration is easy, yielding
n= (
27rmekT ) 3/2 e E F /kT ::::::
(k
27rme T )3/2 e -E /2kT
g • (2.26)
h2 h2 '
l2If the effective masses of p- and n-type carriers are the same.
...... . .
- - I . . . . . ...
·, I
~
. . . . . . ..
_ I III~
· , ....
.II
I .... I ..
I .. II .. ~
• , .... ,-..1
, . . . . .. . -
- ,.J.J".........~1
-,-' ..... ..-. .II. .J/l ~

- , • I
..........y.
14 2 Electrons in SoHds -,' .........:;..:
....
............-;...
.,.J"" .........J1
·-- ,,, ...... , .. JI . . . . ..
......,...
, .. .II .. "" ..
, . '"'
.... :..-....
- , , ......
, ', ............jA
- , ...... . -' II .... ,..
, ,
I .......
........ ..
:
similarly,
I . . . . . . .-"'"
~
-.
- '
',
I
I
........
I
' .. .III .......
....
~.
_.,,/
, .. II .,j"",
, ...... ........-,AI
I'.· ......~.J
3/2 ,' ... .. ~ .1
2X"!..h kT e-Eg/2kT. (2.27),:::)J~~ ".~~

, ........
h2 .
,
, .II.. jill
, , .......... ...
'." .........-j
......
....... ...
,.- , .r-,
, , ............... .J
.. JIll. ...
It is interesting that the product np is independent of the position of the:}{~a

Fermi level 13
especially if we take me mh =."
.
:i\~~
' -' "' ... ~
n?l = np =- 2.31 X l031T3e--Eg/kT. .. ,:)~1$
.
.
•
.... ..
"~""""'j
, ,
, ....
. " oil,
, ' , •• J.~• • .J
..
From the analysis we expect that as the temperature is raised, the density»~~~
of the intrinsic carriers in a semiconductor will increase at an exponential{~~~
.... , , ~
rate characterized by E g /2kT. TIlls temperature is usually very high since<)~~ " ... '.J'~
Eg ~ 0.7 V (see Eqs. (2.29))~<~~~~

We have already mentioned that impurities determine the properties of:)3~
a semiconductor, especially at low temperatures where very few il1trin-(~~~;t
sic carriers are populating the conduction bandp These impurities, whelt:\&~
in their ground state~ are
usually concentrated in a single energy levet)3]
lying very close to the conduction band (if they are donor impurities} oJi/~~~
very close to the valence band (if they are acceptors). As for the intrinsid(~;~
carriers. the Fermi level for the impurity carries lies halfway between tlufii~~
conduction (valence) band and the impurity level; this situation is shown in}~:~~
Figs. 2.19a and 2.19b. If we make again the low temperature approximation}f~~~~
ofEq. (2.25), the electron density in the conduction band is given by ~:}:~ , • 01 ".,r
• ,~ . . . .J/l. . .ilytA
".J/l~
, :~::::: ~
, . 0I~..r
.
-J"
•• A
".I"'.-
(2.28')/:~'::-:·:·i
, • II
::;::--: ' , ' ,", .. .IIIAII"~

, • <III . . . . .
, .~~
,
:::::::~~ • of A
',' .......... '..l"
where Nd is the donor density and Ed the separation of the donor. energy·}~~t
level from the conduction band. In writing Eq. (2.28), however, care must}~:~
be exercised because the conditions of Eq. (2.25) are valid only for very~nl~ , ~""'''",rA
low temperatures. Note, for example, that for gerlnanium ,;:~:~:~

.......... ,, ~
, ,, ....... ..
'"
"' . ..r
....01
, ....
..... "'
'" "'..II
",All ...
Eg ::- 0. 7 eV, and for kT ::;:: 0.7 eV, T = 8000K , '", '"
,
,
.
......
...
......
.....
.. All . .
...
, , ,
.........
, .. All ...
, ,, '" '" ......

"' ...
l1li
.... .
! .. .II . .
whereas ... .
, • ...1.
, ,
, , • iii •
,
, , ,.., ", ,- .
... ..-
,
, ,
, ,
',iii ...""
.... ... .
Ed = 0.01 eV, and for kT ' .': 0.01 eV, T = 120K~ ";: ~ :~~
(2•29)..... '" .
-'-x
,
.',
, , "'"
, .. iii •
...............
"'.." '
, ,
Thus at temperatures T ~ 120 K most of the donor impurities will be in the~)i~

conduction band and instead ofEq. (2.28) we will have n ~ Nd; namely~(~~~ , ,.... .oI.
............. ..
........ ,
- - ... .
,,
,,
,
,• 01 ..
13This result is very general and holds even without the approximation that led ~\~~~~
Eqs~ (2.26) and (2.27). >:~:~:
...........
.....
..... ,,
...........
,
,,
,
,
, ......
......
..........
,
, , • II
,
,
,
......
............
,
, , , ......
, ,
,,
, ,
.............".....
,
,• ••
, ,
, ,
1 j ....
,
, ,.
,
....
..
,
, ,
, , •
, ,
, .... 01
2.4 Semi co n d uctors 75
, b ~
:~!:AGURE 2.19 Same as de~a~ribed in the legend toFi~~ 2.18 but with the addition of
{: impurities. (a) The impurities are of the donor type and lie at an energy slightly below
~:? the conduction band. (b) The impurities are of the acceptor type and lie slightJy above the
:}: valence band. Note the shift of the Fermi level as indicated by the dotted line.
III: !he density of impurity carrie" becomes saturated. ODce satumtioD has
~~?been reached the impurity carriers in the conduction band behave like the
lil!!~free electrons of a metal.
!~j:!: 2.4.2. Sketch of p-n Semiconductor Junction Theory
~r: Semiconductor materials with high impurity concentration. when properly

~f: combined, form a transistor. Junction transistors consist of two junctions of
~~}dissimilar-type semiconductors. one p type and one n type; the intermediate
:~~>region, the base, is usually made very thin. We "vill briefly sketch the
~~~:::behavior of such a p-n junction and then see how the combination of
i~< two junctions can provide power amplification; for this we will use our
~r:knowledge of the band structure of semiconductors and the position of
~?the Fermi level, as developed previously (Figs. 2.18 and 2.19). When two
i~?materiaIs with cllssimilar band structure are joined, it is important to know
~L~t what relative energy level one band diagram lies with respect to the
1{):lther:
~'.'.'
the answer is that the Fenni levels of both materials must be at the
!?:~'ame energy position when no external fields are applied; this is shown
u.·.· F' 220 .
~:::::ln 19. .
~~~{:. From the energy diagram of Fig. 2.20, it follows that only electrons with
~lEe > il We will be able to cross the junction from the n material into the p
Irgion "",I only hoi.,. wi!h E, > "W, from the p region into the n region"
'.·'...............
•
'~"~-m~
. · , ...
,
· ....... •
.. ...
•
."
.II
."
:::~::::~~
• , .II ."
.'
76 2 Electrons in Solids }::::W

:-:.:-:••9.=:
:::~:::::~
·
·... 13.
::::::::~
:':-:.:w.
Increasing DownhfU
potential
<:::::~
. ::<:::~
::::::A*
m .'?:::~
e
U)
(3.....
.:g ":}:~~
.:::::::~~
o ~
LL (])
lLO . :::::::~::::::
. ,,:-:.~w.
n p Preferred Increasing :/;::m
-v direction of potential <{~m
.1. We _. _7". mOtion::A ?
. ,. r.~
·:::::~M
FIGURE 2.20 Structure of the energy bands at the junction of an n~type and a p-type@~
semiconductor. . ,,,;.:~.*
',.. r·:::::::
'. :-:-r:w.
:;:::~~
Minority .:.: {:~~:iI'*:::::h
Reverse bias
I
carriers '.:: ::::~m

• , , • oool·····.
(a) ... '<:~~:~~~~~

'. ·~m
.. "':::::~m
Fermi level ":::;:~$
,-....-.-_ ....
I -----.
, ,.r.@ , ,
" Fermi 1evel .~
~----. ' ,
.....
:':-:-r.=
-- - - - aWh to- of I' -::::::
, ,
::::m ~.,......:
.·::::::~~~mmm
-.- """,
Battery to+of .........

. .....
Battery
' ,
, ,,
..
, , ,.
'"
'"'" . .
..... .
n p , , • "",r,
n p
to - of Minority carrlers «.:.:~~
to+of Battery ... ~.:.:~
Battery
:',::::::m~
,. . .:m
-v . ,,::::::.~
" :~:.:.~:~
yh=:
,:~::::=»::
, I ....
-v
iii
,:::=:=%
'<':':m
, ::::::;m%
- ....... fZ.
' ',~
"'A ~
. .. ...
' , .. AI
. "'·'·A.~ ... ~
,'.:.:.:.... ~.
."
tl%
"
FIGURE 2.21 Structure of the energy bands at a biased n-p junction: (a) reverse bias and,;
(b) forward bias. The solid dots represent electrons, whereas the open circles holes. .<)~
...
. ,·,·.·.·m:/1-
',:::.::~=::;:: Ii"~»
Holes in the n region or electrons in the p region are called "minodtY:iil~

carriers." Indeed. there will be diffusion of some minodty carriers acrossci~
in the vicinity of the j~nc~on.14.. .rm

~ now a reve~se ~las IS ~pphed ·-that 1~. one tha~ opposes th~ furthe~:::g
motIon of the mmont~ earners th~ Fe?ID levels will become displa~ed}~
. '. . .. I
14The . res~lt of such diffusion is the buildu~ of a local charg7 density, which prevenij@~m
furthe: ditr:'slon. Throughout the present analysIs, however, we will neglect the local effec~~:~~m
at the Junction. :::::~:m.
' ,,:.:...~%
. ~/.
, ......
'l~
~rI'
, ::::~~:~
.::::~m
:::::
.:.:.~
'::::~~**
'
...... ....
,..-
, , ... J'rI'
"'..•. .
','
~
......
:::~:'~
, ,
·, ,I ~ II •
:?:::::
~~~L
:::::::.
%=.'.:
~~L:A We and D.. Wh are increased by almost the full voltage, making any motion
~:::::of minority carriers across the junction very improbable. Figure 2.21 b, on
~~t:the other hand, shows the situation whenforward bias is applied (favoring
~~~<tbe motion of minority carriers). The Fenni levels are now displaced in the
~~~(opposite direction so that the barriers are lowered. However, the full bias
~~~(voltage does not appear as a difference between the Fenni levels because
MUdynamic equilibrium prevails. There is a continuous flow of minority car-
~:~<riers in the direction of the electric field (holes obviously moVing in the
~~t~pposite direction from electrons) and as a resu1t a potential gradient exists
1t:along the material; thus the entire bias voltage does not necessarily appear
if>at the junction itself.
:f:?:::. We will now consider two junctions put together; in Fig. 2.22a, p-type,
ir::n-type, and again p-type material are joined. When no bias is applied. we
~~~>expect the Penni levels to be at the same position, with the resulting config-
1t\1ration shown in the diagram; in agreement with our previous conclusions
~{:from the consideration of a simple junction, we see that barriers exist for
!f(the motion of holes from the p regions into the n region, and also for the
~r:motion of electrons from the n region into either of the p regions.
~t:: Figure 2.22b shows the double junction under operating biases; note
~f:::that one junction is biased forward, the other is biased in the reverse direc-
it(tion. The n-type material common to both junctions is called the base,
':-:~:':-.'
;.:-:.:-:-"
ojo:.:.:
~::::>: :
~~~~> Operating bias
~r>:
(b)
?:=:::::.
~::::::-:-
t'•••••••
~:::::::-,.
~::::::- ..
~~~~~>. to-of
Battery
?:=::::.
~:::::
f:-::::.·
~:::::::
p
Emitter
holes n
p
Collector
holes
f
o:-;;;o~o~-
~tL -V 0000 \la~aS~W8170000"j eE~i:u.H..!!:o'---- ec
WW···< ~. ~o ;le~r~nS·:E ~ ~';t~~
f?:':':-:' 1'; -:: ~~ to 0 of
~~j=:(: o.Q 8~ V Battery
~~'I~:~GURE
k?ias
2.22 Structure of the energy bands ;or a p-n-p junction transistor: (a) with no
applied, and (b) with operating biases. Note that the emitter is forward-biased, whereas
I
~!!j!:the c611ector is reve~e-hlased.
I
.", . ...*
·......
· .... -""'
, .~-~
•
.. ".~~
· ."
a•:::
__;g..r
"
~
JI ...
. ·...>:':~~~-0.
, " .
.."'"~~-
78 2 Electrons in Solids ·· ,'.... ~~
."'--2:: • " JI III
·.. .x: _,_· ""-"....... ~'JJI

·· ..
•
.. "'" .''''
' " ........
· .. " "...
.. ".. -'i:.:
,
, • II
~ :
•
1- '
'
,
• • .,; oil
"
~
'" WI II1II
" ... "'" : JI
while the p type of the forward-biased junction is the emitter; the p-type ))M
material of the reverse junction is the collector. A completely symmet~tjm
ric d~vice consisting of n-p-n materials ~ill perfo~ similarly when ::)i~
the bIases are re;ersed. Fr~m th~ en~rgy '!iagram of FIg. 2.22b w~ ~an.}@j
s~e that ~Y v~mg ~e ~rrutter Junctton ?Ias .we can contr~l tb~ Injec- ))@
tion of nunonty carners Into the base region; If the base regIon IS made ::(iffi
which pomt they wIll nnmediately cross It, smce It represents a gam m )~~
potential energy. ~ hE is. the minority carrier current inj.ected in~o. thet~~
~ase .over a potentlal bamer D.. ~h ~E B), . the p~wer requIred for m~ec"j~
lion IS Pin = hE D.. Wh (E B).; smularly if he IS the hole curre~t m~o<~
~out == heb.Wh(EC). Thus if Pout> Pin: thedeVlcelsapoweramph~er; \~
power gaIn. '. \::$:

,:;:::.;. =:
-I"
,.... . *
I
'····~m·
, ..
' , ' •••~ili'

...
~~5.:--h:
•
2.4.3. Measurements of the I-V curve ofa pn JIJDctionii~

···... .
. ~.Y"":. .. ,' .•
, , ~
my~
· , , ..---.
is discussed below. One simply measures the current as a function of\~~
the number of carriers in the. conduction band. That ~. the carriers <r~m:
J~~h = (Je;~)O e~p(eVB./ kT): where VB .IS the blas voltage across ~e \i~*~
diode. The IDlnonty ,carners wIll cancel this current ex~tly when there lS(W:
fOIu} . ::::::i&f
<:::~:~:
I -- l 0 (e 1)
eVBlkT -. (2.30)."::;::~:%:
...~~~q:--h""::
,,"'.-~h
...
.._~:--h.
w-
A photograph of the experimental setup is shown in Fig~ 2.23. A silicon'}~~ll
I
pn junction diode is attached to one side of a copperplate with conductive}~
a hea~ source. A thenI1ocouple is also attached to rec~rd the temperature.)~

A Kelthley Model 617 Programmable Electrometer IS used to vary the:~~
scan, and the temperature as determmed by the thermocouple are recorded::~
. ·"···'~m
..... " ' ~
"::Jm*
...
.....-;w.
....... ",
,' ~~
~.
·>~:~Im
.. ..
,
..........
''
,
,
~
~
. .;::~:~~
, ....
, . ""-
~{:
••••
••• •
AGURE 2.23 Photograph of the setup used to measure the propenies of a diode.
~:, : :
~.j . : . :~;r;~~o ~~~:;:7h~:;:~~il~~:!~ the power resistor, giving the
.~·i·:; ~~~cdiode
To analyze the data we musl appreciate that the diode does not obey the
equation (2.30) but operates in the recombination regime.
I5
(2.3 I)
it!·;: and the last approximation is justified becau~ the term exp(e VB /21c T) » 1.
~{: Therefore. we presen t the V -/ curves for VB > 0, on a senti-log plot in
Fig. 2.24a. From the fit we tind the slopes
T = 24<>C= 297K e/2kT = 21.3 V-I

319K = 19.6 V-I
342K = 18.9 V-I .
_...
...... ~.r#,
~~
-»)=@
... ~~
--::~:::::~%~~
... ~~
80 2 Electrons in Solids -:. . -: ':~~w.:
-.:~::::~~~*...:.
:-r..r:
-.-.'-......
..... »
•
x·
•
I
I
~
I
•
•
"
···~~x::~0
.II
•
•
..
..
..
..
~~
•
- I • • .. •
_.·>:-:~:-%.r
....... . .
- ~ .II .... ..
(a) 10 3
.. T=69°C •i
~
• I~." ••" ~~
o T=37"C •
-
- ..... I
:···~~~X
~
I
»~
. . . . I11III
• • ..
III
III
•
- I ..... ..
• T="24 C
Q
i . . :.r~.
_:<-:,,:.II"y,J-:" I ~ ..... ~ III
• 0
-
.,' ......... . I ~ •
~~
102 -... .•• -:i:i:. "~. ."
•
I ...
~ ~
--,'·:~>:. ·......:Z~:,
0 ..... ...
., ....»., ~
X~~'
•
I~ .... :.-:~
I • .II .. ..
11 I .II ... ,.~
- I I ... 'J".....
-"~···""X"-
»:":~.r;:'
10 1 :
I
I <-:.:..:«~.r::
I • ..II
.. .
... ... ~""_ ~
*.
- I • ... .. ~
~
:-~~
-'" ... I I I ..........
~.r/.r:.
-E -
•
.,I~
-
I
I
I'~·.·
~
, ............
•
•
.....
.II . . . . . .
..........
.11
»:.
......
,.~.
.... ..·
~,;-
..
..
Q) 10° •
..' :::=:::·*··
............·z·
,
I . . . . . . . .. .
t: ·"'·',. ··•...0 III ..
,"'.,........
.........III.... *.9.....-...
I •
:::J
I ....... ..
0 •
, .....
I
,
•
• III.. • ..
10-' . ,. . ...... ».
I
. . . ..
•
~"
•
.. III..
....
III ..
•
I ...
..
...
..............
I •
• I I .......... ~.""
" '
III . . . . . }
.. ',.:;:.
....
, I ..
I • III . . . . . ..
, I .... ~.""
,
,'I~~·
. ··X··
',
.. ..X>-
I • III . . . . .'
, .......-
, I."
....
", ,. .........
',.*...x. ....- ............
..........""
~ . . . . . .~J
.
,
.....
.....,
,:,~.: ..~
,'
,
~
~
~
, .,/
,'" .'...~~.J'
10~ ~ ____ ~ ______ __~ ~ __ - L_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~ ':,:::~~~:x::

.. .... .··:?;z
. .
,'~·....... .. x·-
.",' ...""*~
,
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 Q~4 0.5 0.6 ..... ..- .'''*~
..
,
Bias voltage (VB) ......

........--
',.X;
, , .....
,
,,
~
".""'......
,. ..»
,
*"-..
. .. ..,
....
.""
~ ~.
(b) 0 ., """"m"
..... , , . ..
'~.".'X"
.......
.............
,
.
..............:
,
, ,
~
,',
,
,',~~
" '
.',' . ..*.*"".
,'
. , .........,
.........~~""
~
.J
}
.. ..
::, ,::~~
... ....%~
~.:,
......
• • • • • • •
0
, ~.". . ---.
. .....*~ ,
, ".
...
,',', . , .....r.~
.... ....-
~.~
•0 •0 •0 •0 0 0 0 0 , ............"tI"r:
~
'~ ~-
0 0 ~
• :',::::::*x:-::
,',...".....-- ---
,~.-
..... -"tI~_-.
-5
• • ,
-
,."".--»~~...
..,,-.....- . --..
~»~
»~~
...
<"0.. • • • • "
,
, ""
, '·........-- .... -..

:.-:~
•
, ~
-- • • • • ,. ..
,
, "
• • _I11III_-
z~
:.-:~
c 0
,
, - --_...
, , .....
'·.........". . .*--_ I11III_
~ ..-
, , ~ •"....
',..... •
>:·:-zx:~:
I11III _ ..
"'-
-::J.
·.. ...- _-..
......
..
~~*~J" ~
....~»~
~""-
o _».r
,~
0 , '. - -
,,~ ~~
, ~ " ....
o '>':::~:X::
~0 ~
o ',',,"· . .-x.r
-10
o o .....-- ---
..... , , " ....
~~
o . ..... _ .. ~%~J"~
o o ,~
-- ~~-
o a a
"......."............_-_- -----.....
,
,
~
'~."
~ *-~
~~-
"....
.....
".. I11III I11III _

, .....
'.r~_
~-
..
..-_--
,
........ . ..--
•• I ......
,
~
, ,
, , .~:-:~ .. -- ..
, , , • " - I11III _ ..
,, ....._--- ---
-- .-
, "
, ,'~.•
..
...
, • • - - I11III ..
---»~~.._ ~~
- .
•
..... _,;--..-
JII~.r
_
'''
~
-15 ,'':-:.:»-:
.....-- -
-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 --0.1 o "~.,,
, "
......
,':-:.::«:
- -~
X~
Bias voltage (VB)

,' ......
............. ... ~~.
,','~
"
.......
........
,
.. ,
~
~
FIGURE 2.24 Measurements of the current through a diode as a function of bias voltage, \lj)W!l
for different temperatures. (a) is for positive bias, plotted on a semilogarithmic scale. ,: :}~1.~
Exponential fits are indicated. (b) is for negative bias voltage~ plotted on a linear scale. ":<:~~~
,'......
.........
..... *
. .....
, , • ... II
....... .
~
, '~ ~.
.........
......
,
,
,
'
,
~
. ~.
,', "',".*.r. .... ......

...
.......
......
,
' ,
, ...... ,
..............
~
.,
, .
.
..........
'........
.......... . .*......
',' ,
".......
, '
, ,
,
.......... ~
~.
...... .
~ ~
,
','
, ,
, ,
'
.......
.............
.......... /..
.
.
','~
..........
..........
,',~
........
........
~.
,
,
,
.....
, ~
',
, ,~
,
.
",','....'.,.........,'....*. *............
.....
,
~
. ~
,,
,
,
"~..:"'."/.. ...
:,',:.......::~::x
'
:::::*
,.~~
....... X
,':,':-;..~*
, , .".. i.'"
'
2.5 Hillh Tc Superconductors 81
Thus, using the value of the Boltzman constant k = 1.38 x 10- 23 11K we
find that
,= ( 1. 73 ± 0.05) x 10- 19 C
in good agreement with lhe value of the electron charge.
The different intercepts are an indication of the variation of 10 with
temperature. (Of course at VB = 0, I = 0 but this point cannot be reached
on the logarithmic piaL ) A better way of detenni.ning 10 is by applying
negative bias. From the negative bias data (Fig. 2.24b) we find that
'[' = 297K 10 = 3.9 pA

303K = 4.4 pA
310K = 6.7pA
319K = 11.6pA.
llle reverse cumnt is proportional to the minority carrier density. As the
temperature increases, the population density increases as
no: e- E,/2J:T ,
where E~ is the energy gap between the vaJence and conduction bands.
From the data we find that
E,=O.84eV.
This is in reasonable agrccmem with the energy gap in silicon (1.1 e V at
room temperature). Systematic error can come from a number of sources,
includingconlacl potential differences and the extent to which the negative
bias data of Fig. 2.24b has reached its asymptotic value.
2.5. ruGB T, SUPERCONDUCTORS

(
2.5.1. Introduction
:',
;: I.n 1911 it was discovered that certain metals completely lose their electrical
~~ resistance wbeo cooled to very low tempcrarure.~. typically less than 10K.
~:: The loss of resistivity sets in sharply when the critical re.mpe.raJure Tc is
:;" crossed. This is anaJogous to a phase transition belweeo different slates
Iii' of maUer, as for ;nstance from ;ce to water. The ph ase d;agram for the
,-:
;;
82 2 E'ectrons in Sends
uzing field H as shown In Flg. 2.25. Values of Tc and Bo for some common . ::::::~ii
Tc Ho
Lead (Pb) 7.81 K 0.0803 T .: (:~m

MercuI)' (Hg) 4.1 K 0.0411 T . ::~Jm
. .~w.
The b~sic ~echanism is ~at at low te~?erature electro~s bind in pairs ~th .)~w.
t.J.c~ and can ~ov~ thro~gh the lattlce Wlthout sc~ttenng, namely Wlth~ut}~~
resIstance. This gIves nse to a supercurrent, which once started cont.J.n-}~~
voltage) IS removecl In fact, all of the pa1fs occupy the ground state and can :.(~~@.
also have the ~roperty. that .no magnet.J.c field can eXIst mside th~ super-)!1@.
~annot change, dB / d t = o. This IS because any change 1D the external field .H~
-------.--.. - :.:-:~@
microscopic theory of superconductivity proposed in 1957 ~ ::\i@

:::::~~@
,
....
::)%,@ I • III
III;.....,
~Y.l.
..::: :;w.:~~..y..:
I.
..... .'~ffijo"/.o
. ....
.,
. ..
, ......
,
,
I • III
.. ::::::@j , ~
,
I
,
· .,.W
I
.....
~
•
. III
I
@:: :
2.5 High Tc Suparconductors 83
Ir •t·)
~
templlfature
t·)
Ii
Coollid
•
•
:::~::>
to)
~rY
mt:: .
:m::..
;\';j:' B. B.
temperatUle
Ie to) t')
~.;-:-;.
t?(
~:;: :;;::: .
?:t:::: _,
8. -- 0
• •
(d) (g)
8. -- 0
~~{{~GURE 2.26 Bcliavior of a superconductor when placed in II. magnetic field. (a-d) The
+ <-Jlcid is swiu;bcd 011 after the sample is coolecl below Te. (e,n The field is applied before
~K::::t(;o1in8 me sample. In eitb~ case the flux is cllpeUed from ille superconductor and no field
~t{f~:trapped in its interior.
Ijir'::~eexternaJ fi eJd inside the conductor. In a superconductor, however, B = 0

~::::: (ill the interior region, irrespective of whether the field is applied before or
~.~.~,~:. ,: .,
r the superconductor is cooled below Te. This is shown in Fig. 2.26.
...:.::.;.'_.
Ute
~: ' <The exclusion of the magnetic field (fiu.x) from the interior of a super-
Wi(:~~nductor is called the Meissner effect and can be easily demonstrated by
F ?:teVitating a small permanent magnet above me surlace of a superconduc-
~~n_?r: This is shown in Fig. 2.27 wh~re the solid lines are the magnetic field
~x)ines of the permanent magnet. Smce the superconductor must expel the
~}~ux from its interior, the induced surface currents produce the field shown
@}~y -the dotted lines. They exactly cancel the external field in the jnterior of
~::;~e supen;:onductor. Ho:-",cver. outside the superconductor there now ex..is~s
~:l:maglleuc field opposite to that of the permanent magnet. Thus there IS
~r;a:· force puslting the small magnet away from the superconductor. As the
IimiL.
f:?J~:%/
- - -
- • • • • ,. ......
• •
• • • ~
- • • • • .....~.
- •• • ••
· ~
~
~
• • ••
• • ~
~
- • •
- - -- • • • •
• •
- - • • • • .~~.
~~~
• • ........
- •- • • • • • ~
B4 2 Electrons in Solids - - •• • •• •
-::::::~j
.. . ~
~
~
-
-
.. .. .. ....
-
•
•
I
.II
..
....
...
-
· .....
- . . . _. -
•
•
~
~
.II
.II
....
...
...
- • .II _ __
-·• •.. ... .1-:.

_
~
~~~
• • • • .II .......
··.....
.• I .II ....
• • .II . .
~
• I ....
· ......-
_.~ ••_rtti_~
· I. ._
• I . . . . ._ ..
- •• __..o..l,
Penuanent - • • . . o·
•
-
•
•
~
I
•
•
....
.II
.II
.II
..
..
..
____.\-------- magnet
• • .II ....
- I .II ..
· . ..
•
I
•
~
.II _ . ._
. . . . . ._
~
·· ..
- • I . . . . .. .- _,.-
-
... . .
I • '._
~_.',.".""
..
I .... rtti
;- -:
(I~ :::::~~ ~
f ' .-:':-:.:? I .....
~
I \ _
•
•
I
I
•
I
.II
. . . II
.II
.II
....
...
....
rtti
· ,.....
. ,. .
• I .. ..
1 •
· ...
I • III
•
·.. I
I
...
•
..
III •
.
...-___- Superconductor •
•
·..
•
I
I
I
..
•
..
..
..
..
III
·, ,. ,
• I .. . .
• I ... .
~
I • III •
)~:~fW
FIGURE 2.27 A permanent magnet is placed above a superconductor. The solid lines:::;~ I • III •
are the flux produced by the permanent magnet. The dotted lines are the flux produced by:::::
the induced surface currents and completely cancel the external flux in the interior of the<}~;·
. .... , ,
superconductor. In the exterior they give rise to a lift force. .,

:::;:: ,
.......
I ....
• I • III •
I , III ..
• I • III
I ....
,
.......
I .....
· •
,
I
I •••
• III
I ~ ...
,
, ~
,
•
I
,
I
I
I
.. ..
~
I
...
.... .
....
....
..
• I ... .
I ~ ...
I ... .
I I .. ...
• I ...
I . . ..
• • I ... .
· I
I
I." •
I
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. _.-
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-
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-
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-
---
- --
--
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- _
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.:- -.::! . -:::::~m
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-:-:.> '::::, ...... ' , , . ' .. ... ...... .-. .. ... . ..
FIGURE 2.28
liquid nitrogen. Courtesy Colorado Superconductor, Inc. .}@
.::~: ::~m~r? , ~ ... r?Y"'; I ... ..
. : :::::~~~
distance increases, the magnetic lift force decreases; equilibrium is reached \~~M
when the lift equals the gravitational force on the magnet. Figure 2.28 is)@
an actual picture of levitation due to the Meissner effect using the high Tc:4~
superconductor discussed in the next s e c t i o n . > i f · .. .:.-"/.
.::::: :~~%.1. ,
... ' ... '."'Y""

~
I
.,"
I I
,.,... x:
,
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2.5 High Tc Supllfconduclors as
Superconductors are widely used for the construction of high-field mag-

They are also extensively used in some of the most sensitive scientific
""rune..",,· finally, they display fascinating quantum-mechanical effects
a macroscopic system.! 7
Observation of the SupeTconducting Transition

inYBCO >
1986 Bednarz and Milller reported superconductivity al temperatures

excess of 40 K in certain samples of La-Ba-Cu-O. It was soon dis-
""e",d that the YBa2Cu301 ceramic (YBCO) undergoes transition to
superconducting state above 90 K. Pellets of YBCO can be manu-
in the laboratory by mixing the chemicals in powder form and
iornp"e"singlhem in a steel die using a hydraulic press (to approximately
>~:;;~~PSi). pellets are then heated in a furnace to about 900"C in an
> atmosphere and allowed to cool. However. il is by far more canve-
to order 1-in.-diameter disks of YBCO from a commercial supplier.
,eli.blesource is Colorado Superconductor, P.O. Box 8223, Fon Collins,
80526.
, To measure the resistivity of the sample, a four-point probe. as well
thennocouple leads, are artachcd to one side of the disk as showo in
.2.29. The probes can be fastened using cooductiveepoxy.1R The whole
'j,:;~~~~ placed in a flat container that can be filJed with liquid Nilrogen.
J be laken as the sample cools or, as was done for the data presented
. by fIrSt cooling tbe sample for 2 ruin. and then removing it from the
N2 bath. Temperature and resistivity arc recorded as the sample
through the superconducting transition.
'!" n,efour connections (see Fig. 2.29) are spaced equidistantly, separated
a distance s, typically ...... 1 mm. A high-impedance source supplies a
,~::::current 10 the outer terminaJs, 1 and 4, and the voltage across
:~ 2 and 3 is measured. For a flat sample of thickness t « s, as
present case, current rings emanate (rom the Oilier lips. so mal the
*"istan,:ebetween terminals 2 and 3 is
R=
1"X2
p dx
- - = - lPn x
21rxt 2Jrt s
P
=-1n2.
21ft
I'"'
R. P. Feynman. The Feynmall uctu.n:Y. Vol. UI. Lecrute 2[.
' ! 'llb,ro,ruu',~;;. pellets can be obtained with all the leads auachcd.
...... -,
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86 2 Electrons in SoHds ,
,
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Constant I
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. "
,
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I I .. II . . .
YBCO pellet ,',·.·"i..l.·.JM

....,....,.
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,
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Thermocoupte ,: ...........
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,
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,
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273K .. :::::::~~~~~
,,>:' .........
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,
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~~
Ice water bath :}~:~~~:~

........ ,' ~
FIGURE 2.29 Schematic of the connections to the four-way probe and of the measuring:n~!~~
apparatus. ,',,:-:.: ~
,".......~
,«.:.:~
:':::::~;*
- - ,<::::
.... ..:..-%-..-
..,. """
. ·.·x.
. . ......
- ".. ... .... .:=:: "
"'"""
~ • .II .. ..
"~.""""":3
F~ermore. due to the presence of two outer tips, V23 = 2I R. so that fot/i!iW
a thin sample ':::;::::%
...~~ "
- :::~::::~::.::
, ... •
.
,,' . . . . . » ... :.:.;....,.
.r~
<-:.:..:&
11t v :"':::~:~
(2. 32X::::~:::::
,::::::::*
' . · .·.x
;;
•
P -ln2 I
-- :3 ':~::::~X
,,.··x
..... ..
",..1 .............
'
Note that the probe spacing s does not enter Eq. (2.32). ,::}~:x
,,.....«
In these measurements, the constant ClUTent source provided I ~~(~~~1
500 rnA to terminals 1 and 4. Typically, in the normal conducting stare?i~it.
V23 ::::: 1 mY, whereas below the transition, V23 is at the noise li~t of~J~W
the HP ~4:401A meter ~sed :o.r ~he measurement (V23 ::::: 10 IlV). Smce':j@
the ttanslt10n occurs rapIdly It 1S Important to use a computer to record the:~~~m
data. In the present case data were recorded every 0.33 s. The lIP meter was,:~}~*
connected to the computer through an RS232 serial port, the thenIlocouple:jU.
voltage and source current through an ADC card.::~~j
,'','........
·~x
........
»...
,..... . . "''''··x
.......... *........
,
' ,
·~x
' ~
,,' .....
......»
,<-:.~
,
,~·ooI.
x
',:: :~::~$
,:.'~:;~.rx,..
.......... .,
,
,
, ,
'·'·x
' ,,
,
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....
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• 01
~
tJI
2.5 High Tr; Superconductots 81
--,.-...:'. •
~r.~'
0.' ,!: .i··
~. .
.'
,.." 0.4
.
•
•
• •
•
••
•
:.
o ~'••••
';0~=:'~5"CC'OO~--~'~:---~"~O---'~'~5---,=~:---,=,05---'~~
T emperature (I<)
'l<'U,,"2.30 Plot of V13 vs r. Below tb e lran£itioll at T := 9s uK th~ voltage on the

renninAJs is compatible with zero. 1lIe transition width lJ. T < 10 K.
Results obtained by a student are shown in Fig. 2.30, which is a plot of

vs T. It is clear thai a phase transition occms at T = 98 K. The width
the transition is AT < I K. Note that tbe voltage Vn below Tc is too
[0 measure.
For T > Tc the resistance across tenninals 2 and 3 of the probe is of
Rn = Vn / 21 ~ 7)( 10- 4 VI i A =0.7 mO .
(2.32), using f = 1 mm we obtain
p = 3.15 X 10- 4 Q-em.
is two orders of magnitude higher than the resistivity of metals (see

1) but is to be expected for a ceramic material. The gradual increase
the resistivity with temperature for T > Tc is also expected since (be
'n~;::~:~~i~tr<>ns scatter from the lattice thermal vibrations as discussed
~ 2.2.
', ....._*-
, , ···z
, ', ..... .....:z.-
"""~-~
,: ...
, • 0I"
• • A
~-~.-
i:.l
"
'..... r. ,. 01"
• • A
III
I • .......
I11III.1". ••
I , • •
A~~._
I .. ..
I I ,II .. ..All
I ... _ ... _
.
i.
' ...... ..Z
I ... ..All ••
I .. "' . . . . . . ....:
~
'-:;..:
, ,II ....
, ,. ...
, ..
.......
, .. .......J"
, •• -.t'..I'
lflii
,',
, ... ......
..... " ~
·.....
_ , •• A ~
2.6. REFERENCES ,',
",
, . •
••
'"~-~
..All
.~~
III
-~
· : ':- :.~A-~;l".J
.fA.
,
,
I ' I.JI . . . .
... •• III
-~
~
, •• A,:.r.
, ••
~
..All
:.;a. ' •• ..All
For the material covered on semiconductors, the reader may also cOllsult)\~~
the following texts" •
::::::~~~
'A~~ •
,' •••••
, . . . ..All
A~
· · ,."" ,
•
..
.. .AI . .
:II ..
~~
,.~
;.i""i.
W. C. Dunlap, Jr., An Introduction to Semiconductors, Wiley, New York, 1957. Brlefbut clear treatment", (~~~~
R. A. DUDlap~ Experimental Physics: Modern Methods, Oxford Univ. Press, New York. 1988. Detaile~\ ::::::rn
discussion of semiconductors, their physics~ and device applications. . '<:::~:~
C. Kittel, Intn:duction to Solid State Physics, 7th ed.~ Wiley, New York, 1996. Amore general treatment:<~~i
of the sohd state, .. :::==~~~~
W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes, Van Nostrand~ New York. 1950. A thorough presentation of th~'::}~:~
.
sub'1ect.
...
' :'-.:::::
'
,': ':'.r':~Q.
:J
,
. '.r' :'--.1.
:'' :......
:-.r'm· .,..,.,.0
' .... f"f".
.
',' >:'.r':i
A C. Rose-Innes and E. H. Rhoderick" Introduction to Superconductivity, Pergamon, Elmsford, ~~(f@l
1969. .:~::::m~~
... '.~
,
'''''''.~
I
. "''''
, .., ,
.....
.'"
.......
can consult - })-;.mij

"
'
,'..-.......'.I'm ,
PA't 1989. '::::::ii

":-:.=~~*
,.. -::::
.... ..2::
·.....
':.'.~
,
,
.....~-~ ~
,
, , .....
. . . . .A_..~
:..:
, . . . till
", .. :..;
.....
:"'~-~"
..~A~rY...t.
.· .',....
• • A
-y~~
,,:<.:.:".r~--l
."-A- r.I'''
,..
,~ '~···""~7"-:
-.I'~
}::;:~~
': ...~~7h
~-~
, .... ...
': ...
·.' "~~:::::@
" ....~~~.H:
'.....
::~:::=~~
···~m
~-?&
· ':}~@
:r~~~~~
.........2::
','.'.A
,«.:~J.=::::
. ·"JrO
"::::::~
· ':::::~~
".~
,
, , , ....
, , ........
".'~
,
, ........
,
,
...... •
•
Ii •
Ii . ,
':.:·:·:m
:}~:mw.~
"">::::~~
"w. • , .. .01
"'@ili
· . . "'
,
. "''''''''m
.. ·. m
..•.:::~
'.', """"a
' ,,
....
,, ,
,
,
.....
.,
.... ,,
I ....
. \:~i§
..
.....
..
·, , ,,
·, . ,
, ,
,
,
,
, .. ......
... Ii ..
.......,
,
,
, .. 01 ...
, ,
,
I .....
, I ....
CHAPTER 3
Electronics and Data

Acquisition
to this point, we have described measurements that require only

laboratory equipment. Before continuing, however, we will
:... o,"u,>~ a broader range of topics in electronics and data acquisition.
every measurement made in a physics laboratory comes down to

~x:::~eJtennin!ing a voltage, so it is important to have at least a basic understand-
. of electronic circuits. It is not important to be able to design circuits, or
to completely understand a circuit given to you, but you do need to
;r..-;.:.Ii'Ti""", enough to get some idea of how the measuring apparatus affects your
W::f¢SUlt. This section introduces the basics of elementary, passive electronic

You should be familiar with the concepts of electric voltage and
W::it.UJiTellt before you begin, but something on the level of an introductory
89
... ,,
.·..,
,
, .
·..., ,
,
,
,
....
• •
,,,
,
. .
,,,
• •
90 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition •

. ...
I
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
~.
I
..,,,
I I •
,·.
, , .,
.
, , .
, ,.,
,
, .
, .
physics course should be sufficient. It is helpful to have already learned :i,:'~~ , ,
something about resistors, capacitors, and inductors as well, but we will,:) ,
review them briefly~ ,: '~:.

. , ,
,
, ,,-
,,
,,
..
•
,
•
.
,•
,,
,•
.
3.1.1. Voltage, Resistance, and Current ,•
,
,, ,
,
.
,
, ,
, •,
,,
..
, .
Figure 3.1a shows a DC current loop. It is just a battery that provides the :,:',:'~
electromotive force V, which drives a current I through the resistor R. : ,:':, , ,
, ,
This is a cumbersome way to write things~ however, so we will use the' .,: :. ,
shorthand shown in Fig. 3.1b~ All that ever matters is the relative voltage' ,:,:': ,
between two points, so we specify everything relative to the "common'~-,'::,:~, , , ,
or "ground.'" There is no need to connect the circuit loop with a line; it :,:~:. ,
is understood that the current returns from the common point back to the':'> , ,
tenninals of the battery. , : ,:~, , ,
The concept of electric potential is based on the idea of electric potential ::i;~ , ,
energy, and energy is conserved. This means that the total change in electric- :i:'~ •
potential going around the loop in Fig. 3.1a must be zero. In terms of ':,:': , ,
Fig. 3.1 b, the '\roltage dropH across the resistor R must equal V. For ideal. ':,:) , ,
resistors, V = I R; that is, they obey Ohm's law. The SI unit of resistance '.::'~ ,
•
.
is volts/amperes, also known as the ohm (Q). ,:': •
Electric current is just the flow of electric charge (/ == dq jdt, to be :i~. ,
precise)~ and electric charge is conserved. This means that when there is a ,:'
•
"junction" in a circuit, like that shown in Fig. 3.2., the sum of the currents ,:' ,
,
flowing into the junction must equal the sum of the currents flowing out. ,:; ,
In the case of Fig. 3.2, this rule just implies that II = 12 + [3. It does not 'i ,
,
,
,
,
(a) (b) +v
+
R
v~
R
-
I
,
--
,
FIGURE 3.1 The simple current loop (a) showing the entire loop, and (b) in shorthand.
3. 1 Elements 01 Circuit Theory 91
I,
I,
~~.:
a?:;'::;;
~::::;:.
~nr
x·· · ·
11.1 RGURE 3.2 A , ;mpl' -":"~";Ij"''';""r' V'\r--,
R,
R, R,
R,
AGURE 3.3 R.esistOfS conn&t«i (3.) in ~es and (b) in paraDe!.
W?matter whether you specify the CWTtnl flowin g in or out. so long as you arc
b/ consistem with this rule. Remember that current can be negati ve as weU as
f~}~ positive.
~~:L: These rules and definitions allow 11." to detcnnine the resistance when
V·: resistors are connected in series, as in Fig. 3.3a, or in parallel, as in Fig. 3.3b.
i,:~t.•.•...• :~::.~!~:~~~:~~:: E:t=t~:~~b~£~~W:~:~E~~;

.•. •. .
II' must equal Ihe su: o~:~ ::7 d';::;:::':

;: , them arc I RJ and I R2, respectively. Since the vollage drop across the pair
e
:ri~:'
+ I R2. 0'
t.~.U lf RI and Rz are connected in parallel, then lhe voltage drops across each
[:!t are the same, but the current wrough them is different. Therefore 1R =
~;( It Rt = IZR2. Since 1 = 11 + fl, we bave
~@: 1 I I
Resistors in parallel.
@\ R = ~+ R2
~:;:-.:::
t::} Remember thaI whenever a resistor is present in a circuit, it may as well
(i.:\ be some comb;natioo of leS;sto" that give the righl value of ",lslance.
, ' . . '"' ... Yo ...... ..
,,
, -*.~
, '"
.....
... ... ~
', ....
.......
...... :..:,.' ~
,
' ,
.. ,,
,•
...
........
... . :..:
.....
.... ,iii
, ........ ::..:
92 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition · , ::::::~:~
, ... ~.,tI!
......
......
.· , ...
, ......
...
....... ..
~
~
·,,, .....
, ....
~
· ' , ' .......... "

, ""'~
, ... ""..III: :,,;-,
,.......
,
" ~
A very simple~ and very useful, configuration of resistors is shown hiJ~~

Fig~ 3~4. This is called a Uvoltage divider'" because of the simple relationshipr~~J~
lJetween the voltages labeled Vout and Yin. Clearly Vin = I (Rl + R2) an~}~:~
Vout ~ I (R2), where I is the current through the resistor string. Therefon;{:~:~~ I , . . . ", ..
"
· ........ ...
, , ...... . .
, . . . ..All I11III
, ..........
. . . . . . I11III J
':':.:';:"..i
R2 , ...... ~
Vout ~ V i n " . (3.1 ):<~~~

Rl + R2 , ,
,
:.~-:·zjo:
......
..........
..... ~
~
That is, this simple circuit divides the Uinpnt" voltage into a fraction deter~~@~
mined by the relative resistor values. We will see lots of examples of thi~)~;~
sort of thing in the laboratory. »)~~
Do not get confused by the way circuits are drawn. It does not mattet/~~~
along It are at the same potenttal. For example, It IS common to draw a{:~~~
voltage divider as shown in Fig. 3.5. This way of looking at it is in fact an:U;~
easier way to think. about an "input'" voltage and an "output" voltage. »~i. ,~ _ •• 01....~
· ,,', ......
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FIGURE 3.4 The basic voltage divider.

I ..I .... ..
I .. Ii J
I ........
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I ..I >I..AII"
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I .l ......
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Vout ,
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An alternate way to draw a voltage divider.

, 1 .....
FIGURE 1.5 ,
,
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,"
3.1 Elements of Circuit Theory 93
Capacilors and AC C ircuits
:; : capacitor stores charge, but does not allow the charge carriers (i.e.,
"ClTO,)S) to pass through it. It is simplest to visualize a capacitor as a
of conducting plates, parallel to each other and separated only by a
amount. If a capacitor has a potential difference V across its leads
bas stored a charge q on either side, then we define the capacitance
q / V. It is easy to show that for a parallel plate capacitor, C is a
~onstan[ value independent of the voltage. In general, it is possible, but not
to calculate C from the geometry of the conducting surfaces. The SI
of capacitance is CoulombsNollS. also known as the Farad (F). As it
out, one Farad is an enormous capacitance, and laboratory capaci-
£ypically have values between a few microfarads (11F) down to a few
nticromicrofarads (11i-<-F).1
It is prelly easy to figure OUI what tbeeffectivecapacitance is if capacitors
connected in series and in parallel, just using the above definitions and
rule about the total voltage drop. The answers are
I I
- = - + -I Capacitors in series
C C1 C2
C = CI + C2 Capacitors in parallel,
is,just the opposite from resistors.

Now let's thlnk about what a capacitor does in a Circull. Let's take the
,,,,;S[,o, R2 in the voltage divider of Fig. 3.4 and replace it with a capacitor
, . This is pictured in Fig, 3.6. The capacitor does not allow any charge
',am':" to pass through it, so the current / = O. Therefore the voltage
across the resistor R is zero, and Vou.. the voltage across the capacitor
just equals Vi.c. You may wonder, what good is lhis? We might have
as well connected tbe output terminal to the input! To appreciate the
jiopo'rt",,,e, of cap":;'"rs in circuits, we must consider voltages that change
:: :: lfthe voltage changes with time, we refer to tbe system as anAC circuit
: , the voltage is constant, we call it a DC circuit. Now go back to the
~oltal!e divider with a capacitor, pictured in Fig. 3.6, and let the input
11 IlJ.lF = I pF (picofarad).
I ~ ... _
..J
.... ..
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, , • .II .. I
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94 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ,
, ,
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FIGURE 3.6 A voltage divider with a capacitor in it ..
......
· , ,,
... ........
· ....
· .. .. ..
· ,, , ,
......
. ,, , , ,
· ..... ...... .
. .
..... ....
,,,
,
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. ....
..........''""
.......
,
,
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,
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......
voltage change with time in a very simple way. That is, take , .... ..
· ..
,',.',.
,
· , , ,.......... ..
, , • I •
,,,
.. ..: ·, ., ,
, ,
1 1
1
..........
..
01 ... .
..
l/jn (t) = 0 for t <

- 0 (3 .2). ........ .' ,
,
':·;·~
~,~.:.:~
~
......... " '

~
'" " V
=Ii fort>O (3 . 3 ...•.......""""
,),}~~~
..
,,',
"
,
,
,
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..
•
...
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A
,..)
..
~
and assume that there is no charge q on the capacitor at t = o. Then fo~<~~~ , • "'..J'
t > 0., the charge q(t) produces a voltage drop Vout(t) = q(t}fC across,':)~
the capacitor. The current I (t) = dq / dt through the divider string also)~:~
gives a voltage drop I R across the resistor, and the sum of the two voltage;{~~ , ,.j "' ..
drops must equal V. In other words ,,:~::::

.. .. , ' ~ ,..
, .......
, ~
~ ...
dq d V:out ,::::::
V = Vout + 1 R == Vont + R dt- = Vout + RC' dt (3_4)}~
.......... ,,,
. , ~
= o. This differential equation has a simple solution. It is :}~.....

~
and Vout(O) , ,,
. ,
~ . ~
Vout (t) -: V[l - e- t / RC]. (3.5)i{~....

.... ., , ,
,,
,, ~ ~
• •
Now it should be clear what is going on. As soon as the input voltage is;}.. ,
switched on, current flows through the resistor and the charge carriers pile\~
up on the input side of the capacitor. There is induced charge on the ouwu(~~~
side of the capacitor, and that is what con1pletes the circuit to ground . :'). , ,
However, as the capacitor charges up, it gets harder and harder to put:~~, ,
more charge on it, and as t . ) 00, the current does not flow anymore and). ,
Vout ..,. V. This is just the DC case, where this circuit is not interesting- :~~
·. , ,
,
anymore. :::·.
,
,
,
,
,
, .
,·
,•
,·
,·
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,
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,
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,
value RC is called the "capacitive time constant," and it is the only

scale we have in this circuit. That is, statements like "t ~ 0" and
~ 00" actually mean "t « RC" and <Ot » Re." The behavior of the
will always depend on the time aR mea.~ured i.n units of RC . So now
sec wbat is interesting about capacitors. They are sensitive to currents
are cbanging with time in a way that is quite different from resistors.
is a very useful property that we will srudy some more, and use in loIS
;r~·~;:::~;'~~"nden<:e of any function can always beeXpres~d in terms of

and cosine functions using a Fouricr transform. II is therefore common
with sinusoidally varying functions for voltage and so forth, just
oaIizillg that we can add them up with the right coefficients to get whatever
dependence we want in me end. It is very convenient to use the
number notation
v (I) = Voe iw1 (3,6)
fo,'tiJ=,varying(i,"", AC) voltages. where it is understood that the voltage
measure in the I<lboratory is just the real part of this function. The
frequency w = 2xv, where v is the frequency, that is, the number
second. This expression for V (t) is easy (0 differentiate
integrate It is alsoa neat way of keeping track
the pbase changes signals undergo when they pass through capacitors
other "reuctive" components. You will see and appreciate this better
we go along.
Now is a convenient time to define impedance. This is just a genera1-
:\z'"'>o of resistance for AC circuits. Impedance, usua11y denoted by Z, is
(usually) complex quantity and (usually) a function of the angular fTe-
9"e,,"y w. It is defined as the ratlo of voltage drop across a component to
current through it, and just as for resistance, the SI unit is the ohm.
"linear" components (of which resistors and capacitors are common
'"arr'pl,,gl. the impedance is not a function of the amplitude of tbe volt-
or current signals. Given this deflnilion of impedance, the rules for
equivalent impedance are the same as those for resistance. That is, for
:~:~~::~;;:,:;in~~s,eries, add the impedances. while if they are in parallel, add
The impedance of a resistor is trivial. It is just the resistance R. In
case, the voltage drop across the resistor is in phase with fue current
it since Z = R is a purely real quantity. The impedance is also
nd"p"ndent of frequency in this casco
For a capacitor, the voltage drop
·-....
... - z;
.. "" .. ~
·-:.:-:
. ....:.*.'.1''' :rit
-.. . .A*
·· ..
•
.... "'
·. ... .. "' ."'A~
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-
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•
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....
96 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ......

- ·....
•
- , . "' ~
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• .. __ ..Ii
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• ..... "' iii
- • .. . . . . iii
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-
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the impedance is ->}~]

• , •• •J"%.I'
- ·, ,.. . ......"'''.1".1
, Yo ..
'. a,. ......... ~
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1
V(W, t)
- "
•
•
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,
...........!IIi01_•
..
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. . . . . . . . iii
"' iii ... .
--
·"······· .
Z(w) = I (w,-')
t
=.
lW
C' (3 7)" .. .
•
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':'~ . . . . ...Ii....., , { " .
"
III .JII. . ~
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, .......~'
iii ,
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• • iii
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..
Now the behavior of capacitors is clear. At frequencies low compared,f@

to 1/ RC, Le., the '''DC limi t," , the impedance of the capacitor goes to){~~~
infinity. (Here, the value of R is the equivalent resistance in series witli,:~~@i
the capacitor.) It does not allow current to pass through it. However, as the/~i~~
frequency gets much larger than 1/ RC, the impedance goes to 0 and thetj1~j
capacitor acts like a short, since current passes through it as if it were n~t;>~~~~
there. You can learn a lot about the behavior of capacitors in circuits just)~@
by keeping these limits in mind. ':<~~~l
We can easily generalize our concept of the voltage divider to include/~;~
AC c~cuits and ~eactive (i.e., frequency de~endent) componen~s likeH~~
capacItors. We WIll learn about another reactive component, the Induc-<}:~j
tor, shortly. The generalized voltage divider is shown in Fig. 3.7. In this<~~~@ .t'~ , ', .••
case, we have '<J~

.. ~~
,'';.:......
.'.r:7::,,~
" .::"
,
Z . ,
.<:;::~~
, II " ' .
_ . 2 ,_ . 'itfJ
Vout(w, t) - VinCa>, t)· " Z" - Vin(W, t)ge, (3.8):~::::~~
Z1 + 2
,
.;::::~~
.. :~ ,
,.j ·""0
number, In tefillS of two real numbers g and t/J. We refer to g = ~ Vout l/ IV'in I :':::::~~
,,'.......
'. ··.. ...zz , . . . III •
.... ,.,.
. ·. z
..... , , .... "'oil"~
' . . . iii
......
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,
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r.::::
,
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~
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. ....·. ... z'
,.....
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1 ....
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~
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' ,.. .... ....
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.. ....
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FlGTJRE 3.7 The generalized voltage divider. "

,
I
I
...... ..
. . . ..
..---.
.. ..---.
I • ..--.
,
,
, ,
,
I
.....................
I
..--. ....
..... .. ....
,
, ,
,
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.......... ..--...--.....
, ,
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,
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......... ....
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or
3.1 Elemlnts of Circuit Theory 97
the "gain" of the circuit, and ¢ is the phase shift of the output signal
to the input signal. For the simple resistive voltage divider shown
Figs. 3.4 and 3.5, we have g = RI/(RI + R2) and ¢ = o. That is,
output signal is in phase with the input ~ignal, and the amplitude is
reduced by the relative resistor values. 1ltis holds at aU frequencies.
,.; The phase is an important quantity, so let's take a moment to

at it a little more physically. If we write Yin = Voe itUf • then according
(3.8) we can write VOUI = g Voeiflll+~. Since the measured voltage is
the real part of these complex expressions. we have
Yin = Vo cos(wl)
YOU! = gVO COS(WI + ¢)
functions are plotted together in Fig. 3.8. The output voltage crests
time different than the input vallage, and this time is proportional lo
phase. To be exact, relative to the time at which ViD is a maximum,
Time of maximum VOU1 = _.!L x T = _P..,

2n w
T = 271" /w is the period of the driving voltage.
0.'
0.8 •
0 .• •
• 0.2 •
.....,
~
~ 0
~
....
....
-,
0
" 30
"
Tlm. "
RGURE 3.8 Input and output voltage's for the generalized voltage divider.
,,, .·........
.,.....
., "' ..
....
, ,,
, ..
. ."'....... ~
...
"',/
,
.
,, ..'"""....
... , ..... II ..
, ,.. • Y- ,
' "'..
'" II . .
,. ,. ..
, II
3 -Electronics and Data Acquisition

, .. II . .
98 , , , '"
,
,
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,
,
. . . . "'" III
'"
..
•
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11
II III
"',/'
, '" .. "'" III
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, , .. II . .
' . . . . . "'A...
'"," .. '" ",,.....
,
,
"
,
..."'.....
'"
..
'" A ,
II . .
Now consider the voltage divider in Fig. 3.6. Using Eq. (3.8) we find «~~~
....... ,
~
, , , , ........
'" ....
......
.
~
.... ..
, ,
, , ,.. .. II '". ...
~
~
~ .... ..
, .. .. ......
1 ,
,
, ........
, , .. .
,
,
,
~
,
~
~
~
..
..
..
..
II
II
II
- II
....
..
....
..
, .. '" III
, .. ....ill II
iwC 1
~ .. '" III
, ~, ,..~ .. '" ....
,.. , , .. .. '" '" II
'" '" II
..
l ' ~ Yin 1 + iwRC'
, .. .... II
Vout = Vin- . - , , .... . .

, , .........
. . . . III
,
..
..... '" III
R + .---.,-
, , .. '" III
, '" .. . .
..
, , ... "' .... III
, , '" '"
, '" '" III
,
, , '" '" ..... '" III
, , , '" '" '" ..... '" till
ilrJC , ... '" '" II1II

, , ... ... '" '" '" '".... I11III
, , .. .. .... ,
, .... '" .'"
,',
, .......
.....'" . ,
....
I •• "",
The gain g of this voltage divider is just (1 + 2 2 and you call<\~~

(1)2 R C )-1/2
see that for (i) = 0 (i.e., DC operation) the gain is unity. For very larg~))~
frequencies, though, the gain goes to O. The gain changes from unity to o.«l~
for frequencies in the neighborhood of 1/ R C. We have said all this before, :}~~~~
but in a less general language. . . . )@§
However, our new language tells us something new and mlportallt:{:~a
about Vout, namely the phase relative to Yin. Any complex number z can~::\~~~
be written as . ...::?~~:~
..... . , , ,',' .•••••.Jt
, '" . . . . -0lil
, ,
..... ,
,
. . . "" oM Jill
, .. Ii ..
, , • "" .. Jill
, • • oM Jill
, , .. Ii •
,
....
(3 ,9)"::~::~::~
.... .
..... ,
,
,',
, ....
............• ~
~
, ,
. , . , .. • . 01
, , ,
, ,
... . ..
......
, I . . .. . .
where ,
, ',. •• II.. ..
,
,
,
I • 01 • J
I
I
~ ... . •
, . . . . . . .)
01 • I
, ........
, , • '" IIj, . a.-.
::--:
tjJ = tan- 1 hn(z~
, ,'
,',' .. •••.. 11
. '. "'" "'J
{3.10r~}~~
Re(z) ... '4 ,,
... .......1
~
,.....
, •• ~
..•••• c;t"-c;t"- ,,
...
·,.....
,
~•
,
• .II
.II
. -..
...
is called the "'phase'" of z. Therefore, we find that ..

..
,
,
'~c;t
-,/'
,,,
•
... ..
..........
• •-.111
~
~
'
, .... ..
' ,
'
,
.......
.. ...
......£
~
1 1 - iwRC 1 l>¢
, ,
'
,
......£
.................
..
~
1 + i~RC
, ..... . .
.......... ~
i + w2R2C2 = (1 + w2,R2C2)1/ie •
'
= I
,
,
I
,
.....
_J'
....
...
.. .
I .II ... - .
~
III
,... I .II
... .oiI ...

.oil
, • • III
.... ........ .
I ..... ...
In other words, the output voltage is phase shifted relative to the input\~~~
voltage by an amount cP = - tan- (wRC). For (j) = 0 there is no phase.>~~~
1
shift, as you should expect, but at very high frequencies the phase is shifted >~~~~ I' ........
by - 90°. ,<:::~ , •••• l1li
·.... -.
, I ...
, .II • l1li
,.-
, . . . III
, I .. ..
,
, ,, , ...
.... ......
, , .. OIl
, • • III
,.~
, . . . . III
3.1.3. Inductors ,
, ' ..........
· . ..
.......
,.~
. . . III
. . .~III
..
,
,
...
~
I ....
, , .. 01
, .. 01.
,
, • 01 •
,
Just as a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, an inductor stores <~~~~ , , • 01
energy in a magnetic field. An inductor is essentially a wire wound into/~~~~

the shape of a solenoid. The symbol for an inductor is . The key is iil,:,(~~
.... ,
the magnetic field that is set up inside the coil, and what happens when the. ',)~~
current changes4 So, just as with a capacitor, inductors are important when}~~~~
the voltage and current change with time, and the response depends on the:/~~~
frequency_ . ::\i~
.,,.. ,
,,
, ,, ,
...............,,
, ,
,
, ,,
,
....,,
...
ot ...
, ,
,
, ,
..... ....
...
, ,
,
, ,,,
,
.....,,
, ,
. .........,
, ,,
,, ,
,
.........,,,
,
.....,,
...
, , ot ..
,
, ,
........,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, , .oI ...
. . The inductance L of a circuit element is defined to be

N¢
L=-,
I
~;:;:::::::""JJ'-"'-'N is the number of turns in the solenoid and <t> is the magnetic flux
the solenoid generated by the current I. The SI unit of inductance is the
. m 2 /Ampere, or the Henry (H).
Now if the current I through the inductor coil is changing, then the
Ill<.'''''''-~~ flux is changing and this sets up a voltage in the coil that opposes
in the current The magnitude of this voltage drop is
V = d(N4l) = L dI.
dt dt
I Z. where Z is the impedance of the inductor, and
.= Ioe iw1 , then V = iwLI or
Z = iwL. (3.11 )
can use this impedance to calculate, for example, Vout for the gener-
voltage divider of Fig. 3.7 if one or more of the components is an
:: You can now see that the inductor is, to a large extent, the opposite of
:IBl:amlCltOI. The inductor behaves as a short (that is, just the wire it is) at
frequencies, whereas a capacitor is open in the DC limit. On the other
an inductor behaves as if the wire were cut (an open circuit) at high
::m:QU.en~:leIS, but the capacitor is a short in this limit.
One particularly interesting combination is the series LC R circuit, com-
one of each in series. The impedance of such a string displays the
pnlenc)m(~ncm of "resonance." That is, in complete analogy with mechanical
""'~"n'>n,.,'" the voltage drop across one of the elements is a maximum for
. certain value of w. Also, as the frequency passes through this value, the
. ve phase of the output voltages passes through 900 • If the resistance
•., is very small, then the output voltage can be enormous, in principle.
Diodes and Transistors
:ReSlsltorI5, capacitors, and inductors are "linear" devices. That is, we write
= I Z, where Z is some (complex) number, which may be a function
frequency. The point is, though, that if you increase V by some factor,
- , .... Yo
,
...... .
'
,
.... 101
~ 101 •
! 101
, ... AI.
..I III
• ..III . .
,
, , .......
•
.r
101 . . ..
,
I
'~ .. :-:
, ....... ..rIII
:-: -: ~-~
I ........
....
, ~ .. .. .1"',.
100 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ))~

.......:.-:
- '."'.""'.J
',"",A.!II
,,,
'
-
, ....
,.III_.Jj
".J .oil
"j~.".oI?i
' . . . ..01 "..1
, ... J"'.
then you increase I by the same factor. Diodes and transistors are exam-,:,:,<:~:~
pIes of "nonlinear" devices. Instead of talking about some impedance Z.U:]
we instead consider the relationship between V and I as some nonlinear\~}~l~~
function. What is more, a transistor is an "active" device, unlike resistors-,-'<{}.
'. ....... - ', .,{'
capacitors., inductors, and diodes, which are "passive." That is, a transistor':~~~~~~~
takes in power from some voltage or current source, and gives an output)J~
that combines that input power with the signal input to get a response~ It»:~{:~
used to be that many of these functions were possible with vacuum tubes:::ij~
of VariOllS kinds. These have been almost completely replaced by solid~<}~ili
state devices based on selniconductors. The physics of semiconductors and::':}~~
semiconductor devices was discussed in Sections 2.1 and 2.4. ,,}~~~~~
The symbol for a diode is ~ where the arrow shows the nominal direc~<~~~~;~
tion of current flow. An ideal diode conducts in one direction only. That)j~~
is, its V -I curve would give zero current I for V < 0 and infinite I for:::J~~®'
V > 0" (Of course, in practice., the current I is limited by some resistor: )~~~~
in series with the diode~) Thls is shown in Fig" 3.9a. A real diode, how~<\~~j
ever, has a more complicated curve, as shown in Fig. 3.9b. The current(?i~i
I changes approximately exponentially with V. and becomes very large:}!tl
for voltages above some forward voltage drop VF~ For most cases, a goo(l;:{l~~$.
approximation is that the current is zero for V < VF and unlimited for=:{~~]
V > VF. Typical values of VF are between 0.5 and 0.8 V. ::~~~~~~ , • ... _J
Diodes are pn junctions. These are the simp]est solid-state devices~ made(:~:~:~~
, .• .A..-. •
of a semiconductor, usually silicon. The electrons ill a semiconductor fin,)}:~ .... , ~ ~.
-~Te.rgy1..LrdlRl.°~n'1rmalllh9'\1l1lotJ110Y.e. throuj!Jt,the bulk material~ s.o ;:?~~~~~. , ,
the semiconductor is really an insulator. If electrons make it into the next>~... ,,

.... . "
, , ,,
,, .. ,
,..
,, ..
. ,
,
, ..
, ,, .
,
,.
... ,
, ...
(a) (b) .. ,
, ,"
I I .... ,• •
, ,"
... ,,,
,
• •
,. ... ,,,
,
• •
,.. ,,
.... ,,,
,
,..
, ,
,
.... , ,"
,,,
,
,.
.. ,
, ..
. ,
, ,,
, ,, ,.
.
. ,
,.,..
.. , ,
,... ,
......
,
,
,
, ,
,
....
,
, ,, ,
. . , ,
,
, ,
,
, .
, ,,..
• •
, , .. . ,
, ,
, ,, ,. . ,
, ,.., . . ,
, .. ,
...... , ,
, ,
,
... ,
,
,
....
, , ,
, ,, ,
....
, ,
, ,
,
,
v:::: 0 v v ....
....
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,,
. ,
, ,
,
FIGURE 3.9 CWTent I versus voltage V for (a) the ideal diode and (b) a real diode. ',:}
,..
. ,
, ,
,
,..
,
, ,
,
,..
.,..
,
,
,
, ,
,
...
,, ,
, ,
...
,,,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
.....
, ,
,
,
,
....
, ,
,
, ,,
, ,
,
....
, ,,
, ,
,
, .
, ,
,
band.. which is normally empty. then they can conduct electricity.

can happen if, for example, electrons are thennally excited across the
gap between the bands. For silicon, the band gap is 1.1 eV, but the
thennal energy of electrons at room temperature is "-'k T = 1/40 eV.
silicon is essentially an insulator under nonna! conditions, and
particularly useful.
· That is where the p and n come in. By adding a small amount (around
parts per ntillion) of specific impurities, lots of current 'carriers can
added to the material. These impurities (called dopants) can precisely
how current is carried in the semiconductor. Some dopants, like
:{I.<~."'U''''' give electrons as carriers, and the doped senticonductor is called
since the carriers are negative. Other dopants. like boron, bind
extra eleotrons, and current is carried by "holes" created in the other-
filled band. These holes act like positive charge carriers. so we call
semiconductor p-type. In either case, the conductivity increases by a
of '" 1000 at room temperature, and this makes some nifty things
So now back to the diode, or pn junction. This is a piece of silicon,

p-type on one side and n-type on the other. Electrons can only flow
p to n. That is, a current is carried only in one direction. A detailed
gives the I-V curve shown in Fig. 3.9b. See Dunlap (1988; full
in Section 3.10) for more details. If you put voltage across the diode
the direction opposite to the direction of possible current flow, that is
a "reverse bias." A small "leakage" current flows as shown in Fig.
9b. If you put too much of a reverse bias on the diode, i.e., V < - V~ax,
: • will break down and start to conduct. Typical values of V~ are 100 V
less.
Transistors are considerably more complicated than diodes,2 and we will
scratch the surface here. The following summary closely follows the
tntJroauctlOn to transistors in The Art of Electronics (full citing in Section
· 10). For details on the underlying theory, see Dunlap (1988). A trans is-
has three terminals, called the collector, base. and emitter. There are
main types of transistors, namely npn and pnp, and their symbols are
in Fig. 3.10. The names are based on the dopants used in the semi-
·~VILJUlJ"""JJ materials. The properties of a transistor may be summarized in
· lThe invention of the transistor was worth a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
, '" .-~
,,~-:.:,,: ~
"
, '"
, •
~
.... '" .. II1II
~~
"'~"J
"
',..:-:.:~*~~
,
'" ....
III
-
"
., .... , I ,II 01 -,.l~
""'' ' 'I%..-

~
" '..I~ ••
102 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition · ,, ...........

....
••
. ......'~
..- ..
IIIIIl,[.
....... :..:
-,~"
~
..... ..
"
" ' '"

, ..... . ..
.........:..:
, ..I ..... , ..•
- ... '" ..... II1II • ._
· , ,........ ".-
~
...........
, ........
,
, , ........... ..•
'
, .....
, • • II1II
f·.
-
~
', ............
~
- '::::::::~~0~
CoUector c , ..... ..
,' ...........
.
, .......
~
·.·A -.
· ', ..........
- , , .. .... ..r::,
..I ... A ~
" , •• ",.,JI"~
..I . . . . . . _.,J
•
... .. . . . Jj
•
,' ... ,."'
, . 'A~ • .1
~ .....
, ... .. ..... .Jj
- :<<-:.A~ . .:==-:: '"
· :<-: .:"'Y.6 . .:.r.z.~

. ', ...........
· '" ..... :-:
I ...
::::
. ...
' , . . . .AI
,..I" ... ~
· ,,, ,...
'" •. .":P}.
, , . . . .AI ..
Base B •
......
, ........~~ '..
~
'
·
"".a.:
....
... '·2
....... .... .....
..
- , ,
, , , '"
, ,
",
. .
~
~ ... ...
......
..........
...... ..2
I
- , '" ..
....
... .III
, ... .. . . . (II
I I ......... :
..........-II
I I ......... :
-,'1 ....... • ..~

...
" 1 , ••• 01 .....'l~
1 _ .... ~
. -:'<~:;::~~~ ...
..........~ ,',
''''
.., ",.01
~
:' :.:.~ ..~.~

Emitter E . ,' :~:: ~:~~ :.--...., .
, '" ... ,IIJ
. " , . '" . ..~ .....
,
>:-:.:..~ '''~~....:
npn pnp .....
, ' : ,' :-:.~ :.--..-\
~:«:.--....:
.....
"',....
····.·AA
'
,' ........ J~.
, ~;..--....:
FIGURE 3.10 Symbols for npn and pnp transistors~ ...

,: :::::~~"ij
..
. ' ....
,'.'.'.' *
......... , ,
,
, ,
.......:.--....:
,','
:=.-~
.-~
reverse all the polannes.) .::::::::~~

. '"'.·.'X~
.. ·EM
1. The collector nlust be more positive than the emitter. '::::)~:m
Nonnally the base-emitter diode is conducting and the . -::~~');:j

base collector diode is reverse-biased. . <\~
that cannot be exceeded without ruining the transistor. If you are . ,}}:~
specifications to see what these limiting values are. . ,,:;:::~:.~

4. When rules 1-3 are obeyed, Ie is roughly proportional to 1B and/fi~
can be written as Ie = h FE lB. The parameter h FE, also called ':, ,:}~~;i
fj, is typically around 100, but it varies a lot among a sample of :,(:~:~i
nominally identical transistors. ":}~~~~"':;r--;:- , • • • .....11
' ... "'~
Obviously, rule 4 is what gives a transistor its punch. It means that a",3J~]
transistor can "amplify" some input signal. It can also do a lot of other \j~
things, and we will see them in action later on. :)j~~~
""'
, ,
,
......
..
· ...
.. »
..
..........
,• • • II
~.
~
............
',
,
,• .. .01
3.1.5. Frequency Filters , ......

..
':: :::::~:
,....
, .....
.....
,
...
:.-:
"'
. X.-
.....:..;
" '••• ....:,t'J'
, ,
'
~
.
"'., ..::::::
"
, ,
Simple combinations of passive elements can be used to remove "noise"\~

from a voltage signal. If the noise that is bothering you is in some specific.)~~~~~~
range of frequencies, and you can make your measurement in some other'>~~~~i , ,. ·. ·x
range; then a frequency filter can do a lot for you. Frequency filters are»~~ .....:.-: ,
usually simple circuits (or perhaps their mechanical analogs) that a1low«~~l
onI y a specific frequency range to pass from the input to the output. You then'})~~;~
..........
....
.....
. ...·"x
, ,....
..... ..
,
,
',
,
' ,
~
~
.....
, ,....
.......x
.... .
:..:
,
,
"
,
'
,,
, .......
~
III
::~::::::~
... .....
. ....
......:..;
.. ''''X
,
, ,
,,
,...~
.:: ::::::x
,
>:.:.~
'.~ ..............
~
~.:-:
I
;!~:i: 3.1 Elements of Circuit Theory 103
{:>make your measurement with the output. Of course, you need to be careful
~f)of any noise introduced by the filter itself. The circuit shown in Fig. J.6 is
~( •a "low-pass" filter. It exploits the frequency dependence of the capacitor
tt impedance Zc = 1/ i wC to short frequencies. much larger than 1/ R C to
[::\ ground, and to allow much smaller frequencIes to pass. A.J:, we showed
rut. earlier, the ratio of the output to input voltage as a function of frequency
W~{ II = w/21f is (1 +w2 R2 C 2 )-1/2. You can also use inductors in these simple
~f circuits. Remember that whereas a capacitor is open at low'frequencies
~t> and a short at high frequenci~s, an ind~ctor behave~ just the. opposite.
~~? Figure 3.11 shows all permutations of resIstors, capacItors, and mductors,
ffi?:and whether they are high- or low-pas~ filters. .. .
[t: Suppose you only want to deal Wlth frequencIes m a specific range.
W{>Then, you want a "bandpass" filter, which cuts off at both low and high
~r:frequencies, but lets some intermediate bandwidth pass through. Consider
[f{ .the circuit shown in Fig. 3.12. The output voltage tap is connected to ground
[::::>
Circuit Type Clrcu~ Type
T Low pass High pass
Low pass High pass
Low pass High pass
FIGURE 3.11 Simple passive frequency filters.
c L
t HGURE 3.12 A simple bandpass filter.

. . " :-:
- I • .II __
- I ~ .. ....
I I ... J
- I ..... I11III
I~.":-:
I
I ~ ......
I
I
•
.II..
.II . . I11III
J
I ~ ..... .
-
-
.','
I
I
I
... " ........;
....... ..
. . . . .~
104 3 E'ectronics and Data Acquisition :,\~:~~

,
I
~
I
•
....... .II
. . . . . II
....
I ~ ... ..
I • .II .... ..
I I .II .. ...
I .II .II .... III
- I I .II .. ..
I
I
I
~
...
.II --.I'
I I • .II ...~
through either a capacitor or an inductor. Therefore, the output will be zero : ,:~<~~~=~
at both low and high frequencies. Analyzing this filter circuit is simple ':'i<~~? I I~ ...... -.1
I I • .II . . .
I . . . . . ..
I I~ • .......... .J'
Vout ZLC ::':}~1.

- -'-
tT
, ........-
.........
ZR + ,..,
Z LC ,
.
" ... .
,',".""~
I
I
.. I
•
.......
...
.II ...
..
II
II
Yin ' · .... .. ::::::~::

I . . . ....
· .......oJ
I I .II .. iii
I • .II . .
I ......
where ZR - Rand ZLC = (ZL"l + Zc1)-1 with ZL = IjiwL and',,:))~~

Zc = iUJC~ (Note that L and C are connected in paralleL) The result is ':)j~~
..... . ,
'
,
,
,
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
•
..
.....
. . . . . .. .
..
III .....
III
III
III
1 ,
I
I
I ,
~
..
.......
• III •
III •
III •
=-----------------------
I ••
......
I .......
, ~ • III ..
g= 1/2
,
,
I
I
,
I
~
•
I
III III ..
.. . - - -
........
•
. III ..
..... .
I ~ ~ ... .
, , '~
",~~
,
,
,
.... ..
....
........ ,
,
,
,,
,' ,
,~
~
..........
...
.. ....
~ ~
, ' , ... ".I ~
, , •• ....1
...
.........
...............
~
,, ,, ~
, ~
, ,
,
, '
and as advertised, g ~ 0 for both (J) « Rj L and for w » 1/ Re. However~ :,:,:.)~:~
, ,~ ~
frequencies near v = (J) /2~ = 1/ (2rr .JL C) are passed through with.little <)~~i~~
attenuation. At OJ = 1/.J LC, g = 1 and there is no attenuation at all. Can, :':\~~~~:~
you see how to build a "notch" filter, or ''band reject" filter, that allo~s all ':,:iH~~~
frequencies to pass except those in the neighborhood of (J) = 1/.JLC? :::)~~~~
... . ,
, , ~
.................
............::.-:.
, ,
, , ~
,
, ,
, ,
, ~
,' ,
, ',
' ,'
, ' , ..... .i
..........
.......
,
,
,', .......... ........
3.2. BASIC ELECTRONIC EQUJPMENT ,
'~
, , ........oJ'
oJ'
.... .
..
' • .11 . . . . . .
~
,
, ....
, ,
,
, "
~
..
......
... II
, , ....~
" .1'
....
. ..
~
• .II .. II
, .... ..
, .. .
3.2.1. Wire and Cable
• • - II
, . . . . II
.. ..... . .
~
,~
,
,
,
,
.. ........ .
....
.II ... ...
,
,
,
,
,
.......... ....
.II ....
, ,, "• " ill".I'

..
.
COlmections between components are made with wires. We tend to neglect ,:,<:~~ . -. ,
the importance of choosing the right wire for the job, but in some cases :,:,}~~ ..... ,
it can make a big difference. The simplest wire is just a strand of some <}~ . , ~
conductor, most often a metal such as copper or al uminum~ U sually the wire ,,\~~~ , • .II ...
is coated with an insulator so that it will not short out to its surroundings, ::'·.:):. , " ~
or to another part of the wire itself. If the wire is supposed to carry some <:::= .. ,
,
• .II ...
small signal, then it will likely need to be "shielded," that is, covered with ,):~:~
..... , "
, ~
another conductor (outside the insulator) so that the external environment :/~ . , "
does not add noise somehow. One popular type of shielded wire is the, :i)~.... , ,
"coaxial cable," which is also used to propagate "pulses." ::'<~. , ,
Do not forget about Ohm's law when choosing the proper wire. That. ',:?~~
is, the voltage drop across a section of wire is still V = I R., and ,<:~} .. ,
you want this voltage drop to be small compared to the "real" voltages ,::\~. , ,
involvecL The resistance R = p x L/ A, where L is the length of the,,:,)~, , ,
wire, A is its cross-sectional area, and p is the resistivity of the metal. <?. ,
Therefore~ to get the smallest possible R, you keep the length L as short ,>~.
.. ,
,
,
..,
,,
, ,,.,.
,
, ,
, .
,
, ,,.,.
, .
, ,..
, .
, ..
,
,
.
, .
,
,• .
,
,
, •,
, ,..
, .
, .
,
,
,
., ..
, .
,• . .
.,
,,
,
~~!l: 3.2 Basic Electronic Eqllipmenl HIS
I"
m·
~('
practical, get a wire with the largest practical A,3 and choose a con-
ductor with small resistivity. Copper is the usual choice because it has
~~r: low resistivilY (p = 1.69 x 10- 8 n -cm) and is easy to form into wire
~p.: of various thicknesses .!Od sbapes. Other conunen chaiets are aluminum
~~r (p = 2 .75 X 10- 11 [l-cm), which can be significantly cheaper in large
~y : quantities. or silver (p = 1.62 x 10- 8 [l-cm). which is a slighUy better
!*I~H conductor, although not usually worth the increased expense.
:\ The resistivity increases with temperarure, and tbis can lead to a partie-
~.. . ~::~;,:~~~O:;:ef:;~s"pth: ~. ::~' ~':::d;~~eh:~;~n~~~e:.:;~:

M: . not enough cooling by convection or other means, then R will increase and
~~:' the wire will get botter and hotter until it does serious damage. ntis is most
~r common in wires used to wind magnets. but can show up in other higb-
~~:; power applications. A common solution is to use very-low-gage (Le., very
dl:
W::
:~~~.;: =::rh!~! ~h:=:n~~;:: ~~~~:~n~~! ~~er
~) Acoax.ial cable is a shielded wire. The name comes from the fact that the
ffi>wire sits inside an insrnator, another conductor, and another insulator, all
~} in circuJarcross section sharing the same axis. A cutaway view is shown in
g1\: Fig. 3.13. Coaxial cable is used in place of simple wire when the signals are
::?:::;. very small and are likely to be obscured by some sort of electronic noise
[:::: in me room. The oUlSide conductor (caUed the "shield") makes it difficult
~~t for external electromagnetic fields to penetrate to the wire, and minimizes
r,':.~".':"'.:;."':,.-
[: _
the noise. Thls oUlside conductor is usually connected to ground.
A second. and very imponant. use of coaxial cable is for ''pulse traus-
mission.'" The wire and shield. separated by the dielectric insulator. act as
~( a waveguide and allow short pulses of current to be transmitted with little
~,.:~,:~.,:•;:,;., distortion from dispersion. Short pulses can be vcry common in the labo-
[:: ratory. in such applications as digital signallransmission and ic radiation
;8::::: detectors. You must be aware of the "characteristic impedance" of the cable
~r when you use it in this way.
~F Coaxial cable ha~ a characteristic impedance because il transmits the
~( ,signal as a Irai Dof electric and magnetic nuctuarions. and the cable ilselfhas
W: characteristic capacitance and inductance. The capacilance and inductance
~::
:I
of a cylindrical geometry like Ihls are typically solved in clementary physics
3Wire diameter is usulilly specified by the "gage number." TIle mlalIer lile wire gage,
.::: the thicker the wire, and the larger the cross-sectional area .
Ii
~.
'X~,
. . ... ......... ' ~
'::::::::@A~~
··
· ·.....
..... . ... .
. . ..... ~
". ::::::::::~
106 3 Electronics and Data AcquiSition '. :::~::::::~~
..'· ........ .......... -%
.. '. ' ...............~
,
· . .....
. .....
., ~
',
.....
'.'AA»
· , .....
'~
"""""
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~
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>::::::~
:::~:;:::..w.~
·.' '",..........
... "'Y"':
,
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.:::; :::::~
..;)::::=:a::
. · ,,:.:.:.~.
... ... .
... . ::=::
··',,.............
, .....
:>:::::~
FIGtTRE 3.13 Cutaway view of coaxial cable. ':;::::::a::
,:,::::::~..r~
. "' . . ..r,..... ""~
,>:.:.:..~~ .....
, , . . . ..If
.,' .....
, , • ..IOII.AII
~. ~
.: , :':-:~;~A:~
........ ~
texts on electricity and magnetism. The solutions are ::, :~::::~"0:~J",j

.
'" ..... 'JI,J
, . " ... ~
. :,:~:: ::~:.:'-:'f.'j'"
, ..... ..,.,J
J.L b
,
,~, • •• 01 0101
•
ol'x:
.01 . . . .: : : ;
.e
•
..
• ..
_ ,,2](£ ·"'.""
:':- :.~"'.:::::J$
and L = _. In -- x i, :.:
C - In(b/a) x
• , • 001 ..
01
'''.01
2:n: a .,',......
.......:$
.::::
..
. ' • • ......
.01 .. ..
1'
. .
.... :-:
.,
,
'''01.01
~
where a and b are the radii of the wire and shield respectively, € and JL are::!~~~
the perrnittivity and permeability of the dielectric, and l is the length of the<J~~t-=. • • •
cable. It is very interesting to derive and solve the equations that deterrnine<J~]
p~e propagation in a co~al cable: but we will not do that here. ~nett~
thing you learn, however, IS that the Impedance seen by the pulse (which:'::;:jm
is dominated by high frequencies) is very nearly real and independent ofum
frequency, and equal to ..<~:~~~~j
·' ,'...' ' 'w.'' ',J , " ••• J',i.
"" ,....
......... 'l~
. .....0. ".,J .;.:.~.~

L 1 J.L b , ,
<-:.:.:.~
~,
Zc = C = 271: '(7 1n ;; • (3.12) jj@~

".·.·A~
.i ........ *'
This "characteristic impedance" is always in a limited range, typicaUY\J~
50 ::s Zc ~ 200 Q, owing to nanrral values of E and f.L, and to the slow ):}~
, •• AJ'J'
variation of the logarithm. ,~}~~~

You must be careful when making connections with coaxial cable, so <}~ . . .. , .,,/"
that the characteristic impedance Zc of the cable is "matched" to the· :i>~~~~

load impedance ZL. The transmission equations are used to SllOW thaf'ii)J~~
the "reflection coefficient r, defined as the ratio of the current reflected :\:~~~:~
H
.. -.....
from the end of the cable to the current incident on the end, is given by .'i)~~~
........
....... ,
,
, .....
..
..... .
,,'
, ,
,
,
..
......
............ ~
.,;
, ,• . .to . .J.iii
. .....
,
,
,•
,
.....
..... ...
......J.0lIl
......
. . . . liliiii
, . . . . . . I11III
,
,
. ,
, . . . . .III
, , .'". . . . .III
, . '" .... .....
II ....
. . ..
..
, I I .. 'II III
• . . . . J{--
I • II . . .
I I .....
I • II . . .
That is .. if a pulse is transmitted along a cable and the end of the cable is not<~J~
conn.ected to anything (ZL = 00), then r = 1 and the pulse is immediately··.:,:)~~~ 111_,.. , I ~
reflected back. On the other hand, if the end shorts the conductor to the ::}~;:; ...... , ~ 01 .....
shield (ZL = 0), then r = -1 and the pulse is inverted and then sent.}~~;~~
back. The ideal case is when the load has the same impedance as the cable. <~~~~~ .... , ,
In this case, there is no loss at the end of the cable and the full signal ;:)~~~ ..... , ,
is transmitted through. You should take care in the lab to use cable and <~~~~~~ ............ ,
,
,
, .........
...
...
,
,
,
',
, .... ......
.....
...
,
,
,
,
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, ,
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,
..........
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,
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,
,
,
,
,
,
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1
.
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....
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• .I •
01 ..
..
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, I .. 01 ..
I .. 01 ..
I .....
I • <II ..
, I ....
I I 01 ..
I .. 01 ..
I .....
, I .. 01_.
3.2 Basic Electronic Equipment 101
'fJlf~u:onlcs that have matched impedances. Common impedance standards

.·are 50 and 90 n.
Of course, you will need to connect your wire to the apparatus somehow,
• and this is done in a wide variety of ways. For permanent connections,
.• •especially inside electronic devices, solder is usually the preferred solution .
.• It is harder than you might think to make a good solder joint, and if you
•.are going to do some of this, you should have someone show you who
. has a decent amount of experience. Another type of permanent'connection,
•. called "crimping," squeezes the conductors together using a special tool
• that ensures a good contact that does not release. This is particularly useful
• if you cannot apply the type of heat necessary to make a good solder
joint
Less permanent connections can be made using terminal screws or bind-
ing posts. These work by takin g a piece of wire and inserting it between two
surfaces that are then forced together by tightening a screw. You may need
to twist the end of the wire into a hook or loop to do this best, or you may
• use wire with some sort of attachment that has been soldered or crimped
on the end. If you keep tightening or untightemng screws, espedally onto
wires with handmade hooks or loops, then the wire is likely to break at
some point. Therefore, for temporary connections, it is best to use alliga-
tor clips or banana plugs, or something similar. Again, you will usually
use wires with this kind of connector previously soldered or crimped on
the end.
Coaxial cable connections are made with one of several special types of
connectors. Probably most common is the "bayonet N-connector," or BNC,
standard, including male cable end connectors, female device connectors,
and union and T-connectors for joining cables. In this system, a pin is
soldered or crimped to the inner conductor of the cable, and the shield is
connected to an outer metal holder. Connections are made by twisting the
holder over the mating connector, with the pin inserting itself on the inner
part. Another common connector standard, called "safe high voltage" or
SHV, works similarly to BNC, but is designed for use with bigh DC voltages
•. by making it difficult to contact the central pin unless you attach it to the
correct mate.
For low·level measuremertt you must be aware of the thermal elec-
tric potential difference between two dissinrilar conductors at different
temperatures. These "thermoelectric coefficients" are typically around
I IJ. V rC, but between copper and copper-oxide (which can easily happen
if a wire or terminal is oxidized) it is around 1 mV;oc.
· ,, ......-.., '"
·. ,',, ........."' '",
~
• ,' •••• "'...,J

, •• II ..
· , ...... .
·
,
,
~
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~ ..
•
II
..
....
III II
..
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• II ..
~
108 3 El e ctronics and Data Ac quisition • •

· , .......
,
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~
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~.
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.
. . . . . II
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. II
..
,
,
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..
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II
III
..1M
....
..
3.2.2. DC Power Supplies , , .. .. '" '"...II,

,
·
• , .. '" II
, , , . . . . III
, , .. '"
,',~ .......J
......... ..... - J
.......
, , .. . '" '"... .
, ,, , , .. '" '" ........
, , , .. '" '" '".AI ..
Laboratory equipment needs to be "powered" in one way or another. Unlike ,
<}~: . . . . . . l1li
the typical,! 00-V, 60-Hz AC line you get out of the wall socket, though, -this <}~;
.. .. , '" ,
equipment usually requires some constant DC level to operate. One way <:~~;
.......
to provide this constant DC level is to use a battery~ but if the equipment .',:~}~
,
,
..
..
.. III ..
II III
draws much current the battery will quickly run down. Instead we use DC .':'>i~
,I • • ::':
, ... • .J
Power supplies come in lots of shapes, sizes, and varieties, but there ':':<J~
, , .... "..fA
are two general classes. These are '~oltage" supplies or "'current" supplies, "<)~~
and the difference is based on how the output is regulated. Since the inD;er '::?f~~~
workings of the power supply have some effective resistance, when the .:<~~~~
power supply must give some current, there will be a voltage drop across ::)~~~
that internal resistance., which will affect how the power supply works. In .'~)~~~.... , ~
a ,i;voltage-regulated'" supply~ the circuitry is designed to keep the output }~~~~~

voltage constant (to within some tolerance), regardless of how much current }~~~~~ , • '" .,1:
is drawn. (Typically, there will l:te some maximum current at which the ,<~~~
regulation starts to fail. That is~ there is a maximum power that can be )}~~~
)@
, '-,r .J
supplied.) Most electronic devices and detector systems prefer to have

a specific voltage they can count on, so they are usually connected to ::::=:$
· .. . "'
voltage-regulated supplies. ,?~:~
• .... ioiII
A ·'current-regulated" supply is completely analogous~ but here the eir- ,}}~

.......... ,
,
"'
cuitry is designed to give a constant output current in the face of some ,<~~a
load on the supply. Such supplies are most often used to power magnets, <:~~ ,
,
~
....
• III
I11III
since the magnetic field only cares about how much current flows through :::::~~ . ,
,
JI .~
~
the coils. This is in fact quite important for establishing precise magnetic ,{::~ , • • III
fields, since the coils tend to get hot and change their resistance. In this <:~~ .. , • • III
,
case, V = I R and R is changing with time, so the power supply must ::}~ . , ~
know to keep I constant by varying V accordingly. In many cases, a sim- ,{;~... ,

,
, • M
pIe modification (usually done without opening up the box) can convert a }i~. ,
;:t......
~
power supply from voltage regulation to current regulation. ,

,,
The output terminals on most power supplies are "floating." That is, they ::}~
are not tied to any external potential, in particular not to ground~ One output, ':!}
(sometimes colored in red) is positive with respect to the other (black). You' ,:i/~
will usually connect one of the outputs to some external point at known :'!)
potential, like a common ground. ,<~.., ,,
You should be aware of some numbers. The size and price of a power i:~:;
supply depends largely on how much power it can supply. If it provides a:). - ,
-, "
- ,
- ,,
, .
.
.. ..
,..
,
, ,.,
-
, .
, .
, •,
-- ,..
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-
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- , ,.
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, . , ,
I: " e,,;, "eo,,,,;, E,,;pmoot '"
I~':::voltage v while sourcing a current I, then the power output is P = I V.

~:~>A very common supply you will find around the lab will put out several
m?/volts and a couple of amperes, so something like 10 W or so. Depending
1~>()fi things like control knobs and settings to computer interfacing, they can
~{:cost anywhere from $50 up to a few hundred. So-called ''high-voltage''
~~{)>ower supplies will give several h~ndred up to several thousand volts, and
M?:::can source anywhere from a few rrucroamperes up to 100 rnA, .and keep the
~t)voltage con~tant ~o a level of better ~an 100 .mv. Still, the power output
~~?<Qf such deVices IS not enormously high, typically under a few hundred
~~>:watts. The cost will run into thousands of dollars. Magnet power supplies,
~@)hough, may be asked to run something like 50 A through a coil that bas a
mt{resistance of, say, 2 n. In this case, the output power is 5 kW.
Er:::-
Wf(~.2.3. Waveform Generators
@t::.
[%::~W~vefonn gener~tors" produce an ou~ut voltage s.ignal ~ (t) that varies
[~t~>m tIme. The functIOn V (1) can be anything from a SImple sme wave to an
~~1<}lrbitrary function you program into the device, but increased flexibility can
[f:<sost a lot of money. Most wave.form generators, though, do have at least
M\}ine wa~es, square waves, or tn~gle waves, and can vary the freque~cy
@F<~"er a wI.de range. Low frequencies are pr:etty easy to get, but for very high
[:~>Jrequencles (above a megahertz or so) things get much harder because of
r~?:'~iray capacitance giving effective shorts. You can also vary the amplitude
[r(a.nd offse~ of t~e output voltage over several volts. .
@t>>. SometI~es.mstead of a "wave" ?utput,. one n~eds a "puls~"-that l~, a
@{:::'Slgnal that IS hIgh for some short penod of tIme, WIth the next Signal commg
~?>after a much longer time. Most waveform generators can accomodate your
~t>.wishes either by providing an explicit "pulse" output, or by allowing you
W{>t.o change the symmetry of the waveform so that the "0 to 11:" portion of
~~)::?~e wave is stretched or compressed relative to the "11: to 211:" portion.
~~{<>
tf::::3.2.4. Meters
~t>::··
&~~:::::Now that you know trow to obtain some voltages, including time-varying
rut/o~es, and bow to connect these voltages usj~g wire and cable, ~o~ m~st
WtJhink about how to measure the voltage. The slffiplest way to do this IS With
Wr:~~eter, partic~~arly if the v?ltage is I?C, (Most ~eters do provide you
~t:::~th AC capabilIty, but we Will not go mto the detaIls here.) An excellent
llij::::::>.
00::::::
[if:
@I{
.
- _- • " ..I"'
" •• J
. . . . . . . . . !III
..... -
·· .........
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.
•
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.. ... .... liliiii
·· .........
-
..
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.........
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· ........ .
110 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition <~}~:~
• , ........ II1II
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·- ..........
_ • " .II ... ..
iii
............
-
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......
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................ J
- , ........ ~
reference on the subject of meters is given in the Low Level MeaSUre"lentit\:~ · ........ , "
Handbook, published by Keithley Instruments, Inc. This handbook, as wen.:;/~~~~

as other matelials, are available from Keithley at http://www.keithtBV.Eom/.<~~~~~3 , ....... ..a,J
At one time, people would use either voltmeters, ammeters, or ohm-·':;\j~:~

meters to measure voltage, current, or resistance, respectively_ These days,',:{} , " ......
although you still might want to buy one of these specialized instruments:,,::):~:3 , , " II ... ,
to get down to very low levels, most measurements are done with "digitati>~~~
multimeters~" or DMMs for short. (In fact, some DMMs are available now:::\~~~~~ . . ~ '"
that can effectively take the place of the most sensitive specialized meters.}\~~~~~
Voltage and resistance measurements are made by connecting the meter in)/~~
parallel to the portion of the circuit you are interested in. To measure current,;)~~~
......
the meter must be in series. ,}:~~
.. ~
Realize that DMMs work by averaging the voltage measurement over::'i?I§

some period of time, and then displaying the result. This means that ifii:)~~ , ..... wI.I
the voltage is fluctuating on some time scale., these fluctuations will noti:)~~ .... , ,
be observed if the averaging time is greater than the typical period of the:«~~
fluctuations. Of course the shorter the averaging time a meter has (the»~~ . . , , "'"
rugher the '~bandwidth" it has), the fancier it is and the more it costs. <)~~
Meters have some effective input impedance, so they will (at some level).>~~~~
........... "
change the voltage you are trying to measure. For this reason, voltmeters :):~:~
.... ,
and ohmmeters are designed to have very large input impedances (many :?~~
megaohrns to as high as several gigaohms), while ammeters "shunt" the ;:}~ "~
current througb a very low resistance and tum the job into measUIing the <~i~. , ~
(perhaps very low) voltage drop across that resistor~ <~~~

.. .,....
,
, ~
• .•
,..
~
, ,, ..
~
,
, ..
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~
3.3. OSCILLOSCOPES AND DIGITIZERS '}..

, , .. ,
,• .•
,....
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,
,~
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,
3.3.1. Oscilloscopes ..
, ,,
, .. ,
, .
,
,
,.
....
•
,,
,
,
,
•
. ,
,
An oscilloscope measures and displays voltage as a function of time. That ':~. ,
is, it plots for you the quantity V (t) on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen :::. ,
as it comes in. This is a very useful thing, and you will use oscilloscopes:'~ ,
in nearly all the experiments you do. A good reference is The xyZ s of ':'~ 1
Oscilloscopes, published by Tektronix, Inc. You can download a copy <

from http://www.tek.com/under "Application Notes for Oscilloscopes.'" '::i
,
The simple block diagram shown in Fig. 3.14 explains how an oscillo- ',: ,
scope works. The voltage you want to measure serves t\Vo purposes. First, . i
after being amplified, it is applied to the vertical deflection plates of the ' ,
,
3.3 Oscilloscopes an d Di !lil izllrs 111
System
AGURE 3.14 Block diagram of an oscillm;cope.
This mean~ that the vertical position of the trace on the CRT cor·
"';p<llods linearly to the input voltage, whicb is just what you want The
:: vertical scale on the CRT ha... a grid pattern that lets you know what the
.' :~. input voltage is.
':; . The horizontal pos.ition of the trace is controlled by 8 "sweep generator"
:: whose speed you can control. However. for repetitive signal shapes, you
:i want the signal to "start" at the same lime for every sweep. and this is
';, detennined by the "uigger" system. The place on the screen where the
:; trace starts is controUed by a ''horizontal position" knob on the front paneL
,:: One kind of trigger is to JUSt have the scope sweep at the line (Le., 60 Hz)
:~': ; frequency, but this will not be useful if the signals you are interested in
;;::; do not come al that freq uency. Another kind of simple trigger is to bave
':': the trace sweep once whenever the voltage rises or falls past some level,
::: i.e., a "leading edge" trigger. There is usually a light on the front panel that
fl ashes when the scope is uiggered.
Oscilloscopes almost always have at least two inpOl channels. and it is
: possible to trigger on one channel and 1001: at the other. This can be very
: useful for studying coincident signals or for measuring the relative phase
.. of two wavefonns. In any case, lIle trigger "mode" can either be "nonnal."
in which case there is a sweep only if the uiggercondition is met, or "auto"
_·-'-""-.-x;;-
....... ...
-
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-
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......
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....
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112 3 Electrclnics and Data Acquisition •

.......-........
···.....
• - ill
- ......... ......
-· .....
- ... ........ .
~..
·· ..... ~. .
- . . .....
• • .II ..
· .... ~
where the scope will bigger itself if the trigger condition is not met in-::>~:~~
· .. ~
some period of time. Auto mode is particularly useful if you are search-:(~Im
ing for some weak. signal and do not want the trace to keep disappearing}~{:M
on y o u . U I i l i & .
You have several controls on how the input voltage is handled. A "ver-<dill
tical position" knob on the front panel controls where the trace appears on:j~m
the scr~en. You will find ~ne of these for each input channel. The inp~t:/~~@
"couph~g" can be set to ~lther AC, DC, or ground. In. AC mode, ~ere .IS <Jili&..
ThIS keeps any constant DC level from entenng the scope, and all you see)~~~¥
is the time-varying (i.e., AC) part. If you pu: the scope ~n I?C, then the}~M~
constant voltage le:el also shows up. If t?e mput couphng IS ~ounded,<::{~~
then you force the Input level to O~ and this shows you where 0 IS on the >j~m~
screen. (Make sure that the scope is on "auto" trigger if you ground the}~~&~
input; otherwise, you will not see a trace!) <::@~~
Sometimes, yOll also get to choose the input impedance for each channel. . ·>~:~~l~
Choosing the "high" input impedance (usually 1 MQ) is best if you want >JW~
to m~asure voltage level~ and not h.ave the oscilloscope ~nteract with the>@@~
CirCUlt~ However, the oscllloscope Will get a lot of use looking at fast pulsed .:::::::~%~
x... •• III ..
signals transmitted down coaxial cable, and you do not want an "impedance >j~~~~~~~
mismatch" to cause the signal to be reflected back. (See Section 3 .2.1 ~) .<~~~~1:~~
Cables with 50-0 characteristic impedances are very con1monin this work~ ··::}~1:~· - I ........
so you may find a 50... Q input inlpedance option on the scope4 If not, you .:r~~t~~: -
I
I .......... ..
...... _ •
should lIse a "tee" connector on the input to put a 50-0 load in parallel·::}::::::::....... . - I
~
. . . . .~ _ ...
Wl·th the input .::~::::~~:::: -

-
I
I
• .11
. . . . . . . . ...
........... .
...... .
- I . . . . . . . . ...
By flipping switches on the front, you can look at either input channel's . ::}~:~:~:~ - I .II ..... _
trace separately, or both at the same time. There is obviously a problem, .::}~:~:~:~ I . . . . . . . . ..
~ .II . . . . . . _ •
though, with viewing both simultaneously since the vertical trace can only· . :~::::::::::
I
•
. . . . . . ..
.II . . . . . . . . .II
be in one place at a time. There are two ways to get around this. One is to . :~}~:~:~: I ..... _ •
.. }::::=::
I ........ ..
alternate the trace from channel one to channel two and back again. Tbis I
~
~
.II ....
.....
_
..
•
gives complete traces of each, but does not really show them to you at :}~:~t~
I ........
the same time. If the signals .are very repetitive and you are not interested .}~:~:~:~:~
,
I
I
~
•
......
III . . . .
.
.
in fine detail, this is okay. However, if you really want to see the traces ::}~~~~~:
I ........
at the same ti me, select the chop option. Here, the trace jumps back and .: :}~~~~~:
...... . .I
~
• III ..... .
forth between the channels at some high frequency, and you let your eye . /::~~~~~: ,
,
I
I
.......
. . . . . . ...
.
interpolate between the jumps. If the sweep speed is relatively slow, the })~~~~~ ~ • III ... ...
I ~ III ..... .
interpolation is no problem and you probably cannot tell the difference :<:~~~~~:. I I .........
between alternate and chop. However~ at high sweep speed . the effect of . :)~~~~~: I ~ .. III ... .
I • III ... .
the chopping action will be obvious. .: :}~~~::

,
,
I
I .......
..... .
.
, I • III III •
, I ... III •
, , I • III ... .
I • III ... .
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I ~ III ... .
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I ..... .
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I ~ ..... .
, I • III ... .
I ..... .
I • III ... .
I ~ ..... .
, I • III ... .
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I ..... ...
, I • III ... .
~
. .. .. ..
I ..... ..
,
,
I
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III ..
...
.
.
I ...... ...
I • III .. ..
I . . . ..
_ oJ --' oJ
~:
~,:
~~\;:j
3.3 Oscilloscopes and Digitizers 113
~:: ;.:
T> You should realize by now thai. b.igh~frequency operation get.e; hard, and
r: the oscilloscope gets more complicated and expensive. Probably the single
:::: _:most important specification for an oscil loscope is its "bandwidth," and
::\ you will see that number printed on the front face right near the screen.
:/ The number tells you the frequency at which a sine wave would appear
? only 71 % as large as it should be. You cannot b'Ust the scope at frequencies
:::: approaching or exceeding the bandwidth. Most of the scopes in the lab have
20- or 6()..MHz bandwidth.~ . A "fast" oscilloscope will have a oandwidth
of a few hundred megahertz or more. You will find that you can vary the
sweep speed over a large range, but Dever much more than (bandwidth)-l .
The "vertical sensitivity" can be set independently of the sweep speed, but
scopes in general cannot go below around 2 mY/division.
On most oscilloscopes, if you tum the sweep speed down to the lowest
value, one more notch puts the scope in the XY display mode. Now, the
trace dlsplays channel one (X) on the horizontal axi!l and channel two (Y)
on the vertical . For periodic signals, the trace is a Li!lsajous pattern from
which you can determine the relative phaseoftherwo inputs. Oscilloscopes
are also used in this way as displays for various pieces of equipment which
have X Y output options. Thus, the oscilloscope can be used as a plouing
device in some cases.
3.3.2. Digitizers
In order to measure a voltage and deal with the result in a computer, the
voltage must be digitized. The generic device lIlat does this is the analog~to
digital converter or ADC. ADCs come in approximately an infinite number
of varieties and connect to computers in lots of different ways. We wiU
cover the particulars when we discuss the individual experiments, but for
now we will review some of the basics.
Probably the most important specification for an ADC is irs resolution.
We specify the re..~olutioo in temlS of the number of binary digits ("bits")
that the ADC spreads out over its measuring range. The actual measuring
range can be varied externally by some circuit, so the number of bits tells
you how finely you can chop that range up. Obviously, the larger the
number of bits, the closer you can get to knowing exactly what the input
voltage was before it was digitized. A "low~resolution " ADC will have 8
bits or less. That is, it divides the input voltage up into 256 pieces and gives
the computer a number between 0 and 255, which represents the voltage.
A "high-resolution" ADC ha~ 16 bile; or more.
......
··.... - .....
. ...-:-:« -~
. . .:m
· ·......
•
· . . ... ..
•
••
a -
.II ..
....
..
......
. ·· ........
•
.... . ....
• • • .AI
· .. .. ....
114 3 E' e ct ron i csan d Dat a Ac qui sit ion . ·::::. .;:::;::
.....
···.....
•
.. ... ......
•
.......
• • II
·· .. .. ...
•
•
...
• • • • .II . . . . . . . . . . ....
•
..
~
..
•
..II
..II
..
• . . . . ..If . .
High resolution does not come for free. In the first place, it can mean·~~(i~? ~
lot more data to handle. For example, if you want to histogram the voltage)~f~
being measured with an 8..bit ADC, then you need 256 channels for each/~:~:~g
histogralD. However, if you want to make full use of a 16-bit ADC~ every<\~~~~
the speed a~ which a. v?~tage can be d.igitized. Generally speakin?, it ~~!:@~
does for a large number of bits . '. ::::::::~~:m

""'''~
There are. three general c1~ses o~ ADCs, referred to as flash, peak~)!~
voltage sensing, and charge zntegratlng ADCs. A flash ADe, or "wave-}};] • , • II
fonn recorder," simply reads the voltage level at its input and convert~r::m
that voltage level into a number. Th~y are typically low resoluti~~)~
but run very fast. Today you can easily get an 8-bit flash ADC that:?~
enough so that Just about any tlrne-varymg SIgnal can be converted to/~~
numbers so that a true representation of the signal can be stored. in a;{~
computer.)i~
you are really mterested ID. For example, If you only care about the maxI-?d
mum voltage value, you can use a peak-sensing ADC, which digitizes tbe.<:/* . , , '"
maximum voltage observed during some specified time. Sometimes, you·:{t~

are interested instead in the area underneath some voltage signal. This is<:'~~~~~m
the case, for example, in elementary particle detectors where the net charge; .:/~~~~
delivered is a ~easure ~ the particl~'s en.e~~. For applications like this,fM
you can use an mtegratmg ADC, which digItizes the net charge absorbed.,::}~:~
over some time period, i.e., (1/ R) ft~2 V (t) dt, where R is the resistance at'}J~~
the input . For either of these types, you can buy commercial ADCs that ::'}~@.
digitize into 12 or 13 bits in 5 }1S or longer, but remember that faster and <~~~®
more bits costs more money~ <~~~~~a
The opposite of an ADC is a DAC, or digital-to-analog Converter. Here<t~~~a
the computer feeds the DAC a number depending on the number of bits'~ \~J~~
""".J""
and the DAC puts out an analog voltage proportional to that number. The. ::\~~~~
simplest DAC has just one bit, and its output is either "on'~ or "off." In this <i)~~
case, we refer to the device as an uoutput register." These devices are a way :.:.}~~
of controling external equipment in an essentially computer-independent :i)~@ , • ..oiI."
fasbion. . <:::;:~:3
... , ,
, , •
, 01 • 01
In many cases, you want to digitize a time interval instead of a voltage. >~~J~~ , • 01 .J
level. This can be done with a L'time-to-analog converter'" (TAC), followed<)~~~

by an ADC. However, both of these functions are now available packaged <;~~~~
..... ,
,
, ..
, .01 I I .
.01 • •
....... ." ,
,
.. II .. "
• II •
,
......" ....""
, "! .... .
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,,
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,
....
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, ,•
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~
, '01 01"
, • 01 •
,
,
, • 01 •
~
, AI • "
, • II •
, '_ .......Jl
~~-.'.'
3.3 OsciJloscopes and Digitizers 115
·m/
)?ina single device called a IDC. The rules and ranges are very similar as
?jDrADCs.
?>
Devices known as "latches" or "input registers" will take an external
If)bgic level, and digitize the result into a single bit. These are useful for
[t:',tellin
g whether some device is on or off, or
perhaps if something has
~}happened that the computer should know about.
[t· When a device is busy digitizing, it cannot deal with mor~ input. We
@/tefer to the cumulative time a device is busy as "dead time." Suppose r
[({is, the time needed to digitize an input pulse, and Ro is the (presumably
t~>tandom) rate at which pulses are delivered to the digitizer. If Rm is the
~~t:measured rate, then in a time T the number of digitized pulses is Rm T.
[)'The dead ti~e incurred in time T is therefore (RmT)r, so ~e number of
@{pulses lost IS [(RmT)r]Ro. The total number of pulses delivered (RoT)
I[
W:~<must equal the number digitized plus the number lost, so
::::::::and therefore
RoT ~ RmT +RmTrRO.
?:~::::> ..
z::::> Ro
Rm=---
fD
-:-:':',
1 + • Ro
(3.13)
~~::::. or
z::::<
Rm
~t{ Ro=----'-"- (3.14)
~:}" 1 - rRrn
~~~~~
r_~...::.:,:.•. ' The "normal" way to operate a digitizer is so that it can keep up with the
rate at which pulses come in. In other words, the rate at which it digitizes
r:.~:.~ :
..::::.::,,·: (l/r) should be much greater than the rate at which pulses are delivered,
that is, r Ro « 1. Equation (3.13) shows that in this case, Rm ~ Ro; that
r: ~: .j: : .: .: ,'. is, the Futhennore,

want. measured rate
an isaccurate
very close to the true
correction rate,
to the which israte
measured justis what
givenyou
by
Eq. (3.14), which can be written as Ro = Rm(1 + i Rm) under nonnaI
:.:.:- operation.
t: On the other hand, if i Ro » 1, then Rrn ~ 1/•. That is, the digitizier
{:: measures a pulse and before it can catch its breath., another pulse comes
~?> along. The device is "always dead," and the measured rate is just one per
I~~~i:~:~~:'P%c~1~3~:~:~::".::.~~~:c:~~I:::;;v~~
f> digitizing time unil Essentially all information on the true rate is lost,
::~:: .
~~~~:
::~::
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3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ·· ., .............. -

• ,
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116 · , ....... ---

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3.3.3. Digital Oscilloscopes . .·
• •
··· .....
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,,/
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·rhe digital oscilloscope is a wonderful device. Instead of taking th~}~~

-
-- •
" '" " " " "
, "j " " ....
... --
~
· , "
input voltage and feeding it directly onto the defiection plates of a CRT:?~-~::-
~
• , ,J ...
(Fig. 3.14), a digital oscilloscope first digitizes the input signal using:::~~{....~::~:: , , "
flash ADC, stores the waveforlD in some internal memory, and then ha!t.:}...:~ ~
other circuitry to read that memory and display the output on the CR~tr~:::: •
~
, " "
:*
We then have the voltage stored as numbers, and the internal computer i¢~~~~~..•• •
•
the digital oscilloscope can do just about anything with the numbers. Ev6(~@J
though it works very differently from analog oscilloscopes, digital scoP~~~J~~j
The same ternllDology IS used, and Just about any function found o~: al~(~~~;m
analog scope will also be found on a digital one. .' :::){~
.'. ' ..... " ~~ ..
..
• • 1 ••• .II. •
• • • •• II .II.
• 1 • • .......
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,
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II .II.
~
3.4. SIMPLE M EASUREMENTS :f~~

.; . ':':'~~M
are most easily put together on a "breadboard." This is a flat, multilayere~~J~~@
surface with holes in which you stick ~e leads of wires, resistors, capacI'<J~
tors, and so on. The holes are connected mtemally across on the componen~j?I~
pads., and downward on ~le p~wer ~ads. '<:::::::~~
COlmect two l-kn resIstors III senes on the breadboard, and then connect~~:::::~:~
the terminals of the power supply to each end of this two-resistor stringi~(I~*
Measure the voltage across the output of the terminals. Also, measure theiHt~
current through the string. Now connect two more I-kn resistors in serie~~}~:~~
with the others. Move the connections from the power supply so that once~:\~i~~
current measurements. Now measure the voltage drop across each of th~~}~:~~
four resistors. Compare the result to what you expect based on the voltag~~~}~~:~
divider relation. Use your data and Ohm's law to measure the resistance of.f~~~i
each of the resistors. Compare the resistance values you measure with th~~~J~~~~
nominal value. <:~):~~~
Remove the DC power supply and replace it with a waveform generatOt.(~1~
Set the wavefornl to a sine wave. Use an oscilloscope to compare thej~{:~~~
voltage (as a function of time) across the resistor string from the waveforlll;tJ~®'
generator with the voltage across one of the resistors. Put each of thesef)~
into the two channels. of the oscilloscope~ and trigger the scope on the<~~~~~j
. .........::.: ,' ',
channel corresponding to the waveform generator output. Look at botb:}~:~~~ .. .......'" .::::
,,.,,,,
....
,}
"
"
'
:'',:-:.~ ::.:
. :....
, ,,...
'
' ....
' ,
..
..
.. .
.......1';/
....
,,
.
::::
:x
.:x
,
,"'-:x
..•
' , ...
.. . :x:.:
"
...
,
,"' ,:.:- ..
.... :.p}~:x
..........::.0::x:-:
....
,
,' ....
' ,,
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'
'
" . tI
...
, ,. "
, ... tI.:J
~
3.4 Si mple MII8su r emants 117
simultaneously (on either chop or alterlUlte) and compare the relative

lIrnplirudes of the "input" sine wave across !.he string. aDd the "OUtpUI" slne
across the single resistor.
. Now connect a resistor and capacitor in series. Choose a resistance R
>;:~:~~::~il:~e'~ so that the inverse lime constant 1/ Re is well within the
J range of the waveform generator and the oscilloscope. Just 3:;;
resistor string, measure the amplibJde of the voltage across
the resistor or capacitor, relative to the waveform generator signal
across the front and back of tbe pair. (You should take care to set
DC offset of U1e waveform generator to 0 using the oscilloscope to
as a of
~
:'~;:the offset relative to ground.) Do this function frequency,
well on either side of 1/ Re. Also measure the phase of the output
, relative to the input sine wave. Figure 3. 15 sbows how to make
measurements on the oscilloscope CRT, using the circuit shown.
to Fig. 3.8 for ioterpreting the input and output waveforms in 'tenus
"of ••,'in and phase. It would be a good idea to select your frequency values
j~~~:~:'~~~nil~n stead of linearly. That is. use 110, 2VO. 4110 •... , limn where
~:~ i your. low frequency. Make a clear table of your measurements
pial the galn (Le .• the relative amplirude:;;) and the relative phase as a
funCljolwl'f",q"ency,. Do not forget that you measure frequency 11, but most
FIGURE 3.l5 Measuring gain and re!at.ive phase on an oscilloscope.

·....~ .." ... -
· ......
- . . ... .
-:.:-:.. :..: ..jIjI
....":~I
--
•
· .. • • .II ....
~
__- :.:-:..........
..~. ~Y.J
..... :_.,,,c
118 3 Electronics and Data Acquis·ition , .
- - ...
_.. ,':fi
- • .... .. J
. ..... • .... .II _:~;:;;:;

~:-
- - ....... ... . .... • .... .II ill
·· ...... ... . .
- - .. ......... .
- • • .II ..
~ -:.~
- • ·• ..II" . -.' • • • .II ..
~
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. .. . .
..~:=-W -
•
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:::::::::::~ ~
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.....
- . .......... .. ~
---• • • •
• • •, • • •
• • ,
10-1 • •
• • • •
• • • • :~~X-
• • • •
• • • •
•-• • • ~
• • •• •
• •
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....
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.. ....
10-2 . . ..
··....... • • .. .. III •
• • .. III ....
· . . .... ..
·.. . .
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• • • .... III •
· . . .......
....
• • • .. .. III ..
···...·. .........
• • .. III •
.. ...
•
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. .. . . ..
· . . .....
• • • III III
• • • III ..
· . . . ....
· ·· ..........
...
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• • • III ..
· .·........
· . .. .... ..
10-3 · .·... ......
• • • III •
• • III III
· . . ....
•
•
•
•
•
•
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•
III
III •
III
•
· ·.. ... ..
.......
•
•
•
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• • III
• III ..
. . . III
· ..... ..
· ...... • • • • III •
• • • • .. III
·....
. . ..
• • • • III ..
· .· ...............
·
• • .. III,
· - ....... • • • • III~
4 5
· . - ....
• • • • III ..
10 10 • • •
~
III
··........
•
.. . .
•
•
•
•
• • III
. . . . III
Angular Frequency (Hz) · . . .... .

.W
• • • III ..
• . . . III
- • • III
• • • • III ... ,
:,:,~-:,~
··..... . .. ...
'X--
90 ....
· . ..,
· · ........
· .·........
• • • •• • • I IIIII .•
•
...
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~
.-
•
• ••• III ...
... ::::::::;~~[]
••
•
• • • ••• III •
80 · . . ... .. • • • III ...
·-: : :
• • • • III •
· ........~ ri
::~~.~w.
70 • -
· . . .. . .
•
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•
· . . ...
-
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•
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60
•
:-:::::::::~ill?~~~'
_y/.
••
•• .II . .
.II ....~
·• . .••...
• • .II • _
- • • .II ....
10.... •
g 50
-
o
-. ·······x - . . ...
40
::::: W
··............
:.:.:.:.~~~
• ~ .II •
~
30 -
20 · .... ..
- . . ... . .
10
· ::::::::~~~ill?~ffi§
......
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -
--
.. ..'.'
....... ~
102
text for the values of R and C. :.:::::::~~rrm.·W@

. :.: ':':'~~mw
W • ~ • III ...
• • • III
.,,::::::;:~. ~
W = 2rrv. A sample of d.ata and calculatton IS plotted 1~ FIg. 3.16. 'TIl~%~
and capacItor (0.1 ILF).::)~M

·.'.-:. '.·.·,~mW~
,:-:.~ 'W
·,. '~w
.. ::::::~
...
.-;. III·W
•
•
I
~
•
:-:':~~W
~
•
•
III
III ...
III
III •
• I ....
• • • III •
3.5 Operational Amplifiers 119
use the waveform generator as a pulse generator and study the

6'/·";.,.. .,,,nt using your R C voltage di vider circuit. Compare the input and output
shapes as a function of the width 111 of the pulse. What happens if
» RC? What about fl.t « RC?
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
can get in the way of your measurements by causing things to change

r.·-":·"iTlh.,n you do not want it. These changes can happen as a function of time,
temperature. etc. To fight this, you want your apparatus to be
:.:.~.:.:.J.<1U"" against time, frequency, temperature, etc. The most common way to
this is using negative feedback. The idea behind negative feedback
you take a part of the "output" and subtract it away from the "input,"
:«:~:'~QUL"H'LE> it to "feed back" to the output and discourage it from changing .
. :: Consider a generic amplifier, like that shown in Fig. 3.17, which ampli-
the difference voltage between its inputs to give an output voltage. Let
gain of the amplifier be a. That is, for the circuit in Fig. 3.17 we have
= a Vin. We apply negative feedback by taking some of the output
and subtracting it from the input. This is shown in Fig. 3.18. A
voltage divider is used to take a fraction {3 = R2/(RI + R2) of
output voltage Vout and subtract it from the input. The amplifier now
not amplify Vin directly, but instead amplifies Vdif = \'ill - {3Vout .
Vout = a Vdif = CI! Vin - CI!,B Vout ,
Vout a
g=-=--. (3.15)
Vin 1 + a{3
t
Vln Gain=~
FIGURE 3.17 A generic amplifier.

, , ~ ••
, ,
,
.........-:.-:-
'" •
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11;';3
1It.J".
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....,.. :;:
, ' . . . . if
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, . . . . . WI..}
, , JI . . . . .~.
:.0:...
120 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ...... :-:
: - . : .. : 11.......
, ..
,. . . .
JI II .J"'"
' "'" lit
,
,
,
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..
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, .... II •
1111~
.
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, ....... :JII
....... .,;
, 'JIll".
, .. II lit III
, ....... oil •
,
, .... ""::h
....
,
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II . .
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, ..
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.... 11""2
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Gain=a · <,<,. :-:

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.... III::::
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"'2
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::::
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...... 2
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. . . 01 ..
. . . . . till : . :
:;;
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- ......
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,
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FIGURE 3.18 A generic amplifier with negative feedback. ,

, , , . . . . . wi
" a l l .. _-;"
. ! , ! . . . . . .: : : :
' j .......... ~
, , .. III
, ..... "7;1
" ,........... ~
:->:-:. :.»~
,
I
,
•
..
~
II ..
II
enormous gain. That is, ~ is very, very large. So la;g:, in fact, that af3 » qm
no matter how small f3 IS. That means that the gam IS . ><)~
· ,'
, ....
.........
, ~.~
~
1 Rl "::~:::::~:;:;
g = -{J ..... 1 + R for (43 » 1. (3. 16fm
,,., '" .. III..:.
2 , , ....:~~".-;,.
,......
:::: ..»"1IjM
...
..-..
JI. .. ..-..
The gain ofthe system only depends on the ratio ofa pair of resistor value~~~I~
and not on the gain of the generic amplifier. It is hard to get resistor valueKij
to change, so this amplifier circuit is very stable. The generic amplifie~f~~~
with gain ex, however, is likely to depend a lot on frequency, temperature~}~~~
:<.:.:~~
and so on. ::::::~:~
As you might imagine, commercial versions of the genelic arnplifie:#}@
shown in Fig. 3.17 are available in lots of flavors. They are called oper4i:'~)~i
tional amplifiers or opamps for short. Instead of a box, they are represente~I~~
by a triangle, as shown in Fig. 3~19. The two inputs are labeled "+" an~l~~~~~
u _ " for phase considerations. The + V and - V tenmnals are where yo~~~~~]
apply a voltage source to power the opamp. It is common to leave thes~f~~~

off of schematic circuit diagrams. Opamps are cheap. Most cost less th~~~~~;j
$1, although you can pay a lot if you want special properties. All have very)~~~
large gain. i.e.• a upward of 10 or more, up to some frequency. (Remen:rf~
4
her that capacitance kills circuits at high frequency because it becom~~J~m

a short.) An old, popular opamp is the model 741, which is still widel~~~~~~~
used today. A version of the 741 in standard use today (the LF411) h~'~:~~@
gain of at least 88 dB (Le., a ::: 2.5 x 10 ) and can be used up to fre+~~~@.
4
quencies of tens of kilohertz or more, depending on the feedback circui~J~~

. , ', ,......
•• "·.1':.1
'~."""J .......
.1'.1
Pi
. ' ,,~ .........••
~
J
, , ... 01":-:
:':~::~:~.*.:-:
..... ..
, ..... . :..;
~
, "
" ..... :..;
, .... ..t •
. ':~::::~x:~~
" ' ......"'..;/'.1
, ..... ~J
,>:.:.~ ~ ..
, :,, :' :,, ~' :••
:: :~'l~:or"':A
..........:or...:
~,,}
, • _......... r:JIfJ
3 .5 Operational Amplifiers 111
+v
Out
-v
HGVRE 3.19 Opamp notation.
>--,-__v".
11<0
100
FIGURE 3.20 An amplifier circuit with gain of 100.
i~~~::;':: and Hill (1989; see Section 3.10) tabulate the properties of your
r variety opamps. They also tell the interesting story of how opamps
developed. and wby the 74 t is such a mainstay. A common use
opamps, of course, is just as a negative feedback amplifier. You pick
» Rz so that the gain given by Eq. {3. 16) is 8 ~ RII Rz. For example.
build a stable amplifier with a gain of ...... 100 up to a lciJobero. or so, you
build the circuit shown in Fig. 3.20.
Another application of opAmps connects to our discussion of passive
: ~~~;~'i~(;see Section 3.1.5.) The effective input impedance of an opamp in
:? feedback is huge. That is because even though you apply a voltage
the input [0 the opamp is Vdi! = Vin - fjVouI ~ Vin - fj(Vinl fJ) = 0
· ...." ..
...
,,,
,
'~~
... ....
....
~-.r~
~ • AI . . :Y~
·· ':<.:":":y~
,' ........ ~y~
. . ,',', " "~-~~
· , " " "
.... ..
122 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ,
"',' ,.l ........~.-:.:
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.. " " -AI ~
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~
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,
.
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,
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," ~
Vout "
, , " ....
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, .. "
"
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~~
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...... ..
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,
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,,:~:::::::~?:::~
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:', :-:- .-J
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, • " III •
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.. III •
FIGURE 3.21 A high-pass filter with input load buffering.

, ,JIJ ,
1
I . . . . . . .. . .
11I·.· .....
I
1
1 1 I · . . . . . .•
......
.. ..
r::: ~
~"..J.
1 1 1 - . . . . . .: . - - . . . :
1 1 • • • .. . . . . ""IIJ
': :::::~~m:..~ ...~
, ' .... ,....:jJ"-'"
,I ....
, :::::;:;.~
SO it draws no curreut. This makes the opamp ideal for "load buffering.m~j~
That is. you can use it to make the input to ,some ~evice (like a fil~er ~<ij~
perhaps a meter) large enough so that you can Ignore Its effect on the CIrC~~~~~~~W
tt:at feeds it, For instance. you might ~uild a high pass ~lter as shown W,@1m
Fig. 3.21. All the output of the opamp lS fed back to the mput, thus fJ = ,.~(~:~~~W
and ~ =, 1. :aowev~r. Zin = 00 (effectively) because of the opamp., s9:i~~j@
all this C~CUlt does IS cut off the output of the source for Ct) < 1/ R C lik,~@jj
a good high-~ass filter sh?uld, ~ the opamp were not there. ,you woul~t~~
need to add ill the filter mput Impedance Zfilter = R + 1/ l we to th~~:~;~~
source circuit. See Dunlap (1988) for further clever variations on acth"~i~i~~
filtcrs. ".;"~"'.~-=*
::::::::-r...:
.... "
.
,........
.,,................ . .*-%
''''
~ '
-~
~ ~
~
.,,' ........
.........
.. .. '% '
~
,' .........
-~
..,', .... . ~
....
"
,
............ '%-
, .......
'
~-'%
,',
,''.. .........
.... ~
-~
3.6. Mf:ASUREMENTS OF JOHNSON NOISE , ,

.........
...•..-''%%--
'
~~'%
..........
... ~
.. ..
,. ..... ....
....
,',
,
,, ,
..............
,
~
~
~
, ~~
In this experiment'" we will measure a very fundamental source of noise .. Ifj~~~1

has to do with the motion of electrons in a conductor and the heat energy/~~~~
(random motion) associated with them. This is called "Johnson nois~~!~t~] ....... . ,
because it was originally measured by J. B. Johnson. Some people caU}~~~

it "Nyquist nOi,se." because the, phenomenon JO,hnson ~easured was firsM{j
correctly explaIned by H. NyqUIst A more genenc tenn 1S "thermal nois~(~J~:~
Some journal articles on similar experiments are listed at the end of ~'~~~~~~j
chapter. You might also want to go back. and look at the original worJ¥:@i
of Johnson and Nyquist, published in J4 B. Johnson, "Thermal Agitatio~~~~~~]
of Electricity in Conductors," Phys. Rev. 32., 97 (1928), and H. Nyquis~~~~~~
''Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors~" Phys. Rev. 32, l1Q~~~~~lli
, ,' .........::::
(1 928) _ :::~::::~~~:~
....... ", ~.~
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3.& Measurements 01 Johnson Noise 123
Thermal Motion of Electrons
will outline a simple model of thermal noise as presented by W. Henry

references). The model is based ou ral\dom lhennal fluctuations of
el,"'ron, in a one-dimensional resistor of length L and cross-sectional area
The resistor has reslstance R, and a voltage drop V = I R across the
. The current l. and lherefore the voltage V, arises from the thennal
Jluoluati,)Os thaI allow more electrons to move one way ~ another in
short time interval to.
On average no current flows through the resistor, and the average value
V is lero. That is,
(V) = O.
other band. the thermal fluctuations slill give rise to a finite voltage
a function of time; in other words V (t) # O. Therefore, the variance 4
V is not zero; namely,
u~ = «V - (V))') = (V') - (V)' = (V') f O.
Thi s quantity (V2) = u~ is called the thermal or Johnson Doise voltage,

~:: 'and it is what wc
will measure in this ex.penment.
From Ohm's law and the definitions oFcwrent and charge, we can write
Uv = C1iR
= uq R
to
eO':x/L
=--R,
to
: , where L is the length of !.he resistor. and CI~ is the net x motion of all the
electrons in the measuring time to. Ifwe can reduce this to the motion of an
: individual electron, then we can use a microscopic description of current
and resistance. If there is a total of N independent and random electron
. motions (i.e., ''random walks") in time to, then
4nte ~tIld~t may want to review Var10DS definitions in the theory of statistics. given in
: e,,,p'"' 10.
_ • • • • ..II.JI . . .- .. -~
........
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··.....•.
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124 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ··........
. ..........
-
- :.:.~.:.:...:~
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.....
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- "'" ~
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- ·:.;<.:~:
...... ....%~
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,A of
.. AI
..
O'V = .- N II. R~ (3.17)<~~~~~

L to _ )~{:~W
. . -.......~~. ~
the numb er 0 f wa1kS ill tune to. SO)!i!!i!!~
to n ALto :-::::::::~~::?$
N = (nAL) x "= - ' t .»~~~w.
'! r . .... ·-: .......
-:.: ·~. jI'm/
· . .. .
• • "
".. 01 ..
.....
'J'f~:-:
where n is ~e. number d~Dsity of conduction electr.ons. and L is ~e tim~)iliml

single electron is ,:;/;~~~m
.. :.:.:-~. ~~
... ·"w
~here m. IS th~ mass of an elec.troD and we note that mOll.on IS oI)1~r%~
Therefore»)~
r - ........~... %
2
t:1d =
~
. -.:::;::::~:.
-
:m
';:::::::~~::~
':::::::::~:m:~m~~
We note that (see Eq. (2.14» :':.;JI:"':"~%
:. :·;·:. ;.
· " " .. .. :J'~
-, ' ........... oil
.~ . . . . JfIII
• ~ " . . . lflii
• " " .. ..
:.,.~m
::::
"ri"!
~. .
L 2m
==
L
- p :::::: R,
-
.... =m::
-':':':':.~~':::
- » ",
.....
A ne2 7:
- , "
A
where p is the resistivity.5 :; ::::::::~.~
... , ~
.: .:.:.:~~~
Finally, put this all into Eq. (3.17) to get • , " 11 . . . .
>~{:~im
2 .-' 2 ': :;:::::~.X:::
Cf
2 = e_, Ud
N 'R 2 __ )~{;~~
V L2 t2 :-:·~-:·:~:·:m§i"
::: :~~::::~:: ~~
o ..
•
-- :.:.:.;~:.~
.... .II . . ~h
e 2 nALfio kTr:2 2 ·>t~~~m

. ,..... ~~
-=-.. ii 1: -m-t2-' R ::<?~~

O . .... ,..... . . . ---
••• 01 . . . . . . . . _ ....... -
2 ':::~:::~~~~
_ A ne,mi' kT R2,
..--
. )~:~:~:~
........-'::::::::
.'
.'....•.....•. . w
· ,
is because we are dealing with a single electron. .:}}jij

.' ..........7',.,(.
. . .... -..'.I":J'ili;-
· . . ., ."'.I":nrl'Jt
rI'
'..,...-,X:';:
,
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....
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,
.....
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.... ..
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, ,
,
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... .
-....
.....
<II
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-.I
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,
:.:-:.~~
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,
,
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• , , .. ,01
3.6 Measurements of Johnson Noise 125
2 2kTR
(V ) = --. (3.18)
to
: It is customary, however, to express the noise using the equivalent
. : bandwidth 1'1. v = L/210. Therefore, we have
(3.19)
In order to measure the voltage V, we will need to amplify or at least

the signal in some way. Let g(v) be the gain of this processing
nrr.rp,,,,
at frequency v. Then the output voltage fluctuation d (V2) integrated

some small frequency range dv is given by
d (V2) = 4kT Rg2(v) dv.

r'' are made by integrating the signal over a relatively large
IT... '.... ' ' ...
narmVVHlm 1'1. 11. This bandwidth is typically determined by the gain function
, which is large only over some finite frequency range. We therefore
the expression
(3.20)
G and D.. v are constants defined by
G 2 D.. v;;;; fooo g2(v) dv. (3.21)
will measure the Johnson noise in a series of resistors, and use the result
. a value for Boltzmann's constant k.
:: . The setup is shown schematically in Fig. 3.22. The voltage across the
... R is immediately processed by an "amplifier," which essentially
this voltage by a function g(II). The Olltput of the amplifier is
m.::(mea~:un~d using a digital oscilloscope. You will use the oscilloscope to
(V2), given by Eq. (3.20). By changing the value of R (simply by
W::yplaIl,gITI,g resistors), you measure (V2) as a function of R. and the result
be a straight line. The slope of the line is just 4kT G 2 A v, so once
. have calibrated the gain function of the amplifier, you can get k. (You
. assume the resistor is at room temperature.)
· ... - h
···......
..... ,,. ..........
• ........ j
....... •
..........
•
.II
. . . . . . . . II •
"" .. ..
·· · ·.........
..........
• . . . . . . . . . II • I
• .II . . . ., .-"JO
......... :.r..« '"

• . . . . . . . III II I
126 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition · ·. ..'" ........ "7"":;:

· ·.. .. ... .
• • • "" ..II
. .
. ................
. • • .. • ..II
'
· .............
......... ,.-.-.
.... .-.-. .
'
· ..............,.-.-.
'
·•....... .. .....""ioI
· ........ ..
. .. ...
• • .. .. A ";...j
, • A ~ . . . ""
· · ..... .. .. .. ,. .... .. . . . .
• •• ... A
·· ... . .........
• . . . . ,. .. II'
.·. .. ..... ,.,.,. ......~~~

. '"
·· ·.... ... '"
.. ·· .·....... ... . •
. .. ,
,J .....
,- ...... 2 '"
.....· ...........
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Digital ··
·.......
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··. .. ..... .... ·.. •
'A:~ ..... •
• .. JI . . II1II. -
j "-"-.
. . . . "II . . ~ • •
'"
'"
R Ampmier · .:::;::::~:~~
. OscUloscope ... ..... ' ~
, -- ... , ·· · ..·.......
•
, ...... ..
.. .. .... . ......
• .II ...... ..
...... ..,/
· ·...... .. ........
.·:.~.:.:
. .. . .....:~
···...... ...... '..." . ..
I . . . . . ..
··..... ........9"'b. .
• • .. .. 01 •
• • .. 01 ..
-
• . . . . 01
"
• .. 01 ..
• . . . 01 •
. .. .. • 1"1"'-'"
·':':':':~~m
. ........
FIGURE 3.22 Schematic for measuring Johnson noise. ·· ·...... ... '" ''""...
•
.. •
,.",
, .. III """
·::::;:=~::~ml
. . .·· ...... ..... .'" '"........
• ..o.o '" •
····...... .... . '" '"..

....... "
" .,j."M
"
· "'.
··...... . .. '" ..... ..
...
'" .
•
' ..o "''''
· . . ... "'''''~M
. .... .. '"
• • .o
• • • .o ......
~...:
Let's look a little more carefully at the properties of the amplifier. ·W~}~~ ..
· ... '" ......,.
will be working in the several tens of kilohertz range, so to estimate ~~~~~~:.%'~,:~':::::
gain we need, take a bandwidth 8. v .-:. 10kHz. The digital Oscilloscop·~~~~t.·
imphes that the .no~al gaUl G ~ust be on the o!der of 1200 or more~~@§
measure the nOIse In a l ..kQ resIstor. The amplifier also needs to h~~:~~~~§ .......
low noise and good stability itself, if we are going to use it on such a sm~}JI
s.ignal. A ~gh-gai~ opamp with negative feedback (see Section 3.5) soun"m1li
like the nght solution.. /::::~:::w
If we are gomg to do the Job nght, we want to make sure that all ~:~~I
loscope, for example. That way, we can measure the function g ~ v) Q~:::~:
bandwidth :filter on the output of the amplifier. In the beginning, YO'~~:~:~

·... -»::::
The first "ampli~er'" you ':'~ use, there~ore; is. shown in Fig. 3.2~{ftm
Fo~ now the bandWldth fil~r IS ~ust a ~. With an mput and ?utput, ~!~
Wlth knobs !OU can .tum:1he gam-prOd.uc~g~atc6ttne~~1,"I1Itl?'f:0.:1
other hand, IS essentially a cut-and-dry application of opamps and negat1.~~~
feedback. In fact, as shown in ~ig. 3.2.3, two .such negative ~ee.dback 100~~~
are cascaded to get the appropnate gam .and m.put charactenst1.cs. fi~~~ !h:
loop uses a HA5170 opamp and a low gam. while the second stage IS higA!i&i
.: ,:~:::::~:.~
........",m
· .. '" . · .. ''; w. ,
,
:::}:~:~
· .......
.. . .. ,,
, ..
.,>;.:.~].
'"
, , "'
"'~.N
· ..... . .X
• ,' •••• "'MIIi..~
.,.IIi
, .....
,
.....................:
··,.,.....
• , . . . II
• • • II ..
, • • II
' • oil II
-- :
•
•
,• ... ,
• ...o
.. ,y
• II ..
• AI •
3.6 Measurements 01 Johnson Noise 121
HA5170
HA5141
R, Band Pass
Filler
R,
R, Oul
FIGURE 3.23 Amplifier SIa,ee {or mea~urement of Jobnsoo noise.
NC -+v 0uI Sal
Bal - In -+1" -v
:i'!,GURE 3.24 Pinout diagram for the opamp chips used in this eKp!:rimeot. We are nOI
"BaI" connectio ns. The nOlalio n "NC' mesns ~no connection:'
and uses a HA5147. 6 Good starting values to use are R] = lOn,

= 100 Q, and R3 = 2.2 kQ. This gives the fi rst stage a gai n of 11 and
second stage a gain of 221 times the bandwidth func tion imposed by
opamps and the bandwidtb filter.
All of these components. including your input resistor R (but nol the
"><nm",,,;.1 bandwidth filter), are mounted on a breadboard so you can
things easily. The pinout diagr.un for the HA5 170 and HA5 147 is
in Fig. 3.24. The opamps are powered by ± 12- V levels applied in
with O.l-IJ.F capacitor.; to grouDd. to filter off noise in the power
Connections to the breadboard are ronde using wires soldered to
::, "11~ ,,,", for figuring out the rightopamps aod amplifier circuit in general goes to Jeff
RPI Class of '94. More details on lhis circuil desi&n are available.
. . . . ...~.
- ..............-.1":
·...
- • JI . . .~
..
· .........
_ • JI • II ...
_ • JI JII ..
--- ·-:-:-;":":-::'
_ . ... ;.r-....
·.........
.......... .. _~
3 Elee t ron i c s a.n d 0 at a Ac qui siti 0 n

- • • JlJI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128 • • • ... .... ....r"iIIf""rIf'"
-: ·-:':':.;'~~:m"'~
·...
. . .....~"' ..
_ • • JII II ..
• JI ... AI ...
- • • • II
• • • , • ,,"..tic
-.............: .. -t....
Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 3.23. Check things carefully, especially J:)i)I~
you are not used to working with breadboards. In particular, make sure-th¢(\~;~~:.:
12-V DC levels are connected properly, before you turn the power suppl)<?~m
and the output of the bandwidth filter goes into the oscilloscope. The lowe~::J~m
and upper limits of the bandwidth filter are not crucial, but 5 and 20 ~u:jl
are a reasonable place to start :};~:~
the CIrCUIt and meas~e the ,output .on an OSCIlloscope. The output ShouI<:t:4~
look the ~ame as the Inpu~ (I.e., a sine :vave of the same ~equency ~), b?~W~~~.
the amplitude should be bIgger. The ratio of the output to mput amplitud~~4ffij
of very large gain, around 2.4 x 10 , and the output amplitude must ~ les~W~
3
than a few volts so the opamps do not saturate. That means that the mp\i.t~~
wave wlth such a small amplitude. ·<d~
the amplItude down by a known factor. This diVIded voltage IS used ~:;:::;m
Rbig. and Rsmall usmg an ohmme~er, ra~er than t~ trust the ~~lor co?:~?~i]
somewhere between 10 and 100. It IS. also a good .ldea to see the ou~ut ?N~~
... ... ....

···...... .. .........
- . . .... . .
• .... .lO "" ..
,
- - . . ... "" • .. .. .. A
.. :::::::::::ll!Il!!
Waveform
generator - . . ...... "" ..
- ::::::::;;IJ:·§m
- ·........
. . "" .....
• I . . . ..
• • .. .. oi
• • .. .. .01 ...
•
· •
•
....... ..
..
....
.. .01 ""
II. JI.~
· . ··.'.....
......
........
....
· ·· ...........
.. . . ...... ......
"
· ·... . . . . . ......
. .... ....
· · . .......
·
· ·.'" .......
. . . ..
.... . . ..
Amplifier Digital
Ramall
oscflloscope . . ..
• • • .....
... . oi ..
•
·· .. .. .......
•
•
.... .. ......
.. .. .01 ..
oi ..
· . . .....
• • .. • 01
.. ,::::::~~~~~
-
.Ii ,
as · ... '~~
FIGURE 3.25 Calibration scheme for the noise amplifier. • • .. .. 01 ..
· /:=~~~{m~.
::: :::::~1i
· ·.......
.. .. . . ..
. ·' .....
··.......
.. .. .. ... . ..
'~ ... ~
- ·. . .. ...
. ....
··.
.' ......'~.~
..... . . . ...
· . ....
........ .
...... :-:.
- .
· .... ··.. .. ....
. . ....
.
- . .. . . .
3.6 Measurements of Johnson Noise 129
2500,---~---.----~--~---,----~---.--~
Negative feedback gaill

....
s
::::::: . ~ 2000
~jl·:
~{
i
.2l 1500
"C
c:
03
~
:;:;; 1000
C.
E
03
'0
.~ 500 , Bandwidth limits
~
OL-__ ~ __- L_ _ _ _ ~ _ _~_ _~_ _ _ _L -_ _- L_ _~
o 5 10 15 20 25 3D 35 40
Inpul lIoltage frequency (kHz)
~~{F,IGURE 3.26 Sample of data used to determine g(v) for the amplifier followed by the
~t:commercial b~dwidth ~lter. The simple negative feedback formula gives a gain of 2431,
~:::::'and the bandwIdth filter IS set for uLO = 5 kHz and VfII = 20 kHz.
Il~:: .
t~~F Make your measurements of g(v) by varying the frequency of the wave-
VJonn generator, and recording the output amplitude. Of course, you must
@{a1so record the input (i.e., generator) amplitude, but if you check it every
~{)iIne you change v, you can be sure it does notcbange during your measure-
~f:Ihent. Measure over a range of frequencies that allows you to clearly see
W:)the cutoffs from the bandwidth filter. including the sbape as g approaches
W>Zero. Also make sure you cautinn that the gain is relatively flat in between
tlfthe limits. An example is shown in Fig. 3.26. The setup used R\ = 10 n,
@?:R2 = 100 n, and R3 =
2.2 kO, so the total gain should be 2431, and
*~<witb bandwidth filter limits at 5 and 20 kHz. The main features seem to
@:be correct, although the filter has apparently decreased the maximum gain
~... , .
f:{ablt.
[t: Now take measurements of the actual Johnso~ ~oise.as a function of R.
t~?Remove the wavefonn generator and voltage diVIder ll1puts, and put tbe
~tresist?r. ~ou want to m~asure across the ~nput to ~e am~Ii?~r. Set the time
t.{J;ler dlvlSlOn on the oscIlloscope so that Its bandWIdth liIll1t IS much larger
I
:~::than the upper frequency you used on the bandwidth filter. For example,
~I'lfthere ",e 10,000 poin" (i.e., ,ample,) P'" tnlce ond you 'et the "ope to
II!:
...~~::-
· .,.-' ..........
•
, • • .. .II ..
-~
......
..
•
. .
, • -' • of . .
•
. . . . . .]1
· , • • ,... .II.....
•
•
·. •
,. ,. ...
• of .II
, , . . ...
•
•
-'
-'
• of .II
of ,.
130 3 Electronic·s and Data Acquisition •
· ...
,
•
-'
. . . . II'
• of .II
· . . .. ..
-' -'
, -' • .. .II ..
• • • .. ,. .II
• . . . . II'
•
·· .. ..."" ..... ••
• •
of
. . . . II'
• II'
· . . .. ...•
•
•
•
•
of
""•
•
.II ..
20~------~~----~------~~----~
Single sweep
>' 10
~
·
·.......
....
· . .
· ......
•
.. . . . .,. m
. . ..... .. . . . •
•
•
•
•
•
....
III
III
..
..
-
~
E
"5 0 •
•
···............··m
•
...
•
~
~
~
•
•
...... II1II
III
III
...... ..
,. ... II'
....
•
•
,
~
~ ~
· • • • • II'
..... ~
o -10
......... '.~.
·::::::::~:~
-~~------~--~--~------~------~ ...... ~
o 0.5 1 1.5 2
·· ...........
. .·..........
. . . ... •
...... . -' • ... ,JI •
2~--------~------~~----~------~
· ..... ~.
100 sweeps · . . . . .. • •••

• • ... ,JI
~,JI •
· .. ..... .
. .··.:-:-:.:':W.§'
......
...........
•
. . . . .AAmA
•
•
•
A
• III
. . . . . . .. .
.. ,
···.........
............. ... • A
~
~
• III .. ,
···......... ..
· . ... .. . .
•
.....
.......
•
..
•
• • .. J......
•
..
A
•
•
.. .. •
........
..
•
.oj
• • .. III .. .
2 •
····......
... "'A~
•
·....... .
.. ..... ..........
...... ~.
...
. . . III
..
.. .. .<1
.. .
. . .. . .
,
...........A
··........
·,
· .... :..
A .. .<I .. •
..........m
• .... "fA: •
;;:::::::.
• •
~
• • ..
', ~
.I
cuts off at 20 kHz, then this would be fine. ·;::::::::::~m:
the l~wer limit was only ~ligbt1y smaller than the upper li~t? '}<~~I
of 100 traces. The average looks the "same" as the sIngle sweep, but It;~:}~:~W:
t~o~gh the! are confined wIthin. ~e limits of the band:Vldth filter. Most@~
mean and variance of the trace. This will be useful for your analysis. «~~
oo
You need to dete~e the value o! G2.6.v ~ Jo g2(v)dv. Make ~<~
plot of g2(v) as a function of v and estlmate the mtegral under the curve:<:~
answer usmg the MXI'LAB functlon trapz, which performs a trapezo1(b~tj~

.. :.:.:.~~.~~.
.,:.: .. :.~:~:
• .. " • .1'
. · ::::;:;~~:~ili:
m.
.... ......•
.'. ' ...•.."..~
·.....
." ,JI~
.. ...
., ..
%
•• ' ...
.' '..".~.
· ·...•.....•
•••••• ' ... A.
,
· ·•••
........
•... '.r'.~
.... ..',.... ~
• ,•
,
• ,JI...... •
• • • • ,JI ; •
3,6 Measurements of Johnson Noise 131
22,----.----,-----.---~----~----._--_.
20
16
116
g<II 14
III
-g 12
>
:g, 10
.l!1
g 8
:;
~ e
o 4
2
o~--~----~----~--~----~----~--~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Input resistance (kn)
',-
::-: FIGURE 3,28 Data taken by measuring the standard deviation of the output voltage signal,
:> as a function of the input resistor value. The slope gives k, while the intercept gives the
il: ,qui,,"~' inpu. po;" ,01"",. ,=&ti'g . . <h' ~plifi" "", x b~dw;dlh.
"fie,
' .....
,'" integration given a list of (x, y) values. For the data of Fig, 3.26 one finds
that
G 2 J1v = (7.9±O,5) x 107 kHz.
Next we make a plot of {(V - {V»2} as a function of R. Note that

since (V) = 0, the above expression reduces to (V 2 ), The plot is shown in
Fig. 3.28 and a linear fit gives
(V2) I R = (1.33 ± 0.08) my 2 /kQ
.~:: .
,: and an intercept at 4 m y2 .
.;,:_: :' We can now calculate Boltzmann's constant k from the above data using
'__ Eq. (3.20) and setting T = 298 K (room temperature). Using units of hertz,
F volts, and ohms, we write
~::
:=::: (V 2 )1 R (1.33±0.08) x 10-9 -23
~.
k= 2=428 90 10 = (1.42±O.13) x 10 11K.
4TG 6v x 9 x (7. ± .5) x 10
This result is in excellent agreement with the accepted value k = 1.38 x
10-23 J/K.
:::::.
:~.:-
I I'~'.'
~:;>.
.
-.'.............///-....
-.........",-..-.."':J.-~ .,
- ' " '" ~
,
-::: :~~:::::~:
:-:.: .~.:.~:: .A"~'"
132 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition -<::::;:::::::»::: • .II •
:-:...~
. . .. .. ..~~J
·........... _
- • • JI . . . . . . . . . . . ..
,
- . . ... .... .... .. .
•
-
.J1
• •
....
....
»~
..
0IIII,
• • • .. .oil.. .. ..
· ...... • , • . . . . . . . . .III lflii .. ....

IfIII~X
...........-...... ..
- • • .II • ...... 0lIl....
.... .. ...
..... A
-• • • .. MIll ....." , . .... '
The intercept of the line in Fig. 3.28 is the noise at R = O. You would!HJg):
expect this to be zero if Johnson noise in your input resistor were the only- -~~:}~;~:~~;:
thing going on. The input opamp, however, has some noise of its own, due)t~i~~~~:
to internal Johnson noise, shot noise, and so on. The specification sheet for <~~~~~~~~~3
the HA5170 gives an equivalent input noise of around 10 nVI Hz. How<}~~~~~~~~~;
does this compare to your measurement? <~~~~~~~ij~;
There are a number of variations and extensions to this experiment. For /~~~~~~W~~'
exa~ple, instead of simply using the oscilloscope to determine the standard. <:~~~~~~t~~;
deviation" use ~~ an~ the trace data (as in Fig. 3.~7) to get the values :)~1!j~jil
and examme therr dlstnbutlon. You can get the data Into an array trace~.·.}~~~~~~~~~~~:
and you can use mean(trace) and std(trace) to get the mean and standard :<==~~~~:§§~;~:'
deviation. The series of MATLAB conunands used to plot the distributiori)~J~;i;~~:
might look Hke <::::~~~~~::::;~~j
· ... ,.. ..... . ·.·'..............
....... .
..-"",,,,,,,,,%,,.,,,
• . . . . . . . . . . . . .J I
· ...........
....... .....
•
,~
. . • ...... • ... I
bins = linspace(min(trace), rnax(trace), 50); ·

·
· ··... .........
~
.......
..........
,. ......x;..... ,
•
•
.......
.. • .. ••
'
~
.....
• ...
I
........ ..
..."'"...,
···.. ....... .....,
0. .. .........
........ . ... ..
~
.
-.......
.. "" ,
[n, x] = hist(trace, bins); •
··
· · ..
·. ..... .. .............. ..
........
~
~
: .. . . . . . I
stairs (x n)· <::::~~~;~::~~:

. .. :.: . ...
.· ....... .
... ...
~
·
··... -... ... ,
, , II ..... ....
... ~
• I • .. .. • ... ,
...
I .... ,
I ......: . : ,
I:, •. :W·X
• .1"-'"
... .I"~'
distribution is rather Gaussian~like. as you expect, but you could test to::iM~j .
IJI
I
...
.........
JIII . . . . . . . . ...
.J" .. .
I JI . . . . . . . ., , ; -. . . . ..
~:::::~:~:~::::~
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I
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I
I
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I
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IJI~
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....
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A
I
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I
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JI
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z-~'
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50
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CD
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~ 40
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~~
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::::J ~
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[1)
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~ 20
"'~
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:l ·...... ... ... .. . . "'-'1Q ~...

~
~:-:.~-
~
Z
--
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....
..........
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..................
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..,. ........
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~'
···........ .. ..... .. ...... ...

~
_
• ...... A . . . . ...
· .............
" ...
10 . .. "
• JI ............. ,
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...
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.
JI ......... .
:.:
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.............. .. .
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...
··............ .. .... ..
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,
o • " ........... I
L I
-10
_: I' I
-5
Ii f
-0
_,
5
¥¥ '
10
III,.J
·· ·.......
.· ."..........
......
• • • • ...
• ........... I
..
• ... I
X;
............ ...........
• .......... I
:::.:; .. ..,
._I.
···...........
Output voltage (mV) >:\:~~~:::::~~.a
· · . .. :::.:;.......J!iI.
......
• JI • ....
.. . • .... ,
FIGURE 3.29 Histogram of the individual voltage values from a single sweep trace. The.<~~~~~~*~~;
line is a Gaussian distribution, with the mean and standard deviation determined from the :·<t~~~~~~
trace data, and nonnalized to the number of measurements. .:>=::~:*~~~'
.·.·
· ....... ·. .·/h . . ... . .... : ......
·· ..... . ....:?.;
•
··. ..
•
...... ....,
• • • ..... ,JIA..JII ... ,
• ..............1"'.1'
.. .. ,......
.
..........
... . I . . . ...
...
···.."" . ... ..X" .....,

...... ....... . . . ...
'" ...
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.
·,·......
"· ·. "'·. .m.
" . .. . . .....i .. ~
~
~.'
,
'
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- , .. .... . . ....i. ~..
·.... re; . . '

•••••••••
,
•
...............
·...........
" J . .. .. ..
,
~..::.....,
:: .
· . .:~~:::
.....m;~~;
••• _ ..... "...,
~~,
'..l" .....
3.7 ChilDS 133
see whether this is really the case by comparing it [0 !:he Gaussian with
the same mean and standard deviation, and considering the X 2. (See Chap-
ler 10 for definitions and discussions of these quantities.) Some digital
oscilloscopes have the capability of perfonniog a real-time Fourier analy-
sis of tlte input. Tha[ means Ihat you can actually demonstrate that the noise
spectrum d(V2)(dv is indeed "white," mal is, independent of frequency.
This is straightforward data to lake, but will require that you learn more
about Fourier analysis to interpret it. ...
One nontrivial circuit modification would be to make your own band-
width filter. For example. consider the circuit shown in Hg. 3.12.' Try
assembling components that give you reasonable parameters for the gain
integral in Eq. (3.21). A simpler kind of filter might simply be two RC
filters, one bigh pass and one low pass, cascaded in series. If you want to
do active buffering. tbough, be careful to use an opamp that works at these
frequencies. Another interesting variation is to use a few-kiloohrn resistor
as input, but something mechanically large and strong enough to take some
real temperature change. If you immerse the resistor in liquid mtrogen, for
example. it should make a large (and predictable) change ill the JOhnSOIl
noise.
3.7. CHAOS
We now discu.~s a measurement that uses nonlinear electronic components

to explore phenomena characteristic of complex physical systems.
3,7.1. The Logistic Map and Frequency Bifurcations
We are used to the notion that physical systems are described by differential
equations that can be exactly solved for all times, given an appropriate set
of initial conditions. This is not true io complex systems governed by non-
linear equations. A typical example is the flow of fluids. At low velocity one
can identify individual "streamlines" and predict their evolution. However,
when a particular combination of velocity, viscosity, and boundary dimen-
sions is reached, turbulence sets in and eddies and vortices are formed . Tbe
motion becomes chaotic. Many c haotic systems exhibit self-similarity: that
7Th.is, in fact. is WMt Johnso n us~d in his 1928 paper. You might want [Q look it up,
and compare your results 10 his.
........ ~-~
.... -~
- . . . ... ..
•
3 Electronics and Data Acquisition -
-
...
-
•
. . . . oil OIl
• . . . . till
~ ~
•
::::::::~:-w.M·
- . . .......
-... -ill • • • •
~
oil •
and so on, Such scaling IS uruversal; It IS observed m all chaotlc systems,,>}~W

, A partic~arly simpl~ case, is that of ~ystems that obey, the logistic map>n1~m
mtroduced m connectlon WIth populatlon growth, DesIgnate by x j the}::::Jrn
number of members of a group at the time j. Here the group may be the~:>i:~$:~
population on an island, the bacteria in a colony, etc. The index j labels a .(f1@
finite time inte~al (such as a day or, a year) ~r the successi~e "~enerations.">m~~~
would hold that : ::::}~~ID~·:~

·.........
.. . . .m;
.. .
:,.:
@ .
..
....
...
. ·
"
" ......
..
~~.,
- "·. .m·· .
• • .oil .. .. •
• JI • .. .. ..
·.·,,· ....t"'.. ~ ...'

• ...........6.~ """.....
·.. ·"m·...
· ............... ,.~.I' ".
• • .01 . . . . . . . . ..
• • • .I .... .. .. .01
• • .. ... .. .. 01
·........•~
• • • II .. ..
However, the population WIll also decrease due to deaths~ In particular If' <~~~~m.~~
,. • I . . . . " .... ::.-: • •
the food supply on the island is finite the death rate will be proportional to}:~:~~
1 ··.'""·........... ...W
· m;.
.
§m"
..
.. .. .. .. ,
·-..........
. .§W'...
"
2 I • -.I .. ..
XJ'+l = AXJ- - sx·. (3.22) .. -:>~:~:m;Q<~:

.
1 · .......
·.·........ ».. .
... · ..00· .. .. .. ... .
A and s are assu~ed n?nnegative. We s,ee imm~di~tely that if A > 1 ~dYt~W.1~

s = 0 the population Will grow exponentially, while If A < 1 the population )?~~:~
will tend to O. The map of Eq. (3.22) can be rescaled by introducing ))~~~~~
· . ... ....~-%:::::--'
-........ .. .... ..
'···"...........
·· . .. ......-%-
......... .
........
.. 0
... ...._.......
...
...
. .. 0j-j_. .._...
..
"" ·-...
, .......
...
...
· . .. . ... ........ .. .. .
for all j. ·· .. . ..... i,..............
.··......... ~% ~
· .
...... . . . x
...
_.
· ·....... ......... . . .....
~-%-j-j~ ~"
·.,.... . .. . .....
·-...,..-:«
.
-Z -•
· . . .... . . •
· .. . .... . .z -.
,
........
.. ..... I11III .. ..
··...... :«
• ........ oil . . . . ..
... . ~
Then Yj obeys the logistic map ·· ·...........

• ,
.. . . . ....... . . ..
· ............. ...
.. . .
. . . . . . oil
~
~
.. ..
~...
:::--,..-: .' , .............. ~:«-

.........
Yj+1 = )..Yj (1 - Yj). (3.23}Hi!i~j~~~

-......~~%%3_. • ~ ....... 4r",Ii ...
The above map has the interesting property that if the reproduction rate for?:i:@m~·
one generation is restricted in the range -<nt~~~W:~i
--. ,.....-_:~jI"/.--.
· .. . . ..u;.... .
• , .. Of ..
...
· :':·:
·· .. .... ..:..... ..........~03%3~~
.. ... ... ~
, .. '" .J/I . . . . .~ ..
o< A < 4, · ........ ..... .

· . .
.... ... "
,
...
. .... ... .~:«-
...
..
,
.
'
· .
· ..... * .
· · '"'' . .
. .......
·· . .....
.. .
... . ...
. .. . ~."'".
'
,
... ~
:
then Yj remains bounded between " . . *

........
· ... .....
.,.... x:.
. ....
·.. ........•
.. . .....
,
.... ~•."'"..
"
,
.. •
;
.. •
~.
II ..
. . . . m;.
··· ...... ....... . ,,
,
'
"'".
. .~
,
o < Yj < 1. . ·:<·:·:

·· . . . .. ...... ...
, ......
""m;'
· . . ..
,
..:..ym/.·:
¥h.
.
:,:<·:~~m·:
• I • • .. •
·'· · ·. .·
I • .. .. "'"
··,,........... ·m~~ r...:.

::::;...
· . . .. .~y.
. .. ...
'. '.' ......
,...... ill"'"
1834). ::::::::~i~:
... ...~Y~.
··'.,·.....···m
· ·. ,'.........
, . .. ...
.""W.
· , . .. ...
··· , ,, .
.
"'m:J""';··.
.. ~m·..
. "'".
. .
" , . ... .......
' · · . .
·W· .
·.','·,.........·... ....ti.
· ·..........
·, :.·:-·illJx:··
·,, ,, ...... . . rn·
..
. .
··· ,......
...
. . ..
"
. .~
.
.....•.
. ':::::::~:~
3.7 Chaos 135
We are interested io the fate of the group after many generations, namely
io the value of Y1 as j ""* 00. We find, as already stated, that
If ).,:::; 1, as j -+ 00 Yi ""* 0, the population decays to O.
If 1 < }" < 3, as j -+ 00 Yj -+ Y ""* y. the population tends to a
stable point y., namely
yo. = )",y.( t _ y.) (3.24)
w1th solutions
y. = 0
In tbis ease the solution y . = 0 is unstable, because jf Yo = I:

(I: infinitesimal) Yoo will tend to (l - II},,) .
When}" :;. 3 the system behaves in a very different manner. A,<;. soon
as ).. > 3 but}" < 3.4495 . . . the population alternates between 2 stable
values. When)., > 3.4495 ... the population alternates between 4 stable
values until ).. > 3.54 ... , where it alternates between 8 stable values; for
.t > 3.56 . .. the population alternates between 16 stable values. and this
continues at ever more closely spaced intervals of ).,. We say that there
is a bifurcation9 at these specific values of A. These results can be easily
checked with a pocket calculator or a simple program. Table 3.1 gives some
typical results for).. = 2.8 , ).. = 3.2, and )., = 3.5, and the stable JXlints are
shown in the graphical construction of Fig. 3.30.
What is plotted in Fig. 3.30 is Yfin. 1 vs YiniLial , The continuous curve is
the equation of the logistic map Yf = .tYiO - Yi). In Fig. 3.30a the cwves
TABLE 3.1 Example of Stable Points

of the Logistic Map
A = 2,8 yo. = 0.6429. , ,

A =3.2 y. =0.5310 ...
=0.799.5 .
)" = 3.5 y . :: 0.382& .
=0..5009" .
= 0.8269.
:: 0.8750 ...
9Henri Poincare in 1900 had noticed such behavior in mechanical syslems and named
it tile "Cllchange of stability."
(a) (b)
y final y linal
Yf=Yi
1.0 1.0
A=2.8 ~=3.2
0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
A=1.0
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Y initial y initial
FIGURE 3.30 Plots of the logistic map: (a) for A = 1.0 and A = 2.8; for A = 2.8 there is one stable point at y* = 0.6429 .... (b) For
A = 3.2; there are now two stable points at y* = 0.7995 ... and y* == 0.5130. See the text for details of the path leading to the stab1e
•
pOints.
.. . .. . ................ . . . ..... . .....................................

.' . .
..... ..................... . ~ ..... -.... ,, .. ,,,,,",," .............. ~ ...... ................................ ~ ..... .......... .... -.. ~- ................ ..... ".~ .... .......................... ~ .. - ...... .................... .. ............ .......... -... ......... ............................................... "' ................... -. ..
........ ............ .................
. '
.
....... .......... ..... . .
_._ .. .
_
'" .. .... .... ....... .. ",
.........................................................
,,",,' ' ................................
" ' "
', ,
" . ""'"
,' .... ~ ~-" ........ ',,~ ....... -' .. ",.' ..........
'"
"", - .. .... ......
'
,
'"' '
"
.. ' " ' - ' .. ' .............. ' . "
"
,'
. ",
,
.......
""
,
.
"..................... "
. " " "
"
,
"
"
,'
'
"'.
' "
. "... .... ..., ' , .. , .................................
'"
" "
, ,
"
"
,,'
.."
,.,
, , ,
,. ~ ~ ~ ~ - • - • - •.• - .---.-&-.-- .--- ..• -.-&-~-.-.& ••. -.•. -.&.-.&.-.~ ..• -.- - . - ~ - - - • - . - • - ~ ~ - - ~ ~"_"
" " "
"~ ~ .................................................... -
L" :..~.:,,:.:. ~.: .:.:. :.:":.:.:........ ",·'·.·.·L· . ·'''.·II·o.·.''.· ...... L·.· . .•• -..... '..... o. ~.: 'L·:·:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.: ': I I: II:. :11·.",,· .... ·,,· "'.,. "' . "••••••••• a" a"'.· "' ••• ""',,. ~ 'L·'" L·.· L·.· L-.. LL"' LL· LLL' :LL· LL:oI LL:. :L~. ~L:. :L:. :.:." L:':L~L:L·'· L· L:L:' ·L·'· L· ... ,'1.- L· . •L... ·10 .,.", "',."''','',.;.: ~ Il·.'" :"':"';.:.:" :.: ~ :";10 :•• ~ ••;.;.:'" "' ... "' ... -."' ... I "' .................".... "' . "' . "'. ~ ,.,"1
L ••• ........... - ........... L ... • ...... L ... .............................. " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '" ........... "," . . . . . . "' • • • • • • • • • •
11< • • - "''' • • : " : . : . : . : . : - : " ' : . : " ' : . : " ' : . : . : . ••• : . : . : ............... I."
3.7 Chaos 137
for A = 2.8 and A = 1.0 are shown, while in Fig. 3.30b the curve for
A = 3.2. The lines for Yf = Yi are also drawn. We can follow the path
from some initial value Yo = 0.1 in Fig. 3.3Oa to the stable point (indicated
by a circle). Given YO we find Yl = Yf at the intersection with the curve.
However, Yl must now be used as an input. Yi. so we use the Yf = Yi line
to locate Yi and proceed to find Y2 and so on. The process converges to the
circled point at y* = 0.6429 ....
It is also evident that the same construction for the A = l'curve will
lead to Y* = 0.0. In Fig. 3.30b we start (for more rapid convergence)
from Yo = 0.2. We now find the two stable points at Y* = 0.7995 and
y* = 0.5l30. The map requires that one stable point leads to the next and
vice versa.
When A > 3.5699... the population no longer reaches a stable point
but takes on an infinity of values in the range 0 < Yoo < 1. We say that
the system behaves chaotically. This persists in the remainder of the range
3.5699· .. < A < 4.0, but one finds regions of stability where an odd num-
ber of stable points exist. The dependence of the bifurcations on A is shown
in Fig. 3.31 where the A-scale is highly nonlinear in order to show enough
detail; the vertical scale gives the values yj(j -* 00) of the stable points.
The remarkable discovery by M. Feigenbaum in 1975 was that all sys-
tems that exhibit chaos follow the same (universal) behavior and that the
difference .Ll n = An+ 1 - An of the values of the parameter at which bifur-
cations (period doubling) occur converges rapidly as n -* 00. In particular
as JZ -* 00 the ratio
An+] - An -* 8 = 4.669201660910 ... (3.25)

An+2 - An+l
tends to the universal number O. For instance in our previous example An
is the value of the reproduction rate A at the nth bifurcation.
However, also the amplitude of the population at the stable points
exhibits universal behavior and scales according to a different universal
number a. Let y;(1) and y:(2) be two stable points of a given branch at the
bifurcation value An. We define
l1y*
n
= yn.. (l) _ y,*(2)
n·
and it holds that as n -* 00
l1y:
-*- -* Ci = 2.5029078 .... (3.26)
l1Yn+J
·, .......
. .··. ,...0
,
, ,
•
"
•
;I
;I
..
.. ..
...
•
".
..
......
,.
,.
.. ;
·, ....
.....• •,..
•
•
,
;I
;0
•
".
• ..
...
.-
· ·, .. ......
. ... .....
• • •
·......
,J .. '" •
... ",.
138 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition .. ..,..

· ·, ......
• ,J ..... ..
·. . . . . m
"
··.....
, ,J ...... ..
..... ..
·, ,, .... .
' , .. "II • ..
• • .. ... A
........
,
.. ,J .. • .. ..
,·,....
m
...... --.--..-q ....
.. "" • ..... A
.'. ·.·.·.·.·A • . . . . . A . . . - . -•
· . . .. ,. ..
' ,J .. • ..
• ....... A
, ,J .. • .. •
,.. • .. .. , I
• ..... A
• • • .. , . . .
, ...... "'J
:.. I
1.0
.' .:}:::::~:~1t:
· ...... ...
.......
,
. .. .. .
.. ... ..
.......
· · ,, .. ,. .
•
. . . ,. ... ; I
· • , . . . ,. .. .. .. I
. ...............
'· · · · ·. . :m·
' • • ' .........41• • •~•
· . .. ... . .
'. ~. '
: . .:::::::::::.~..
•_*.
-:
, ;0 .....
·· ........
. .,. . . ,
,
.......... JIll
• .,II • ..
~ •
•
• • • • ,AI . .
.
• • • .,II • .. •
····..........
. ... . ...
, • • • • ,AI
0.8 ......
. , ... . :
··......
. ...... ...
··•..•..•.......•
· . . "'"
· . ·. .... .
...
... .
y~ • • • ....C
0.6 · ·. .......
.......
•
• • • •
• • • .oj
· .......... • • • ••
··........
...... ....
~
· . . .. .. ...
• . . . . . 01
. ... .........
. . . . . . . 01.1
· m
..· ..........
• • • • 01 ...
• • • ;I ... .. • •
·.:.:.~.:.:
···..........
. ....
...... ..
........
.':':':.:': W
··...........
. .. . . .
.· ..........
• .. J •
·. m
•
•
•
· .•:::::::~:.
.. .....
··..... . . .
. •
•
. . . J ...
<0
•
.... .
J •
... .. . ..
•••
.....
··•·..........
• ••
· .. .........
t
•
· .. • .. J •
3.45t t3.5699 .....

···.........
. .
· ·.....•..... . .
.... .
· .....................
• • • • ... • I
• .. • .. • I
A. ::::::::~Jt'm'
nonlinear In order to clearly show the bifurcatIons. The black parts of the plot Indlcate tbe;}}~· @j
"
"
·....
. .... ~
·.·.·.·AA.
...... ..
They are always found to be the s~e for all pr~blems. We ~ verify this:tlW
to the accuracy that can be reached In the expenment descnbed below. ~{}~§]=}
':':':':A:~~
....... .
AA_~~-
··.......
. . ...... .
· ':-:':'l'~
ior. This is not so surprising because the diode is a nonlinear device. The::::::WI
·.,--..... . 4·~.
." ,
·.. • • • " .;c-.
.... •
· ......,
• • • 4 ,.-,
laThe intervals .6.y; must be chosen appropriately as is also evident from Fig. 3.31.
• I •••
• • • " .;c-, •
·.':::::::~ ~~:
'. '....
......Jt'~~~ J".~.
·....
. .
··... ..
.
•
" " ,.-.
. . . II ..
'--.
••
• , • • • 4 ...
·... " m...

·:·:·:·:~oo
........
·.... ' .'"'"
" "
•
•
.•
I "
.......
~ II
II
3.7 Chaos 139
R L
b
a
+
=
.':':-: Conducting
>
Non-conducting
:~ ~.: FIGURE 3.32 The diode-R-L circuit. The equivalent behavior of the diode in its two
if states.
~J.~~:
~~~~{ 20mA
~1~~ __A_no_d_e--t~ Cathode
!l~l:;
10mA
+
I
~:~::: .
~~E·
==:::I==""""t"--t-t---t--... V
2V
i-:.:.:- FIGURE 3.33 The I-V characteristic of a diode.

-:.-:.;."
@L:
~:::::: effect was first reported by Linsayl! and was analyzed in detail by Rollins
@~( and Hunt. 12
~:::::
;:::::. The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.32, and the I-V curve of the diode in
;.~} Fig. 3.33. When there is a positive voltage across the diode it conducts
~t::- and appears as an ErvtF of magnitude - Vf, i.e., as a voltage drop. In its
:~:) nonconducting state the diode behaves as a capacitor C and will draw a
i~~} charging current. These two states are shown schematically in Fig. 3.32
:t> where we also indicate our convention for positive current flow.
:~~> .
The source is assumed sinusoidal of amplitude Vo, so that the voltage at
:~~{L point a of the circuit is
I•.H"~t~~:;;{~i~:~*~r::~:;;4:t
:.Jo:.:."
1295 (1982); R. W. Rollt"' '"~F~:
I
--:......:-z~?'"m/- ~~.~_~.. ~~.·AJ
.I" -~: •
• • • III .. .. J
- ........ 111 III ~• .:-.:~.....: ,,~,

»~
• ••
. :.:z.z.
.11
Y.
III
.1".- •
III ...
.......:
3 E1ectronics and Data Acquisition -}}~:w

........... :~::
_ ,
..... ~~
-"''''''''~~
" '
· ....... ,,-,
--. j• f • .... ..""' "'"..- ,/'~
-.
..
-,.-. . . ~
III . .
.. ' ............."'" -,.-.....

. . ..
I if . . III - , . -. . . '
- ~ ~ ~
-}::=:::=m:= :=:=:::
current in the circuit and the voltage at point b (i.e .., across the diode) _::}~:~: :~:~:
..,........
~ ~
~ ... "
..
~ ~
~
~ " ~
" " "
conducting state, obviously Vb = - Vf, whereas in the nonconducting _:<~~~~~ -:~~~~~

~ ~ "
.
...
~
""........ "
~
~
~ ~ "
,litude need not be the same for every cycle. This happens because the _~>~~~:~ :~~<
:<.z-:~: :~:::
Ie does not stop conducting as soon as the CWTent goes to zero but has ->}~~m: =::::
•
..... III ... .. ..
• • .... .III• .... .. "
-
. . . . III III • •
- • • III JIll .. .. I
·········W ..- .
• . . . . III ... .. •
• .. - .III . . .... .. •
" ,
·:\~~~~::mili~
....-..... ~,...
:~~)
",. -..,"...... ,
(3 •28) .-:.: .:.:.m:.:- ............ I.......
...;. :. :-
"" •
,
. ·:}~~~~:~m~//.~
.....
·...... Y":'-.
~~::::
._., ......... '
hls expression 11m I is the maximum current during the current cycle; 't"m:)~:m ":t~:
, Ie are constants. If I1m' is zero then the recovery time t'r is also zero.. :~)~~~m~ ~~~~\
Ie depends on the value of fm in the previous cycle in a naninvertible >j~~ w.:~~~~:~

lion. We have a mappingt~jm · .. .
C~{
. ... · . ..... .'........
..~
~..........
..."
,.. ,.. .,
.
.. " .
·.. ID ~
mY~~"~":: :
;-"...:;~~:: .:
':::::~~~~::::-m~: ~~:::::
• . . . . .: - - / . . .. • oK
'. ~.m. ... ,

.........
~..... ·oK'
oK
" ,...,
......"-.,.....
"
,,
rhe period of the source To = 2T! / Wo defines the cycles or generations .-/}~;@ ;~~~(
he system. The source voltage sets the reproduction parameter through ->~~~~~~: ~~~~~~j
=Vol Vf. The voltage across the diode Vb (in the nonconducting state) :?~~~~~~~ M:~~{
elated to the population Yj in the j th cycle. Depending on A, the voltage/I~~~ :~t
repeats with the period., To. of the source, or with period 2To. 4To, and .. ):~j~~~~: ~M::
on until Vb becomes completely chaotic. A numerical analysis of the /:J~~~~ . ~~~~>
-... -:=:::.
.:.:.~~:~~%~:
.... ....
"............, . ,.................. ,,
--:.:.:~:
,.~.
,'
3In the conducting state we find that ............
· . .. .... ...... .
..:....
"
:.:.~
~~..
. " • • • • 11......,.,..........
%~
:~:..
..~ . . .:. .
. ........../ .
... ....... ,
~: .. :~:
.....
~',
~,
;::::::::»:~~::i
· ..... ~:::::~:
. ........ ,
~...... ~~. :.
~...
........
...... ... _....
.. _,~,
· . ... .. . . . . E:=..J"--",,-. " - '
,.- - -~-
--•}:::::%~::
.......Y',r:,.... ~:=:::::
- -':::~~::.~::. . ~{::::
r-_"
-:::::~:::*:: :::::::
·-::::::::~y/.:.. . :...:.:-:
....
le nonconducting state we find that ··· ·.... .···m-.
. . .. '.",/"
........
,......
..
.........
,,
,
,
. ·}:;~;~mm;
..... :.-~
~~::::,
............. :
'(t) = Vol R2 + L2«(I)2 -- w6}2/m2 cos(wt - 9b) + Be-(2RIL)t COS(ldb t + tfJ) ·.
:·:·.:....
:..~~~~r~~h..-::.
. . ... ::--h
.~~:
.........
......
.. . .
'::: ,
· ··. .. ..... ...
. ..................
I • .. .. .,..... • ..
'b(t) = Vo cos rot - I (t)R - L(d/ fdt) · ·. ...... .

,
......
· . . .. . .
· ... " .
. %.
.
:·-: .-: .:.:%.Y....:..
;---..-: ~..
~ -.. .. ... ... '
.."..~...:.-:
'
~
1 . . .. .
·······-~·m::::; .
.",'.'
....
:::::;~~;·ili::::::
·.' ... .. ...... .~~:::
.•...........
......
.y.....:.
aJo = l/JLC ::::::~::mY*h:
......
·.
· ......
~
~.-j
.:~:::.
.......
......... ..
A~ rP are constants. ·:~<~~~;::--m=1h.

· .... ~-:... ~:~:::. .
B1 .
· . , ...........y. .. . ..
... ..
·... m ...._..
.:::::::~~~.~~~
.. -....
. ... .......
.~~:::
... .
<Hmru
·-:.: .:";"x:=:
~~~~f
. . .:. ;
-:::::~~~~~m%
.. ......
·· . . ....._••... .~.:--h
~~::..
........
..
. ··········~mili·
..........
.....
'-'-.-"~....
.....". .'..
:
~
...... ..
..... -
3.7 Chaos 141
0r--,r-~--.r---r--~
0r---~-'t---c-f--+--~
-v, f----+~
~n+l)
'l(n + l)
3URE 3.34 The current llIld voltage in the dioc:le-R-L cireuil shown as a furu;tioa of
7.3. Experimentll Results
)e circuit is set up 3S shown in Fig. 3.32. A Hewlett-Packard function

:nerator HP3325 is used to drive me circuit A fairly hefty variable induc-
nce (L = 10 mH) is used since thc diode capacity is small. The series
sistan~ was R ::::: 50 O. The diode should Dot be too slow (such as are rec-
ier diodes) nor too fast Good results wereobtaioed with a IN4007 diode;
ber diodes. namely IN4001 and I N5404, gave qualitatively similar (but .:.
lantitatively different) results.
The first step is to tune the inductor to find the resonant frequency ofllie
rcui!. In this case it was found that WO/27f = 71..5 kHz :::::: 1/(21l"..JLE).
Figs. 3.35a-3.35d are shown the voltage across the diode Vb and the
iving voltage Vo. For Vo < 0.875 V. Vb has the same periodicity as
I. However just above Vo = 0.875 V, Vb alternates between two dif-
rem values as shown in Fig. 3.35a. The effect is clear. but not very
onounced, because the data have been taken only slightly above the first
furcation. Figure 3.35b corresponds to Vo = 2.033 V where the sec-
Id bifurcation sees in. The period of Vb is now four times that of Vo .
~ain the difference between the two high-level srates is very small and
-.- '-'-'-~-»m
.:.:.:~~~
- • I • •.II•. .
_ ..
-': ...
_ ~~
. .
·.... ...
-
........~~
142 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition ::::~:::::::m~
~
.... y~
-
-.... m
•
--·'~··"·""""m·
•
· ... . .
... -
-
I
I
~
.....
•
.II
.II
....
..
..
~~
~....
~~
..
---:: ::::::::~~ill
• I .... ..
--...
-
ill
•
:.~ ':':':~:m'
•
•
~
••
• .II
~. . . .
- I
- ....
•
I
I
•
•
.II
•
...
..
~~
I
--:«.:~:~~*.
- I • .II ...
• I • • .. .. I
- I • • ...
....... .".. X,
-.'_.'~·.JIIj."' ~~.r%
:: :~::::::""ra'
- I • .II ... ..
• ~ • • ... I
-:: :~~::::~:%~Xj
_'_-:.......
...... .r*.r'
~
*
- I .II • .. ..
~~
~~*.J'.J'.
-- ........ .r.r'
• I • .II • .. I
~~
- I • • • ...
-->:-:.:.~Y/.r'
•
~
I • .II .....
. :«, ~~'
»
:-:<.:.:~: *.J'.r'
• JI " ...
-.' . . . :«
•
-
•
•
I
I
~
~
•
~
•
•
. . . . II
I~ • • • • •~~.~
.II
•
•
•
.......
~~~~*.
...
... . .
...
..
..
..
II
I
. ......• ' ,....•.J'.r'

.' •
.:", I.:.:............
:'~.:.&~.r.r
y/.I
.. II... . . . . . .
I~
~ x .~,
"X
- I .......
• I •• III . . . I
III III III... . .
.X
• I I ~ • • • I
I ~ .. .. .... ..
• I • .. ..... • I
• I • • III ...
• ~ ... III . . . . I
I ~ • .. .... ..
.' I I •••• ri......~.r

• ~ ... III . . . I
•
•
I
I
I
I
I
~
••
...
•
•
•
III . . . .
......
III III.... . . . X- •
•
I
•
•
I
I
~
I
••
••
•
XX
......
•
III .....
.....
III . . . .
..
•
I
.........X:.-:
I •• I
• I ~ • III . . . .
• • I • • ... .. I
•
., • • • .. .. •• I
•
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•
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. . . . . ~.
x
.. . . . .
~
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.X
.~
• I I ......
• ~ • • .. ... I
• I • • .. ...
- .. ,~~ .............. J
. . ....X.
• • ~ • .. ..... • I
~ • I •• ......
• I . . . . . ~.. I
~ ~
• I .... ~ IIJ
• I ......... .
• • I ....... II I
.·
. ......
... ..x.
• I ~ •• .......
• ' I I ............ ~• •~~
,~ '
• •
.....
•
I
,
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........
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~
~:::
.
I
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..
I . . . . . . . . . . ..
•
.,~
. , ....
•
•
I
...
I
I
........ I
.... ~ •••
• • ..
~
~.:.:
•• I
I ~• • ~:.-:.
.... ·X·
• I ..... ~ • I
I ~ • ..... ••
·,~
I ~ ... ~. •
• I • • ..... • I
I • • ..... • ..
• I ........ I
I I •• ~ •••
• I ......... I
...
I .......... .
• I ......... ,
·
I
,
I
I
I
. . ..
~
I
~
•• ~ ... .
........
.... ~ • •
....... .
...
I
• I ..... ~ • • ,
I ~ ....... .
• I ....... I
I ~ . . . . . . ~ .. .
• I .... ~ •• ,
, ~ . . . . . . . II
• I ....... I
I I ....... .
I ~ ......... I
I ~ . . . . . . . . ..
I .... ~ ... I
I I • .........
FIGURE 3.35 Oscilloscope traces of the voltage, Vb, across the diode (upper trace) and <:~:~~~~~~~: I I • .II .....
of the driving voltage Vo (lower trace). The driving frequency is 71.5 kHz. (a) Immediately _.}}~:~::: I ........... .
after the first bifurcation. Note that the upper trace is bimodal and has period 2To. (b) -}}::~::::: I • .II .......
Immediately after the second bifurcation. Note that the large peaks are bimodal; the period. _.: :}:::::~:: I I ........ I
is 4To. (c) Inunediately after the third bifurcation; the period is now 8TO. (d) Chaotic ::~}:::::~:: I
I
~
••••
• .II .....
_ ..
behavior. :~~:::::::~::: I
I
I
I
I
•
~
•
.II
.II ..... .
........ _
• _ .. ..
- I ......... .
I ~ .II . . . . . ....
I ~ • .II ....... .
I . . . . . . . ..
- I ........ I
- I . . . . . . . . . ..
, I • .II ....... I
I . . . . . . . ..
- I ......... I
I I .II .II . . . . . . . .
I I • .II . . . . . . .
I ....... _
I •....... I .II
I ~ .II
. . . . . . . . . ....
I I .II •....... .
I ~ . . . . . . ....
I ..... _ I
I ~ .......... ..
that between the two low-level states is not observable. The next scope ::>}~:~:' I ~ ..........
traces, Fig. 3.35c, correspond to Va = 2~280 V and were taken right \~{:~~~:: I ~ ..........
after the third bifurcation. The period of Vb is now eight times that of_ .«~~~~~. I ...... I
Vo and similar connnents apply as to the distinguishability of the differ.. _: }}~:~: I ~ .......
ent states. A fourth bifurcation was observed at Vo = 2.340 v. Finally >}~~~~~ I I • .II .....
Fig. 3.35d shows Vb when Vo ~ 2.355 V where chaos was observed to - :>}~:~:
"n
set l •
.' . . . ..... . . ....
,
,~~
I
I ~
I
~
..... ~
I
I
~
. . . . . ...
..... ~ ,
...... .
,
I ~ ....... ,
I I . . . . . . . ...
A plot of the bifurcations obtained for this diode is shown in Fig. 3.36.- . <~~J~~~:
The error in determining the exact bifurcation voltage is ±5 mV~ We . \j~~~~:
14
sunnnarize the results in Table 3~2. From these data we calculate the .<)~~~~: ,
I
I
I
I • • ~ .. ,
. . . . . . . ..
I ~ ....... ,
, I . . . . ~ ...
I ~ ........ I
I I ........ .
I ~ ...... .
LILLI'" , I I . . . . ~ ...
I ~ ........ ,
I I ....... .
I ........ ,
, I . . . . . . ...
[4A more precise detennination of the voltage at which bifurcation occurs can be made ,
,
I
I
I
I
~
I
I
~
...... ,
. . . . . . . ...
......... ,
. . . . . ...
• • ~ ... ,
. . . . . . . ...
I , ..... ~
when a signal analyzer (FFr) is available. In this case the onset of period doubling is evident
I . . . . ~ ...
I I ........ ,
I ....... ~
I I ..... ~ ,
~
........
, I I . . . . . ...
I ~ • • ~~,
, I . . . . . . . ...
, ,
from the appearance of subhannonics in the frequency spectrum. ,
,
I
I
I
I
. . . . ~ ...
I........ ,
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
I
~ ....... ..
........ ,
, I . . . . . . . ..
I ~ . . . . . ...
,
,
I
,
I
I
~
~
~
..... .
. . . . . ...
....... ,
. . . . . . . ...
~ . . . ~ ...
,
I
,
I
I
I
~
I
~
~
..... . .
....... ,
. . . . . ..
. . . . . . ...
....... ,
, I . . . . . . . ..
I ~ ~ ...... ,
~
...... .
, I . . . . . ...
I I ....... ,
, I ~ . . . . . . ...
, ~
I ~ . . . . . . ...
I I ........ ,
, I . . . . . . . ...
I , ........ ,
, I . . . . ~ ...
,'~."~'"
I I
I
,
......... ,
I
~
~ ......
........ ,
. . . . . . . . ..
~ ,
, I ...... .
~ ..... ~ I
,,'.~".'"
I I ....... I
I ....... .
I ~ ....... ,
- ...I ..... .....
3.7 Chaos 143
3500
MOO
2500
2000
ax,
1500
1000
500
o
o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
FIGURE 3.36 Plot of Vb vs Va as measured for the lN4007 diode. The bifurcations are
clearly observed. Some I:l. Vb spllCings are also indicated. Chaos sets in at Va = 2.355 V.
TABLE 3.2 Bifurcation Data from

Measurements of Cbaos
Bifurcation Vo (mV)
1st 875
2nd 2033
3rd 2280
4th 2340
Chaos 2355
Feigenbaum number 8. We have
A2 - A, = 1158 ± 7 mV
A3 - A2 = 247 ± 7 mV
A4 - A3 = 60 ± 7 mV
144 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition
and therefore
even though in.put .from only the first fo~ bifurcations was use~. .HMW
sIble WIth the present data. As pomted out prevlOusly, the mtervals::::{~
ratIos of .1..y! seem much larger than a. TIns 15 due m part to the fact::}~~~w.
part to discontInuous Jumps ill Vb at certalD values 15 of Vo- However<:)~~~@
decreases in subsequent bifurcati.ons by a multiplicative factor; this fac-:?j~®.:

tor seems to converge toward FeIgenbaum's a. We also note that for the>:~~~@:
reglOn·<t~M: • I .II .II ..
_.. •
•
•
•
.II
.II
..
'~m
..
'~m
.. •
3.8. LOCK-IN DETECTION <~~~~~;~~}

.·,...... ..
_.·'"···~~~mjl"%""':·
.~ . . . :-r.r: ..
• .II • ..
. . . _ ,,.. m.
~%
~ ~
I .. ....
• ~ .II . . . .
.. I . . . . ..
.. I .. ..
we can be senSItIve to th~ phase of the signal a~ well as its freque?c!,:<tm:
lock-m amplifier.. . . . .·{:~M
which you are aware of. It may be completely buned ill nOIse, however, <}~~~m:
CaI~leS a reference that vanes at the frequency of the SIgnal. The slgnaI::?~~~m
"" ""!I"!!' .,,""

,.·.,.·,. . ·w
•
•
·m·•
••
I
I
I
...
•
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•
III •
...
..
...
m.~
····',,..............,'.%.
. . ..%....
•
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~ .. III •
. .'. , :.:.:'~.%.m..
.....,'... . %..
,.,
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. :>:)~~
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~~.
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•
::::::
I
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....
,.
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•
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.. III
III •
...
3.8 Lock-In Detection 145
sA! V
~~,
,, ,
il
~
F
~ r-------~r-------~------
~
Output
Filter
FIGURE 3.37 The lock-in amplifier acting on an in-phase signal.

!l:ll
laser,motor
The so you turnfor
drive thethe
·1:::::.1::::::::::::!:::::' laser on and
chopper off rapidly
gives you thewith a mechanical
reference signal. chopper.
The lock-in amplifier takes the reference signal and uses it as a switch.
For half the period, the switch is "up," and it lets the signal input pass
through it with no change. For the other half, the switch is "down," and it
reverses the sign of the signal (i.e., multiplies it by -1) before it passes. This
is shown in Fig. 3.37. The result of this is a modified signal that is always
positive, instead of oscillating around 0 like the input signal. A low-pass
filter takes out the remaining oscillation and lets the DC level pass through.
This DC level is read off a meter, presented at some output connector, or
digitized by some computer, depending on the lock-in amplifier.
Now consider what happens if the signal is out of phase by 90 0 with
respect to the reference. This situation is shown in Fig. 3.38. Now the
.. output of the multiply stage is still something that oscillates about O. The
average DC level is D, and that is the output of the lock-in amplifier. So, as
... , promised, the lock-in amplifier only detects signals that are in phase with
f: the reference. Most lock-ins have a "phase adjustment" knob on the front
I1::e:c~~~~t!~~:i,~~~~;~!:!o:. ~:::w~r~sh~~:i~~:'
.{ that allows you to maximize the output signal. If you have the phase 180 0
~;~~~: ~:~;!~~Yisst:;S:~;Si~~ :;:=;~;~i~:~:!~t
1,
· ....
· ....... ..A~·AMA-:::::
• .. • ..... ttl"".
· . . ... .
, )}~:~~$.
.....~
146 3 Electronics and Data Acquisition .: :::::::~~: ~
:::::::::~
::::::::::w
I
•,•
I
· ··... ........ ...... . ......
~
-
~
I
I
I
i
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I •
-
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•
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..
.oil
II
... ..
~ ~---+----~'----~----+I----~ - :.:.:.:.:-~
- • .. .. .. II . . .....
! ··......
...........
-
c: : • ~
•
~
I
I
i I · .:.:.:.:. ~
:::::::::~-~~:
I
I • ...
I
I
•i · • • ......-'-~
.
''-
."r. ... II
............~~~
t • "
.......
I
I
I
i · <::::~~~:~'jI'~: · ........
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:i"'~
'. ..,'.······Wf
. . .m:
:~::::::::.~
• • ........ OIl
• • .. III ..
I
•I
~
i
I •
•
··....... .."'". .
. . . . . III •
• .. III "'"
,
• . . . . . III •
I I
· ...... .
I I
I I
, ·'::::::~~·mm·
f
i
I
I
I
I
•
I
I
,
I
Filter Output
II : ,
•
......•••
,
..... "
'
"::::::~~:mm
.
•
· ....... .... .
• ..
• ..
..
..•.
III ..
II ..
',/'
~ ~
..
I
I ,,
I
.· .... ... ..... .. ....
· •
•
•
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.. II ...
II ..
II ..
I
I i Time ..... ',' ~
•
... .. .. .. . ...
....
..
iii ..
···....
• ... til ..
• . . . . . .II ..
I I
· . '" . .. • .. .. ... II
FIGURE 3.38 The lock-in anlplifier acting on an out-of-phase signal.

·· .....'" . ....
··..·......
.... '" '"... • .. 01 ..
'::::::~~:
. .. .. .. .. ~,
· . . '" .
"
•
.
. • ....... I
y •
•
• ......
. . . . . . III
I
:: :::::::~
: ::::::~~]!.
··
........
.. .. '" '"....
.
.
.
·· . .. ..
..I........ '"'"....
---_H't.,..- ________ .... ·"Ji.~
. . .. .. ..
fiy
I
Signa1 <t}m~
I
I · :::::::~:~::
·:::::::::=:~:
:'m
I
--~----------~- 1
....... ~.;
I I · .' >:.:.: Y"":--
I I .:: :~::::~::~~~~~
I ~ .· ...
......
........
..
•
, '....
~---:
....
-:i':J. • "•
" .. 0I..
- ~
-
· " .. rill rill _ ..
I I · .... ,."'- .~
L ~ · .... ..... _......

· . ........
•
"~
, . . . . II1II '~
• •~..;IIIIIII--~ ..
· . ......... -.___ _. -
, ~ ~
j 1 "
'" ... .A"

" , • • ..;II II1II _ ~.
..
I I ' ~
I I
•
·'......
.... ~ oil .. _.- ..
t=-~.
I I ::~:::::~:~:
.' ,. . .........
. . . ~%.H:-....
·
"·........
'. . . . ."'. .....
............... c=::.. .
,~ ~
'
...... ....
III' x ·.....
· · .....
............
•
,
0·......
'"....
I ....
~"'
....
" ' . __ ..
...............
011 . . . ..
I ......
• • • • -'.1'....'.1' •
Small modulation Ax '. '.·.·AA~~.
· :.;·:·:·:-~w
FIGURE 339 Using a lock..in amplifier for modulation spectroscopy.
· .. -
·'. ·-m: :::::::::~~-
:~:?~;~~
·<::::;:;ffi
deternlined by the R C time constant of the filter. '. «~~~w.
have an NMR slgnal as a function of the large magnetic field that polanzes <)~;m
... '......J~@..
"'"mf
·-:::::~~~~~oo.
:.··:~::~~~:=:w.
...........
,
,•
,
.01 ..
. . . .....
·. , .,........
.'.·'.._.........
.'.......... . m...
··:::::;~~:m·
...
·
'
, ~~
~
3.9 Computer Interlaces 141
is modulated (i,e., made to oscillate) by setting x to some central value xo

and making it osciUate aboutxQ by a small amount 6.X. Then the amplirude
6.y of the modulated signal is given by
6.y= dyl 6x.

dx .to
In other words, the output of the lock-in it; the derivative of the line shape
y(x). It does this, of course, while throwing out any noise iliat gets in
its way. One common technique, described in detail by Dunlap (1988),
is to sweep the value of x many times and record !be output ;n a multi-
channel analyzer. This uses signal averaging to get rid of any remaining
noise.
3.9. COMPUTER INTERFACES
Many of the experiments described in lhis book. as welJ as in many

undergraduate instructional laboratories, can be done without the use of
sophisticated computerized data acquisition. Indeed, in experiments such
as the Balmer series in hydrogen (Section l.S .3), the Faraday effect (Section
5.7), and the y-y angular correlation in 6OCo (Section 9.5.4), for example,
there is much instructional value in tiling. recording. and analyzing data
"by hand."
Nevenheless. directly interfacing a computer with the experiment makes
it possible to take data much more quickly in many cases, and thls also
has much instructional value. Furthermore, some experiments that bad
once been very difficult, if not impossible, i.n the instructional labora-
tory, can now be done with relatively simple and inexpensive computer
interfaces. A wide variety of commercial ioterfaces exisl, and it is not
possible to cover all of them in this textbook. Indeed, the marke t moves
quickly and differeol options appear and disappear very regularly. A recent
publication, available free from Keithley at hnp:IIWtNW.keithley.com/, is
the "Dala Acquisition and Control Handbook." However. a number of
standard situations apply.
The simplest computer interface is a "scria1" interface using an RS232
standard conununications port on the computer. The electronics on your
computer and in the data acquisition device [0 which you wish 10 inter-
face support a standard "handshake" protocol for moving instructions
and data back and forth between the two devices. AU that you need is
".. · . . ·X
"·:::::::::"'
......*c:::,
~
-- :::::::::~-~
· ........
• ••• ,jI"..ti. ~
~ --::;::::;~"~:-r...:
148 3 E'ectronics and Data Acquisition Aw,
. . . . . . III
...
.... . :::::
··..............
- JI ••
- ' " .'~- ~
• ••• • ".JI..II.~..J..
-- ;.:,:.;-~
· .. ...=:;tf.
WOrk4 This software is very often available using a free download from the }~~~~~a
vendor of the data acquisition device. For example, for their line of digi-Hm~
tal oscilloscopes, LeCroy Corporation (http://www.lecroy.com/) provides:t@
a program called ScopeEx.plorer for this purpose. There are many other })~~
examples. -<::::~~
It is a good idea to consider "middleman" comp~ter inte~aces, so that)JID.
your computer and software can talk to one specIfic deVIce, 31ld then })~
this device can be connected to any number of other instruments that ~:'):~~j
· d·.f!C. ki d f d Th· d th u· --+" . " ...• ~*
acqurrelilerent D S 0 ata. IS cuts own on e mtel~ace pro- .:',::?~~~
grams" that must run on your computer and with which you need to .}}~tJ
become familiar, and gives you more flexibility for your experiments, at .• {~
the cost of a bit more ~xpense. For example, ~emier Software & Technol-r~
ogy (http://www.vermer.com/) sells the "Umversal Laboratory Interface")!§i
(ULI~, a serial computer int~~ace.that then connects ~ experiments through .• )~
a vanety of analog and diglta1 mputs for measunng ~oltages, .currents, <)~
scaler counts, and so forth. The conlpany also sells InexpensIve com- ::':~}~~§§:
puter programs for controlling the ULI from any number of a variety Of)":!~
computers. ' :,:::::;:*:
. ·7;:;'
Serial interfaces are simple, but they are slow~ They transfer data one bit )}:~~
at a time ("serial"), and the number of bits per second (the "baud" rate) is \}@]
limited by the simple cabling and connection standards to some 56,000 bits ::}~?:~
per second (56 kbits). This is fast enough for many applications, but the)ii*=
experimenter can quickly be needing (or wishing for) a higher data rate. ,>~:~:~: , ....=-:.
Faster data rates are provided by parallel intetfaces~ where many ,\~:~~: .......,::.:. ,
lines connect the computer to the data acquisition apparatus, or possi- .'::~~~~~*
bly through the network connections to the computer using an ethemet <~~~~j • ,. A ......
• ,.""' ...!' ..
connection and TCP/IP protocol. At thIS point; the number of hard- /:::~ ,•• *,J//'..........
ware and software options increases enormously, including interfaces )~~~~~

designed and built in the laboratory itself. Some companies that sell such :)~~
interlaces and software include Agilent Teclmologies (http://agi1en1.com/), ::}~~
Keithley Instruments (http://www.keithley_com!). and National Instru- -'.\iw
ments (http://www.nLcom/), among others. LabVJEW from National ::i:)m
Instruments is a very popular software tool for laboratory interlaces which :'ij@1
featmes a grapbical programming environment, but which can be diffi- . :<~~#
cult to use in an undergraduate laboratory setting without the necessary:::1~
support. '::::=*
Probably the most popular standard parallel interface is GPm or "Gen-}@
era! Purpose Interface Bus." Also known as the IEEE-488 standard, or as :)~~
,
',',....%~
,
............
,.
• Ii •
,..«,,
' ,<: ::x~:.:

,',,""X~
...., ::.:
,,....«....J'A
',.~"
-: <.:~~
, , ' ,•..~.rJII
,"::.0:.1'
..... .-.
... ....
,,
,
~ •.
, , """~".JIl
,
,
..... .-,.
J _
3.9 Computer Interfaces 149
HPID by people at Hewlett-Packard Corporation (now Agilent Technolo-

gies), GPID uses an ASCII code to communicate, very similar to most serial
line communication systems, but uses a 24-pin connector, allowing data
to be transferred in parallel at some level. It can transmit up to 1 MByte
per second, within this communication protocoL In order to communicate
with a data acquisition device equipped with a GPm port, some sort of
computer port is also necessary, generally provided using a plug-in card,
available from several manufacturers depending on the type ol computer.
Virtually all commercial general use data acquisition software packages
provide for communication through GPIB, including ScopeExplorer and
LabVIEW.
One thing to keep in mind is that the next step after data acquisition
is data analysis. Depending on what software you may use for analyzing
your data, you should try to acquire the data in a way that is amenable
to your analysis tools. Once again, this can be solved with commercial
products if you have the resources. In this book, for example, we use MAT-
LAB for data analysis, and it is possible to purchase from The Mathworks
(hnp://www.mathworks.com/) toolboxes for MATLAB for instrument con-
trol and for data acquisition, although we are not making use of these
specialized toolboxes in this book.
Depending on the local expertise and available resources, the vari-
ety of computer interfaces can become quite large and complicated. We
will use a number of different options for the experiments in this bookl6
including
• a LeCroy Digital oscilloscope and ScopeExplorer to measure the
decays of eddy currents in metals (Section 2.2).
• a plug-in board for control and voltage readout, operated with
Lab VIEW. for a high-resolution optical monochromator (Section 6.3.3).
• a Vernier ULI and LoggerPro software to count and record Geiger
counter signals to measure nuclear decay rates (Section 8.6).
• a Canberra multichannel analyzer and a GPm interface to mea-
sure gamma ray spectra, including an experiment on Compton scattering
(Sections 8.4 and 9.2).
• a home-built time-to-analog measurement system for determining the
mean life of the muon (Section 9.4.3).
16The reader should be aware that it is unlikely (and unnecessary) that these options be
duplicated exactly in your own laboratory.
:::::::~:~~.t'
.-..... m.
_ • • JI ...
_
::::::::~:I~
• • JI ...
--:.: : : :
_ • • JI ..
150 .':':':':~:i
3 Electronics and Data Acquisition . . . . . ~* ::-r~
..
-
:.:.:.:~:~~
, ......
• ... ".JII. ~
• ........ ~iJ
:';':.:.:"».~.
- •
.........
.. . . . III
3.10. REFERENCES .. »~~~

. ';';':':m
I. ' . '~ .........~
ics is~ ~ ...:::::::::~~

,' ....~~~
.. ::~::::::~
P. Horowitz and W. Hilly The Art ofElectronic$, second ed.~ Cambridge Uni". Pres~ Cambridge~ U~ :·,tlJ~
1989. :·:::::::::~
'..... ....~
.....~~:~.t')'.
~ ,
>~-:.>:.~
! •• ~.~
A student manual for this book is also available. A good book with intro-<·A~
ductory chapters on solid-state electronics, including the physics behind.)~
diodes and transistors, is :;;~~~~§~:!
.;':. .
·' ,. . . '~" .....~.M..rx.
:»~
R. A. Dunlap, Experimental Physics: Modem Methods .. Oxford Univ. Press!, Oxford, 1988.
...... '
·', .....:,. ...u,

,
• ' , .. .. .... ..6.•
, .. .t ..
,/''''
.I'.!1
'j'.- ••-.~
· :' :.:- :.-~.~~
..... ·,
...........
~
, ..... oj .~..,
Some good articles that discuss the physics and experimentation of.' ..i,}~jW
.;-:.:~.x:%: .... ..-.:.--~
thennal noise can be found in '

·,'I· .........'l~
· .'' ...•....
.........r.l.
'. ~...:
.,'. . . . . *
.: ::::;~:~
R. W. Henry!' Random walk mode) of the;tlllal noise for students in elementary physics!' Am. J. Phys.··:~'::;~::X
, . ·... ·X
41~ 1361 (1973). .·.:i~~:~~:X
P. Kittel. W. R. Hackerman. and R. J. Donnelly, Undergraduate experiment in noise theullometry, Am...·i:\:~~~
J. Phys. 46 94 (1978).
1 }:::~:~
D. L. Livesey and D. L. Mcleod, An experiment on electronic noise in the freshman laboratory,. <~~~~i
Am. J. Phys. 41, 1364 (1973). ;:::;;=:~
........ ..:-:
...............~ '
,
There exists by now an extensive literature on chaos. Some suggested/!ij*

references are: '::}~~~
, ......••:-rJ5.
.... ' ,
:. :-:....... .:.r-:.."
M. J. Feigenbaum~ J. Stat. Phys. 19,25 (1978); 21" 669 (1979).
".....··x..:-:.
,
,
~
~
,.........
.... ~
, .......
•• .t' ~
.......
~
...... ..
,, ,••......z.t'.
~
, .. ......
~
oil
L. P. Kadanoff Phys. Today 36 (12), 46 (Dec~ 1983).

l . '
.... ....
,"'~J.:
'
, ~ ..... ~
....
, , ......
............. .t' ~
G L. Baker and 1. P. Gollub!, Chaotic Dynamics: An Introduction, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, , , ....
........r,z
·.........
,
~
~~
,~ .. "'" oil
UK., 1990. ,,~··

.........
......
. ..
"*"'".t'
....
'
,, ~ ~
H. Nagashlma and Y. Baba, Introduction to Chaos. English transl., Institute of Physics~ Bristol, 1999. , , ................ .JIi
4
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,,,
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CHAPTER 4
Lasers
~j>
~~} .. :
~ •.•
Ii
~::::- .
!~.::
I
:~(
Lasers are a sOurce of intense, highly monochromatic, coherent beams of
light in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum. "Laser" is an acronym
for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" introduced
in 1958 by its inventors, C. H. Townes and A. L. Schawlow. The first
successful operation of a laser was achieved by Maiman in 1960 using a
ruby rod as the la.<;ing material. Fundamentally a laser consists of the lasing
medium, of means for exciting the medium either through an electrical
discharge or by an external light source, and of an optical cavity made out
.-.... of a pair of high-reflectivity mirrors. The lasing medium can be a gas, a
:t·.: . and
'.~.~
transparent solid, a liquid (dye), or a semiconductor. The relative simplicity
low cost of lasers have contributed to a wide range of applications.
Semiconductor Ia.<;ers , also refelTed to as diode lasers, can be found in
~::::
...... almost every modem piece of equipment.
:~ . eU::::~;
. and aOl~~~, ~~~~r~:~si::~~i~ ~rdd:~::~:~:~~:P~~i~::~
·.•:j. ._f...:.·. . :.:•:. : ..:
light of optical elements. Experiments that without a laser were tedious
........
~::::-
151
~~{....
..".-,~-
' ,
;.~:::
~:;::.
. .
·• ·• .....
- .
- - ... .
·- ··.. ....
• •
......
::h~
• ~ •••
~
- ~
... ~ ~
- . .••
•
• • • •
• • .
·. ...II". ...
:~~ ~
-
· • •
~
• .II ..
~
152 4 lasers . ....... .... ........

.- .·........ ............
• • ~ •
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
~
.• . •.....::--
~ ~ ~
.• -.•..•..•....
~ ~
·....· ....... .. ...

·- ·....... .........
~ ~
..... ~
and reql]jred great skill can now be perforITled routinely~ We begin with af>~~~
~
. .. - ...... ~
brief discussion of the laser equations and a description of the ReNe laser~,>}
. . ......0:- -
~
As the first application we show how a laser beam can be expanded witli~~~)~
~
~
~
· ... ~ ~
a pair of lenses and how to measure its spatial profile. We then discuss the(}~
~
~.
two most familiar types of interferometers, the Michelson and the Fabry~·:!Jm.
Perot. We demonstrate how they can be used to measure the wavelength:::}~~
•
· .....
•
I
•
~
•
.II
III ..
....
:: :::::~~~
·'''m
v ~ "- = .. , (4~ l1-:-:·:~{a

2rr 2rr Ii :?::;:~~~
'.' ·······~m
Planck s constant diVIded by 21r?@~

34·:-:-:·:~
Ii = 1.054 x 10- J-s, (4.2J!)~~~~m
.. ~~
'.......• -
~~%
and therefore}}~
.:>~:~
6.E = 11m. (4.3!j}~~@
........~~:~
-'
... "~:ill
... ~~m
equati onsp ..
~
. --<\\~:%.
The transitlon from an upper state to a state of lower energy wlll occur:·::t~W
spontaneously and we designate by .~ the probability pe:- unit time. for suc~/fm
by ~e presence of light of ~gular freq~e~cy w, satJ.~fymg Eq. (4.3!. ,:,e;)~~g

de~lgnate by B. the probabIllo/, per umt ~m~ per u~t energy denSIty 1l1)~~W
urnt frequency mterval, for stImulated enussIOn. It IS reasonable that the..<~~%.
presence of the electromagnetic (EM) field (light) at the resonant frequencY:)~$
will not only in~~ce tr~sitions from 2 .. ) 1 but also from 1 .~ 2 wiili.~!:!j!~
th~ same prob~bl~lty. I~ IS equally reasonable that the photons ansmg ~Dl<im
stnnulated enussion wIll have exactly the same frequency and same dlrec«~ffi
tion as those in the incident EM wave. These arguments were first propos~~t:~:~~n
,. ',..:.:-. . .
.'.' ,'.'''~::'--'':
~~*
:·~m~Jo"..:
, ... I ~ .... ~rJI
~·X
,'.' .'.'.' *
::: '
:::::~m~x:
I • III •
'..''. . . III%:
,.: <-: . :. : ........
. . ,. ,'l~
I
I
,""~~~*
I." ~~*
~
....
• III •
~~
·
":.:-:.:.:*%
:: :::::~~:~y
I
, .• _."~.
...
I." ~ • III III•
J'
4.1 The Principle of Laser Operation 153
(4.4)
(4.5)
·. ............ .... '.'~ ........-..r'
· .·.. ....
·
. . . ... ..
• • .. II ... .
. · .
. . . . . . ....
· ·.... ......
.
···.......... .. .....
. ...... . . .
.....
· · ·
. . ........
.. . .... . ... ......
-
~
154 4 Lasers "'"- ;
· ........
·· .... ........ "'. ,.-'.-.... wI
• • • . . . . . . . . }I
"'"
· -: -: -:.; ..~~:~.
• ... II .. . . . . .
· ....... - .
···........
. ...... . . .. .. ;
····......... .. .. .. . ... ...

..
.. .... .. • • • II
"'"
.. ..
2--: :---- 0::· .........

::::;:: :~~.~~~..;:~:.:
.'~I'".
· . .. .... -
· . . .. .... . .... .
....... .-~
·· ·.................
. ..4: .. .....
• • • • ~ II . . . . . . . ~..-
~~ ,..-~.
. .. .... ....:W
. ...... .. ....•
-·....
~Q"
~ --..--
• • A .. II~
• • .. .. AI .. ..
· · . .. ...... --
• • A A .... ..
....................:.~
i.rT--- . ........
. . . . . . . .. . .. •
· .....................,J'
A .... ..
3 ··· .·........
_.....,...IiI
. ..... .....
..
------= .... .. '"
· .. ...................
........ ..
3 ~..- ···.......... '
·. . . .
",
.. .... ..:-:: JI ........ ..
· ...... ....
· · .... .......
........ .. .. ~m
4---7----- · ·.·.·............
...
.. ........ .. .....
• • .. II .. ...
.. .. .... ;
-:-:.:.:-:.:~
.. .... ....
.......... .... ...... -
---
. ... . ...
··........ - -
···...........
. .
• • I J • .II .. II
......
.. .. .
. . . '" .
· . .
-..... "" ""
·
· ........ . . .. . . '"
·-.....
·· .. .. .. .. ~*:. ""
"""
,
1 1 ·
· · . ..... ' "
· .. ..
· ... ··:W
. ""
• . . . .01 "" . . .
" '" '" ""
""
(a) (b) . . . ...
::::::~;~:.
· . . .. ..
··....... '" ""
"""
FIGURE 4.2 Creating population inversion (a) in a 3-1evel system and (b) in a 4-1e~j)~~~:
system. The double arrow indicates the lasing tral1sition~ while the up-going arrow --1 >_:Z:~:~~~
is the pump. Level 3 must have a relatively long. lifetime, whereas levels 2 and 4 sbo~t~t:~~~:·
have a fast spontaneous decay along the indicated arrows. -;:}}~~~:
··....................
........... .
.. ....... ....
"
· .·....
·. ..............
'"
. '
· . ... .
• ' . ............ I.
"
· .... . •
• ................J"..
• • • 01 ...
Boltzmann distribution --<::::::~~~:.

::::::::~~~:-m
N N e-E2/ kT -.·.·.·N•
• • .. 01 """
.1"....,..
··............ • •••
,
.01 ..
""
We can see from Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6) that for stimulated emission to occUi}:·
··.......
........ ...
in preference over absorption, we must have N2 > Nt- Usually the opposi(~;~:~::
whereas at room temperature kT = 0.025 eV, and from Eq. (4.7) N2 « N~:<:~:m
are pumped from the ground stat~ 1. to the excIted state 2 ~d q1llckJ:~t~~m
decay to state 3 by spontaneous enussl0n. If N3 exceeds Nllaslog can t~~;:::;:~
..... ... · ""
place in the 3 )r 1 transition. It is, however, easier to use a four-Iev¢~~~;;;:·

scheme. In this case atoms are pumped from the ground state to level 2 ~~m~~&
m31ntalD N3. > N4 ~d a~hleve lasl~g In the ~ rr,,-) 4 t:ansl~on. - .<~~J~~~m
assu~e that p~otons eInl~ed alo~g the cavtty axis are tr~pped ~n the caVl~:j#.l
and ~teract Wlth the lasmg medIUm, only a small fraction bemg lost. 'Y~::~
conSIder a four-Ievel1aser and can set N2 = 0 and N4 = 0 because ~:~
transitions 2 '~ 3 and 4 ~ 1 are presumed fast. The total number:::~::~
··'···m:~
.'.· ,'.'.' ....
":':'·...........
~
· . · .m
·',', ,,':-:·~·~m~~
• ...... :'--..h
~~
·'··· . . ~h
· .:::::::::~~m·*
,..... :=;:: ' • • • 01 •
.',, •'····'·~m·
• 01 ....
.;. >:-~'~":m
<::::::~~:~~~
mjo'"'-;
• • , ' ........ 01• •
" • • 01.
• , .. • 01 ....
• , .. .. 01
- - - '"
4.1 The Princip le of l ase r Operetion 155
r.~~~:!i".AlasjOg malerill.! placed in an oplkal cavity wiU lase if it is pwpped to achieve
I and 3. It then holds that
n ''''"'g the alarmc density, aDd

dn3 - n)
dl = Wpnl - BNy n 3 - -;- (4.8)
dN y _ Ny
- - = VBNyll) - - . (4.9)
dt Te
Wp is the probability per unit time for pumping 1 -+ 2 -+ 3 (transfer-
atoms from state 1 to state 3) and Ii is the probability that one photon
cavity win induce a lasing transition in unit time. The lifetime due
to'p<mlan"ou.lTansitions is T and due to cavity losses Te. The (mode) vol-
in which the photons interact inside the lasing medium is designated
V. In all cases the spontaneous transition rate liT « BN y • so we can
i::~::;,~'; tenn. With this assumption, the steady-state solution of the rate
:::. (i.e., dn31dt = dNyldl = 0) is
(4. 10)
the st.e.ldy state, the cavity losses per pass equal the gain per pass; the
output depends linearly on the pump power, lasing medium density,
mode volume. Note that V B = ca where a is the cross section for the
'b,mption of photons in the lasing mectiurn.
The (logarithmic) gain per ullit length of the lasing medium is fOlLnd
Eg. (4.9) if we neglect the cavity losses. Then
dN y _ _ di
- - = V Bn] dr
Ny
= V Bn] -C = an3 de
.'. ·.·····'····-m
...........
.... .
.. ... .. ..
.
-
•
··........... ....... ....

• •
....
III! ....
:::::::;~::~
........ ....
-
......
.... . ."@
···..•.
-
156 4 lasers - •
. .... .....
.......
·.·......
j ..... ...
' .................. ~
~ ':::;:::;:~
· .... ~
«<.:. .:~.'
"",
" •• III III .....
:-:'. :.':'...
. ·........... :@.'.l'JiI
and -
-..
. . .... ..
"
-:-:-:.:.:~_A_e:::
~,,/
~
1 dN . . :>:::::::~
y = U n3 :-:.;<.:.:~
g - N" --d-'-{,n- II
:::::::;::~
................ ~
~ ':::::::::~:~
.
... '.W,
Thus in a finite length t. a number of incident photons Ny (0) will grow ~iH!!!!ill
··....
.... _*
"'»
. . .. . . :Z
··........
N y (i) ::..: N y
(O)e.gf.. , . .::<}~:~
..·........A.~W.
......• :~
· . .... ;'n '
~
Often e gl. =- G is designated as the gain per pass througb the lasing?)~~]
· . .. , :.-'~
medium. ·:/};2;;:;~Y"":
. '" "'"
.., , .~
-:.:. ~,~~",,"
• .. • '" J"rJ
•
· .', ,.........
•
.. , ..
•
. ......'5(;
• '" • ... 01 . . . . . . .. (
,
, •
•
oj
oj
.......
..
~'5(;
.
•
.
· ' ... •·.rtl....~
.. ',
•
,
,
.......... :.:
. . . . oj . : ; : :
• oj . .
4.2. PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAMS • . ' , ... Il . . . .~~

7;:
.,~ ,: . ~ ..~~~~
, •• oj
.':,, ..
..... =""...:
,:..~ ..~~~
':?A
primarily by the optical cavity. In the cavity shown in Fig. 4.3 the radiation}!®.
travels in both directions and the electric and magnetic fields of the wave}~
must satisfy boundary conditions at the two mirrors. Standing waves wi1l)j~
exist in the cavity as shown in Fig. 4.4, and only frequencies such that the :::\~~M
cavity length is an integral nUIIlber of half-wavelengths are allowed. If the <JW
· 1 gth. th
{j ,', ...~:::::
caVl ty en IS <.-, en ,~{=:~
".·.·A~
::::::~~
, . ...•
--... . .
,
',
.....
~
'JII
,'.·.·A
2e = q
c ,
~
, ... .r.J
, ..•'Xt,
JII .. ..All •
We _
and V -:. q 2i~ (4.11) ::}~:~
· ....
A ,
'~
,
,
~
.. "" ..
• • "" Jill
.....
.. ..All . . JII
__ ..AII"JI
~
'~
,<.:~:.~
~
, .......-: __ ..AII"JI
~
. <.;. :..~
, JI -:-:
where q is an integer. The frequency difference between two such adjacent ::~\:~
longitudinal modes is ,:}~~
....
.... ".r.
,', ••- ....,ll
,
,
.J'
~
•
• A
.. .,{""JII
' •• "'J'
...... ..
, '..•":.-:.r.
,•
,
• A
... .
, .__. . . JII
c
, ..All"
, . . . . )II
,
Vq+l - Vq =- U === FSR (4.12) {~:~ .. . , ~.
... ,
, .. ..All )II
.
~
~ --..All
, ,,...• J-: , • ..
.....
....
'
,
.
, .. ..All )II
,
""
·...... , ,, ~ --__ . . )II
. ...
..All •
, ·....
·· ......".
, , __ ~
..All J/
, ...
J/
.. ....
, ...AII
I ....,
,
....
''''
, ,....
, ,
·, ,, ..
, • .. Ji
, , 01.
I • .01 II
.... ; , . . . II
'.oIJi
••
I \ I \ I \ , ' , •• 01.,..
.....,
•
...
"...
, • 01 ~
,
I \ I \ I \
.....
,
,
I \ I \ ,
,
·,,.
,.,
J \ I \ II '\ ,
, ,
,
........ ~
...., ,,
,
, , ~
·..
,
, , ~
,
\ \ \
\ \ \ I ,
,,
,
,,
...
... ..
/ .............,
.....
, ~
\ I \ I \
, ,
, ,
,
.........,,•..
, ,
\ I , I \ I ,,
I....-l ' ..... \,. .....

. }II
\.J
, ,•
,
,
,
,
,
,
........
, ,
,
, ...,,
,
..,
.·...,
, ,
FIGURE 4.4 A laser cavity nlust support standing waves.

,
, ·..
, ,
, ..
,
.....
.
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ....
,
,
,
, ...,
, ,
,
,
, ..,
, ,
,
, , ..,
,
, ,.
,
,
.
,
,
,
, ..
·..
,, ,
,
, , ,,
,
, , ·..
,
,
, ,
, , . .
, ,
~tt
L 4.2 Proper ties of Laser Beams 157
~
G
x:::,-
x::::
Ill".:
x"'-"
%/.
= --+------===-.... ,
~t.
',-,-
r!.}..: FIGURE 4.5 The gain curve of a typical lasing material as a functioD of frequency. Only
,. lin~ with gain larger than the threshold wiU lase.
:{~::
?:~::
?:.:::
x~:?:
.... and is referred to as the free spectral range (FSR) of the cavity.
;::::.;.
As an
example if we take l = 0.5 m. we find that FSR = 3 x 108 Hz. This
~W: spacing is very narrow IlS compared to (be frequeucy of optical lines, I.e.,
~} for A = 600 run,
9.::':- v = 5 X 10 14 Hz, and
fi:i: U v
q = -;- v = FSR ...... t.6 x 10
6
~1~\~;:
~~f- Only a limited number of longitudinal modes are present in the emitted
~.~~..:.:;_
.
radiation. This is so because the la~ing levels have finite energy width; this
width determines the range of possible frequencies as shown in Fig. 4.5 and
~t·: is referred to as the gain curve. The width of lhe individual longitudinal
modes is detennincd by the number of round trips the light makes in lhe
cavity before being attenuated; this is referred to as the finesse F of me
cavity. The finesse depends on the losses in the cavity. U we consider
only the losses at the mirrors that have a reffectivity R < I , we find (see
Section 4.6)
FSR C (I - R )
~\J=--=- (4.13)
F :u n,/R
or to a good approximation
"v = 2KIc ( I - R). (4.14)
For R = 0.99 and l = 0.5 m. we find ~ v = 106 Hz = 1 MHz. In contraSI,

the gain curve has a width of severnl gigahertz.
•• . . . . . . _"..JI"'
•
•
•
"
•
..II ...
... ... iii
".JII'.
• • JI •• iii
_ • • III ..Ii iii
· . . ..
• JI ..II . . iii
• • • ..II . . iii
_ • • • Ii iii
...
• • .JI Ii iii
• • .. ..II . . iiiJ ,]II.
-- • .JI..Ii..li~ • .J
_ - .• . .JI . . . iii!. ...
. ._...
__ ~
· ...... .Ii iii
158 4 Lasers
• • • .JI
• " • III Ii iii

_ • JI ..... iii iii
• " • .JI .Ii iii
• • JI • • • ..II • •..Ii.... ~
• • .JI .....
• •• iII . . .AI
_
• ••
• • ill
• •
.....AI 'J
.-
_ :.:.:.:.:A:.l'@
- . . ... ... .".
• • •
. ""
...... iii '"
In the transverse ~ection the optical cav~ty is n~t bounded but is open;:i!!!!!~i~
However, the beam is confined near the axiS and lts transverse structur~?t~m
is d~termi~ed by the foc~ properties of the mirrors and the length o~ th~?t1~~
caVIty. A sImple example is the confocal resonator, where both (sPhenCaltt~;~~
mirrors have equal radii of curvature, R, and R equals the distance~ .e~)}~::~
1
between them; note that f = R /2, so that the focus is in the center of t:hei:::/~im
modes charactenzed by the mdIces m, n. The electric field at a longltudmaJ.:::::::;:~
x, Y IS glven by ":<.:-~'~
........
" .•• ''.i'~
. ....
••
'.~ ~. ~
*
~x
X t Y = 0 =0 m '
w (2)
n 'e
w (z)
, .:::/.:~;;~
"::::=::~~~~w.
W (z) ......,..~
"
... ,. m
For slmplicity we have onutted the phase of the field. <:):m.
Of particular interest is the lowest mode where m = n = 0, the TEMoo~<~~~~~
X; y - w(z) e . · \\~:~
_', '.......A.~W,0j
" :::::.-1
.........~~ ',.,
'"
' .... ,.,...
,J ,J "' ..
r-~
The field falls to 1/e of its peak value, and the ~tensity to 1~e , at a radius!:?i~ 2
r = w(z). We refer to w(z) as the "beam radius'~ at the dlstance z. The:,::::;:::::~~

smallest ~eam ~dius is at z = 0, where the wavefrontis plane and nonnsI>r~!~
to the cavIty axts; we speak of a beam waist and for the confocal resonatQf:}:::~~~~
"'. .. . :.....,;*.
,"' ...........
, , , ,.. "' "'...

,J .. "' ....
~"f
"' ."fA»
........... :z,
,' ,",..... "' "'fill"
.fA ",', ....
=
',' ,
(4.. 17) . . ..... ..

~
Wo (confocal) ... • ,"

: '...
......... I'
"'...OllIe..;
' ......
A ••
21T ,,,, .. "' .. l1li J
...... e..;.
............. JIll JIll
· '." . ........ ,
,
,J ..
, . . . . . III
"' ...
. ,
,
,,
, ..
.. "' .. III •
"' ... lflii ..
· ,,...... "::1:
, ,J . . . . . . . . JIll •
, ,J • "' ..II iii ...
The beam radius at the distance z is given by '" ...... ..

'" '" . . .x;:.t'
,' ..''"" ............ 'Z
'
,~.'"
,J
, .....
• "' .. ..
l1li
, , , ...
' .....
. .
,, .........
. ·"PJ .... PJ ~
~ ~
~
W ( Z) == wo 1 + (Z/ ZO )2 (4 18"(':':':A:~
}}}::~
1
..
•
,,~ .......... :::
where zo is the confocal parameter, or Rayleigh range. It is related to the?!~
.. , " ~
beam waist through <{~~

" .... ...i
"'' , ,.....
.........
......:=3. ~
,)
2 ,, ............
, ' ••• ..........,J
........
;}'
1iWo , ,
(4 .19 )-~:' :.;.: ':.:::: }
zo = " · ::::~:~~
A ......;:
, ' •• .........;;t
" ' ••••........,J
, I
, "
I " ....... ~"'".
u,
I
, • , .'.i'J
" . . . ..
-..
I I ........ ~
. lIt is unfortunate that the same symbol K IS lrsett Iortlfi!"fuliet:.avdJ~l~diu~.ntL}~

~,
, • III •
' ...~
,
,
.... '" .....
··.....
, ,•
• ... I'"
III •
, .... • ~
01 ..
........
· .... J
', ~
curvature of a spherical mirror or lens.
,·...
.. • 01 •
,,
•
... .
,·.....
•
..
, • ''.i'.J
•
•
".JI' 01
'~
'~.01
.01
01 .. .
. , ....
1 .. - • • • : : ;
, .. 01.01
,
·.,, . oI~·
·.,••.
.. • • •
" • 01
"'".
.01
...
"':':
,
. ...."
·"':':
,•
'~
'" '"
··.,••,.:.a:
•
, ., J
·•.,••,......:.:
·'_"'_" ,.,}
4.3 The HeNe Laser 159
1!1!! 28o---+-----l.. z ~
z::::' ~ 220 - I
t.~: .: .: :·
~:'::
FIGURE 4.6 Focal properties of a TEM oo Gaussian beam propagating along z. At the
waist the amplitude falls to 1/e of its on axis value at a distance Wo from the axis. Note the
W/ waverronts (surfaces of constant phase). The Rayleigh length zo and the di~ergence angle
~~;} eo are ruso indicated.
~f:: Thus for the confocal resonator, where Eq. (4.17) is applicable, we find
~f: that
~~:::>
1,..1.• . In tim case the beamradiu::t: : : : ,

,. the waist.
:sl:~wn by v2 ovenhe v,jue at
I
At large distances z zo the beam divergence is given by
w(z) WO _ _
Ll _ _ " , _ A
{J- - - ,. (4.20)
Z zo JrWo
W:: and for the confocal cavity
?:~~~~~: () (confocal) = J2'AjJrf,
~~~~~~
~r: which is typically of order 10-3 or smaller. Figure 4.6 shows the rays,
n:: wavefronts, and beam waist in a confocal cavity. The fact that the beam
?-~{
;.:.... -:
cannot be focused to a point but instead forms a waist is due to the wave
~::}
;.:•..... nature of the &\1 field.
f? Not all mirror combinations lead to stable cavities. The confocal res-
@> onator in particular is at the limit of the stable range and is not used in
%? practice. Instead, most laser cavities consist of one perfectly reflecting fiat
@} mirror and of a curved mirror with radius R > l. Usually the curved mirror
W< has a finite reflectivity, for instance 95%, and thus serves as the output cou-
@/pier, by transmitting some fraction, say 5%, of the beam stored in the cavity.
IjC
M{4.3. THE BeNe LASER
~t:::
it"The helium-neon gas laser is the most commonly used laser for simple
m::=:laboratory work, alignment, and other low-power applications. The first
Mt
K::-
it:
I~l:l:
·"........
· . . . '" ..
• ' . ' •••••A·
-0.~1',
. -·
m
• • • • JI •
• • • . . . III
• • • JI ,.. ..
••••••••A. ~
• ... AI . .
• . . . '" III:
• • • • Ai
160
• '" AI . . . . •
4 Las ers
• • .. • • Ai ,
• • • JI '" ..
· ·.... ...
• • .. • • Ai ,
. '",....
. . . . . JI.,,..,
• • • JI ....
·".A·m •
•
• • • • • • •'"• '"A III
•
• • • JI '" III
,J""
....... Lifl
•
•
•
•
JI
••
AI "'.
• III III ,
AI
: ed····.·.·~M.~~
1 ' • • • • • • • • •A ~:;:..:.:
;-~
:::;::::::~""~
~
• j •••
==:ILon'I'~
..,.. ••
application of few kilovolts between the two electrodes. The electrons m<y~:i
the discharge excite the helium atoms to ~e 2S l~ve~s, which lie about))j~@
J~
sian. Lasing takes place as indicated in Fig. 4.7. corresponding to the:t~~
wavelengths JJ~
~ ·., "..... ··M
......
"......' .o:::::
• • ,1 , ,, • • • , , , , , : : : : :
' '..m '"

5S -+ 3P A = 632.8 and 543 nm ..... ::::: .
...........' '::.-..:m
,' ,, '"
·
.'
4S ~ 3P A = 1523 om :UI
.......... ~
5S ~ 4P A 3391 nm.\J~
· · ·...· . ~I
" ~
)W~~x::m~:::::
The 3 P level de-excites quick! y to the 3 S state from where the atoms return :.... ~q.r:
Y.JO
'~
' , , . i '"
.....,. ·m , j •• ~
· >:-:.~
, • JI ..
. :::i
x:'%
J ....
.....
·.. -*
...
'·.......
.'.x:
........ x:
%
'
'
, . . . III
A% • ~ •.•
. .A III
2 8 1
... 55
.. ;.:.;.;
·......•X;&:
.....A.0..•
w " 7 Ii i H' > 3391 ..

.....A.'X ·... x:
•• , • • III
4P
' • • III
~
, . ,.;.;.;
.....A:t:"'"
,.....
"'"
.1'.1' ..
~ · . .. "'""'"
, . . . . /II..JI'
3 .... , 4P ,> ,....:-:..:x:.

.. ....""'."
2 3S 48
..
·. . .
. ..
' .. ..
~~»
~
, ·,<.:. :A:""'.l'.l'
;"'"g.
-...... ....
- 633nm ' ,.. .··x
....
· ...... .. "'"
, :.,:-:
· ....
. ~X;.
... "'.""'"
.
Collisions ' · ••.... ?
, .... •
~
.~.'X
' .. .
3P ,·····~·*·x
, .. .... ;g.
......
, .. -.
~ ~
.... .
,·......
, . . . . »..
,
,~
. . . . III
~
, , ..
,·....
....
.... ... .... ~
~
~
, , ,.... ...... ----
' ·,..
· .....AX .. ~
, , ,· ·....
.......:z. ..
,' , ,'....
..
....
... ..
..
:x
:..:
~
~
:
·, .. ....
..... AX
•• :..:
.. :..: ~
20.8eV ... . .
, ' .....
, ......
. . . .*... •
:
,........ ..
,... .
I·""Z
. . . .11 : ..
3S
' IJII
, , ...
, .....
,,......":X . . .
. . . .II . .
.. : ' - :
--.
..
.., ,....
,,,·"... . x.
,
'
'
,
'''X . .. . .. :
... •
...
' I . . . ..
,. • •
.., , '''X .
f
, I ..
' I . . ..
:
.. '''X I •• ..
,-....,17 eV Collisions with walls

,
'
'
,
,
I
I
"".III:"
,
I
I •
..".:X
'"
......
.x
•••
, I .. "01. .. . . .II
..
' I , .. • 01 ..
I
, I• "
01..... III
: ..
.., ......
, ''':::'
,
"... .
Ii Ii i
• , . '" . ..
I
, , • " • .J":
. , ,
'
I ..
, ,. .. .III .. ..
•
• 01 ..
'"
He 115 Ne (1 S2 2S2 2p6) >,:}~~:~

, " .... . , , • 01 .. .
· .... .1'
FIGURE 4.7 Energy levels of helillin and neon. The principal lasing transitions are ,:.?~~~
indicated by double arrows. Note that the ground state is at a much lower energy. .::}~~~~
,...
........ ..
.....
, • 01 .. .
, .. 01 .. ..
, , • 01 .. ..
,
,
, , ,...... .. ,
,
,, • 01 .. ..
."0I:X
...... .
,
...... ...
.....
, ' , ,.. 01 - ..
,
, • 01 .. .
, , • 01 .. ..
,
·......
."':X
' , .. •
.. ...
". .
01 : ..
,
, • 01 .. .
". .
,
, ,
,• 01 .. .
,,
..
, ,...., ....
"oIX
,
'
,• 01 .. .
··...........
··. ':X ' , , • 01 01.. ; .
•
' ,
, , , ,..,
". . ;.:
x
'
, '~. ~
·...·.. .. x. .
"
AGURE 4.8 SchemQtic ofa HeNe laser showiD,g the di scharge tube and !heayilY mi.rTors.
(')
FIGURE 4.1) (a) Definition or BrewSIU'S angle Bt,. (b) 'l'ransmis.sion of II p-p<lwized ray
al Bn::wsler angle withoullllteDuarion.
re(Jcc!ivity al a given wavelength. a particular laser line. most oflen the rM

line at 632.8 nm, can be selected .
A sketch of a HeNe laser is showo in Fig. 4.8. The lube diameter is
chosen so as [0 maxi.m.iY.c the population inversion of the neon atoms, an
empirical formula relating the pressure (in Torr) to the tube diameter (in
mm) being pD - 4 Torr-mm. usua1Jy D ..... 2 rom. TIle length of I.be optical.
.•.. cavity ranges from 20 10 50 (""W. As shown in the sketch the electrodes are
C,",
;....
recessed. The gain in the low-pressure ga.~ is relatively low, ret.ulti ng in
.; ...
amplification 11 ..... 0.10 m- I. As a resuil the power level is also low, in
the range of a few ruilliwaUS. The width of the gain curve is dominated by
Doppler broadening and is of order of 1.5 GHz.
A special feature in the sketch of Fig. 4.8 is the exit windows of !.he
F. tube. which are set at the ·'Brewster" angle 0.,. As shown in Fig. 4.9,
light polariz.ed in the plane of incidence (p-light) and incident at 6'b is
not reflected. If the refractive index of the window is lit. the Brewster
condition is
..· ·..... . ... .
....
.......
--:...:• •
,• .. AI . .
...·.... ··""'''tIIl,
""". • • • JI "'" ..
'
~
· . " ......
· .. "Ai(.
•
•
•
. . . . . . III
.. " " " 11.

II "'" ,--III....
... " ... h,--.

• • ..
• • .. " .. III
162 ........ :..:

• • " .. -'II ,..
·
4 Lasers •
· .. ".. "::3
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
..
"
"
" 11..
JI
.. -'II . .
II . . iii:
r--..
• .. " JI A ..
• • " " ... 'J
. . " " ..... •

•
•
•
"
,
"
"
"
"
JI
II
'"
...... I
'" ..
..
..
,
··•• .......
" .......
JI"AI:":
••
• ,
,
"
.>JlII . . : " :
. . . . . oil
" · ...
,
· ""''' .
.I.",";":
but from Snell;s law ...........;..:.
· ... " "....
• ... .II .001 ..
·· ·...........". .
• • • " ... /I
~ • .. • .. II .. IA.
:-: o . . . . . . . :...:
. e
SIn t =
ni.
sin vi,
Ll.
.. . .... e..
. . ...Y-
' · ,......
•
,
•
.. • • •
•
• • • III ..
•
• II
•
I
,
,
..
•
•
•
"
•
•
...
....
.. III
• III II1II
••
...
nt - .,...
· " .... ..
•
•
... . ..
.... -
, • • • III ..
-:..:
•
III •
. . . . . .oil .. II
,
· ·,.........
...... •r:. " .. • ... . IIIIIi
---
.• ' ... ............:J
Therefore we must satisfy
· , . . . . . . . .J
• , • • .. IIII.,{"",
·. .............
....... ".
'. ' ................ 'J
,
, . . . . . . III J
. .....:.-:
... ',
· , , ..
·n (J nt --;.:<.:.:~:::
:<......
--_
Sl l'
tJ.
.. - -
n·1 •
.,
•
.,
<-:.:. ::..;
...... ,.
•
-:":::::::::::-: I
..
,
. . . . II
. . . . . II
• II II
J'
II I11III.
";j
COS 171 ., .........

.. ~~:i.
• ~ . . . . . . III
I I I . . . . . ...
· .... ,r • .-..
For ni = 1.0 and nt = 1.5, 8i = 56.3° and the Brewster angle, which is)/~~;]
the complement of 9i, is ~ = 33.7°. Light polarized nOI'Iual to the plane ot:f~@~~a
incidence (s-light) is partially reflected from the windows and the higher<:}~:~~ " • • Ii"~
losses prevent a-light from lasing. .}}~f:E;t

In Eq. (4.12) of the previous section we showed that the spacing between';\~~~~~;~~
· ,..... ·x
the longitudinal modes is FSR =, c /2£. One can demonstrate the presence o't:':/~~~~~
these modes by a simple experiment using a HeNe laser. Since.e ~ 0.3 m~<)~~~j
the FSR = 500 MHz, whereas the width of the gain curve is of orde(>~:~~:~
1.5 GHz. Thus we can expect that three to four longitudinal modes could-:\\~§~&.
be lasing simultaneously. One way of observing these modes is to use a fast:,:<~~~&
diode to record the intensity of the laser light. Because the diode detects the{!~
intensity, i.e., the square of the amplitude of the laser field, its signal will <~~f:~~
contain frequency components at the difference between the frequencies :}~~i~~®.
of the modes present in the light. . ':<t~~~
To explain this let us consider just two modes at frequencies WI and 002 .. :>\~t , . . . . . . ~IIIA
Then the amplitude (the electric field) is - :}~?~~~a

, ........... MIl
. .....
."....
, . . . . . . . . III
, ... • JI . . . . .---....
, ...---
· . . . ... ..
~~~~..J"
(4 21) . . .. .. ~ -'
',
,
•
. . . . . . III ..
, ' , • • JI ...............
,,
" .. III ..
.,/'"
............-----,.....
• " .. III ..
~
, ~ " .. III ..r~·
, ~
. ....... ...
I • • .... .,{--
. . . . . . . . .III . .
and the intensity (assuming AI. A2 real)

, I
,
" . . . . . . ioII
, ~ . . . III III
...
.......
.. " ......
-_
-~
.
* " • • • ",---..
, ....... .t---
I , . . . . . . . ..
It
'......
, ~ . . . III ..
. . . . . . . ...
~~:.r ..
2 2 2 2
I ~ IA 1 =- At cos WI t + 2AIA2 COSf.Ul t cos cv2t + A2 cos 2
aJ2t. ,»~~~~ ,
,, .. -. .
'.... . . . . . . . . . . III
~ ~
(4. 22)::::::::::~
. . . . . III ...
.... . , ,•
'~
.......---. • .... II1II---
!
The tenns in cos WI t = (1 + cos 2wtt) andcos lJJ2t
2 2
1
(1 + cos 2(1J2t)}JI~~
oscillate so fast that the diode will respond only to the constant part 1A 112 /2 :ft~~
and 1A212 /2. However; the cross term can be expanded to give . /(~~~~
,
>, •
, , , ,•• ,r • . --... .1 . . .
2AIA2 cos £rJlt COsw2t = AIA2{COS[(ltJ l + (1)2)t] + COS[(Wl - w2)tl}. '.)}~~ .......
,....
....
(4.23).:, ........
, ,
'. , ~'"
;..;.;.~.,.
............ .
, ,, ,
...... .
~..
,,,,
, ~
As before the term in COS[(WI + !U2)t] will average to 0, but the diode can:"::/~~~~
respond to the terlD in the difference frequency . ·<?~~
... "'..... , ,
...... ..
· , .. ......1'
· "
,
,
. , . I i .. ..
• • JI ....
(4 • 24)·:·<;:::Y: ,, ,,........
. .... ...
. ...... jfA.
.
. .. 01 ..
,
, , ,..
•
,
.......
....
.....
,
,......
... J...... ,
,oj oj ..
,,,
, ,
......... .
.....
,,,,
, , •
........
, ..I" . .... .. ,oj .. ..
, , ,"."
'
, . OIl ..
, ,. ..........
, , ,
..
, ~ ..
..... .
........
.... ..
. ,oj ..
,
·,, ,........
.... . ...
,
,
,, ,, • ..........
...
Ii ..
... .
, ... Ii...
,
, ,, ,... . •.
, ,
, , •
, , , .. •
.......
......
Ii...
Ii •
Ii •...
•
, ,
"
,
, ' , ....
Ii •...
• Ii Ii•...
,• •
..
.....Ii .. ··
,
,
,
, ..
........
.. Ii . . . .
• Ii •..
4.3 The HeN! laser 163
U £here are more than two modes present we expect to see nor only the
fundamental difference frequency
I
-(w
2iT q+1 -wq ) = FSR.
I
-(wq+l- w q ) = 2 FSR
2n
and so on. Data obtained by using a fast diode connected 10 a microwave

spectrum analyzer are shown in Fig. 4.10. The central peak is at 550 MHz,
and there is a second peak at twiee that frequency. (The peak on the left is
jusl the DC level.) This indicates the presence of at least three longitudinal
modes.
·.... . ..............
• • • • A • • ..,._ ......._ , , / "
·· ....... ..
• A . . . .....
• • • ... OIl
. . . ..
• A .......... ..
..............
·.........
· ·..........
• A • .. ..... III
164 4 lasers .. ...... .. ......

···...........•
•
•
•
•
..lI .. . .
... ... l1li
·· ··............
•
...............
.....
"' III! ...
•
· .... . • JI •
...
.. ..
···.......... ........
• • JI ...... ..
• • • ...... IiIII ,
·· .. .. ... .....
...
4.4~ MEASUREM F4:NT OF THE TRANSVERSE

• ••
""
..II ... : . . :
.....
·· ........ ""....
..
·. ........
. . ... .... .
• • • ..... III! ...
• • • III! ...
· ·..........
. ... ..
•• . . . . . . ..!III . .
BEAM PROFlI/E •
· . .. . ...
•
•
......
•
•
.II
•
........
•
...
""
of
01
iii
..
•
··:·:·:. ~""~. m~.. .

• .. • • 01 ....
. . ... .
• • • ... II .... , , / " .
• . . . . II1II ... . .
· • • .II ... II ....
Often it is desired to expand or reduce the diameter of a laser beam while>}~~~~:;

maintaining the parallelism, the collimation, of the beam. This can be:~il?1~~d
Inven~ed
b! Gahleo and by Newton who u~e~ them to achIeve angul~rUt1~~m
magmficanon; the same arrangements are sttllln use and are named aft~~·)~:~~~S
• . . . r.~
·········~m
.... ··m
. .·.'.."".om
. . ..::m
-.. ·~m
2 ... ," .... ~~:*
d2 = dl -~ . (4.26}/t~~@
/1 •
.:'.....A~~~:~
* I ........
,'~':':A:~~~
.... "ill-
By appropriate choice of fl. 12 we can magnify or demagnify the beam. '?iiiji!~
The Galilean telescope is shown in Fig. 4.12; a diverging (Plano-)WW
are used. To preserve collunation the distance between the lenses must be .(@~
'. . . . •'-",,".1"»
, .... " .. fIII.I". ..
" ' ••••• A....~
t = /2 - /1, (4.27) <?~~~~~

,'". . .~~*x: -'" ...... ,'," .........
,
'
,,!
~0:
. . . . III
' ..... III.J".I"

. . . II'
.,f'
II
, ' . . . . ,,! • • •,.,.,... . *~

'
,"··"'''0
' .......
..... . . 0, . . . . ,.,. A
, ......... :--:
A.. ..
"X
- I .....
-
' ,....
... ...IIII
II.. ..
........
, ,,! ...
I ....... 1)111
, I ,. . . . . ~
• , . . ".01".
I X
.. .01.. •
I
III III
......
' , .........'X x
I ..
••
• I
I
I
...
,','' '"....,........
......
.
'" ...0
, " , .. '" .01
I J'I .......
, .... III ..
"~oI·x
'• .. 01 ..
:
I ; · ",............
,J-...
I
I ......*J':.I'.
,
, , , .. .... '"f',
~-----.--1.Jh ·
I
-',*,····
', ,,.......
........'"..·0
.......... . x
·x .
I
'1 I
o , , ........
'
'
, ', . . . . .*
. ...... .
'
*. ,
'
,
,
I
..
,
..
..
........
II ....
...
• , ,. . . . xx
I I, , ' , .........
• , I ..........
' , , .. II ....
- . ...... .....
I
:" '1---i
I
I
'
" '
,
I
, . ,
...... ........
......
X.
..
. ..... .
• , , .... II ..
, , .
..
' I , ...... ..
• .........
.......... , , '"
.01..01 • • j j •
.. .... .
~
I
~.
I
· , ,,......
.. .0 ... .
......
' x
, , , • .0... •'
,,,
•
'.....
""·· . ·. . .0I.. .
.. .....
.......
.....
.
",1&
, , ,
,"
"
, .........
, .. . ...
.. ... .... .
,....... .
FIGURE 4.11 A Newtonian te]escope with magnification f2/ fl- , ,
..... .
,
, ,
,
"
,
......
......
, .... . ...
,....... .
,
.. • 0I ..... .
,
,'
, .......
.., .....
......
,
.... ......
.....
"
.........0 .. .
, ...... ..
.
, ,,....
, , ~
, ...... .
, ~
,
, . . . 01 .. .
'
,, ,,...
,
,
..... x....
.....
........
, . . . 01 .. ..
,
, .......
,
...... .
...
,
...
...
oj
oj
..
.. ..
......
..... .. ....
, , • oj .. ..
,• •
•
......
.....
"
,
.
, ,
,,
, oj ..
"
... 'X.
, ,... •....
, , .... .0 • J'
'
,', •", •.0"""''%
~
~
"···x
, ' ,_._.o,
• • .0.. _.J'
4.4 Measurement of the Transverse Beam Profile 165
,
,}-----f1~ ,
I
• f2~-----l
FIGURE 4. [2 A Galilean telescope with magnification hifl.
and the spatial magnification is given by

h (4.28)
d2 = dl it'
The curved surface of the lens, whether convex or concave, is spherical,
and the focal length is related to the radius of curvature, R, through the
lens-makers equation. When the second surface is plane,
1 n- I
(4.29)
Y=I?'
where n is the index of refraction of the lens material. For most glasses
used in lens manufacture and for visible light we can approximate n ~ 1.5,
so that f ~ 2R.
In setting up a telescope certain "alignment tricks" are useful. The beam
must pass through the center of both lenses. Thus the lenses must be set on
the optical table at the same height as the laser. In the horizontal direction
one can be helped by noting that a beam that is passing through a lens off-
center is steered. Furthermore, the surface of the lens must be perpendicular
to the beam axis; this is most easily achieved by back-reflecting the bearn.
The transmitted intensity of the beam is measured by a photodiode. (See
Appendix E.) Since the photodiode area is small, it is often necessary to
focus the beam on it, especially if it has been expanded. The diode is
backward biased, usually with a low-voltage battery as shown in Fig. 4.13.
With no incident light RD is infinite. When light is incident some carriers
are liberated and the resistance RD of the diode decreases. Therefore the
voltage across the load varies as
(4.30)
· . . ..... :.-:
· . . .......
• • • OIl ..
• • • OIl OIl
• • • ... OIl ..
• .... OIl ..
• • • OIl OIl
• • • ... OIl . . ;..:
· ...... ..
• • • . . . OIl
• • • • OIl .. I
~
· .. ....
• •• of of
• . . . . OIl
"" of
166 4 lasers
•
· . . . . ..
•
•
•
•
~
•
A
..
.. ..
·...... ... . .......

• • .. .... OIl
• ..... of ..
"'
• . . . of of . .
· · ......
""
· ........
• ....... OIl
· · ...........
.. .. ........
..
· . .. ... . ..
,
• .... 11 . . . . ;. __
..---
···.........
........
.. .... ....
• ~ . . . . . OIl ...... .
• . . . . . . Of . . . . ..
.... ......
·. .. ......
I " ·
• .... OIl OIl
VB .. . .... ..
.:.:.:.:.:. W.
• • .. .. OIl ..
• • .. ... OIl
~
1. • • ... .. OIl ...
....
1 •
· ........... """
·· ...........
.
.............
. .... . .
•
•
•••••••••A.
ffi§.t'~ •
•
~......
A ...
A ....
OIl ..
..II
w/",.
.r~
• ..... III ..II

• A ........ ..
• • .. .. of . .
.r.
. .>}:;:
• • .. ....... .roil"oil"oil"
· ~~
..... ..••.•
.. .. .. ... ~
......
· .· :-:.~ ...:. ~....~~
....... ~.
· ....... ... • • .. ... OIl . .
~
· ....... ..
• JI .. ... ...
• • .. .. OIl . .
• • .. III ....
··.........
•
·........
•
• • .. ..... "';-..1'"11
.. ... ......
~
. . . . . . . ... jO..............
A.~
-
· ........ ..
-
JIll! . .
JI
•
..
..
..
..
...
..
OIl ...
..
'·". .. ....... .. 00;

_ • JI .. OIl ...
- • .. .. OIl! . .
-
•
•
I
ill
• • JIll II
.. .. .. ~.
• • ill ... "'"
· "
· . ..
· ......
•
.... .. ....
ill .. ..
...
"""
· . ..
• ill .. ... ..
...
• ill .. .. """
• ill ...... ..
· ....... .. • .. .. .. .. 1
FIGURE 4.13
I •• :.:.:.:.~
· .........
· ........
•
• • • 001 ..
.. .. 001 ..
. .: m
Telescope Focussing lens ::::::~:~~~'~.......
Laser Photo dfode<:<~:~~:
· . • .. '" ......oI"oI"@
.J
• • • • 001 .. '......
·• .... '" .
l
• " " 001 ..
'.'" • " ...............l".! ...........
." .. .... ..
···........
• • .I ..
··
··· . .
......
.....
.....
... .
. .
.
. · .. . .
......
•••••••••AA
. . . .. • ••••• 001"'....
· ....•
m
Stage ··.......
. . ''"" ....
..
: fA
f-----l ·
.::::::~~:.
...........
·• ··.·.·001
· ...... .. "'... I
· . . . .. . .
· . .. . '"
.........
· .......
•·•......• •• .
-~
'"
.. ... .... ..
.. . .. .
• .. • • ... .. oil
·
· ..
·· ....... .......
...
• .. • • ... ..
,
oil
Controller Detector •
.......
· .. . A:.r~ • • • • ... . .
",..
oil
.. ::::::::J@
. ::::::::=:@ ~
s~turated. and it ~s desirable to use a shunt resist~; th~ signal.can. also be/)1~~
a 50-Q impedance must be maintained throughout. When working at low <{t:m
at the'photodiode as a sharp edge (I.e., a razor blade) 1S moved through the::)i#ili
~lth a resolution of few nu.crom~ters. The arr~gemellt ~~ sket~hed m<~j~~&i
inte~al.of the beam profile. If the beam profile in the direction of the blade:U~
motion IS :;:=;::::~~.mw..
· ,.........
. ... ~','
:.r..:
[(x) = 10 g(x) . ·.'·,,......... .. ··m

. .JO..
"· ,. . . . . *.
. .. .... .
'.',· .'·····~m·
.~.:.:.:::~.
~.
•
<:':?::~W
7:$i · •• u
·.'··.............. ....w. ,
.
,
,,
:.>:.:.~
.,.... m
- .. .
• .. • .. ..
~
...-
I.
4.5 The Michelsol'l I l'lte rferomBter 167
I')
¢0.7
...
•,
...•
(b) •
••
•••
'if 0.7 A
•
•
..:s "
/50.&
mo.•
•
•
•
•
'"'
~
~"
.~ 0.4
..,
O.S •
\,
.5 0":;
"•••
•••
•• SOD 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 ~ooo •• 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0000
POfIition (1Iffi) Posltloo (!U'1)
FlGURE 4. 15 (a) The transmitted intensity as a fUllction of the position of the obstacle
(razor blade), which is moved across the beam. (b)1be derivative of (a) giv~ the transverse
profi le of the beam inteJ1si[),. It is fitted by II. Gaussian.
with J~OQg(x)dx = 1, the transmined intensity wben the blade is at

position x' is
G(x ' ) = 10 1~ g(x)dx (4.32)
(when the beam is fuUy unmasked. x' -+ -(0).

A typical result for the laser beam is shown Ln Fig. 4.15a where mea-
surements were taken every 100 11m. By differentiating G(x') we r{':cover
the intensity profile
d • ,
-- G(x)~{(x). (4.33)
dx'
Penomling this operation on the data of Fig. 4. 15a we obtain the result
shown in Fig. 4.ISb. which can be adequately fined by a Gaussian. The
l/e 2 points of the Gaussian define the beam diameter, wb.icb in this case
is 2w = 1000 ~m.
4.5. THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
W{': are familiar with the fact that wave phenomena exhibit interference;
namely at every point in space the amplitudes of two waves are added
linearly (they are superimposed), whereas the intensilY is detennined
· .......
.. .
·
"
. . . ..
•
~
A ... ..
~
•
· . . .....";m
· . ........~..'.r.-~
· . ·..... .....
• A .. •
· ·........ .... ..
• • A .. ... y~
. .
· ·........
· .............-.1".-
.' .... . . ..
·· ·............... .. ...
168 4 lasers • • • .. AI ..
,··,.....
··.....
..... .
.... ..... .::~
..... .... ~
··.......
. .
. ... ... ..
...
.... ";q,..;
· ··.....
...... ~
by the square of the resul~ant ~p1itud~. For interfere?ce t~ take p..la~§~r~~~

the two waves must retaIn theIr relative phase relatlonship over tb~(~~~~m
time and spac~ of the observation: they mu~t be. coherent. Lase~ beamf}~
are coherent In the plane Donnal to the drrecnon of propagation bu~(:~;~~
also over considerable length along the direction of propagation. Fot·}}~~~
instance, a simple HeNe laser has a coherence length .fc of order o(;\~~~~~~
meters. It is therefore possible to demonstrate interference with relative\{OO
ease.
,:: ,':·::::::~~
· ,·. m
The HeNe beam IS expanded (for convenIence of observation) and ls'lnCl~(:}~i
dent from the left on the "beam-splitter" B set at 45 with respect to th~:~~j~i
0
incident beam.. A beam-splitter is a half-silvered glass plate o~ similar opd;.:?~

cal element that allows half of the beam to propagate through It toward M l>d~
and reflec:s the other .half toward M2. This .techni~u~ ?f producin~ tWQ;(~
coherent light beams IS referred to as "amplitude divlsion. The mrrrors~<~~~~~
H
M 1 and M2. reflect the co~espondi?g beams that return to B. Half of ~e~)jffi
beam returnIng from M 1 1S transmItted through B, and the other half lS<:}~~~
reflected t?ward the screen; the same is true for the beam returning from(!~
M2. If B IS set exactly at 45° and Ml and M2 are exactly nornlal to the»~l
beam direction, the two beams aniving at the screen are exactly parallel::~I~J
and their amplitudes will be superimposed.fi1~
,' .....
.... .. ",. ~
, , , ,.
·.... :-::..; ~
,
, .. ,. ....... .. ",.
·.......... :-:. .
....
.",.
,
, , , ,.
,,, ....
, . . . . . "'" J
.......
• . . . . . III
....
, ...... III ..
.. .
M2
, ,
, . . . . . . . .II
,,
, ,, . . . . . JIll
....
.......
.....
.......
.
. .
.
, ....... .
,
,
..
,
......
J
•
. •
. . . . . .II
. . . . OIl
...... ...
.Ii JIll
,
,
,, J
,
.......
...... . . . . JIll
••
. . . . . . . . . .II
.AI ..
.II
...... .
, . . . . . OIl
..... .
, . . . . . .II
, ,, • • .AI ..
'J
,
'
,,
....... =--:.....
... .II
, .• =--:
,
,
, ,
...... ..
'
J
J ....
...
. . . . . . .11
.II
, ...... ..
, . . . . . OIl
, J ..... .
, . . . . .II
,
. .
,.. ......
,
..... . ... .
J
J .... ..
. . . . ..
, .....
.
, , ,......
. . .. ...
, ..... .
..
..... ..
,,, .....
...
, , ,.....
,, ....
....... ..
..
, , .... .. , . . . . .II
.......
,,,
,
....
... . . . . .II
. .
,
.......
........... ..
. . . . . .II
, ,,
, , ...... ........
... ..
Laser .. ....
..... .. .
.II
, ,
,
.......................... .""
, , ,. . . . .II
! .... .
, ,,
, ,
,,
, ,,, ...... .. .
.....
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,, ,..•
..................
.... . .
01 ..
,
,
,, •
, ..... "
......
01 ..
01 ..
,
, , •
, ,,.
, ,
....."
....
01 •
01 ..
, , •
,
,
, , ,•
.......
,
.... " •
01 ..
01 ..
, • 01 ..· ..... " 01 •
, ......
.... ...
,.0101"
, • 01 ..
,
,
,
,
....... , • III •
• 01 ..
,
,
,,
, ,
,
....... .
•
..
01 ..
01 •
Screen ,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
....
....
• 01 ..
• 01 "
.. 01 •
, .. 01 •
, • 01 ..
, .. • 01 •
FIGURE 4.16 Outline of the Michelson interferometer. B is a beam splitter, MI and M2 <:}~:
are the mirrors in the two arms and the interference pattern is observed on the screen. ::}~~~
.... , ,
........ . ... ,
,
, ,, , • 01 •
, .... III
....... ....
,
, , ..I ...
•
...
...
, ,
,
,
...
·......
...... . . .
"
, , ..I ..
,
,
,
........
... ,,
, ,
,
........ .. , ,
,
......
....... ... ....
.. , ,
,
,
,
....... , ,
,
,,
·...
,
......... .""
, , ..I ...
,
....
...
........
, ,,
,,,
,
4.5 Tha Mi c helse n Interferometer 169
If the intensity on lhe beam splitter is I, the wave amplilude 2 is
AO(z, t) = Eo cos (WI - kz) (4.34)
10 = IIAol') = Eo'/2. (4.35)
z=0 at the beam splitter, and lhc amplitude of the wave is reduced
:: by .Ji each time it b"averses (or is reflected from) the beam spliuer. Thus
': the amplitudes coming from the two arms 1 and 2, when arriving at the
EO
AI (z" t ) = 2 COS(Wf - 2kl\ - kis)
Ell
A2(Zs, l) = TCOS(Wl - 2kt2 - ki s ) ,
where £1. f2. and i$ are the distances from the beam splitter to M I , M2.
and the screen. respectively. The resultant amplitude at the screen is
Eo
A$(zl'!) = T [cos(wr - 2kl. - kts) + cos(wr - 2Jc.l·2 - H s) ]
= Eo COS[Wf - k(fl + l2 + l~) l cos[k(ll - f2)}.
14.36)
:::' and the resultant intensity
I. = II A,I' ) = (E~/2)<os' lk(tl - t,) I. 14.37)

2
:.!..! In Eqs. (4.35) and (4.37) we used the fact that (cos (wt») = ~. Note that
.. tbe light reflected toward the source also forms an interference pauern of
intensiry
(4.38)
'; :' so that
It is much more difficult to observe lb than Is.
2l.n this section we usc trigonometric ralhe:r than ex ponential notation.

· . . .....
•
·· .....
•
..ZJ
•
A
•
••
..
.II
II ..
. ....
• • • .... .II
···...
~
.....
• A .... ..
..
· ............
A •• .II
~
~
·.......
•
·....
....••....
•
• •
A .... ..
~
170 4 lasers '"

· ..... ..
•
· ·.....
. . . . ....
• • • . . . .II ~
,~~
· . . ..... :";1
• " • .. .II
• • • • II
r"~
··.• .....
.
• • • JI . .
.
• • •
•
.. .~~ • • JI . .
· ·.......
· . . .......
~
• • •• • ~
~
~
~
From the above analysis we conclude that the intensity at the screen will>{~~
~
~:-
~
A c
· ·.'........"g
.'<-:-:.:.~~
..
At = I.e 1 - e21 = n - n = 0, 1, 2 · .. , · ........

· :::::::::::~.
the screen will be bright (bright field), and when ··........
:.:.:':':~:~~@
· ...
.. .. .
·............ .. .
~
·
~
·
· . . ... .
· , . , ,.
•• I . I . . . . . .~~~~
1 A ~
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
2 2 ·:::::::~:~::~
.... J'm.
' . ..•..••••.I'~
the screen will be partially illuminated as indicated by Eq. (4.37); Th~«~~§[
obtain In practice: very slight misalignment of the nnrrors and even sma]J;>}~§m
the wavefront. Impedecttons or nonflatness of the murors or beam.-sPlittet}!~

at the level of a fraction of a wavelength distort the wavefront and modift<~
the interference pattern. "})&ij
ference fnnges" at the screen. We assume that the two rrurrors are set ~<:4~
~at their nonnals ~e ~ th~ plane of incidence (~e plane of the pap~r in:{Jj~~
FIg. 4.17), but M2 IS nusaligned by an angle Ci With respect to the axIS of/:~~~m
the beam as shown. Because the rays returning from Ml are reflected by: >~~~~~m
90° at B, we can think of Ml as located at Mil, and that the reflected rays. )j~
propagate in exact parallelism with the z axis. The z axis is defined from<>~:~Ji
the screen toward M2 and the x axis is in the direction of the screen as:::~ii]
indicated in the figure. Fo~ a small misalignment an~le a. a well-collimated "iUm
beam, and for f,2, .e. s suffiCIently large we need consider only rays from M2 :::}::;:~
that propagate parallel to the z axis. Then the rays reaching the point x ori:r~ij~~
the screen have traversed path 1engths)}~~!
" ..... .
.....
,
,
~ JI ... :.;;:
:', >:-:.:
...... »~
Z1 - leI +.t.s "
'~JlJI"~
11'JI"~
,
........
• JI •
~
Z2 --= 2(£2 + x tan a) + is, (4 41) ,j."'

.. .
·:':}:~;::::
, .........
... :":
, , . . . . . ..",)IJ
........ .
, , .... iii .. ..
'" .......
., , .......
......
'" , ........
.....
', ,,
"
• 01 """'.. I •
.......
, ..... . .
......
, ...... .
, ...
. "
and their path difference is "'.... :..: .

,"
, ,.......
....... . ' "
,,
,
, ,
,
........
.... .....
. ......
.......
, , , .. " • • -tI.
, , • • •Jj . -
, , • "'.r ".l"
(4 "42)· ..::=::;~::::
.........-::.:
........
......
.....
...... . .
................
..... ,',', '
, ",
, , ,
,
, ,
,' ,'
"
~
, ,
Bright fringes perpendicular to the plane of incidence will appear on the:<)~~;@

screen when (Zl - Z2) =
nA. Consequently, the fringes are separated on<}~~;~
......
......
.....
...... ..
..
. , ,,
, ,
, ,
. .....
...
.........
..... .
. . , ' ,,
,
"~
~.
~.
....
..... ...
........
....
. , , ,
,
, ,
~
~
~
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,,
"
~
~ ..............
.......
....
~
... .....
~.
~
~
, ,
,
, ,
~
.....
......... ....
....
..... .
.
. . ...
, ~
,
, ~
, ,
, ,, , ....
...... . . '"
~
,
,
,
'"
,~ ~
,
, ....
.......
......... .
....... ...
..
.
,
, , ...
,
'"
, , . '"
, ,
,,,
~ .....
...... ... AI ..
4.5 The Mich elson Interlerometer 111
•
-r--"
;. -
Z:! ZI is
III
------~LCoc-----------~ ,
.
FIGURE 4.17 Schemlltic of the Michelsoa interferometer with ooe mirror $1ighdy mls-
ali gned. To calc ul ate the intcrfcn:nce pauem M I can be relocated at the dotted line
Mi'. Vertical (10 the plane of the paper) fringes ~ppear on the screen sep:ttaled by
ax _ "A/(2tan (r).
the screen by a distance

}.
t:J.X = - - , (4.43)
2 ran ex
For example. for tbe MeNe• .\. = 633 run and if we take a = 10- 4 , we find
/:J.x ::::.- 3 mm. As the angle ex is increased the friIlges crowd together and
evenrually the interference panem is lost
In the previous discussion we have implicitly assumed that the expanded
HeNe was collimaled ; for a Iloncollimated beam the fringes form a circu lar
panem . Some residual curvature is obsenred even with a collimated beam
when the in~rferometer is not perfectly aligned or when the optics have
aberrations.
In the laboratory we set up tlie mirror M I on a tra11slation stage (the
same as used for the beam profile measurement s). The mirrors are carefully
aligned until an interference panem is achieved. When the translation stage
..
-·-······--·~rII~
·...........................
-•
··.......
. ...._.---
........ ••
.... ....
III .... .
- ·...........
. .... . .0
• .... III ....
......•
-
.... III
-~~:~
...
172 4 lasers .- :<.:-: . .. :.:::~~

·..........
.---.•.••••• .. . ...
· .......... ~~'.."'~.'~j~
···.......... .
• • • III ...
- • • . . . . ".I11III. I
........
. ....
•
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . JI
..
···.·.. .....
............... .. ...
· .............
is moved, the intetference pattem changes: for a stage motion 6.z = 'AI4/~~~
.......... .. ,
bright fringes become dark and vice versa, and the original pattern reap~~~~~~~~
pears for ilz = A/2. 'When the motion is continuous the fringe patten)I~~~ . . ...... -
appears to "walk" across the screen and one can count how many fring~s.~~:i~~~~. ~
~z for rv25 fringes at a tIme; this corresponds to motion of -"8 J,1ffi, whi~~:~:~:~l.I · ..... · .. ~~A~
wavelength IS tnunediately obtaIned from '}\~~~~*m

.' . ........
. . . . .....ill
....... .· • ... oi ..
A = 2(fj.z/ N), (4.4~:[!jtID
Passed by_ /:}~:W~:W

.....
• • • .. .01 ..
01001.
• • .. • .I 01
• • • .01 . . . .
• • • • ..01 ..
• • .. 01 01
· ······m
fere. ID. the .arrangement mtroduced by Fabry ~d Perot a very large (~j~~M
p~cipation of ~y waves, ~ery sh~ contrast between bright and ~~::tfJ
~ Fabry-Perot consists of two ~~, often parallel plates c~ated O~(~i~W
forlmng an assembly referred to sometunes as an etalon. This 18 Sho~}~:;M
as mfinitely.unn. A ray n:coIDmg at an angle 8 W1~ respect to the norl~:}~~~

after u:aversmg plate 1 WIll undergo repeated reflections .. We label the raY:~tf~
emergl~g from plate 2 by AB, CD, ~F, etc. The path difference betwee~::t~
two adjacent rays, say A B and CD. IS ::<:::~~
......~:~
..... =% '.' ,
fj.£ = BC + C K·::@~~
.'.', ' ......~~
with BK nonnal to CD. The finite thickness of the plate does not modi~U@m
th b 1 · I.c 11 th .,' ........~
e a ove re ation. t 10 ·ows at . ::::::::~~~~w.
.',', '.'
' , ' , · .... oIo1..·.~.H:
:. . <.~.01:
...... . ~ :.*
III = 2t cos B. (4.4~))~~~fi
. . ,. . ....:::::*~ . , , ,.......
. ..
Note that CK :- BCcos28 and BCcose = t; thus, fj.f. = BCO +U@jj
cos 28) = 2B C cos () = 2t cos (). Therefore, constructive interference:);~1~i
2
. . ','',, ~·:·""··~"'h"
.....* "
' ,
• • .01 . . .. .
" .01 01 .. .
......
, , ' .. " . . . . . .,JI. . . .. .
,', '..... .
........
',', ,,,~, .. oIo1.o1.*'.."'~
,
4.~.~
,.~
'':,"' ',....
........ «-
,:.:.~.~.~*~~
. . . .4.*
.
",,....
...............
. . . 4.*
'
' ,. .... ·X
x:
• , •• 4 •
......... ·X
· ' ,·
.:::;:
,
·, ,", ,
.', ..........4.%
' , __
• .. . .•J J I . II
..--
I -I
...::::>.
~::::"
[:.:-'
4.6 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 173
~F
I~i': -- t __ 2
H/FIGURE 4.18 The Fabry-Perot interferometer. A ray incident at an angle () is shown.
fi\ For si~plicity t~e mirrors are indi~ted.as in~nitely thin. Note thal an infinite number of
Mtreflections contnbute to the transnutted InteIlSl.ty at angle (). •
1111· will occu, when the path difference is a multiple of a wavelength

r~~~·.
IW: 2
Since 9. is a small angle, n iS : :g:. n:~~'"
of onle, n _ 21/),. (4.46)
The above constructive interference condition holds provided the dis-
~~~~~.: tance form the etalon to the point of observation is the same for all rays,
I,.: .: .~ namely when the observation point is at infinity. To achieve this we use a
:b;::::t;:.
::.:",:,:".,'
..
I
~. lens to focus the rays emerging from the etaIon onto a screen. For a slightly
ruvecging incident beam : : ~ngs of radius (4.47)
~::: :
;::::-, where en is determined by Eq. (4.46) and f is the focal length of the lens.
~~:::..
~:~:: Note that the incident beam should not be perfectly collimated but should
K contain enough angular divergence to support the angles en.
~\ To obtain the spacing between consecutive maxima (fringes) we first
t.? note that for e = 0, the path difference between adjacent beams,
n,. measured in wavelengths, is
II~i:
no = 2t/A, (4.48)
............
· . ....
• •• ~ .ill ..
-~
·· ...... ....
• • III . . .
• • • . . . III
• • • .oil .. III
• • • .oil ..
•. . . . .oil III
• •• - OIl
• • III ..
• • .oil • OIl
• • • .II .. III
174 4 Lasers
.,'
•
•
. . . . . . . ,._ • .iIl
•
• .II • III
•
•
. . . . . . III
•
• • .oil
. . .... ·
•
•
• • .!II .. III
• . . . . .oil
• • JI ..
.. '
• • • .II .....
• . . . . . .III
···..... ..'.~*
• • " " • .l1li
...
.... ...
• •
"
"
• • .. .III
• • • .III ...
which in general is not an integer. The first observable ring is fornled at~({:r
· .. . . .. • • • • • III
....
angle 81 where nl is the integer closest to (smaller than) no- Thus <:}~:~~
·· ·........
. .........
· . .........
·· .. .... ..... .. ..
• • • • • .. .ill ..
·· . . ... .... ...

· .... ...
• . . . . . . oil
ni = no - E 0<<:<1
- - · ···......
.......
..... .... ....
....... . .
··· ........
· ......
. .. .... :%:~
.·;:::::;::::~~
· ........ .....
and · ....
· . . .. .. • • • " .... OIl
,
·· ............
· ......
· ·...... ....... • • .. • • .ill
2t 4t . 2 fh
t = .., (1 - cos 81) = SIn . (4.49):'::)~~?~
.. ~~ "•
A A 2 •
•
•
•
•
..
•
..01
•
oj
01 •
01
...
··.... . ... ..
· ."
......
As we move out from the center, the ptb ring corresponds to •
•
•
.".Ii.oI
•
"
...
"
•
•
Oil ..
Oil ~
.01 ~
· ::::::~~:~ ~
Using Eq. (4.50) in Eq. {4.46}, recalling the definition ofEq. (4.48), di'Op..::::iM~lI
·"
.' .'
.. ~~~ ~
....• ~
"I . ::::::::~~~~~
A .. " ••~
t .' ...........§fi~=
.. :.:.:.~ ~
· •
. . .... ..
•
•
•
..
•
...
Ii
Ii
Ii
t = 1 em and A = 633 nm we have A/ t :::: 6.3 x 10- and the p = 11 ring <~~t~5
the radius IS 1 cm. .. " .:>~:W

Next we calculate the mtenslty of the nngs (fringes) and the contrast~{:~w.
that both surfaces have the same transmissIon and reflection coefficlents.<;}}~W
,.,. "" .....

--, .. ~}~
..&y~
--7..«
... , ~.~
R +T 1.>~~)~%
.'. . . ~@.
... ~
t =~ and r = -JR.Ui~
.' . :::::::~~~
where 10 = t AJ. The transmitted ray B will have amplitude)~

"'····........ ·m*
,
,
, • Ii ..
2 iifi
AB - Aot e , (4.52)@&
:::
"::::::~~
. · . . ili
· '::::::~~~....:
, ,
::-:.:.~~
....
'/::::~~.~
, , .. ......
• .. 'J"..t'. , ~
~
">~-:
,
. .'" :~~:
...... ... •• ,,
':': ,:.:.~.~
:~~m:;.rit::"':
, :::::
,
, ,......
'.'J. iJ'
Ii
~f'
~;::;:-
4.6 The Fabry-Parot Interfero meter 175
~m:: wh.ere l/J is a phase acquired in traversing both plates and the space between
~t[ them. Ray D will have amplitude
~~:;:
~:::_:
A
D =
A 2 iU
Br e , (4.53)
W
~::>
:= ray F
[t
z~:::.
AF = Av , 2eiU,
•
(4.53')
&t and so 00. Here the phase angle 28 is due to the path difference of adjacent
f ? rays as they travel between the plates. It follows from Eq. (4.45) thai
~.:.
I
21-.:;co::,.:.6
U = 21r = A
(4.54)
From Eqs. (4.53) we sec thai the ampIiwde ofsucccssive rays decreases
~k'
::-;;::: by ,..2 = R. but there is an infinite number of such rays. The amplitude of
~~) the transmitted light is
t.:::::
f::: 00
~U AT = A 012e ilil L [1 + r 1q el 'l:z.J). (4.55)

g~;i
,~:'"
;'~<
~~~::: This geometric series can be easily summed
~?
~::: :
:::::::
~( and the Iransmhted intensity
@:::
:.:=::: (4.56)
)~: ::
~:f- Maxima occur when Ii is an integral multiple of 1C. whereas mi nima occur
:~:::: when 8 is a half-integral multiple of 1r • At the maxima
(4.57)
(4.58)
showing that very good contrast can be achieved if R is close 10 1.

Equatioo (4. 56) is plotted in Fig. 4.19 for different values of R.
-.........
·- · ..
... . @~~
~
...... ~
~
~::::::::::~~
- ~ .... ~A
-:::::::~~~:~
.....-".
116 4 La sers ..... -.'.~
- ••
:-:.:-:.:~.N
.II ill ....
~~
~. .
· ...... . . .1'''
- · ........
· ..... h
~
>:-:.:.~ rIi~
• ~. • .II ...
..
-................,;J~
- .............:.JI....:
. ----:.;<-:.:~~~~
- . . . . .....
~
• ••
- ... ............~
~
• • ill
- :::::::::::~
-'~::::::::;...r..~
-
...............~
-
rIIlr1
.'.~.JIIjJllj
I~ 1\ --:-:.;.:...:~%:.t'
· ....... ~.... . . .
I \ I \ - :::~::::~:~X
- ·. .......
J \ I , · ....... ....
'--'~
~
........... ~~
~
~
\. I \ :«.:.:..~
I \ J \ _ :- :-:":.: ~
- . . . . .... :--:
I \ f \
•
- "
•
- .. I
I
•
•
•
.II
....
.. ~:::.
..
.- I , I \ ___
>:-:.:
............. .~~~
' ~
I \ I \
-
" ..
~%
-. ~ ............ olIl~
I .. ...
- ~
. ' , ................rIIl~
...... ~.
I \ I \ •
_.'~
• .II . . . . . .~~
.......... ~
- J
I \
\ I
I \
\
.. >:. ~.;:;»
-
:- :-:-:• ..t'~
I .II . . . . . . .~.,.
.. .; .:.:.~~~
I \ R= 0.3 I \ . -: -: .:-:-~~~.l
~-'" ...
I \ I \ .... •
-,' .......t'•••
I • III ...
'.~
~
/ \ I \. · ~·".r.1
:' ... .' ..'. :. '.;.~
.J
...
.. · ..
,// "
__ ..... ""
R= 0.6 ,/'/ ' ..... ........ ,....
• I .... ..
... --' ...... ..... - • •

· ...... '.....
•
,'~
I
...........
I,~ .....
· ..
" ... '
~
'~0
. . . . . ..
'~«
..t'..~
,/
R=O.9 • I
',~~
: ': • : ....t' ,ljrll"
(
....... .......
.. ...... .,rI«
..,·.'.:<.~
.. 'r« '~
...~~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 , • ".,rI'-.J'I
.'" >:.:.... ..r.,rI..•••~
Fraction of an order ..:.:.:::::~~
' .... ~~
FIGlTRE 4.19 The width of the Fabry-Perot fringes as a function of mirror refiectivitY.:·i:(~§~
The two peaks are separated in frequency by 1 FSR = c/2t. <i.)~~~
..... '..........
· , ...........J'1
....~'"~..,.'"
... -:':.~~
, , , .....
.' .
:::::;~«:
......- ~~
·. .. .
'
",.':::,~~
The bright fringe will reach half its peak intensity when ,'~*
2
.
,"·· . . 0
.'
.;.~~»
.:-:,~ ~
....' :-:.........Xx
4R sin (ol/2) = (1 -- R)2 ,
,,
,
.....
..... .;..:
........ ~
,
-:.
· : :~:;::
.... ~
«.:.:. .~
, .• "Y..t.
or when , .'.:. :.:~~~:;..'
'. . . .z.
~ ...y..l.
'
' , .... '-J
.II.. 'J"".
(1 - R) . . .<~~
/)1/2 =. v'R ' (4"59):::::~
:...... ~
2 R ,<-:.~ ~
, •• ....r-.
.• ...t..l.
,, ........,:.:
where the small angle approximation was used. The full-width at half- :i)J~}'
maximum ) of the fringe is 2S1/2. The spacing between adjacent .:\~~ili
fringes corresponds to a phase angle difference of 2rr, and we define the- ::)~~~
finesse of the Fabry-Perot interferometer as the ratio between fringe spacing· ':\~~:~
... , ~ ~
and the of the fringe <:~:j

, ,~ ....".1
, ·........
... .
, , ' •......1
.. ..
1(~
,
,
2rr ... .
, , ' ......1
,
F =
81/2
= ---'
1- R
-. (4.60) :):{
....
... ,,
·
,....
. ~
,
,
,
,
, . ..
,
,
, ,
I
~
~
..........
•••
~
For a typical reflectivity R = O~98, the finesse is F = 155. :··:·i)~~! , • ".1
The spacing between bright fringes defines the free spectral range of:.:.::~~}.
the interferometer~ Let the wavelength At form its pth ring at angle (J~ and .: . . ~~~•• •
wavelength A.2 fOIln its (p - 1) ring at the same angle. Since these two··.?~~ , '~.~.
rings overlap., "::'::~:

· ...
· .....,
, ~
..
··.,,.
, ,
, ~ ....oJ
...
en - 1)1..2 = nAl or •
,
, ',~
,
·
, , ' .... .t
, ',·oJ
, , ' •• .r
• •.t
•
.....01
, , ' •• .r
· ·· ...
.. ,
···..,,
· ·• ...
•• .
·••,
,
· ·• ...
· · ...,
· · ...,
· · ...,
· • ..•
, , ·., ,
· • ..•
Iii> ' .6 Th . F." ..... ", ',,,d,,,m",, In
~I However, n At ..... nA2 '" 2t, so we obtain that

~k'
~l:' ).2 - 2 2
AJ = A2/ t. (4.61)
~\ If we express Eq. (4.61) in terms of freq uency, v = ciA we fi nd that
I; ~=~c=~:I~qPi~: ,~g~~;;~~~~f~~r :;3'~: ~ ~ah:el ~:~~

ft"
~"" '" wavelength spacing is 8).. = ). 2j2r = 0.02 nm. However. Jines between
~%r.: ~O~~:~i!~;!~::ei~~~~ed~;~:~~~;::la~:~~: !~~:~;

.•.•.i ,•.•.•'.•.. .
" dA = - (A2 - A,) = - -. (4.62)

& F Fb
~::::
~{::; For the above example and for F = 155, dArA. ....... 2 x 10- 7, showing
:.~>7,.: r, ~ :~;:~~~elY
.•,.,:,.• high resolution can be achieved with a relatively simple
: ,::,:.,.,:...
~:' Fabry- Peroretalons used in conjunction with lasers are frequently made
with two focusing mirrors rather than fiat plates. This facilitates the align.
~{: ment but fixes the free spectral range. They serve as high~ resolution filters
t( to select specific wavelengths and as opticaJ "specO'Um analyzers," which
t/ are in essence high-resolution scanning spectrometers.
V:
I
:;::;:;:
N.· .
b:
IJl~ :
rr
r:~:::
I
K:-
?},
*.:: .
I
iE
•
,
r
• ".
...
________ _ _____________ •• __ .~ __________________________ L
. .
_____________
. L
.
______
.. •• L
. ..
__ L
__
___________
_
• L _ _ ___
O. __
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
~ ___
•• __
~ ••
._.
~
_______________
_____ ._ ••••• _
•• ___
•••••••••
•• ___
_
• ______
•••••••••••
•• ____
_
....
•••••
_L_L
L
___
••••••
L _______
L_ ••• L
L_L_._L_LL
•••• L ••• LL
•••
•••••
~
_.L.L
L
~ . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . • ..-
•••••••••
••••••••••••••
L.L
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ........... ..... . .. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
. . . ... . . . . .
~
~ ~ ~
~I
,
______ • _____________________ • __ •• __ ~ ••• _ •• __ • _. ______ • L _ ~ ____ L _ L __ L __ L. _ L L __ L _ L _ L _. L L _ L L L L L L L _ L L L L L L L _. _ ••••••• _ ••• ~ •••••• II. II ••••••••••••••••••••••• L ••••• II ••••••••••••• II ••• II ••••••• II ••• II ••• 11.1111. II II. II ••
_ _ _ • _ _ • _ _ • _ _ _ _ _ _ _ • • • • • _ • • • • • _ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~ • • • • _ • L • L L • • L • L • • • • • L • • • L • L • L • L • • • L • L • ~ • L • • • L • • • _ • • • L • L • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • L • • • • • • • • • I • L • • • L • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • I • I • I I I • • • I • I
I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• I. L. L. L. L. L. L. LLL. L. L. L. L. L. LL •• L. LLL. L. LL. I. I I ••• I •• I. I I I I I I I I. I I. I I I I. I II!. I I I I I I I I II!. I I I
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~ • I • • • • • • • • • • • I • • • • • • • • • I I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • L L L L L L L ILL L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L ILL L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L I I I!. I I!. I I • I • I I I I I I I!. I I!. I!. I!. I I I I I I!. I I!. I!. I!. I I I I!. I!. I I I!. I!. I!. I!. • I!. I!. I
&lalijllijl€iat@il~~~ijlijl~ ~~~~~iD
CHAPTER 5
Optics Experiments
5.1. INTRODUCTION
wide use of lasers in so many applications ha~ increased the need

high-quality optics and for good o ptical designs. We address some of
questions in this chapter where we discuss the diffraction of light and
( rota,tionofthe optical polarization. as well as propagation in optical fibers.
·•.
::
When a collimated beam of light passes through an aperture. or if it
~~~~~D::: an obstacle, it spreads out and tbe resulting pattern contains
and dark regions. This effect is called diffraction. and is charac-
' '''Jist;c of aU wave phenomena. It can be understood by considering the
r;:;;:;~~:,be~~rween different
f
parts oftbe wavefront, which was altered in
the aperture. The angle of diffraction is of order Aid with
the wavelength and d the dimension of the aperture. Thus, for visible
apertures in therarige 1O- IOO!Lm produce easily resolved diffraction
'"
·· .. .. -......
·- ·.... ........
'" .
"~."'.01
.....
'" ..
:=:::: • ~
~
... .01 ...
......... .~
~
-- ·- ..... .
·
~
~
~
... .
• • • ... AI
- - - ...... .. ....
• .. • .. AI
- · '"
180 5 Optics Experiments

, ..
---- -
.....................
- ....... .II ...
. .. . ......
. ... ...
• • .. • .. • '" AI
• • • ... • .II ..
• • " • .II .. '" . .
-.I'
........
. . . . ... ---.-
. ...-
-
-
......
"
'" AI
.· ..... ....-
- • •
....
•
... • of .of
_
- • • .01 .of
- -• • • • A~
--. • • • -
" AI
Very different patterns are formed near and far from the aperture.. hi~~~:
"J'
" J'
:.~ ,
• A ......
,
-J'
the near field we speak of Fresnel diffraction, and to observe the pattem(;~;:?--. ,
-.-.
.... • •• III ...
it is convenient to fonn an image of it on a screen. In the far field w.~~~~~~---........

..:..:.
- • • ... III
obtain the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, which can be observed by simpry~:~:~-......-

· . . ..... - • J • ... •
should be used and the pattem observed m the focal plane. In the fol1owlng:::~::
three sections we discuss Fraunhofer diffraction from a slit and a circU:Uuf::~::: .. • ••• rl..rfj. ; -
aperture. The results shown were obtained with a CeD camera. .::<)~~
The diffraction grating was already introduced in Chapter 1. lli}~ ==:::
Section 5.5 we derive the grating equation and show a modem setup ~~(~~~~m
we introduce the concept of "spatial frequency" components in a beam Qf;~~;
have kept the mathematics simple and emphasized the physical prlllcipl&l~~~~;·
. . . . ....
instea~ In Sectio~ 5 ..7 we d~scuss the Farad~y effect, ~am~ly the ro~ti?*~~t~=
of the Imear polanzation of light when traversmg a medium nnmersed ill ~~~~~m
of "Be~'s pha~e." '!hls is the rotati~n ofpol~zation ~ue to a tOPolOgic~t~1~~
·. ··,......
......... ..
.... ,
:: ~~:::::~:~
..... . .A-M
-m
on a vertical slit of width d. The InCIdent "rays'~ are nonnal to the screen th~~~:~:~g
The path d~erence ~tween these rays 1S B I? = AB sm () - (d (2) sm ~:e$.ID
and 2 will mterfere destructtvely. However, ~s will ~so ~ppen ~or ~YM~
el, where -:::: }~lli

····.... ~~
,......'~
d A
- sin 01 = -. .(5J)i~~
2 2 '"·····"~m~
,: ::::~~:m~* '
, .• .. 'l.Jl!
• • III
'::: ::::~;.:-r....
·:·~·:':W
.:'.</~:**
"··ill
":':':'~m
. '::::::~"'~§i
••
,
, ,'
,
:.:-:-~
,
.........,.
...
•
• • ..,j
111 ..
111 •
*
5.2 Diffraction from 8 Slit 181
1
l'
A 1"
,
\ 2 4
2'
'0 2"
c
(a) (b)
5.1 Finding the minima of Ii diffraction pattern (a) the slit of width d is "divided"
balf and (b) into quarters. The rays are focused Ilt infinity and the path difference is
contrast, at 8 = 0 the path length (out to a large distance) of all rays is

and the resultant amplitude is maximal.
'. To find the next zero, let us "divide" the slit into quarters as shown in
5.1h. In this case ray I will interfere destructively with ray 3 when
.', F = AE sin 8 = e
(dj4) sin = A.j2. However, ray 2 also will interfere
'n~.<t-nI"t1vely with ray 4 and similarly for all intemlediate rays. Thus there
be no light in the direction 82, where
d. }..
- SIn e2 =-. (5.2)
4 2
argument can be continued by subdividing the slit into an (integral)
n""nh"T of smaller and smaller segments. By analogy with Eqs. (5.1) and
2) we find the generalized expression for the minima
dsin8n =±nA.. n=I,2,3, .... (5.3)
.l..
en = n d' n = 1,2,3, .... (5.4)
'.' The complete expression for the intensity distribution of the diffracted
is derived in the next section. It is
sin ('r: sin e)]2

1 (0) = 10 [ rr' , (5.5)
T S10 0
- - ........
. • • • "';J';
--. .
.• "''':.o: •
.~
'~
• •
~-.~~-z:
..... OIl
~
_.:.:.~.~.~.~'.I'JI
... ... ...
.. ~ ~ ...............~~.!".
- ·.......
182 5 Optics Experiments ')i@t~~m

:,:,:-z':m
:::::=~:::~ ~
· ....... ":.r~
where 10 is the intensity (into a small angular interval de) in the fori;/J~j~
umt time·.·:-:-:-~-:~~·~
·.........•·. . m
" - ........ Q
• • • • ..... rIf'.
- '.' ~~
I = lSI = IE x HI -= cEoIE\2, (s.6)i::m!:!m

· ........'. ~ -
where E, H are the electric and magnetic fields of the light wave, a:n¥!W~!lli
good approximation) when «:~~~~ffi

J',' ,. ~ •••~.:~
...........•••~
A, m = 1, 2, 3, .... (5~7#.t[~~rn
·... ..r~::m.::::~;:;::~~~~*:-r.lr.
· . . .... ..
•
·.:.:.:.:.:.~.~
·...... m • • • • of • •
The intensity at the secondary maxima decreases as m increase$}?f§;mm

'"........ @i
.,...~oo
Equation (5.5) is of the general form · ...........
· ........ . ~
·.......
. . . "'
·• ~ .... III ..,
·'.':...:·:·:-01":·
·'·m
~ID.
· .'.:.:.: •.r~ ~
• • • • 01 •
· ... "'r ~
2 ~
sin x •
•
......
• • • .01 .01
wi
• ..,.
...
f(x) =. 2"' (5.81}~;m

"....,....m,
x • · :::::;:;:~~~~.@.'.r"~
..................~~,
· . ·..... .. ...... ..
.. .
"
· .. . .
~
• ., .. .. .. ..I
which is graphed in Fig. 5.2. Note that as x --* 0, f (x) ~ 1. ·.....

·:·:·:·:·:~·~~m
......."' . .. ~~
»:.:.~ ~ ~ ..
- .. :::;:;:;::~~
'. ~:~::::::~.~
, ::::::::::::Y@.J'~~'
··-·...
, ........ ::---A
..........
........
. •
, ..... .. .. ....
~
..I
·'. . . . *
~.
-: ·~·:·:~~·~m~
...... .. ,
1(8) ...... ..
•
· .. '.' .•~.
'
I .. .. .... ..J1
.r.
-.........
, ~lli.ffi"
. ', ' .............. ~
J' ............
· '
·.;';.;..... ...:. .:J.-»:
"'" , ~
.. ,
4 ....
....
.
~
·::;;'::::;:::~
,. "' . . . m.
.... , ~-:.; ..; ..~.~.J<'•
·.. >:-:.:~~
•
...............re:1.
...
,
'.r~
.... 'II. ....
· • .. .. .. ...... .J'"J
.::::::::::~
">'~;:;::::~%.~.Q
·
, ........... ~...:
:: :::::::::..~r'.r/."
·:,:~:;:;::::~0.
,................".rz.
::--A
...........
··, ,,..........
...... ...
.......... ~
..........
.. ............. ,
,~,
'4 ' ..............~
~
~
'" . ..
.......
•
"
· , " ................. f4J

, .... ~
• , .. .. ..... rIi"".
· ', ........... ....... ...
" / ~: ~
, .......... "Y"':
:' :~: . :.:..:. ~
"':}}@:~Y""':
•
.........
, ......
.', '
r:::
..~~
I
'
~
... AI
....
.. ..
• , .... ..t ...

, , ........r,
· ·':<..; . :. . m ·
, , .........
"".oi"""~
, . . ..
, .. .. .....J& ,...}
. .
....... .
,
· ·,',"'.......
·..........
·"·"""""m··..
'
........" " :;)
'f.;
,
I . . . ..
, ,, ...... ...
· , • ,
· ,',' .......... oI'pj .o's'~
· , .... ~ ..~..~
, ',
.o ......
, .. ..01.... .-.
....
, . . . . . ..t .
" ," .... ~ ....~••J

x:.r.
oIi4
• • , • .o's'''''
' , ........./11.01
,
,
" "
. . . . . .01
'" 01 . . .
, . . , .o ' , " " 01 ""

,~'.r.A
-SAid -2A1d -'JJd o )..Id 21/d 3)./d sin·9:" ~ ........

:.:::.~~~0.~"':
.o 's':..; ,
-,,,.01
, ,, , ...... .-:..;
..........
· , .............-.
..............."/
.}
Plot of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern sin2 x I x 2 •

,'
FIGURE 5.2 . .
", .....
' ,......
.. .....
.,",, ......
... 'U
' , ' , ...... .l·.•'x:"
, ........ raJ.
..... "' ......oM
,
. p;
, ,
' ,,;
' . . . . oi.~
, ,
, , ' ," .. ".. •....::..A
.... ..
· ,', ........... ~
,',. .,....
=.;.......
,
. :..I=-:
~:.-:
.
,. . . ;.=.~~
, ........ : 01
,
,
,
.......1'%
,
, , ,....
, ......
.... iii
..01 •
~
•
' , ' , .........J.~

• , .. .. .01
• '· .. ·oIo1 ....~
, , , ,....
,
""..01
.........~:..; ,.}
•
· "
•
,
,
..
...... .
, • • 001 ....... . . ..
..
..
'"
01 ..
01 •
".'.~
·· . ,' , ...........
, ......... ,,~.
.... .."':::::'J
5.2 Diffraction from a Slit 183
s L
FIGURE 5.3 Schematic of a simple layout to observe Fraonhofer diffraction.
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5.3. The laser beam is expanded
a 4: 1 telescope T, to better approximate a plane wave and is then incident
the slit D. The diffraction pattern is observed on the screen S, which is
the focal plane of the lens L. Thus, we observe the image of the pattern
at infinity. The slit width was d = 200 ~m and the foca11ength
= 50 em, so that the first minimum appears at a distance x from the
: principal maximum
x = je "-' f sin e = f('AJd) = 1.68 mm,

we used A = 633 nm. A picture of the diffraction pattern taken
a CCD camera is shown in Fig. 5.4. The central spot saturates the
Instead of using a slit, we can observe the same diffraction pattern by

.ln~""'''''J5
a thin wire of width d in the path of the beam. Since it is easier to
5.4 Diffraction pattern from a thin slit observed in the focal plane obtained wi th
• A .... _~
• . . . . . . . . III
"';rJf'J
: .:.:.:.:.:..~~~
• • .. .. II
•
· •• . . ... -
•
•
•
•
..t
..t
.III ...
'" ..
.' ~';<"';":"~»'
•
JI" 'J"I•
.....
• ..t
.III ..
',J'AJ
184 5 Optics Experiments -, • .«·~..t:·:"ffi
•
•
•
• • ..t
• • .III
.III . .
til
·· ..........
•
•
.... '" '" ::::

•
A
•
••
•
•
""
""
'" .III
•
.III
III
...
~
..................
•
•
. . . . "'...
•
L
JJ.
..
..
..
11 .III..
'" .III
,II
·· .....
• .. .. ·'". .0
-;"JfJ
obtain thin wires (or hairs) than to manufacture thin slits, the former .ar#!!@~
often used for demonstrating diffraction. That the two patterns are eq~8}~:i:j
valent (except in the forward direction) is known as Babinet's principle,. T«(}~ii~
illustrate the principle we assume that the incident plane wave is ''uniform)t~
~n? infinite in extent in the x direction .. Thus, the amplitude of the ~av.~(~t~~~~
t
'
IS mdependent of x, A(x) = A. Immediately after the slit, the amplltug~~{~~~~

B is given by :«i] .:.:.:.:.~~~~~
•
·. ..... ..•
............
'
.... II .. ~
~
• • 4 •••• i.J
•
........•••
·".41.J1~
~~
B(x) = A -dj2 < x < d(2 ''9":,:

:::~ ~~~~:*
(5 .... ( ~:::::
B(x) = 0 Ixl > dj2. ::\)~~i:;:

·........
.......••~~~~
• • 14 . . . . . . . . ~
· ...• ~·M
·.·III~ . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . : .
In the presence of the obstacle the amplitude C of the wave, just past 'th~fi~
· . b
obstac1e, IS O1ven v ·.· .... N~~
:::::::::=::~::*
0'" J . . ':::::::::~~:i
........ ~
{5.1q)~~~~~~
C(x) ....;. A Ix I > d/2. . ..........
·-:«.;.:~~.~
... :;:..
· .. . ....... ..
. ,«-:-:·~·~~m~~'"
Combining Eqs. (5.9) and (5.10) we can write •
.·'.·.,'....··. ....--.....m
:<.:.;~. .:~
··,.....
...... @
.:.:.:.:.: . @
@ ~
. . .',. ...... :::::

... .
~~ ,.~
'" ·. . ·m
........ .ra.
··.,',.....~~ill""
C(x) := A - B(x) (valid for all x). (5 .11:~!!i~~m
..... ~.~ ...........
~~
only In the e = 0 directIon. Thus for angles () =# 0, the constant amplitud~(::~ffl

does not contribute, and Eq. (5.11) b e c o m e s } i i m
. ,' ......••~
..
,.. .
': ,:.:.:.;~:~ ~w.
C(x) = -R(x) (valid for e :fo 0). (5.12t)i!@

... , '.'
.', ' ..... ,~::~ ~.~
It follows that the diffraction pattern, which is proportional to the squai~[i~~@

, ..... wz.
of the amplirude "
:,<:~;~:~
.....~.~ '
. ,:, ::::::::. ~~....
.......
, ..... ~
~.J
": \3~~~~*
2 2
IC(x)f --: IB(x)1 , ...... :..:
, ' ,....
• .... .
,~
, ...... ...
~.,1
~ ~
(j - 0 excluded~ :}:=~~:~
. Another case of ~terest ari~es ,:hen instead of ~ slit a ~qu~e apertui.M~
IS used~ The result IS shown in FIg. 5.5 and consIsts, pnmanly, of tW:~:i~l
single-slit diffraction patterns along the x and y directions . The intens~~~~OO
of the maxima in directions differing from the x or y axes decreases very~~~&.
.dl . .:-:.;.:.-:~
rapl y.::=::::~?~ " '.·.·r....:,:.: . :
",
'
, ' ,~ ...
~
...........oJ·····:..:....
.... ~.:,:.:
' ", ~
, ' , , •.. ..... 'J ... . ~:..:
........
,oj •
, , • • J. .....:..;
, , ~
'
,
,, ~"
. . . . . . . .1Il
, ' ....... ... ,J
, ... ".1Il
','" ........~
, . ...
,
.....
,
~
'
...
..........
..... "" . .
,oj • •
'.'.: . :........,.
, ~
'.'
..... • .JIl)
, . , '.' • ~~'.I'.
, >~
,'~·_· ...
<....WJ'~
5.3 CalclIlation of the Oiflraclion Pallern 185
.: "
.:.. .:
: "
.: ,
FIGURE 5.5 DiffractioD from a square aperrure.
CALCULATION OF TIlE DIFFRACTION

PATTERN
obtain an expression for the diffraction patl.ern formed by an aperture,

will make usc of the Huygcns-Frcsnel principle. The principle states
every point on the aperture D is a source of spherical wavelets with
r ::~:~I:~l~'~~:: phase detennined by the incidenr wave. Thc,~ "secondary"
E propagate al all angle.<; and int.erfere at every point in the obser\'a·
plane to detennine the diffract.ed wave amplitude. We take the incident
" ."vefn'nt parallel to the aperture plane, whereas tbe observation plane is
i~r.~'~,'lo;at~i:Dfinity (Frnunbofer diffraction). This is approximated in the
~::: 5.6 where we sbow both the aperture and observation planes
two rays to the observation point P', We need be coucerned
wi th the transverse coordinates. Tn the aperture plane, the point M
!<"peciftioo by the coordinales {, 1/, whereas in the observation plane, the
P' is specified by x', y'.
:: :- Because we observe at infinity, R. the distance from a to the observation
.' . is very large (and equals OS') as compared to the dimensions of the
therefore, rays OP' and MP' are to be considered as parallel.
the path difference between the my OP' (from the coordinate origin
. P') and the ray MP' (from the source point lo P') is the length OB
••••"" ..""••- ..-,,/"j
• ••
' . ' ,,-..,.AI. . . . . . . . . ...
til "'.I"
• ,I • "" MIl ..
• , . . . . . . lflii
• • " . . . JIll . .
• , 11 JI .. .. ..
• • • .. JIll . .
• , • • Jot JIll . .
• • • • III .til :...:
• . . . . If ..
, ,J • ,.. .til .. II1II
186 5 Optics Experiments '.

•
. ........
. . .. ..
•
, ,
• • • If . . . . ,
, , •,J•,.. III• III. .:....:
. , • • A . . . . . . ._ . . . . .
· . . .. .. ..
• • • ,.AI JIll . .
• • • • If ..
• • • ,.. III ..
· ... . .
• • • "" III .. ..
• ,I • If If ... ;.,
• • • ,.AI . . . . . .-
,..If
· . . ... ..
• • ,I ,.. ..
• ,J ... III
• • ,I ,.AI If ..
• • ,.. If ..
,..
•
. . . . . If ..
• • • • "" If .. ..
• • • • ,.. ,.. . . . . . }II
y' •
•
..
" . " " • • 1IIJIII
• • "" • If JIll . .
• • • ,. III ..
.. .... .
• . . . . . If .. }II
• • • • III . . . .
•
· .•• , •"""" ...,.11.,.. .
• • If If ..
•
· ....... ..
•
•
••••
• • • ...
,.AI . , . _ ~
III A
· . " ........ ..
• .. • "" If ..
• • • • ... All
• • • " "" If ..
. . . . ..............
• • • ..
If ......" " • ""
" " • • III III
• . . . . . . III ...
M P' .'.
•
· '
.. ". .
· ................
.
.... . .•
. . .
. . . .
• • • • "" ... .;a,
• • • III III
• ..II ...... ..
• ... III ....
···......'.......
............ "'11M.......
........... . • 11 . . . . . . . . .. fII.
_
· . ..................
• 11 ....... .... ..
.... .. ~ ,
· .. . ...... ..
•
•
•
•
""
. . . . . . . ,-.]1.
• •
"" ,.II
III ....... .
..
..
· . . .... ,. .
• • • • • III .... ..
R •
•
· ..... ,.:...:
•
•
~
•
.....
..
..
•
•
. . . . . . . . )III
III .. ...
III .. III
···.·..............
... ......
.. ........
• •
• III ....
• • • III ,. ..
.. . ..
• ..... III . . . .
. .. . ..,.--..
··......
•
I
•
• • • • III
• .. .. ,IIf--.
.. ............
···.........
.
. . . .. .....
• . . . . . Ai ..
··........
-_
···......
...... ..... "-_.,..:~~
--
..... .. . ..
...................;, rI
·.. ... ........... . .
. . . . . . . . . ..;~-~~
··.....
• ~j
• • • • • .. ,;c--..
,.--.
···..........
..........
........
.
· .......... ... . ......... . . . :;-. m
"-_.,.
...:~:;::: --
.·'.. . ..... . .... ...*.

·• .• ... ....
.
~ .
. ...r-...
.- >J!
,.--.
. . . ..... ...
·· ·...........
;.:r.
•
~
~ . . . . . . .-oJ
-_
--.
FIGURE 5.6 Coordinate systems in the aperture and observation planes for calculati~g~~~~
.. .. . .. ...... :..:
·,··...............
...... ;z.
diffraction. ··.....
·
.......
.......
.......
.... .. .
. . •... -
-
·. ........ ,.-..
. ~~
· .·.......
· ... ...
.... . .
.....
···......
.. . .. ...
~
......
·····....... ... ... ..
.. • • .. "ii"
.. .....
....... ~
• • .. • .. "',.J"
where MB is perpendicular to OP'. If we designate by q the unit vec~~~~i~~.

along the ray Op' we obtain for DB <{:~~~~
· .....
.......~'W W
.....,. .... .
··....
X' y'
DB = OM-q = t +11 - = [~x' + t7y']/ R. ,':'. :.:~:.: ~
R R :<-:-:.:. .:.....~ .
· • • .... -':fJ.~
.... ..
The direction cosines of the vector Op' are
.
•
"
•
·. . . .
•
•
•
•
~
•••
.....
•
••
•
•
.II
•
.II
•
.II . .
•
.II . .
.....
.II . .
..
III
III .......
........
~~~.~*
..
II II ...-.
x
•
..
· :.:.:.:.: ..~
difference between the two rays IS :·}t~~~

..........
.... ~ " ..................
~~~~*.-~ • .J ....
~~~ ~
2n "'>:-:-:':~:%.
~¢ = ~
h [~u + r]vJ. (5.f4l~~~~~~
.........~.~~
. ~.~.. :.:.:.:.: :~
.'
....
' .. ': ':.:.:~~~~
• III::::::: •• .II .II ..
to 0; .we can then wnte f~ the .contribution of the source porot M to ·~!~~§m
amplitude at the observation pomt pI <!:::i@i@
. ..' . . .w
...............~~
··~,·····
.:.:.:.~.~.~
(5 ~·t$;):i~~•
.'
':. >."A··:.~.....•:.?*...:
........
................
· ...... "ii"
... m
:::::
For simplicity we dropped the time-dependence e- iCrJt
; d~ dTJ . is ·i~~j~t:::I~
............
differential element of the aperture at the point M. ..... "'·m
... ..
.'• ............. ~
~
. . . iii····· • . . . .
,
'· ·::::;::::::m
,· ·..·...·m
l m
.".: ...... ....... *
,
' ,
". ·.. A··..
':-:·~
, • A'"
~m~~
:.--/.
" , "' ~~
:/::~~~x::m
...•.....
...........
," ' ~
· ,"·.·.·AA ~
~
....
... :::::
•
.". ....... . . . .*
·,
•
, ,
,
,
'
,'~~ ••• A. . . . ~
,
~
,•
~ ••
•
•
II ....
II ....
II •
5.3 Calculation of the DiHrBc t icn Pattern 187
To obtain the amplitude at the point pi we must integrate the contribution

' ,' from all source points. tf the amplitude and phase of the incident wave are
:~ constant over the aperture. we directly integrate Eq. (5.15). For the case of
. :~ a square aperture with dimensions 2~o and 2110 the integral is elementary,
The intensity is given by the square of the amplitude
(5. 17)
. ::
::: and is proportional to the square of lhe illuminated (aperture) area. This is
typical of diffraction phenomena. as compared to incoberent illumination.
: wbich is simply proportional to the area.
, in the case of a long vuticai slit. 110 » {o, the intensity vanishes very
'OI,idllv for I) '#= O. (Note that 1]1) becomes large and the exponential in
(5.15) oscillates rapidly, its average value tending to zero.) Thus we
ob,;en" a horilonraJ diffraction pattern confined to lhe x' axis. as shown
in Fig. 5.4. Exactly on the x' axis, t1 = 0 and Eq. (5.17) reduces 10
J{XI. y' = 0):;:;: 16{J7j~

sin ('i' {ou ) ] ' = 10
2
Sin ("1 sin 0)]'
[ T{OU [ tr,d sin ()
•
(5.18)
the last step we made use of the relarions U = X l/ R = sin 0 (valid for
where () is the angle from the z axis and {o = d /2: we also set
::1'\(~'"~ = 10 to represent the intensi£y at () = O. Note that the above result
".itlythat given in Eq. (5.S).
We now consider the case where the amplitude of lhe incident wave is nOl
t;~,:~~:~ over the aperture. Such varialion can be introduced detiberately by
t a suitable mask over the a.perture. or because tbe incident wave is
,• .....
., ....
......,_.,
-h
.
...
, ". . . of . . ,
" .., .... "" .. ..

•
"" .,
, '"
--~
III If ..
, . . . ..
• , • ,.JI 111 . .
, • • of . ,
• , • .. If ..
• ,
... 1111 .. •
" •If .. • •
5 Optics Experiments
• • .. III ..• •
188 •
•
•
•
•
, • • II' II'
• .. JIll Ai
• • • If .,
· .of_ ..
.
• • • .. III ..
·• .• , '" ., • .... If ...
·'·-::::~::::~~"m
· ..... ., .. ::::
• . . . . If "" ........j
'. . ••••••".A .•
• •• If "'" .. .:
·....
·......
. .
...... ~
•
-
'" .
..
• . . . . ...t •
• • • 001 . .
~
j
:::::
tude of the transmitted wave vamshes beyond the aperture boundary, w~n~
note that Eq. (5.19) IS very snmlar to the more familiar Founer trans.~{11
forIn between the frequency and time domains. If F(t) describes the tim~(:~::~m
m manufactunng such small apertures., but they can also be purchaset;J;:::~~W
making ob~atton of the pattern. correspondingly more difficul~ In. ~a:~
good co~roInlS7 for ~e HeNe wavel~ngth. . .))?:m

To obtaIn the chffraction ~attem, we m~grateEq. (5.15) overth~ ~cul~f~
aperture. To do so we rewnte Eq. (5.15) In telms of polar coordinates ~(:~~
,,'',,',.. ... . .*
, ' , '. .... .t'
.t'~*
.7"-:
~*
,',';.:.;,···,tIm
.. ' • ".r' fJE~
~::«
,'::';:~::~;:~~
,:-::.:*
,:::::~~:~
.. ',:.;.
:.:.:. . «=:-
:.::'*;'-:'7h~
, .... ......:-r....;
,',', ........~
, . . . .001
','.'"MriJJ!"
~::::
~~/
~::::: 5.4 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture 189
~~(.
I
~r~;:
y'
If\ (J
R
~~::: 1; x'
~r(:
•• '.
r"~
~~~}
I
!.jj)\.
r" ••••••...
FIGURE 5.7 Coordinate systems in polar coordinates for calculating diffraction.
shown mFig. 5.7. In :e~o:::me :e~s: ::;OCdmares n. ~ ';5::')

~?::whereas in the observation plane we use p,
r.-.·.·.·
r.-.·.·
q;' so that
?:=::/
::.::~::: X' P cos¢' y' psmq/
~~) u =- = = ex cos ¢' t V - - -
-R- R = ex sin ¢',
~r~:
;:::::::.:
. R R
(5.22)
;:::.:.:-:
:'{:where
r:... ex = pi R
is the sine of the radial diffraction angle. Expressed
t/in tenns of these new coordinates. the argument of the exponential in
§.~<: Eq. (5.15) becomes
~rr
W>
• i 2]( [~u +1)v] = i 2rr aacos(t/J - t/J'). (5.23)
@/> A A
@)Since the origin of the angles is arbitrary we can set t/J' = 0 (the pattern
@{.must be rotationally symmetric about the axis). Thus the amplitude at the
k}a,ngle (), where sin a = ex, is given by
@:::::::
~1~i( A'(ex) = to (oJt ei¥a{nos~ada dt/J. (5.24)
~::::::..
W··
10 10
®~~:::Here ao is the radius of tbe circular aperture, and we have assumed uni form
@:::::illumination.
I'· jr·
· .· .. ............. ,.
· ....... . • ...... ..!
""
···..............
.........
.......... x..
- . . . . . . .Of ........ "Jt
·
:
.... . ...
• .......... oil
• • • . . . . . .Ii-
.~ "'"
190 5 Optics Experiments "

~
··...
"
. - ......J/I:.-:
•
..
............ J
..
• .J/I
. _ .... !6I
..... .Ii--
·· ·..........
. . ..... :.-:.
•• • 4II ..
... ~ "'"
.......
. ..... ..
• ~ • ..... 1.tI
: ~
•
· ......... ..
•
. . . . . . . . . wi
• • JI . . . . . . ....
·· ..........
• ~ . . . . . . . . AI
• ~ _ .. Jill """
•
.......... • ~ .. ..
~
JIll
The integral in Eq. (5.24) cannot be perlormed in terms oftrigonometri'.f~:~:~:a

. . . .. .. . ::--: ..
functions but is well known. One finds that>;~}::~ ·

• . . . . . . . . JII ......
.....11 ...... . .
.JfA
• • A ....... .-
• . ' "J< ..............,J'
· ............. ~
2JI 2r-aoa . }~~{~~~§.

, (
A a =) 2
l! ao -' 2;' - I - r_ ;
(5 25·'J~·x~;=~
:;:;::=p.
•
-:lAW aOlX •
:-:.;.:.; . .;..;..
· .......... ....... .II .... ..
•
··
·
" "
........... ..... '" ..-..i
.......... £,
JII ...... ..
,
• . . ..... ".:f':
where i1 is the Bessel function of order 1. The intensity is given by tbe/:~:i:~
· ........... • • .. . . . . ..III . : : : :
""~
square of the amplitude '.:»~~~

· ... '" . . •
· ... ......-. •• 01 III""". . . . '
'"
2
•
··.....
............
"........""'.·.1
........
• • '" iii ... ~
"' ...}
;(":--;.
... ......
,
. • .. .. .I .. ; . :
· ........... .
• .. .. "'.,I .111 •
• . . . . . III .. .
• • • • .. .. III . . . . -.
/(a) = • • = r_
'
(5 26 , . ...
• • • .. .. • 01
.)'~~':::::~:.:
.
".J'
• ...••
.. ..oI.J".-"
,," •
• • .. .... 0/ ...•
. '.~
. ....
. . oIo101....~
. . . .11 •
•
~
~
· ........
•
~
.001".~
. ...." '.-..
•
··.......
•
... '" ..
•
•
•
•
•
..
'
..
..
,
..
..
..
.. 01.. ,... ...
01 . . . . .
.01 ""...•~
~
We recognize that the intensity is proportional to the square of the illumi:;)~i~

nated area. Since a = sin (I is the diffraction angle, Eq. (5.26) is similai'~(r~
Eq. (5.5) with the replacement of the sine by the Jl Bessel function. "'«~~~~f~
· . .. .....,.,. .
Equation (5.26) is plotted as a function of its ~gument, x - (21l" / A)acj~~)~~~
in Fig. 5.8. The zeros occur at the following values of x, . ';':}iI?J~~
.· ·. , ,'.......
........... x
'" .
"" ............ ~
•
= 10.17,
' " '
... '" ".Jij
Xl = 3~83, X2 = 7.02~ X3 etc., «H~§~
•
· ....... ..
· , , , . . .. A':h:;'-':
, . . . . . . III ......
whereas the maxima fall in between. The pattern is that of an intense centriJJi~
disk surrounded by alternating dark and bright rings, as shown in Fig. 5. ~/f~i~i®.
The first dark ring occurs at an angle <f\tIi~&
....... .
, , ..... )II ..... )II
, ...... )II .All ..
............ ...
......
•
, ,
,
... ...... '" )II ..... )II
- ", " "

.......... ..
3.83 A A •
, ' . . . . . . . . "}II
='.. =
, .... III . . . . . 01
81 ~ sin 61 1.22 . ., , (5 • 2~)::·:::::::~

f;", •• .........
.........
j{ 2ao D .
,
, ,
' ', ' ' . . . .
", . "
. ....
"
.......
.... .III "'". . 01
. . ........ . .."
~ ".II
, , . . . . . . . oil
, . . . . . . . . . . .II
,
~
~
.......... . .......... oil
where D is the diameter of the aperture4 If the lens used has a focallengJh}~i~~ .... , • .. • ....... 01
f ~ the radius of the first dark ring on the screen occurs at ,,}{?~~~
. . .. ..
, "
,
, "
,
, " ....
..t
.......
. '" . . ..
• OIl
'"
.. . .
,
,
,
......
........ .
..t
"
01
..
01
'" .AI •
... ..
f--
, , . . . . OIl ..
,
, "
Pl = 1.22 D
A. (5 .28))~~~~
. ....... ..
........
, ,,
, ,
, ..t
,
........
.... . .. ..... ...
- ,
,
. . ....... .
, .... .
,
,
~
..t
.....
•
•
01
• ....
. . . . ....
II ..
.
Equation (5.27), first obtained by Airy gives the smallest radius that can,'~~N~~
1
obtained by focusing a beam of wavelength A with optics specified by .ffl~~~~~~

... '" '" . , ,
f-number (f / D). The shorter the focal length, and the larger the apertl1t¢/:~:
.... '" . , ,
the smaller the focal spot and thus the resolution of the instrument. 1$~i~~~
central disk contains 76% of the total intensity. .:)/~i
... '" '" , ,
The experimental setup is the same as shown in Fig. 5.3., except ~#~H~
the slit is replaced by the circular "pinhole.~' Figure 5.9 is a CCD p~~~~~~
ture obtained with a 150-J..lm diameter pinhole. Three dark rings could:'i~~I~
. .....'" ,,
,. , .. ..... ,,
....
, ,
, , ,
, , . . ... ... ,
1
. ...
. .
,
., , • • ,
,
,, .
, ,. ....
, ,
. ,
, ,.. .. .... ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,,. .
.
......,
,
, , ,... .. ,, ,
, . ..
,
. ....
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,,. .
,
... ,
,
,
, ,
, ,,.. ..
..
,
.
, , ... ,
,, . ,
, , . ..
,
, , , " ,
5.4 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture 191
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Q 234 5 678 9
The intensity distribution for Fraunhofer diffraction from a circular aperture
e
: as a function of x = (2n"j).)ao sin 8; is the diffraction angle and ao the aperture radius.
• measured at the angles
Ctl = (5.25 ± 1) x 10- 3 radians
Ct2 = (10.5 ± 2) x 10-3 radians
Ct3 = (14.5 ± 2) x 10-3 radians .
•lJsing the values for the zeros of 1] as given previously, we obtain the
~orreslpOnlc1ll1lg values for AI D
(AI D) = 4.3 X 10-3 , 4.7 X 10-3 , 4.5 X 10-3 .
results are self-consistent and predict a pinhole diameter D =

ILm, in good agreement with the "nominal" value.
'. ·.·.·.·~-M~~;~
·'·A·.A.-M·~
....
·..
.. *
:.:.:.;.:.:~~~
':':.:A:_:":~
•
..... . .
•
•
•
•
~ ••
•
A .AI . . . .
.AI .. ..
.oil ..
I~~
192 5 Optics Experiments I ' : ' ; -: ':.:.::a

:::::::::::~~~
·· .....
. ...... :=::
".
• • • ... All . .
.AI OM..
:..:.~~
• • •
:.:.:.:-..........
.........
• ,. • ...f OIl . .
... '" .. ..,

~~
·
·• .• .
. . ...... ..., .... ,,- • .AI ... . . . . . f.
· . . . ... .. .... -.
"
• •••• OIl ...... ~
I
• • • . . . . . . . 0IIII ..
• • • • • OM .... .. .. •
, .···········~~x
.........
· .· '.' ....... OIl........
• .... OIl ..
~
..
~~
........... '£J
:.:.:.:.:.:~
. .~:::: =:::;:~J
jI'h • ••• OIl ..
:::::::~:::.~
· :::::::=::::*
.:::::=:~::~:~~
.....
· ·· .........
"'.... ~
• • ....... r-~
........ '"' . . . . w."',r,
..........
• .... -II . . . .,.~
·>:·Z·~m
~:x:
· ::::::~::~:~
· ':::::::;:::~
::::;~;:~:~~~~
.........
.... "' .. :::;
........ ...
· . "" ...~~w. ~.~~
• ••• .t' ·ffi

•
···............
....... "'...x:.
.. .
.. .. ... ..... X
.... III . . .
....
• •• II ... .
• • • II ...
~
•
. . . . . II . . ..
• . . . . II • •: : : :
• • • . . . II •
• . . . . . II .. ~
........."'. "'. .@
• • • • .. II
. . . . . . . II . . .~
• • • • .. II •
• • • ... II • •
:<-:.;.~~:~ ·
~~ ....
· .....
.' ...........r@.!ji"....:
• .... II .. .
• • • • 01 .. ~
~
' ...........
•
• • • 0I,."ri •
~
I; .......
'X
• ' . • .. • .... 01 .....~
· . . . .. ..
. . . . . . . . . . 01. . . .
• I; •• "" • ' •
.......... · . . . . . . . . . . ",'". . . .2;?;;.

•
'" ,
.. • 01 ... •
~'
.:::::::~~:~.w.
...... @
. .....' ...
• • • • II •
.....
··.......
• .. • .. 01.
. . . . II . . . .~
.:.:.:.:. :. :%.
.?:::
•
~
• • • • '" II • .,/
~
• • • .. . II II. .•
.... . .•
.:::::=:=:;~:~~~
.' '.' ..........~
·
.• .." ...'" ..• .. •
· ·•....
...................~
... ::::
...........
tJ
150 IJ.m. ·,;':·:·:~·m~

· , ..........
· - ., .......... ~
··, '.......
· ....... @
.......
" ..
· - .'................
,'. ·.·A"..,. ~ ~
. - ·... ...... . . . .,. £ • ~.,. ~~

. •• "" ••••••A.~
:::;::=:::::m
5.5. THE DIFFRACTION GRATING ···~ ,<:" .............
::::::~..ym...:
-
- , Z '''
, . .. ,.,.,.~.,..,.
. .,.
~
.
......•
... :.
phYSIC:U pnnclples m Chapter 1. Here we WIll c~ out a. ~ore detailed:/~i~~@.

analysIs and demonstrate a compact spectrometer uSIng a digItal readout. /:::::=:1
If instead of a single slit, two slits are illuminated by a plane wavefront{)i~~~!
a series of intefterence"'ri1nge"S1Jar!\1\!,~t{\,tM_~li.t~_ w.ilL aO.J1",ear on a f~~\~~~~~%.
screen. This is the classical experiment of Thomas Young (1800) shown in(:\~~j~if ..,.. - ,~,.
Fig. 5.10a. If the spacing between the slits is d, the intensity distribution<)~~~~~
on the screen is 1 ::;;r~:~
.... .,..
..... ,,
,, ......
....
.... .
.,..
~
,,, ....
..... .,..
.... .,.
~
,
-" , ,
,
...
... ~,
~
Jrd . .......:.-:
, ! ..... I
I(e) = 4Iocos2 A SInO · (5 •29)f,:·:

..... .
":::::::~~~
-,
.~
,..
,', ...........'"
·
• ',', ...........,J
, ......
...... .
.
"
, .... .
, ", , ",
,
, ...... .
, , .. .",,,,.
,
,
", , '"
The angle () is measured, as usual, with respect to the norrnal to the plane~{~~~ . .. , , '"
containing the slits. If one of the slits is blocked, the fringes disappear anqi<~~;
the transmitted intensity is 10. ~«~~;
.. . . ... , , ," "
, , , , " " '"
, , " , " " " '"
,
.... .
.........
"'.""'.
= • = i Ii
- , , "
, , , , .. " '" '"
, , , ,. ....... ...
, , , , " ",. '" '"
, ..
.... ....
lWe take the wavefront parallel to the plane in which lie the slits. , , , , , , " • ,. II '"•
, ....
, , . . . II
, " . II.
, , . ,. .
, , • II •
, , . ,. .
, • ,. II
, • • II
, , ,. II
• •
, ..., ••
, , ...
• II
,
, , • II
, ...
......'"
, , ...
, " • II
,
" ~
,, , , . ....
,
,, ,
,
,
..
.... . '" • ;I.
,
, , .... '"
..
. ....
, ,,
,,,
, , ,
,
, , ,,
, ,,,
..........'''"""
....
5.5 The Diffraction Grating 193
1I
J
51
1- ~I
f
~f~-
d 53
T 54 I
55 I
~l
(a) (b)
(a) Young's two-slit experiment. (b) Multiple-slit interference, the diffrac-
In Eq. (5.29) we have not included the effects of diffraction due to the
width of the slits. Let the slit width bea. Then Eq. (5.29) is modulated by the
• diffraction pattern ofEq. (5.5), and we obtain for the intensity distribution
l(e) = 410cos2 ( -lrd sine ) [Sin(!!QSine)]2

71'/ . (5.30)
).. T sme
If instead of two slits. severa1 equidistantly spaced slits are illuminated

. by the wavefront, the interrerence maxima become much sharper, and the
interrerence pattern is given by
sin {NIr/ sine)]2

l(e) =10 [ (5.31)
sin (11:/ sin e)
d is the spacing between the slits, and N the total number of slits; we
not included the effects of diffraction because in practical applications
: the slits are so narrow that the modulation is not important. Note that
(5.31) reduces to Eq. (5.29) for N = 2. as it must.
What is of particu/arin l:erest is that the pattern contains principal maxima
: when the denominator of Eq. (5.31) becomes zero, namely when
sine = ±n"A/d, n = 0, 1. 2, .... (5.32)

·:.:.;.;......
.• . .• . .A .OIl. .OIl. ...
~
..:~:~
.a%.®-
.:.:.:.~.:.:~
• A ... II .. ~
194 5 Optics Experiments .. ;::::!~!~!@j

......, ...,~
.. :.:.:.~.:.:~
'"'' ... ~
pal maxlmulIl (rrd/l) sin e = ni! + E and therefore sm(iid/A) SIn 6] ~ E;~~:}~:~~~
so that Eq. (5.31) can be written as . ,<{~~~~
··.;.:.;.;
~ ... __.:::z%
2 2 2 ........'..:-rA(;6
sin[N(n:tt+f)] 2 sin(NE) sin x:::}:~~:a::
I (f))roax = Lo -, "
~
- '" = IoN ' '" ,
NE
= LoN2 '"
X
;::::::::::~
.-:.;.;-:-:~~
... ~ ... ~
-.:::; . . ........ w,
............ ", .........
~
· . . ...... · •••••• ""'.JJI..J/l..::;;:
· • . • .•.. .....
.... .:-rI
-rJ
(5•33)<:;:;:;:;:;..:::
"·...... .~ ........
........ ~'X-
%
· . . '" . ~
•
•
•
.. .; .,; .%
...
..
•
II
.. oJ .. ~
'" .. '
where x ::-: N€ = NT!(dj)..)ll.(), and MJ is the departure of () from the?W~

condition of Eq. (5.32). Since the function (sin x/x)2 - )0 1 as x . > 0., ~e:>{~~
intensity at the principal maxima [~e ':" 0] is .. j{~Jim.
............. .' , ~
2 (5 3 .:":: ::::~~:t.
[max ~ N 10. · 4).:<::::~~:a
"'I' ':='::
· ... , ~ •• ..t.
' ~ ... ~ ...
This pattern is shown in Fig. 5.11. . . :\/~1~
The width -of the pnriclparnlUxmik 1~ g~(l;h~l.,~e~tir.s.t.minimum of the <}igj
function (sin x Ix), which occurs when x = ±ii, namely <i~?~
..... ·
, ,
,
,
, ~ ....
......
......
...
..
, ...
, ,
, ,
, ~
,,, ...
(5.35) .::{~
•
....... .. . ,
,,,
.......... ,
, ,
,
,
,
.. .. ~
Note that (N d) is the total extent of the region covered by the slits. Thus :;~)
.. , • ••
the principal maxima are as narrow as if the wavefront diffracted from a ::j{ .. ,
slit of width Nd. By combining Eq. (5.35) with Eq. (5.32) we can express ':i)..
...
,
,,,• •
....
,• ,•
,
.. .
,
, •
•
,
...
..
70~--~1~--~1----~1~~1----~'-----~1--~.-----~
,
, •
•
,
..
· ....
,
• , ••
..
·· ...
,• •
,,
60r - ,,
,, ....
,• •
, .
,• •
,
..
•
,• •
,
..
•
50~ • ,•
,•
•
..
• •
,• ..
, ,,
•
..
- , ,
,• ..
,,
,
,
..
,
,
,
,
.
, .
,•
- , ,,
,
,
•
,•
,
, ,
,
,
20- . ,
, ,
, ,
,•
,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,,
10 - - ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
o ,
,
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 o 0.5 1 1.6 2 ,
{dll}sinB
FIGURE 5_11 Different orders of monochromatic light scattered from a grating. Note that,
the principal maxima are very narrow peaks, whereas the secondary maxima are suppressed.. :
Plotted for N = 5.
5.5 The Diffraction Grating 195
the resolution of the system of N slits by

~). 1 1
-=-cose~-. (5.36)
). Nn Nn
A diffraction grating is equivalent to such a system of many slits and can
be used either in transmission or in reflection. The angle of incidence 8j
can be different from the nonnal to the grating. in which case Eg. (5.32)
j) must be modified to read '
~:::' . . . A
sm ~ - S10 er = ±n d' n = 0,1,2..... (5.37)
::: The diffraction angie is er and is taken positive if it is opposite from 8j

.... with respect to the normal. These definitions are shown in Fig. 5.12. For a
=
;;::> reflection grating n 0 corresponds to specular reflection (sin r sin 8j). e=
::::: Reflection gratings are often manufactured so as to enhance reflection at
~::: particular angles. Recall that Eq. (5.37) was already used in Chapter 1 (see
~::: Eq. (LI 6)).
:.::: The arrangement used in the laboratory is shown in Fig. 5.13. The light
source is focused on the slit and the emerging beam is made parallel by
lens Ll, which has focal length 11 = 20 cm. The parallel beam is incident
on the 4 x 4 cm2 grating, which has 1200 lines/mm. The angle of incidence
was chosen to be (h = 55.7 0 • The beam diffracted in first order was focused
with lens L2, identical to Ll. onto the "reticon" where it formed an image
of the slit.
The reticon is a linear array of pixels. which can be read out on an
oscilloscope. In the present case the array contained 128 pixels; the clock
speed was 80 kHz so that a pixel is read out every ~t = 12.5 I-LS. The pixel
I
Grating
FIGURE 5.12 The convention used for labeling the incidence and reflection angles for a
reftection grating.
.... ...."'-..-..-
' ".
IIIlI
. . . . ..
, ••• oil . .
· ·........
• • • III III .. ,
• • • .. oil . .
, • • oil JIll . .
· ..... .
•
,
•
,
• .. III ..
. . . . JIll . .
· ..... ..
•
, ••
. . . . . . 1111
oil JIll . .
..... ......••••
........
• , • .. of ...
. • • • • III III ..
196 5 Optics Ex-periments "
•
•
•
• • .. of . .
•
,I
•
,J
•
.. III .. II'
of JIll . .
~
'·............
•
·•
•
... .........
.... .
•
*.;:;:::.
•
•
,I
•
•
• III ..
... .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . ::
"" ~
'J
• • ":I'i' """
~
· . ...... • ' . . . . . If
• • • ". If .. :",; ..... ~
~
.. ..
· . .•.""....""1l1li,.11";
".
• • • ". If .. ..
• ,. • If If ..~
•
.... . . . . . . . . If ..
Light source .0.,

• • •••
•
· . . . . "" '" ..:::=
. ..~
• ..". '"If1l1li. . .
•
•
•
•
•
•
:I
•
:I
•
...
• If ..
..AI ..AI ..
III . . . .
~
• • • "" JIll.... . ..
.......»
• . . . . . . JIll ....
· .... "" 0
• • • • " • • "" ...1fJIll..... .
"" ....X
~
•
.. .. "".....
··· .............
•
'"
• "" ""
JI
If ....
III ..
III ..~
" Slit · .. ,. •
•
•
•••
• ... III .. ~
• ... III ....
~
.. . ... Xi
• •
• • • III . . . . ~
• • • ... III ....
• • • • ..II III .. ..
.. .
·
· ·......
.........
... . . x:
..........;:::.
• • • ..
:.'.
•
• . IIIIII..... .~
• ..
• • .... III
.f ··.......... · · . . .. ... .... ....

~
.. ........... ..:-t.
..
............ •
··
•
•
......... ..~
•
•
•
•
•
..II
• III
........
..
..
2nd order .,/' •
.
· .·.............
. ..... ... 0
:Z• •
•
•
.....
• • ..
111
,.II
..
..
/' · ............ ..
· . .... ,. .. :Z
• .. .. •
~
• ... 1l1li . .~
L1~ ".; Display/Scope • • • • III ...

• ~ • III,. .. ~
'. ·.·.·.'.·A:=::·
./ •
· .......*, • • • • III ... ..
./ ·• .•.• •••
1·1·'~I·."'.I11.",.~
·· .... . ~ ..........
...
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
···........•.......... "X,.
~
•••• ~~ .. :J
···.........
.
..~ ......
.... ~
. .
~
.
~
.
...
~
~
1st
• • -"'.. ' .. J
order ·....
· ·
. . .~~........ :.:
·......
··.............
.. ...... ...~
,
:..: •
... A
~
..... .
~
~
~
Grating · .. ........
···..... ............
~ ~. ~
· . .....
'" ~
~ ~ , ~
.......... ~
~
.. .. '''»
~
•
~~.~~.:.:
• A . . . . . . . . . . ..
f · . ....
•
....... X
·..........
• A . . . . . . . . . . ..
.... .
~
~ ~.~
• • A • •
··..............
.·.
Reticon
•
.......
... .::::
•
···.........
. .
..... ~ "'~
. . ... .::;j
• A •• ~ •
~
·......
. . ..........
· . . , ........ :..;
...
.A •• ~~ ..
Control ckt .. ..•....'..r'.' x.

.......
···........
~."
0" order
. . . . ....,:I.x.
. . . .'9.-
· ~
•
··... ···...." ..........~

••
.. .
A
~
•
~
~
~ ~
•
• • ••
~
• • • •• ~ .. r'I.l'
• • • • •
FIGURE 5.13 Layout of a simple grating spectrometer read out by a reticon (a on~rm~
dimensional solid-state detector array). . ·:}::::~~:~~
.......•••-"'0..
· .......,......
J
• • • ~..
·... :::;
• • A ..
.
• • A • • ........ , : : : :
.
· . . . , "'""X:
·
...
~
· •..
....... .
... ' ' 'x: ,.
• • A ....
·~."-":I
~
·
. ........ • • • • .......JI ,
~.~.,I'-%
size was .6.xo = 100 ~m for a total array length of 1.28 em. Thus we hav~~:?~~i~
the conversion factor ·J)t~m .J':-:;/
•
•
•
•••• A
A ......... -t'"J
• ....... .....1
.ax --; 8 },Lm/lLs, (5 38·l:';i}:::::~.%,:"~

.· ............
•
.... "Xi:..; ~
! A ..
. ....
. ....A ~
··......•
.. . :..;
..........
• • .....
· "
III
~
":y;
f f
~ ..... A
and since .6.x = !::J.(), = 20 em ·· · .........

.........
. . . ..... :..;
• • • A • A .•. .
... ....A
:..;
..
· ......... .,;.
• • • ~ • ..
... ......
. . III
· ·.......
:·····iof
· . ... .
. .....
.. .......
. . . . ............... .
· . ......
....:-t. ~
~8 ~ 0.04 mrad/lkS. (5.39)«~~:~

···........... .. :..:
...........
.. .. x ·
··.........
..".z, .. • •
~
• • ..... I ""
The spectrum of a Hg arc lamp is shown in Fig. 5.14a. The horizontal}}~~:~

· • • ......... .J'
scale (sweep speed) corresponds to 200 t-Ls/cm. The spectrum was observed~)}~~~
in first order, andfromEq. (5.37) withBj = 55.7°, d :.- 10- /(1.2 x 10 ) m"<{~~~
3 3
we find that for the green line of Hg (Ag = 546.1 run) >/l~~~
· . • ,. . . . ...... ""
•
A lflii
. . . . . A "" ~
• • • • A ...
.. • ... • • 0lIl
· ....... ..
A
• . . . . . . . A ..
• , . . . . . . . A ""
• • ' •• ...........1'
sin fJr = sin Oi - d ~ 0.170, •
•
· . . ..... .
".. A
· , ............ ""
• ~
. . . . . . . .... lflii
· ......... .
•
,
•
. . . . . . III ""
•
• • • • 0lIl
..... lflii
.. 0lIl
···,.......
• , . . . . . . . . . 0lIl
•
..............
.........
I ~
. . . . . . . . . II
• • • ,.
· , ..... ".I
namely Or = 9.8 in the quadrant opposite to the incident beam. The secon~:,::\~~~:~
0
order appears in the same quadrant as the incident beam at 8r 29° aSii\)~~~ =
· F" 5
sh own In Ig. . . 13 . , . , .
::: :::::~~~:: . . • , ... III .. ..
The green line corresponds to the peak 011 the right-hand side of the graph/~j~~~
· . .-"'. , ~
(Fig. 5. 14a)! whereas the doublet on the left corresponds to the yellow lin~~i:\~~~~§~ ." • • •.,:1
(Al = 577.7 nm and A,2 --; 579.1 nm). Knowledge of these waveleng~$f>~::~~ ........ , ,
allows us to make a more precise calibration of the spectrometer~ including!;:):~:~~ ....

............ .
....
· . . . ..
,,,
•
,
,
, , .. Ii .......
, , , ,.... ~.1
, , , ,... •.1
, ,,
........ . ~
, , , ... •.1 ... . ~
... . .
.....
.... , ,
, ,
,' .......",r
, , .... .
......... .
,
.. .
~ .. .
, , , ... •.1
, ,
, ,
.... . , , , .... •.1
. . .... .
· . ...
... . .. , ,, ,. . .'".""'01
....
,
.. .
· , , ,,
.....
..... · , , , •• •,r
,, ,,
,
"---"
.....
~ .. .
~
5.5 The Di flr action Grating 191
{a} r.~.";'-. . r-720 11$ 2(lQ1'$ JI( U STOP

. .. , .... , . .. ·1 · ., · , ... , ..... , .... ,. "'l
,
;
'Ii ,_ . .....
,,.....a. -+t,
,,I .
, I
':;
t . ~:' ' ~ ':'

. '
11 _ -27£>.0,,"
.;:." •• ~:..:
12 _ '124".,.
' . .!' '.J.._.:'..! ••• , ,-, "_'.'_":..'
111 . 2.000"" lrlll ,, 5000Hz
'
".!.!..:.~
(b) ',. !~.~ ... , ..... .... , ....

, , .. ~.?~.~ . . .
r:~'!"
i
PlGURF. 'i. 14 The observed !lpecrnlm (a) of the green line antl yellnw rlnll hlr.t of lhe
Hg sp~trom obtained with the spectrometcr of Fig. 5. 13b. (b) The yellow doublet on an
ex p:mded !>CaIe.
misalignment and other instrumental effects. Differentiating Eq. (5.37)

with 9; fixed , we obtain
(5.4()
10 our case n = I. cos (}r = 0.99 and 6.A, from the first yellow line A2 to
the green line Ag. is 6.)" = 33 nm. or 6.(} = 40.0 mrad. The time interval
between these lines as measured off Fig. 5.14a is 6.1 = )030 IJ..S, and thus
the calibration
6.8 = 39 x 10- 3 mrad/lJ..s (5.4)
in close agreement wiLh lbe direct calcu lation.
To measure the fi ne s[n.tcture of the yellow doublet the sweep speed
is increased so that the scale factor is 50 j.l.s/cm as shown in Fig. 5.14b.
:.:.:~:.:.:~
-:<-:",,:. ;..~~
.. .. ··w
.. ~.:.:.;..:. ~:~
198 5 Optics Experiments . .i!/@~@

· . ~ .... ,. ".i-.
• ... A . . . . .~
;.· :.;.:. :.:~.::t.i:.

·'~.·A.".""_~
.. ' .'~" .........Yh ~~
One can no~ re~ognize the ~esponse of individual pixels. The separatiQnU!!!!~~~
• ... of of
of the two lines IS 56 ILS; usmg Eq. (5.41) we find b.e = 2.18 wad and;<}~!~
.' '&.·A·.~" ~
A '1 - 1 8 nm .. ~:::::::;::~
U.I\. - . • . ::::::~:.::::~
:.:.:.:.~.:.~
Our result is only in modest agreement with the accepted value of b.)" ....,;(iiM~m
of our detector m this configuratron, contrIbutes an uncertamty of tS).. -i:/!~

0.42 run. Thus one must be cautious when ~sing digi~ techniques, whi~hi(ii~
often do not have the advantages of the high resolutlon of photographi¢{)$~
film or of visual observation. }>~J~~~j
........
.. . . .......
;oooI.y...:;
• ••••••• III ••
· . '".r~w.
.
·.
....... .
"'''..-.
• •"" .. .. .. ''""..."'"..
• •
.. III III..
• • • • • • ".1'.1'
,':'. ... . :.;.;",;.:.~,;.~
J
"""
~
,
5.6. FOURIER OPTICS

· '.',"
.: .:.:.:..•
.. .... ~
~
~~~
~/.
~~
.':::::::::~~:~~~
• .•••••
. . ..~~••~.J'"
. ·.••••••••
· . • ,; ..r. I'J
. .r
••• ' ••••.J"... ••
In Eq. (5.19), we showed that the amplitude of the electric field in the focaf)iff@.
plane of a lens is ~e Fouri~r transfo~ of ~e ne~-field a?IpHtude incident:)~
on the lens. We wdl now gIve a physlcal discusslOn of thIS resukand show:»~
how it can be used in practice. These considerations were first introduced<{:]:~.......... " , ~
by E. Abbe in lena, Gennany, but found much wider use as lasers became«}~~~
·1 hI
avm a e.
.'. ~.' .~~S:::::
. ::::::;;:;:x
OM
A transmission grating is arepetition of regions in space that altentatively{t@

transmit/absorb the incident wavefront; we can represent the transmission:})~~~:~
of the grating by the Usquare-waven function shown in Fig. 5.15a. We are:<)~~~~
immediately reminded of the analogous square-wave function of time that'<~~~~~~~ , ~ ,. II .. ~
has period T, and thus frequency lJ :....; 1/ T. Therefore we can assign to the :\~~~f~§
. ........ , ,.
• ~ • II .........
, . . . II ...... .
,
,
, • II . . . . . .
~ ........ ..
.........",r...
, , • II .... "'"
, , • II . . . .
, • II . . . . . .
,
. .
, • II ....
.....
. '" ...
, ~ .. II . . . .
, , • • .AI ..
, , • II . . . .
,
,
, ~
...... ........ ..
,
,•
, •
.... ..• Of .AI ..
'" ... <IIi
......
. . .......
,
, • JIll .II ..
, • III ...
, ,
~ ....
T T ,
,
,
'" '"'"
, , , '"
J
~
.... ...,...
.....
.....
...... ..
,
,,
,
•
~ . '" ..
.........
•
. II
. .... .AI. .
~ • II . .
,
,
,
,
........
•
..........
•
OJ .....
II . .
.......
, ~ • II ...
,
, ~ .. II ..
,
, , • II . .
.........
, • II .......
...
, , • II ..
'1
'.
, ,.....
,,
.1''' ••
, ,
, •• .t' •
, " ...
..... .. ..
....
....
~
· ,,
·, ,
,.., ,
...
........ ..
...
.... .•...•..
..........• ,,
, ,
,
,,,
,
.... ...
....
--
'--------~--~--
....
..... x ............
··.•...•....
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,,
(a) (b)
..
.•...•
...... .....
..... ,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,,,,
...
...
... .
........ .. ,
, ,,
, ,
,,
FIGURE 5.15 (a) Representation oftbe transmission ofa grating; the spatial spectrum COD-' ,::',:~;~~ , , .. II
tains the fundamental frequency \is :=: lid and its higber harmonics. (b) If the transmission·':,:;;:~ .. , ,
is sinusoidal, only the frequency Vs ::::: lId is present in the scattered wave. ',::;:~;
••.. , •,
, .......,
, , ,,
, ,
·,·,,.,..
..,, ... ,
,, ....,
·....,,,
, ,
, ,
,.
· ,,
·,
, ,
,• •
, ,
.....,.,,,
· ,, , .....,
.......
, ,
,
, ,"
·, ,
. -
5.6 Fourier Optics 199
grating a spalial period d and a spalia/frequency l id. Spatial frequency

is measured in cycles per unit length and has dimensions of inverse leng!b .
For instance. the. grating used in the experiment described in the previous
section has a spatial frequency of 1200 lines/mm. From circuit !beory we
know that a square pulse in time contains the fundamental frequency as
well as rugher harmonics. Si.milarly the square grating contains not only
the fundame ntal spatial frequency l id, but also its harmonics nld. This is
seen when light incident on the grating is diffracted at the angtes B. with
. ).
smBn = n"{j"
If the grating profile was sinusoidal, as in Fig. S.lSb diffraction would

occur only for n = 0 and n = l .
We can place a lens after the grating to relocate the far field into the
(back) focal plane of the lens as shown in Fig. 5.16. We will then see the
diffraction maxima. namely the Fourier transform of the. grating: we refer
to this plane as the transform plane. U the distance St from the grating to
the lens exceeds the focal length f. an image of the grating will be fanned
in the image plane located at S2. where
I I I
- +- ~- .
Sl S2 f
t
• - -
• •
" •
,
t
t
Gr!lting
..
Transform
~
Image
plane
PlGURE 5.16 Loc.1tion of the source plane. the trans rorm plane (the back rocal plane of
the lens). and the image plane.
...... _-:.-:
-
•
•
~
•
...
•
-
III
JIll . .
JIll
• • • III III ..
-"~~."'''''''''''':::.~r-;.'
-
-
•
. . ........~~
....... •
•
•
....
•
•
•
...
III
III
..
JIll . .
JIll
-'. '..•••"'~Jo:'.';.
• • • ... JIll . .
• • • III JIll
• •• - JIll . . -.
200 5 0 Ptic s Ex per i men t s

- • • ........ III .-
--'.~~
•
•
•
•
~
•
....
...." ...".."
....
• ....
III
JIll JIll
JIll
JIll
..
... ,
- ' . . . . . *.
• • - • ~ • • .11 IIIIII ....... .
• ..... JIll . . . .
• • • • III JIll _111-,
- - • • .... III ..
_ • • JII .... JIll ..
~
• . . . . . III . . . . . -.
- . . . . . III JIll.. .-
•
-• . .... -. . :_::~
.:.:.:.: . ...... ;o~
• • . . . . III . .
t2 •
•
-
,,- ..... '.% •

•
•
•
•
. . . . III JIll
..... JIll ..
- ·............
.......... ..-..r"-a ~
L1
• • • ... III ....
• • • III . .
~~
- :<-:-:.:.;.;.~ . ...... -.
· .· .. .. ...... • • • • III ..
M1 .- .- .·..................
-
.......... ...... . - • • • JIll ....
- . . . . ..... ..
· . . .............. .....
- ·.......
- ·....... ....... . ..
Laser ."
. - - - "- v - ,......
, - - ,-.JJ
Expand
-
_:·;;~~;i~~i~~~~
--..........
............ . . ..w
--
• • • • •
... .... .. III
--
-
... ... ... ..
.............
....
- - ·...........
. .. . . ..
L t - - - -...-- - - _ . . ~ - - - - - - - . . ;
......
I
I
,...,wt-- f------.~ ---- 51 -~
I
t
I
I . .·.... r •
·".......-r·m
···::::::~~~·mID.
· . . .....
...ID.
':':':.:.~~
• • • • III III •
I ____..... L ........ - - - ,
I
I
L
.,............- I -----....J M2 ......•.••• ~
.':;;;~~~~~~~~~ID.:;:-:::::~
1 I
~
· ·..........
...... ."W
I I L3 . . . . ... .• X ..... III •
.
I..
ceo
Masks Mesh
· ........
········'
«-:.:.:.: · .
. .............
.
· . . . . ..
.
'~m·~·
tw. ~
·::::~~:~~~;M~m
··... .". ..•. .-1-.-
.. :.:.:.:,~~.~
• • • ..
. III •
~mage plane Transform plane
FIGURE 5.17 Experinlental1ayout for demonstrating Fourier optics~ . .·.......". . .... . m

.. .........
· ...• r •
~......
J"rI
..
.. ···:·:·:·:···;·jooo*
. . .. •
•
•
.....
•
•
•
•
•
•
"
..... III • • •
III ..
III . . .
· . . .......
• • • .. III ..
The~efore, by altenng the pattern In the transform plane, we can mOdif.V<:~:~~

as for Instance In smoothmg out Images that contaIn nOIse or m pattefij;:>~:@.
recognition. - -<:'}:::~~m
1~~·JIIj·.·"''''' X -'
A sim~le demonstration o~Fo~er optics can be carrie~ out in the labo~;:}iii@

ratory WIth ~e s~tup shown m F~g. 5.17. !he ~aser beam IS e~p~ded and.}}!W
allowed to lilununate a mesh WIth 270 lines/m. and tranSmISSIon facto~.!:·}::~:@
~50%. Lens L3 is used to image the grating onto a CCD camera. VariOUSj)r~~m
masks are then inserted in the focal plane of the lens, the transfonn plane~:.:.(~~~~~r.
to modify the image. : ·:\<~~~W
The results are shown in Fig. 5.18. In Fig. 5.18a, no obstacle is in the {iiij]
transfonn plane. and the pattern represents the image of the mesh. Next,,>m~
a vertical slit 1~5 mm wide is placed in the transform plane, and the pat-<.:::}~:~
tern in the image plane contains horizontal stripes as shown in Fig. 5.18b.::}~
The effect of the mask is to allow passage only of components of the<}~~
wavefront that were dispersed vertically in the transfonrt plane. These com~>:'::~)~~~~
ponents carry the inforlnation about the horizontal structure of the object·.::}~~~~~~ I I •• III ..,:..:
(the mesh) and thus show horizonta11ines in the image plane. Figure 5 .18.c:i:·~:~)~~~
was obtained with a horizontal slit as the mask in the transform plane_·>.\?i~~~ I
I
I
~ ..
..... .
III • •
I ...... ..
, , I • III ... ..
, I ~ • III .. .
I I .... .
I •• ~ III
, I • III ...
I I I • III •
I I . . . . . ..
I ~ • III .. ..
I I ...... .
, I I • III .. .
I I .... .
, I ~ • III .. .
, I ~ .... .
I ~ • III .. .
I .... .
I ~ • III .. .
, I ... III •
I ~ • III .. .
I ..... .
, I • III .. .
I ~ III ... ..
I I • III .. .
I ..... .
I I • III .. .
, I , .. III •
I ~ .... .
I . . . . . .-
, • I III ... .
, I •• III .-
I ~ .....
I •• III .-
, I • III . . . .
I ~ .. III •
I I • III .. .
I ..... .-
, I • III .. .
I • ~ III .-
I I • III .. .
, I ..... .
, ~ ~ III .. .
I ~_. 111.'-.
5.7 The Faraday Eflatt 201
I"
F1GURE 5.18 Results from pl~cing Illasks in the transform plane: (a) Image of.ll !:(j llafe
mesb in !he absence nf a mask, (b) placing a vertical slit in the transform plane. (c) plac-
ing II borizontal slit in the ttansform plane, and (d) placing a pinhole in the transform
plane.
Finally Fig. 5.18d shows the result of placing a I-mm-diameter pinhole in

the transfonn plane. Now all high spatial frequencies are filtered, and the
panern in the image plane is significantly smoothed out.
Spatial filtering by using a pinhole is oflen used to "clean" laser beams
that have acquired structure due to imperfect optics, dust on components,
and other aberrations. This is analogous to using a capacitor to filter out
high-frequency noise in an electric circuit.
5.7. THE FA RADAY EFFECT
5.7.1. Discussion
As already mentioned, the Faraday effect refers to the rotation of the plane
of polarization when light propagates through certain media subject to an
axial magnetic field. It was discovered in 1845 by Faraday long before
.....·...... .....
• • • . . . . J"':.
•
····~·~-.rm
,l •
,. "'"""""' "" ..
•
.. ..""
·· ··...JI."". "
• • • • • • • • •".A~
,.
,. ".,
•
•
..... "" ...............-

•••
. . . . " ' ,AI
• •
JI
JI
...
• II' . . . .
202 5 Optics Experiments <::::::;::~~~

•
•
· . ,.••.,..
• • •
•
•
•
•
•
,.
•
,.
•
JI
•
•
""
,AI
,AI
..
'-JiI
.l":1Il
•
,I
,I
•
•
'" ...
JI ". . .
.;.;.;.;.:",,: ~~
• •• II "" . . III::
• • • JI • "'",f'
the nature of light or matter was understood. We now know that the eJec~~}J~~]
tric field of light is transversely polarized with respect to its direction of\}~~~~~~ • • • • JI "., ~ ~
propagation. z, and we can express it, in exponential notation, as ... ·<)~~3~&

........." ... ~rz.~
••• • • "'""....~JiII
• " •• !.-.. ~
E(z, t) = ~e{ Eoe-i(oJt-kz)e}.

• • •.•
.•
"'..... . -:i!r
. ."'... tI-
. . . iii_II
· " .... "' ..... tI-
~~
(5 .:::::::}~x::a:
42) · , ........ iii.,.
... .....
• • ... .J'"JI
· , ,......
~
~ ~~
~
Here ~e means to take the real part of the expression; for simplicity of)j~
notation we will omit this designation in what follows but it is a1way~\}~
implied. As usual (J) = 21l'v and k - 21C Jl. e is the polarization vector/}~~~~W
which can be expressed in terms of two unit vectors (since e is restricted»~~~~~
to the x~ y plane). We can choose linearly polarized unit vectors . ::):}~~
............ ·
.',
....
......
. ,........
···
..~ ~
::::
. "
,,
",~
..
. .
.....
.. .
. . A»
. ' ,, ""
(5 .. 43) ·::~:::::~~~~
.......... . '
,
,
. . . . . ..01 ..
.... iii .. .
,
......:..:
...... •
,
' ", , ..
, , .... III ... ~
. . . ..001 ..
.. III . . . . JI!
•
, ,
, '," .01 .....~.-,;
~ ........
...... ...
, .. .. 01 ..
or circularly polarized unit vectors •
.',
' , ' , •••• 11.~
~
,
......... ~ ~
".. ""*
' :-:.:.:~
. ',' ..........
...
' .. .. 01 ..
~
eR ." Ux + iu y, eL = Ux - iuy. (5444}}~~~~~~&

......
JJ%
. ,
", . 1
"
.. 1
.. 01.... . ._.1
, ' ,•••........J
, .... 01
~
. If we now ~x~ne the ~lectric field at a fixed position z, in the case ofUj~
clfcular polanzation we wIll have the two components }t~~r
, , .... ....... 01 ..~
, .. JI '" II
......
= Eo[coswtux + sinwtuy1
, .... II III III
· ", ~
, .. JI""".,J,
:.'""1
.. II
ER ' , . . . . JI . . .
".JI"~
,
,
.. JI . . III
. .... . JI II IIIII ~
~
jo\
, , . II III':':
.... II III
, .. JI ....
EL =- Eo [cos wtux - sin rotu y]. (5.45) <:}~ ..

".,r-... JI. III III.JJ
.
,',
,
...........
..
, ..... -J
',,/
.. II
, , ... .".r".
,', ........ .I
These were obtained by introducing Eqs. (5.44) into Eq. (5.42). The fields. <~~~~~a
rotate in the transverse plane~ in the first case according to the right-hand :>~~~~~
rule (with the thumb along the direction of propagation), in the second \t~~~
case according to the left hand. This is shown in Fig. 5.19 where we use a ,,}~~~~~
,',~.JI ...... ',,/
, ..........JIIIj,,/
',~
, ,~
..........
.......
,,/
,,/
,
, ...... ..
, . . . III •
~ .. III"
, ......
~ ~ • II
.......-"
, , • • .II "
,
, ~, • • ~
.II "
, " ~
, ,
, ,, ,
,'~
~
.....
••••.a,,/
.... ." • III
. . . III ~
, , • • .oil •
~ . . . III
, • • .oil •
, ~ . . . III
, . . . III •
, ~ • • III
, ,
,.. ~
.......
.....
.... • • III
,, • • III
,
,
, , .....
... ...
• • III
,', ........!
! .... .
, , . '" .
.... ..
, "..t ...
, , • Ii •
, • .iii ..oi •
,
,
,
,,
,
.....
•
. ....... ..
• Ii ..
....
. . . . 01
......... .
,
, ,
, ,,
,
.....
.......
, ', ..
. .
,
..
J
, ,
,',
,,..
.......
......
...
. .
...... .....
, , •• 01
, ,
,
, ...
,
.....
"
, ,,
•• 01
........ ......
, , "" ""
, ,
, , ... ""
.....
............ .... .
,, ,
,,
, ,
,
"" ~
.',' ,'....
......
, ,
eY , ,
... '.1
....
......
,
,~ ~
, ,
,
,~ .... ..
FIGURE 5.19 The right-handed coordinate system used to define right- and left-circular<i:~:~~~
.............
.... ,
,,,
polarization. . . ..
......
..... ...... , ,
,,
,,,
,
~
, ,
,
,,
...... .
..... ......
,
, ,
,
..... ...
.......
, ,
, ... ..
, .. ....
,
,.... ..... .... .
,
,
...
, , ...... ... .
.... .
,,
,
,,
.......... ..
.........
,
, ,, , .. 001 ..
, ..... ..
, , ... 001
, .. • 001
, ,
, , ......
.....
, ....
, .....
, , • 001
, .....
,
, , • 001
, , ......
....
, , .. 001
, • 001 •
5.7 The Faraday Effect 203
right~banded coordinate system. Note that we can write Eqs. (5.45) as
EL == Ex - i Ey (5.46)
and by solving
(5.47)
The Faraday effect arises because in certain materials the application

of a magnetic field resuhs in different refractive indices for the right and
len circularly polarized light propagating along the direction of the field.
Materials that have a different refractive index; for fWO given polarization
orientations are called birefringent. The birefringence is natural in certain
crystals or can be induced by the application of an electric field (Pockels
effect),
The physical interpretation of the Faraday effect is related 10 the shift of
the atomic energy levels when an external magnetic field is applied. This
is tbe Zeeman effecI, which is discussed in some detail in the roUowing
chapter. Wllen the light propagates along the axis of the field [he right
polarized light can excite only a particular sel of sublevels (6.m == +1,
where m is the magnetic quantum number) and conversely for the left
polarized light (8m = - I) , These levels have different ex;cilation energy
and this results in different ref.ractive indices, nR and nL. For more details
the reader should consull the references cited at the end of the chapter.
We know that the velocity of propagation of the wave, the phase velocity,
is given by c' = C/lI;!bUS the phase advance in a length L of material is
21r 2Jrv 2"11

e ==kL = - L = - L = -nL,
A c' C
(5.48)
where the frequency \.! of the light is fixed and n is the refractive index of the
material. Thus the right and left polarized light will acquire different phases.
lfthe incident light was linearly polarized when entering the material, say
along x, ER and EL wouJd have the same phase (see Eq. (S.47)). However,
upon exiting the materiaJ their relative phase would be shifted and the light,
while slilllinearly polarized, would also contain a small Ey component.
Namely it will have rOlated by an angle
I ~v
¢ = -2 (e. -Bd = -
c
L(nR - nL)· (5.49)
- '.~.. ~-.~~-~~~
'.r~
..... • •• III ......
·- ·.................
...........
...... ....
• ~ • III .. ~~:/..~
I11III
..
~
r ...
·....
_ • ~ • III . . . .- j
-·
........
. . ..........
..... ....~~
~
- . . ...... ..
· .........~~~~~
......•• ..
~
~.
- ............
204 5 0 ptics Exp e rim ents · ........... ..
'
•
•
~
•
~
••
... • .. .AI
III ....
~
--':':':':~:'m'
. .......
. ...... ...
···......... ..
- ...... . . ...
··........
-
. ..... . ...
.
•
...
. . . . . . .AI
III . . . . ,. . . . . . .~
- ... . . .. ..
- .:.:.:.:~:.,~
,
·:::::::fil
·.. . .. ..
-
• JI
.. ......... .
.. ... ... ..
- ··..........
...... . . ..
............ :
.. -->::::::::.~
~-- .. --¢ >}:=~~cx::
~:::::;;:;;:~~~
· ........... ~
--·':':'~':~:".r~
. .. ......... ..
- . .. ........
~ .. ~
- ............ .
... '.'
""-...........
- ' ........ "ma:.t.
·. m
.......'":m ~
>'··.:.::. ..:~~~;~M
· . .. :-:
.... .. '" ..
........ ' ..
•
.. '"
.. • • • I
~
ER and EL rotate by different amounts, the plane of linear polanzation for E = ER + EL}::::~~~.. m
rotates away from the x axis by an angle ¢ = (Ba - f1L)/2. . ···.::>:~~~~~m
........~....~
.·........
·............ ;
· ...... .
TABLE 5.1 Verdet Constant for Distilled Water . ::::?~~:.:~;~m
m
... .o .....
• • i i II i • lis ii; i!
•
· ...::::=:;~~~~m~~
.......%
...........m.
l(nm) Cv (radfI'..m) - · ..........
.;.=-:.:~.. .~'rI' m.
Sa It 11= ; : i'S:
··::::)~~*i
.... ~~
590 3481 (Na D-lines) · .::::::::~~
.. ........~ ' '
600 3,,66
800 2.04 - , ..... .
1000 1.28
:'::::::;;:"w.
........
1250 0.84 --'~: ,::::::::"m~
• II
,
" i -.
I . ...........~
:: :~:::::;~%~
· ,. . .-m-
• , . . . . . .if :---...-.::
-" ., .....~'''':«
-: :~:::::=:0
to the external magnetic field, B, so that we can write . }>~:i

- :.~.:.:~:.~
: :'~::::::~:aa
c/>=Cv BL , (5 . 50) ::;:::;:;::x
, I I . . . . . . • ........ ~
where Cv is called the Verdet constant. We expect Cv to be a function of· :)t~~~

wavelength, as well as of the medium. Values for distilled water at various ::\~}~~
.............:--: ,
1 th 2 1· d' ~ hI 5 1
wave eng s are lste In La e . . '.~""~~:=::
. }f~~~t
" ! ....
, ..........:~~
·.·A ~/.
,'':,...·:·:·........t'·X
,
"'
........... ..:::,. ' ,,
.. .... .
5.7.2. Procedure and Analysis ,',,.... ··X·
.. -,r • •
,..,.
"
,• • 01.1.
........
,
· · ",··· .."".ax··
,.......».
,':':.~.: .......... .... .:
, ,
,,
' , ,. . . .... "" .

Ii. •
It is difficult to generate axial magnetic fields in the kilogauss range~ :::')?~

Instead, a small but oscillating magnetic field will be used. The size of ,,:' \~~~~@
....%
.., ,,~
,
' •....
• II .. :.:
• Jt a -: <.:. :.,tI.:::
....---
2Dala from E. U. Condon and H. Odisbaw (Eds.), Handbook of Physics, second ed..}~
McGraw-HilL New York., 1967. : :}~~:::
....... ..
.....'" ...
'" .....
, ',
,
",.~
.... . ...
, , ~
.',',.. ...
...•
, ,
, ,,
X;. ~
• ' , ......Jl'M....
:,<-:"':~.~
.....
'" .
,j.-.
, .... :.:
, ......
"
'"
, . , ..---:.:
'
. . . . . ,;oj
~:
....
, ...
.....
'
. .
,
. . . . .Ii
' , .....
~:.
, ,
"
','.' '" . "':.:
'
,
.. .
",:.:·~·~xx
....
, ,
"
, ..... . . ,~
~
5.7 The Faraday Effect 205
Unearty
polarized Analyzer
HeNe laser Solenoid
r-l-------;;;;;--F8~s=-:.:::.:ampl-=----e
~~ser
+-_ ~ Pholodlode
beam
t: Output voltage on
f: Solenoid coaxial cable to
#. driving circuit ~ ~~~
:~:> L kI
~~[:r. FIGURE 5.21 Experimental setup used for the Faraday effec~ :e-;holodiOde output
~ ~:~~~~~~~~~:::~o::::::~::::::::i~ : ~ :
..,;.!.:.•.•:•.••..
f:::::-
W·
of the noise, by using lock-in detection.
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5.2]. The source of polarized
light is a HeNe laser. The magnetic field is supplied by a 1026-tum solenoid
:t:: driven by the amplified signal of a waveform generator, in series with a
:~r
I ilie
monitor resistor. After passing through the sample and polarization ana-
i{ lyzing filter, the light is detected in a photodiode. The signal is measured
by ou~ut voltage of the ;;::o:::~;::, given hy
(5.51 )
where ¢ is the angle of the linear polarization with respect to the analyzer
axis. We are interested in d¢ / dt and in this case the sensitivity is maximized
':.1::·:.•:.•..•.. by "bi;;;;; the :;l:~er at :o¢ 4~O. where ¢d: ¢o ~ ¢(t). Note that
=0
-dt- = -dt -d¢ = --10S102¢::::::

dt
- - losm2¢0.
dt
(5.52)
We can calibrate the polarization analyzer by recording the photodiode

voltage as a function of the analyzer angle. The result is shown in Fig. 5.22
and exhibits the cos 2 ¢ dependence ofEq. (5.51). The maximum sensitivity
dVD/d¢ is found near ¢ = 180 0 and as predicted by Eq. (5.52) equals
V~, namely dVD/dt/J :::::: O.4V/rad.
The magnetic field is provided by the 1026-turn solenoid coil around
the sample, driven by a sinusoidally varying ClllTent. The current is pro-
vided by an HP3311A waveform generator (sine wave, 600 Q output)
amplified by a Bogen MU10 monaural audio amplifier. The driver setup
-..... ~.-~-.-!X~
-
...... •
•
•
JI
~
..
•
~
III . .
••
J"".J
· ...... -. . ..
• . . . . . III.. 1.01
• • • III.. ..-
• ..... III . . ~
• • JI ... .....
h ..
-: ·::::=~:::~~~~
• " • III ..
....... ..
....
206 5 Optics Expedments · ..... !X
-• • .. .JI .. . .
~ ~
~
··.... .. . . ....
_ • • . JI
..... .. .JIII.......
• JI ........
.... ....
~
-
. ... ... .
.... ~
..........
-
- ••
-
..
..
.. ........
....
....
'.oil
.. III .... .. III
~
....
• ... - 'III. ..
• • .. .. ...... I J
• - ... III .... lilt
•
· .......... ;..:
..........
•
. . . . . . ......-..J ....
~
JII ... ..
400~~------~.--------~.--------~.----~ -... • . . . . . . . . . . . l1li

· ....... ....
- . . ........ ..
- - - ...........
'J,. -." ... ...... ' ..
. ........ ...
• . . . . . . . . . . . . jill
• • • • •
· - ..........
. ....... .... .
· ........... ..
•
•
•
..
..
.. ..
........ .III
.JII . .
•
• ... .lI .. ..
350 ,.. • ..
•
.lI
'III. . . J
........
'III. . . . . . .
•
• • .. ... 'III. . . ,
- • .. .. 'III. .... 'III
• • .. .lI 'III. . .
· .............
- ..... '111..11"
•
• • .. .lI 'III. .. _
- • .. .. 'III. .. II
• • .. .lI .... ..
- • .. • 'III. .... ....
· . . .... . .
•
- • .. . . . . . . 1111
- - • .. . . . . . . III
:> - - ......... ..
• . . . . . . . . Jill
•
- • • ... III ..
300 '"' - - . . ...... ..

- • .. ...... I
·- .. .. .....
• ...... ..
·- ··...,.........
•
...
........ I
-- 250
E
• • • ...... I
..... ..
................
· . . ... . ....
•
• , • .II ... .
CD f- •
·. ........
-
.... . ...
"
-
•
,
~
.......
II .. ..
III
ar •
~
·
· .· .....
. . . . .... • ~ ....... II1II
,
~
g • · ·. .... . . ...
·,
• • " ...............1
•
,~ ~
~
.....
.....
.... ,
I
-
• I .II • II
~
- ' • • 01.
200 '"' "'.0101·.

"'~.0I ..
••
• , . . . . . . . oi
m '~.0I0101
,
,
01 •
•
, •
• 01 ..
•
, , • • "·01
"0 "
.....
• • 01 ..
.-
' • .tol ..
,
0
•
" • • 01 ..
, , • 01 "" '
·" .. 01.
"0 150 ~ •
•
,
, • .t ... '
• • 01 ..
0
•
,
· ,, .........
, . . . 01,
.....
, • 01 •
'0 ...
. . . 01 •
....."".
, , • .I •
·. . , ,
•
, • • 01.
.r::: ,
·· ,
..... ..
.. . ,
0.. 100 i- .. . .. .
.... •
,, "
,
,
,
•
•
.I •
01 ...
· · .......
• •
• • .. • .. 01
",
....
··· ....
. . "" . .
• .. • 01 ..
,, " ,
,
· .. . ""...
•
, " • 01 ..
• , ... J •
, ,
, "
- . .. . , • 01 ""
50 f- • ' . . . 0101
,
•
• , • J·oI
.... ,
,
,
,
..
•
01 ..
01 ..
• ··
,
,
•
·, ," . "" .,
'" , '
,
• ' .I""•
, , " • 01 ...
,
...
•
... .I
01 ..
J ,
o ". J
,
, ",
,
,
... •
•
•
01 ..
•
J
J
•
150 200 250 300 , , "

".0101
.....
,
.I ""
...
,
, , ,.....
, ' . J 01
, .. .I ""
,
, • 01 ..
Analyzer angle (degrees)

, , ... 01
, • 01 ..
• .. • J
. ...r...
, .. .I ..
, , , • '" .I ..,
,
,
. .. .I
FIGURE 5.22 Sample polarization calibration data. The plot shows the full range of .::}~~
...."" , , ,•
angles. ....... , ,
,,,,
........
.I ..
,
,
, ',
, ..
,
,
,
.....
, ...
... ,
.I
.I
..
..
,
, , , • . . .I..•
, .... .
· ...
, , . . ..
, , ..... ..
, .. :Ii ..
•• ••
• A
......
, • , ••
• ••
, • ••, ...
is shown in Fig. 5.23. The wave generator provides the input to the audio :}~ . ..... , ,
~
amplifier, and the output loops through the solenoid coil \vith a high-power .):~ • •
resistor Rcoil in series. The current and thus the magnetic field are deter- ';').. , • •
mined by measuring the voltage drop across this resistor. Do not grozmd :i:~:'. , ,
either side ofthe arnplifie r output signal. Using clip leads on a coaxial cable :)'. ,
, ,
measure the voltage Veol} across Rcoil on an oscilloscope. The shape should : '; ,
•
be a good sine wave with no DC offset and amplitude on the order of 10 V,:: ,,
peak to peak. This is achieved by adjusting the amplitude of the HP3311 A : ,
and the amplification (i.e., "volume") of the audio amplifier appropriately. :

It may be necessary to adjust the distortion on the amplifier so that the '
shape is alright.
The photodiode output is now connected to the other channel of the
oscilloscope. The scope trigger is set to fire on coil voltage, and both chan-
nels are viewed simultaneously. If the channel on which Vn is measured
is DC-coupled, one sees a large DC level, corresponding to the mean light
intensity on the photodiode. (This DC level should agree with what was
measured with the DMM,,) The Faraday effect, on the other hand~ shows
up as a small oscillation on top of this DC level, in time with the Vcou. One
is just able to see this small oscillation if the channel sensitivity is set to
I
5,7 The Faraday Effect
To oscll109C:ope
(should be lOV slna WElIIS)
~::-- Solenoid
wj:~:: I illlllllllllllll(
I
VR:1V- l L Bogen MU10
audio amplifier
>
Sine wave
Output
600 Ohm oul
Inpul (connections at
I WFGen
HP3311A I
C"'" rear panel)
~~l: '
;t:::.
L Tee 011 to 1ocIc-ln reference
;:::::::- FIGURE S.23 The driver circuit u~d to generate the oscillating magnetic field rOT
tll;; measW"t;rneat of the Faraday effect.
i\::: its lowest scale and AC-coupled to the input so that the large DC level is
~:::- removed. Confirm thai the amplitude of these small oscillations move up
~.] .f or down with the amplitude of VcoiJ, wtrich is best adjusted by changing
. the amplifier gain. Confirm also that the oscillations disappear if the pho-
.-' - lodiode is blocked from the laser. In fact, the amplitude of the oscillations
~- should change (and the phase reverse) as the analyzer is rotated .
.:••.•.•.£~~~:}~~~7;;1~>:=£~1~~a~:,~;j~~~~~{~;~£:l~
. angle 6¢1 are related to the change.<i in magnetic field t::. B through
.;:.:-.••• and fTom the calibraoo::~c~: c~:ertL~:::'a cbange;n PhotO::~

volcagc
t::.. VDthrough
B = Il-OicoiJN / L solenoid (5.55)

· ........
·· ...•
...... --0-
..
. ...... .. -
···...........
........... ..,
•
..............
•• III III .. ..
,
•
, . ,. ....... ..
· ........ .
•
• •
••
• III
III .. ..
III ..
• • • III ..
208 5 0 pt i c s Exp e ri men ts . .}:::;;~::::~

......... ..""'......
, .......................t
" ,,/'
·...·..........
••• ,.,O •• "/" "''''......
,
,
•
•
......
. ....... ..
. . .. •
•
•
•
..II
..II
..
..
",~
..
..
when a current icoil passes through the coiL By combining Eqs. (5.53.',~·<~~~~~:?:
(5.55), one obtains an expression for the Verdet constant Cv in terms "S.~~~~~~~~
VD, Vcoib and other quantities that you know or can measure separately/<~~~~~~~
Consistent definitions should be used for Vcoil and for Vo. That is, if V~&~1L .,
is the amplitude of the sine wave, we make sure to do the same for VD- .)t~~~~?
·........,.. ....-
,
,
,
•
•
•
•
•
,t
•
•
,l
•
•
......
•
,..•
..II
III ..
..
If ..
II'
_ _: ; . - :
. · ....... ., .
, • • • • • • JI '" fill. / ' .I'
• • • • If ..
..................
III ~~
.::::::~:::::::
• 1J .....
5.7.3. Results Using the Lock-In ..................

• • • .. II .. ..
··......
......... .
• • • • II iii
• • • • II . . .
• • • .. II ..
• • • II .. : .
than with the oscilloscope. Furthermore, the lock--in will remove any noi~:~:~~~.:_.
an explanation of lock-in detection. . >~~~~~~~

The lock-in is a PARC Model 120 with a fixed reference frequency of~~~~~~
~ 100 Hz. It is best used by defining the reference wave extemally~ but.lf~~~~~:m.::..:•
needs to be close to 100 Hz so that the internal circuit responds correctl~{i~~~~f"": ;-.
The lock-in mode dial is set to "SEL.EXT.'" and the HP3311A to a frequen¢lf~~~~~
near 100 Hz; using a BNC Tee connector the reference input is applied to tfj~~~~~~
. . . ..
, ...
lock-in, while the signal is on the way to the audio amplifier~ This assur~:~r~~
us that we are using a reference signal with precisely the same frequency"~}~~· .. . .... ....
the Faraday effect signal in VD- The photodiode output should be corulecte&/~~ . . ..... . . ·• A • • .... II
to the lock-in input. -:~}?~:

· . . ......
One still needs to tune the phase of the lock-in amplifier so as to hav:e>~: . . . .. · '"
maximum sensitivity to the oscillating Vn signal. There are a few ways t~~~} .. . . ·
do this, but the most instructive is to use the oscilloscope~ . >~<:i

·......... . · ·· .·............. . .. '"
. . .....
1. With the oscilloscope still triggered on the Vcoil signal, use the oth~~\~~
. . .... ·
channel to view the "monitor out" port of the lock-in, with the switch S~(~{;
constant is set to a value much smaller than (100 Hz)-l (1 ms ~~~

will do)~/}--w
. . . '" '"
then you should just get the sine wave folded with the reference signalt.~.:~ .:~.:~~:~
oscillating between ±1. That is, it should look pretty much like Fig. 3.3'1\:/'
2. Adjust the phase knob so that it looks like Fig. 3.37, that is, symmetri~~~)
trace should look like Fig. 3.38. On the other band, it should change si~:}rm
0
if you flip by 180 • :-<)~:::$ , .. ~
'::@~
:' :.:.: :::~
""·· ·. m ...
)):.:~.~.~
..
.....
m
, .... .01_
. , ......, ,, , .
...... .....
. ' ,',.111 '"
',' ........ 'l"J'
~
I DMM. muse mews on ili.lock It is
ilie -UL : o~: yF~ ~:::i:::: blO:
I.,.i.:•. •:. . .•
~:
~~~::V:il:: :::::::d:.~:ili:::i:~.:~~:o:os::::o:Ot::::
. the waveform generator settings anymore. since it is now serving a dual
iC role as both amplifier input and lock-in reference.) Make a table of VD as
::::::::
~···measured with the lock-in and Veoi!. Realize that the value OfVD provided
~.r. ~.:~. : .: • by the lock-in is the RMS value, i.e., 1/../2 rimes the amplitude. Plot VD
~ versus Vcoil and make sure you get a straight line through O. Either fit to
I
~?
~~>
find the slope or average your values of VD/ VeoH to determine the Verdet
constant with an uncertainty estimate.
Th:~:~~~::~.:ioa::c!n;~.;~~~::ig. 5.24 for awarer srunpl..
~F L solenoid = 0.265 m
~r L sample = 0.265 m.
~~~~~:
~)\
.:.-:.:-
0.8 , - - - - . . - - - - - , - - - - r - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - ,
;::::
0.7
~~~>
.:-:.:<
~ 0.6
11'( CIl
~ 0.5
:~:::
~:::: : ~
~
~::::" 0.4
~~~:~:: ~
~~? .,~ 0.3
~::::' "'"
<l
:~:> ..9 0.2
~~~( .
:'::::." 0.1
:.:::::>
~~V
~::::
o~----~----~----~----~----~----~
o 2 468 10 12
~~~~. Voltage across resistor (V)
~~:::-
~~~~~~. FIGURE 5.24 Results on the Faraday rotation angle as a function of magnetic field,
W obtained by a student.
~::::
r?
~::
~jj.:
.,." .....
" . »....
, -' .... "£111
,. ". ~
· ·....."...
. Z
· .. ......
• ,. If ...
,. ,. . ...
"
.... .... ..
" • • .... =-r. • III
,.,.
,.
Ill
",.
...
~
:-
• • III ... ....

• ,J ... ..
Z
5 Opt;cs Experiments ···.........
•
..II ... : : ; . •
210 ....
•
. .... ..X
• • • III ,J . .
III. . .II. .
.........
• ,J ...... ..
~
.··., .......
• ........ ,"".14
.........
•
. . ..t" '
• ..II . . . .~. .
~
.j
~
· ·.......
· ..............
•
. .. . . • • ,...
. . . . III
~
r-'.J
• • • . . . III II1II
We first calculate the magnetic field as a function of Vcoil ... . . . .Ill:;::

• ,J ........ ,
• , I . "" .... ..
'l
..
..
"-
•
..·........
•
•
:-:
. . . . . . III
:...:
• • ..
....
· · ........ ...... .. :
· ·........
• • • • ..... 1Ii-
.. . . ..
. .
o ...... :...:
· . . ........'",..
...... .
·
Vcoil N -4
= Veoil X
• • .. ..... oil ,
· .. .. ...... .. • . . . . III ..
B = /LO' • .- . s. (9.18 x 10 ) T. ..
........ . . .. ...
··.. .........
. .............." =-'.:..:
~ .. Ill . . . . . .J
Rcoil L solenoid
.'.
· ' ..................... -
• • • • ' . II .. ..... .t
•
· ...... .
• • • • • • It..JIIl. .' "
,
. . . . .AI ..
Next we use the relation of the optical rotation to VD, which in this case wa~)l~j~~
·.·'' '.·.·A..' '
' . ' , • ......411,,/
• . , ' • • • • JIi. . .J
</J = VD/ (0.098) rads. .,<{:~~

· ..... .
, . . . . III
'.' ," ......•

• , ,. 01 "'" . .
• ) II
, .I ...
The measured values (see Fig. 5.24) are

• • ' , ' . . . . .,JA• •
•• ', ...........rI/
, .. '" .
'. ,'. ·.oJ...• rJI
,' ,
,
......"" ....
... '" . . .01
~
, . '" .
, , • .01 "" 111
, , .01 '" . -
= 5 ."".
, , . . . . 101
, • • oJ. •
(647 ± 0.52) x 10- .

, •
..
.01 "" •
VD/ VeoH ,
, , ,..
, •
.... "'''""......
, •
.01 .. II
.01 "" II1II
t
','
.. "" .
' , • • • ,
,
........'"
.........
,',.~
'
.....
"
Thus we find for the Verdet constant ,

,
, , ... .
,
,
..... .. .
,....
,
,
,
•
, .01 ......
• • • 'II
iOI "" .01
....
• .01 "" ..
,
,
, , ... .
, .. ""
,
.
1> 1 VD. .. 1 ,, ' ........ .
,' ..... oJ...,J.
Cv == -" -' ~
_ r_ _ _
' __
-:-=---_ _• __
.~ __
~ , ," ... oJ...", , ' ••• .oIoJ...""
= -
B L sample L sample Vcoil (9.8 x 10--2)(9.18 x 10-4) ",:'i:)~~~ ,
,
,
,
....
... ..
, .01 "" ..
• oJ. ..
.... .
,
, ,
, .. iOI oJ. •
--: 2.80 ± 0.2 radJT-m.

, , • iOI •
,
, ' ,. oJ. oJ. ....
,
,,, .... • oJ. •
. .."".'".
, ', ... .oIoJ.·rJI
.......
, , .. ""Ji
, ,,
, • • ..wi
From Table 5.1, extrapolating to A = 633 nm~ we would expect .ev '~)f~fi~
3.2 radIT-m. The difference could be accounted for in part by the short :>~;~
."" . , ,
length of the solenoid~ which results in a weaker field than what we}}~ , • .01 ..
calculate. :<::~:
, .. ..,
, ...
.....
, , , ...
.... ~
~
, ...
, ........ ..
~
, ,,.. .......
, , ,....
.
, , ...
.
, ,...
~ ~
, , ....
.
~
, ,...
~
, , .. ... ~
5.8. BERRY'S PHASE ,•, ..••

~
~
• ..
~
, ,,..
~
•
, ,.. ..
~
, , ..
~
.. ,
~
~
We will demonstrate this effect by the rotation of the polarization vector ':'\~
, ..
of a beam of light, as in the Faraday effect, but in the present case the light :,:'.) , ~
propagates in a vacuum. The reason for the rotation of the polarization, :{'
is that the propagation vector of the light, the k vector, perfonns a closed .} • •
circuit around its direction of propagation. This is shown in Fig . 5.25 where :,:': •
light propagates from point A to point B. In part (a) of the figure the k vector ) ,
describes a helix on its way, namely a closed loop in the transverse plane~, :i
therefore the polarization rotates. In examples (b) and (c) the initial and. ,; ,
final values of k are the same as in example (a) but there is no looping :; •
around the direction of propagation; therefore the polarization does not ,: ,
rotate. We speak of a "topological" change in phase because the effect :

depends on the path followed while the initial and final points (in phase, "
space) are the same.
This effect was first predicted by M. V. Berry in his 1984 paper (see
Section 5.9). He analyzed the behavior of a quantum mechanical wave,
IF,'
W:~
5.8 Barry's Phase
:::;::::
'"
I
V
,f;:·
.
~:::
~];:,
k..
~ '
,0,
A
...
' • • --- • B
• '.,.
~t
~:.,
,<, '.,. ,_
J? A B
~ir f1GURE 5.25 Topology of !he optical fiber between A and B with k6DaI = kinitiaJ :
I:: ' (a) belical windmg, (b) direct (suaigblline path). and (c) ci!cular path 011 a flat surface.
:::;:::"
r.~).r.:. function when 3 parameter on which the wave function depends is slowly
c. varied over a closed circuit. He showed that the wave function can acquire
~t :'
~:: :.: ao extra pha~e factor even thougb the final stace ;$ identical to the initial
~H state. It was soon realized that the same results should al so hold for the
~? electric field (the wave function) of a beam of lighl Thus. the extr.t phase
?"): appears in classical as well as quantum-mechanical systems. In fact the
1\1:;· ~r:~~t~~ ~~ ~~~:t~~~!::~~~~~ ~~a~~hm-Aharonov effect can be
t :. When the k veClOr of light is transponed through a closed circuit sub·
lending a solid angle An at tbe origin. the right polarized ligbt acquires a
~. '.
~:':
i\ phase factor
(5.56)
..,
;::~::-. whereas thc left polaJized light acquirc.s a phase faclor
ELf = e- iAOEu (5.57)
( where i and / refer to the initial and final stale. This is a consequence
\f of MaxweU's equations. which require that the k vector and the two
~" polarization vectors always form an orthogonal triad .
.:'
To become convinced about this statement we show in Fig. 5.26 the unit
'.i::,:•. ,:
sphere on which we can indicate the djrecrions of k , el, and ~. Suppose

;:-: we start from point A on the sphere and parallel b'ansport the triad to point
:.:. B along me
equator. We then parallel transport it to point C along a great
\):: circle and return to powt A by the corresponding great circle. AI each point
/.
:.'.
. ............
"'-» ·• til AI
• •
'" •
·· ........
• oil MIl
........
• • "
• . . . . . til ..
• • " '" ,.. MIl ..
• • " • oil MIl ..

• ••• III JIll . .
• • • • III JIll wi
• . . . . . JIll . .
• ,I • "" oil . . . .
· . . ,.. .. ..
• • • .. JIll . .
• • • • oil JIll
• • • • • til til ..
212 •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
,I
,I
•
•
•
•
•
,..
,..
,..
oil
,..
JIll . .
III JIll . .
oil Jill ,
"" JIll . .
oil AI
• • • • III ..
• • • ... oil AI ..
• • • ,.. JIll ,..
• • • • oil AI
• If ..
,J • ,..
• • • • III .. ..
• • 11 • ,.. .. ..
• • ,I • III . . .
• • • • ,.. If ..
. . . .. ..
• • ,I ,.. .. .. ..
• • • ,.. If ..
· •
• • • • III '" ..
• 11 ,..
,.. '"
'" JIll . .
• • ,I • ,.. III A
• • • • • • III JIll
k •
•
•
•••
•
•
•
•
•
•
,I
•
"
• ... .. A ..
•
•
,..
•
,..
•
If
'" JIll . .
III "'"
...
III . .
A
....... ..
• ,I •• JIll III
• • • • If ..
· • • • ,. III . . . .
• • • ,. III "'"
• • • • If . . . .
• • • ,. III Ai
· . . . "" '" ...

• ' ' ' ' If . . . .
• •••• III "'"
· . . . '" ...
• • • • III II ..
• •• ... '" II II:
;I' •
•
•
•
•
,t
•
""
...
'"
II II:
.. ..
• • • • ... JII II:
,/ •
•
•
11
•
•
•
,t
•
""
•
Jt
""
... JII III

...
...
..
•••• ,JIIf"
/ • • 11 • III II
· . . ........ ..
• • • • III ..
I •
•
•
11
•
11
•
11
.....
•
• II
II III
III .. II
.... . .
• • • III ...
I
·.:.:.:",,:.~. ~
8, I •
•
•
•
11
•
11
11
•
11
...
. . . . ..
'" II ...
. . . . ..
II ..
r
• • • ... II ..
k •
· .....",. I I . . ..
~i
.... '::::::::~~~
/ : }~{~~~m
,/
I ....··>:·:·:~·fi~
.. '" .---
·....
.-:-:.:.:.:.:@. ~
...." " / :::{:am::~m

.'....... ' .."...
......... . . . ... ::::::.r....:
..... .... ~
.... ,
~ . . ~A . . .--.
••••
~
. . . . . . . . . . . .: . - . . . :
~.
-- - . • • • • ,t'.~
FIGURE 5.26 Parallel transport of the triad of orthogonal vectors k, el, tl2, along' '~it)1
equator and two great ciTcles. Note that k returns to its initial position but el and tl2, are})~
0
rotated by 90 • The solid angle enclosed by the path is 90° . «:~:~~.
· :<.;-:.;"~ ..:=~
. , • ......:.-~ • . . . . .ell
~..,I.
. · ::. :~::~.:~:.:.r-"'
. ,
· .,' ".. ,~~
, ..........
. .......:--...:
we have shown the orientation of the triad, and it is evident that upon retuni)!:!~
to A. the k vector has not change~ but the e1 and e2 polarization vectors)W~ii~
have been rotated by 90°. The solid angle subtended by the patb that we/~ii~
=.
fonowed is 1/8 of 411" or TC /2 90,D equ~ to t?e ~bserved ro~tion of el. ez·. »)i~
Let us now assume that the IncIdent light IS hnearly polanzed along the <{:~!
· F E
X axIS. rom q. (5 .47) ·
we can wn et '....
\}~
~~~*-
,I.. •••......
I . . . . ..
~:--.:
I I • ... ..
Ein = Ex = 1
-2 (ER + EL). : \j~]
"x'.J" I
I~."'''
I
~~
I
~
......
....
...
:--.:
I • ... ..
After completing the circuit, we will have according to Eqs. (5.56) and :)(~~?:
..........:.-,:. ,
~~»
(5 ·57) ': ::~:~:;:a:

....
.... ,. I
,
.... _ .. ..
.... .
,.
. ....... .
....
I
I
,
,
,
...
......
.......
_ ..
1IIIi ..
..
..
, ,
,
I
I
.....
.....
.....
....... ...
..
..
I ...... ..
, . . . III! ..
I .... ..
, . . . . . oil
'
,
......
I
...... ....
, . . . . iii
I .....
.....
..
..
However, this corresponds to linearly polarized light at an angle

~
,...
I ..... ..
.. .
~
·~x
........
, .... .
~
,.., ....
~
....
.....
..
.... ... I11III
I
,,
....
~
..... .. ..
(5.58)
.> .... ..
I ...... ..
I .... ..
I . . . . . ..
.> . . . ..
I ~ ..... ..
I
,
I
~
....
.... ...
...
•
..
II II
, 1M"
. ". .
, .. ..
·............. .
,
' ,M." ... ...
J . . .. .
with respect to the x axis. The argument is exactly the same as that used in ,
,
,' ~
, .... J"". ....... . .. .
,
,
........
.. ....
Fig. 5.20. ....................... ...
,
, .. Ill ... .
,
, .. Ill .. .
, ,
, ,
, , ...." . ...
To carry out the experiment we must find a way to adiabatically change ..........." . ...... , ,
, ,
,
.......
••...
,
,
the orientation of the k vector. This can be done most conveniently by ........". ...... ,
,•
, , ,, .I ..
,
, ,
,
injecting the light into an optical fiber and then laying out the fiber on the ':J@
desired path. One must use a single-mode fiber in order to preserve the ,,\~~~~
polarization of the light and the path must be continuous (i.e., no kinks in ,,;i~~~~
..... ,
,,
,
............
, ,
,
, ...·...,.
•••
•••
·". .
,
, ,, ,.....
•
."
••
·.••
,
,
•
•
•
·• •
•
.......
••
·••
"
••
,
...••
, •
, •
•
·• .....,.•••••
•••
•
•
, .. ~.
II'V~'-"",4---'-"(' 5.B Berry's Phase
..,tzL
213
[lk 1= e <:>::r -L-
~-:':" FIGURE 5.27 Layout of the fiber winding on a cylinder. Here the fiber length is s and the
~~l:'
0".".'.
radius of the cylinder r.
:::::::'. ~
W< the fiber). For instance we can wind the fiber on a cardboard tube as shown
~~> in Fig. 5.27a. If the radius of the tube is r and the length for one revolution
t: (the pitch) is .e, the winding angle 8 is given by
cosO = ljs s = .../£2 + (2;rrr)2. (5.59)
The solid angle described by the fiber is then

il.Q = 2]((1 - cos 0) = 2rr(1 - ejs). (5.60)
The experimental setup is relati vely simple. A HeNe laser beam is po[ar-
f::: ized and injected through a fiber coupler into the (single-mode) fiber. At the
!~ : ~. :"" ~~
400 •
350 .
• o IJ •
•
•• c
l;
0
aoo • [J i
c •
.s'>
0
~ 250 • c • 0 • •0
.!!I c
<5
> 200
·c• •• D
• •
150 c
c •
0
•
100 c • ~.
0
• • 0
50 C
CD
C D
0
qp
•....
0
....•
0
0 50 100 HiO 200 250 300 350 400
RolaUon (Degrees)
FIGURE 5.28 Results from a measurement of Beny's phase, The transmitted intensity is
shown as It function of the angle of the analyzing polarizer. Open squares are for the flat
.. topology, ruJed squares for helical winding. The po1arization has rotated by 245° between
the two measmements.
_
-
•
•
........
• •
• • • ..II JIll • _ _ ...
. . . . III JIll _ . .
• JIll
-- ....
... .
~
-
-
•
•
•
•
•
~
•
....
•
...
III
III
JIll
III
... .t:...
JIll
-
-
-
_
•
••••
•
•
•
•
••
•••
~
~
A
•
A
A •
....
..II
......
. .III
......
III
III
. . . IIIJIll..._
III
JIll
JIll . .
JIll . .
JIll . . . . . .
JIll
III . .
».-~ . I
- •• . . . . . . . JIll . .
214 -
-
•
- . . . . . . JIll . . .
. . . . . . III . . . . . _,.I
. . . . . . III ... _. . -",~
~ • • ..II JIll . . •
. . . . . III JIll . .:~J
• • ~ •• • • AI III _ III. . . "0
- ~
- '" • •
- JIll . . - ..
• • • • III JIll . .
- . . . . . . III . _• •
_
-
.'
•
- ...........
••
......
......
-......... ..-
• . . . . . JIll .... ,..
• -- ........ 1'
III ... . .
~~
:~
r.-.'1
end of the fiber the light exits through another fiber coupler and is anal~ii~
by a rotatable polarizer and a photodiode. We use two configurations;9~~!1k
in which the fiber is wound along the cylinder and the other when the.:6:6et~.:~..:·"."./,
is laid out flat on the table. The detected intensity as a function of the mi~!i~f~.
of the analyzing polarizer is shown in Fig. 5.28. The open squares w~i~i~
obtained with the fiat fiber, the solid squares with the helical winding~:iW~;~:;:~..':"':Sl"'"
see that the polarization has rotated bye ;:.-.. 245 (or it could be 115 m'~~t~~t~
0 0
opposite direction!). :}}~:~::@

In this case the radius of the cylinder was r = 14 em and the p*~l~
e -. 28 em, for one complete tum. Thus s = 92 em and/?i!~~
·-·.·.·.·.·A·.~~
.::::;;:::;:~~=~~~..:~
. ,. .......
L\O = 21f(1 - lis) = 4.37 sr. ~
:;.-~
.«.;.;.:..:•..:::;
• ••
...........
. ,:,~.:.:.~ ~.:~
tl ....
~
~JJ
with observation. One should repeat the measurement by making more than;::~;f.
one turn on the cylinder (using a longer fiber) to fully confirm Eq. (5.53#t~
More details on the first demonstration of Berry's phase with an optic~lf~:~:~~
fiber are given by Tomita and Chiao (1986), .))r~
..... ....•..•.•
..............:,. ~ ~
."
.
:. .w. , , .......
:.~.:.~
.-.
',',." ... "'"" '.-:.
,',., .... - ...'"
,
.. ','......•"':r.•
, ..
, .-.
:=::
....,. ..:..;
'
, , ..... :..;
"
~
~'
5.9 .. REFERENCES ",

,
.... :..;
.. . .,..
,
,
. . . . II'
.... A
. . . . II' ..
, . . . . A .. _
: ...
, , " .. .....II'III_
,
, ,, , , .............:
..
............. • • II' ""'_
, ....... ..
, ........ iii
, "
, . . . . . II' ""
....
, . . . . . . . iii
.........
.
M. V. Berryt Proe. R. Soc. London Sera A 392, 45 (1984). , "
,, •
,,,
• A ..
• • A ..
"" ....
..... ...
,
......
....
..... A
, ,, ,. . . . . . . A . ..
M. V. Berry, Phys. Today 36 (Dec. 1990). ,, ....

......... ""
...,:""
, ...
...
...
, . . . A ..
. ""
.
.....
A. Tomita and R. Y. Chiao, Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 927 (1986). ,,

,
, ,,
~
~
....
....
....
.. . .. .. ""
.
~
......
~
,
,,,
~
, •• A .. . .
.....
~
...... A
• A ..
,
, ,,
~
.... .. .""
...
.........
...
, , •• A
, • A .........
.
.... ..
, ,, , •
, , ....
.... A
, ......
, , .... A
,, .... ..
.... . .
• • A
........ .
, , •.....
, • • :..I
~
, , • A
,, ......
..
""
,,,
~
....
..
,
, .... A
, ..
..
, .... A
, ,,
,,,
..
......
·.........-
,
,,,
• • .......... A
, ,
,, •
, ........• A
..........
•
, ,, •
, ,
A
,
, ,,
, ,, ..
,,,•
,, ...... A
,
,
, ,
,
,,
........
,
,,,
,,
,
,
• •
........,
• Ii
, ,
,,
... .
• , ••
,,,
·· ...
, ,
,,
,
..
..
, ,..
, ,,
• ,•
,. .
.
· ,..
,
· ..
· ,,.
. ,
,•
· ,•
. ,
,
·, . ,
•
· • ,
·• ,
,•
,• •
•,•
·, ,
. ·, ,
. ·,.·.
,
.·.,
·
. ,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
JlW CHAPTER 6
'I~~~\
~:::..
High-Resolution
"I Spectroscopy
tlr:.:::::•.·.
~i
?:=:::"
1'•••••
~lj:
;::::::-
6.1. INTRODUCTION
i-:':':
;::::::
..
, "."
In 1896, P. Zeeman observed that when a sodium source was placed in
:=::::: a strong magnetic field, the yellow D lines were split into several com-
~:::: : ponents. Faraday had performed the same experiment some thirty years
I earlier but had failed to observe an effect because of the low resolution of
his spectrograph. We also know from Chapter 1 that even in the absence of
a magnetic field the atomic spectral lines have a fine structure that was eas-
ily observed with the small grating spectrometer; with a high-resolution
I
instrument, however, it becomes possible to observe that each of these
fine structure lines may again be resolved into closely spaced components.
which form the so-called hyperfine structure (hfs) of atomic lines. l
I To set the reader at ease, no further splitting beyond the hyperfine structure has been
I
.z·:·:
:--::
observed, nor can it be expected for free atoms; in the hyperfine structure we include both
the splitting due to fIlIcI~ar spin and that due to the isotope shift.
215
I
, . ,. ..""---
·...... . .
. ........
···'," ......
. .
.....'"'". '"""....
,
· . ...
- ........ .
. 'if."",,,
··.....
.........""""..".... .... ..
• • if ... "" ..
- .-
.. .....·...........................""""""""......""......
-
'"
-- -
216 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy - -
- - ......
~
..."""".......
···.....................................
of .. . .
- - ~ ~
- ···........... ........
'" .... ...........
"".............
....
~~
• · ..... "p;.
•
•
•
if
if
if
.....
.......
. . . . . . . ..
..
OIIII-
The splitting of a spectral line is a consequence of a splitting of We~~~~~~:~

energy of the initial state, of the final state, or of both states betwe~~i~~~~~wm
·.:.:.:.~':.=~~
e eli . -::::::~:~:~::~
.......
•·· .. ............
.. .
.......
•
::§ • • ...
...
II ..
.
~'
where p. is the magnetic moment of the state (see Section 2 of this cbaPtert.@~
The constant /-LB ':' e~/2m = 5.79 x 10- ~vrr is called the BO¥~ii1l
11
• • • • AI .. II
Av AE e //:=:=t:m
- ::- - '.- B = 46.69 B m -1
c he 4]( me C ' >:-:,:,:"~·~·m
"
': ::::;:;~;::~~. ~
............
. . . .... .
• ·,*
.........
'" '" ...
or •
,
.-.
:;:::;:;::::~~:.--'rn~·
.'4* 4*." •• .....·~m
.. ......
" •
·•' ··········~~m·
" " ~
" ... III ..01 ,.
__ .
'"J'
. . . . . ." . m.
• " " .. 01 . . . .
6.v = 14.01B GHz · . '" ,. " "

··. ............
•
""""
• " . . . ..01
dIpole, ~lectric-quadrupole, etc., moment of the nucleus, WIth ~e elect;r?fit~!~

magnetic field produc~d ~Y the e1ecn:ons at the nucleus. The mteractio~}~~~~~~
.'··'···
. '.....~~~~~X:~~
7L~ ..
.;.:
1 ·.,...... * ':.:.:.:~:~:
..... ' ...... ~~~~
r3 '
(6.3)H@@
... ....... ~~~~
• • *
',' :'~.:.;..:..~:;r;r.
~
·.::, :::::::::::~~~
.', .... . . . »
~ ........y~
'
. . . . II
where /LN is the nuclear magneton • •

'~
,
~
....... :.-:
. . . . . . . . III ~
..· ,........
......... »
• , , . . . . . . II
.,~
'
. . . . . . II .. ,
• , , , . ......
.. ~
. .. .IIIII..JIll
eli riB
,
,:,:,:,:.:.:~::.z.
J-t N = - - r:: }~{:~:~~

2mN - 1837' ··..:-<:::::~:*
.........._-,...."".
........... ,'"''''
............. '
,, ,,
~.."
aMWM
, . . . . . III
and {Bi (O)} is the expectation value for the magnetic field of the electrons
the origin; it is equal to JL B ( 1/ r3) (except for configurations withe = O)~:'/~~~~~
Instead of evaluating {1/r3} we recall that the fine structure splitting is(j~~W.
,due to an L · S coupling of the electrons, and therefore is of the order 6{·.(~~~~~
3
JL2B (I jr ) so that we expect ',:::,:i,\~~m
•
,
,',
,
" . , ..... .1'
, ,
, , . ....
..
j ••
......
j . . . . . . " ..
.
..... .
01 .--• •
01%'.1'...
0I..
' , , , ....
.. 01
i"X
ll.E (fs) , .... <IIi tIC-~ ~
A. E (hfs) I""V -... • (6 •4). ~:.,':~)~~

..........JA:.-:
. " .....
.. " ..... ..
" , ,........ r' ..
1837 , ,
,,...... x·
. oIoIX
,
", ,,. 0 1 ... .
'
........x.
" I ' . · ........
,
,
..
.. 01
AI ... :.
•
' .... 01.. •

, , .... 01 •
','..... ···...."'.....xx..
J , . . . . ., ...
, , ....... WCJ'-.
,,··
' , ..
' ".....
..............
, ,
','
. . ..x..
' , .... 01
,
,
.. 01..
, .. 01
•
: ..
..
, .... 01 """:":
, ::, .,.oI.,r;t'
':::::..x·
.....
..
, ,,............. :<
.: ::::~..... ..~.»:..:
'
~::::
' ,
, ,
' , '" .. . 01..
... •
~I
~ .-
S.l Int rod uction
~]::
217
~:: '
~: Let ussubstitutereasonablenumbers in Eqs. (6.2) and (6.4); forexarople,
\ if B '" IT
8v {Zeeman) ..... 46.0 m- 1,
tiF: and since 2 6.v (fine struct~.IIe) '"-' IQ4 m- I , we find that
6.v(hfs) '"-' 5.0 m- 1 = 1.5 GHz.
~( Thus the splitting of the lines is very smaUand can be observed only with
~:. a high·resolution instrument. Assuming). ~ 500 DID and.6.v ~ 5.0 m- 1
f:~:: we find that the required resolving power is
Such a resolution may be achieved in two ways:

(a) With a large grating used in a high order, the resolving power of a
?:::
~:: : grating is given by
>::-.
A
-=Nn,
,,)..
where 71, the diffraction order, can be as large as 20, and for a lO·in. grating
with 7000 rulings to the inch, the number of rulings i~ N = 7 X 104 , so
th,t
:( Such gratings, are, bowever, very difficult to construct, but can now be
:;:':
:{ obtained commercially.
V (b) With a "multiple· beam" interferometer, the most common one today
:r and easiest to use being the Fabry-Perot. which was discussed in Section
,;." 4.6. One can directly observe the ''rings'' of the interference pattern for
:~::
~j.::. a dlverging beam. An optical filter or a dlspersive element is needed to
;'._, select the line of interest. Alternately one can use the Fabry-Perot in the
...:'
::;:: "scanning mode" by moving one of the eod-mirrors, through half a wave-
t. :.' length, and observing the transmission of a collimated beam. For instancc a
(: Fabry-Perot with 5 cm spacing has an FSR (free spectral range) of3 GHz;
2See S~tion \.6.3 and recall mat jj "" IIle = I/A.

··
·•
. ...... .""--
·......
......... ~ .. . "h-
..'b.
• • • • .III ..
•
. . . . III ..
· ·..........
. . ... .
• • • • "" III ..
. ..... .. . --x
.
• • • • III ..
·
· . . ......
. ·· ... . .
... .
. . ...... ..:....
~
~
I"
218 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy : .:::::}::::_::.•
• • • II .. • • III
-~
• • ...... • • A
• • •III .. • • •
. . . . ...--.
• • • • • III ..
•
•
•
•
• •
•
• •
. . . . III ..
• •
• • III III ..
III •
·
• • • • "" III
-
---
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
....
•
•
..II
III
II
III ..
III
•
even with modest finesse F ~ 100, the resolution (see Eq. (4.62):;.l~£~~~~~--
:..fi ~
---
---....
V
......
....
.'......
,". '. . . ." . ._-. .g
• • • ....
,./II
,./II
. . III
III ..
III III
7
-8" - -;;...: 2 x 10 . ';}}::::::~%~ • .. • .. If ..
V . :::::::::::__ :::::
and p~esent data on the s!lift between the spectral lines of hy~r~gen ~~}a.I
deutenum. We then descnbe a measurement of the Zeeman splitting of th~r~
ISdevoted to a measurement of the byperfine structure of rubIdium USlJlg;);~{im

Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy4 «}~~jl
The bibliography o~ atomi~ s¥ectroscopy is vast an~ because of th~fi~
"reach" of laser expenments It IS kept up-to-date. A lIst of suggeste4)~
references is given at the end of the chapter. ">}~~
. ......•.•
•
.. .. ...........,:..;-,.-::
' ., .,
~.~~
:.: .:.:.~:~~~~
.·......
. . "'.... :-:
...........-
• ., ., tI . . . .
'
'.: .:.:.~~.@~~. ~~-
.... Ii ..... ~
............~~~
6.2. THE ZEEMAN EFFECT <:<~~~i ~

"
" ' ............ ~~
' , . . . . JIII. . . ...
·',.: . .:.:~.:::;::
,· .......rh
, , .. .. • /..t', ~
6.2.1. The Normal Zeeman Effect:/J~~

.. ': -:.:.~-~
As already discussed in Section 1.4, the solution of the Schrodinger equa;.::\i!~im

tion yields "stationary states'" labeled by tlrree integer indices, n, I, andl:':'::~:~;~~
3
'A~
=
. "
m, where I < n and m -I, -1 + 1, ~ ~. , 1 - 1, 1. For the screened:'ii~}~~

Coulomb potential, the energy of these states depends on n and I but not:,))i~~
on m; we therefore say that the (21 + 1) states with the same n and 1 index/i~~&.
are "degenerate" in the m quantum number~ Classically we can attribute<}i~~ , '" .. A~"
this degeneracy to the fact that the plane of the "orbit" of the electron may }/~:~
be oriented in any direction without affecting the energy of the state, since }\~~
the potential is spherically symmetric. ·t~~~
If a magnetic field B is switched on in the region of the atom, we should ,;)~~ •• ..:,r
4
expect that the electrons (and the nucleus ) will interact with it. We need)}J$
only consider the electrons outside closed shells, and assume there is one·<~~#
such electron; indeed the interaction oftbe magnetic field with this electron :/~# .....
· ... ",,,
,•
. .. ...
. . ..
. ,
,
01 ..
· ..
, " .01 ..
, " 01 •
- "UL' - ' . "~"
, , ,,""". . ...
3"Quanmm Mechanics" A. Das and A. Melissinos, Gordon and Breach (1986). )~~:
New York. Or any other text on quantum mechanics. . . \~
4For OUI present discussion this interaction of the nucleus with the external field is so /&
small that we wil1 neglect it. ):~
'.'II~
••
•••• •
•
• •
, ,";M
•
• ••
• •
• ••
• ••
• ••
• •
••••
• ••
• •
• ••
• •
• ••
• •
• ••
• •
• ••
• •
• ••
•
• ••
•
•
• •
• •
• •
•
6.2 The Zeeman Effect 219
./
./
./
FIGURE 6.1 Magnetic moment due to a current circulating in a closed loop.
•...
yields for each state an additional energy t.E, given by
....
/.'
:::: (6.S)
.-,'
,-,.
:::: Thus, the total energy of a state depends now on n, 1, and m, and the
.... degeneracy has been removed.
~: alTO see howp. thiS6
s alddiTh·tionalb~~ergyl arises
we co~sidl er the classical
:::>.an ogy. ee 19. .. e or long e cctron IS eqmva cnt to a current
:::: density5
J (x) = -ev8 (x - r),
where r is the equation of the orbit and x gives the position ofthe electron;
the negative sign arises from the negative charge of the electron. Such a
current density gives rise to a magnetic-ilipoJe moment
p. =-I!
2
X x J{x) d 3 x = -- e(r 1
2
x v).
5Por a circular oroit, the electron is equivalent to a current f = t,. Q/ t,. T = e/ T =

.•.. = 1)/a: a is the radius of the orbil However. a
e(J) /2rr, where (J) is the angular frequency (J)
.;.' plane closed loop of current gives rise to a magnetic moment Jl = fA, where A is the area
~~. . :.~'. enclosed by the loop; in our case A =
rra 2 , hence
K et! 2
Jl = -2rr-a Ira = -2-'
elJa
~~~~ . The angular momentum for the circular orbit is L = meva, hencc
:~F J.I.=-L
e
2m e
::~: ,
k as in Eq. (6.1).
z::
.... '.
F
::::::
~~~ :
· ...... - - :h · ....... .
· ..........-
.... -.
• • • .oil .. .
• . . . . . .oil .. ..
· · ....... ..
.'
·.......
•
. ........ • •
. . . . . . . . . - . . .",-ij
• III III III
• • • . . . JIll ..
• • • • • III ..
220 6 High-Resolut;on Spectroscopy

• • • .oil III ..
• • • • • III .. III
• • • . . . III JIll
• • • .. III ..
• . . . . . . .til ._
• • • . . . . . 111)11
• •
• • • • • • ... JIll""
III III III
•
. . . . . . JIll
• • • . . . JIll ..
•
. . . . .II JIII._
• . . . . . . . III .. }II
· ....... .
• • • . . . . JIll .....-rtJ
' ............... '~
".""."-,
• • .. . . . . . . . . .oi
· ........... ..
• • .oi .. • • .iI .. til
However~ the angular momentum. of the orbit is given by .· r'.·,'.JI.

. ............-• • • .. • JIll til
• . . . . . . . . . . till
· ..........• •
...
• • .. .oil . . . .-~
-
~
...._.....
·............
. . .. ...
M
•
•
•
•
•
..
•
•
•
...
... Ii .. ._
..
.. OIl .-
...:
.II . . . .
• • • • • .II . .
L r p .;...- me(r V),

• • • • ..01 .II . .
X X
• • • • .. .II . . . .
• • .. .. .. JIll JII
......:0 •
•
•
•
....
•
..
•
•
.. Ii JII
.II
... Ii JII ..
.II . .
• .. • • ..a JIll . .
• • • • Ii . . . .
· ..... ..
• .... .II .II . .
• . . . . . Ii . . . .
• ..... .II . .
• • .. . . . . JIll ..
• • • .. ..a .. ..
so that · ........ ..
•
. . . . . JIll . .
• • • • • .II . . . . .
• . . . . . .II . .
· ....... ..
• • • .. .II . .
• • • • .II . . . . .
...... -
• .. .. ... .II . . . .
· . . .. ..
• • • • .II . .
e eli ........
..
· ....... ..•
. •
•
•
•
• Ii .. ..
.. .. JII ..
IL = - 2~e L -c - 2~e lu[, (6~;!J!i!~~~
quantized value L - I (hj2rr:)'!L ~d u~ is a unit vector along ~e directi.~*~~i~§~k·
~ ... :.:.:.:.:,.~~
2me ' " ..... ~
:;:;:::;::;::iii
aXIS (which we can take to cOincIde WIth the direction of B since no otbelt:~:~:~:m
1 - I, 1: Thus th~ ener~ of a ~articular state n, 1, m m the presence of.~~)jl

magnetIc field WIll be given by .::/:~~~~mm1.m
..........••~.~
........~
" = -En 1 + mBJLB~
En ,1m (6.81\~~~mm~
... - . .
.........•• ~~
~-~
:: :~:::::~:-~
.:::~:~:~:~:~~~
.:.: '~.:.:~:.~ '~ ~
eli
•••• • • JII ..........
::::)~::::~
tL B • .:::: :::::~:;:@
- 2me · >}:}:~
· .:. :.:.:.:~:.~
n and 1 . ,~ 2, before and after the application of a magnetic field B. We not:e(t~m

that all the levels are equidistantly spaced. the energy difference betweeri;~t~~@
them being :':' i/:~~~:§§
,,~<.:.:~*x:
I
I
..I
1"""-
, . .II....
'wI"..
..I
JI
JI
....
....
':.:.:.:-:-~
, ... . . y....-:
-*
·
~
'«.:. :....»rz.
-
,
' ,
....... ..
' , . . . . . .lI . . . .
• .II ...... ..
With n f ' If, m f. As an example we choose Ii = 2 and If = 1. so that the)!@i

. ········...... ...*·x
'
"
,
,
... oi
~
~
".II.""." , , • .01.. •
6This was first clearly shown in the Stem-Gerlach experiment. W. Gerlach and O. Ste~~:>~~~
. ,',·,·r.~
Z. Physik 9, 349 (192). :'::::~~~;i
7The energy in the field is positive because the electron charge is taken as negative. ..i:\~i~i
8me in this expression is the mass of the electron, not to be confused with the magnetic: ::}~§.
quantum number m. :,::)~~~
. ·,'.·
. , .... r~~
..
,
,
' ,,
,,
,
, , ,. . .
. . . ..01
......
.......... ..
....
•
.. '.'. 01 "'.I'•
~
..... .
.II. •
,',, ..., ...

'" ...,Jj"'.r.
......
,'
......... ............ ""
,,'
, , .....
.....
.-
, ..... or
...:.-
.
, ,
,
...
, '" ........
"."'''.
'" .
, '" '" .....
or
.-
.... ..01
, ....... ..---
, • 01 .. .
. , .........
,'.01 ••
,
•
. . .-
I I
,
I
•
••
.01 01 .... .
,'.01 ••
..
..
M
... 01 .. ..
01 .. .
.01 .01 ... .
_, . . .
~\li: 6. 2 The Zeeman Effect 221
Ill:::
~:: ::
[
E
, .. No Ileld With field
~r~:- AGURE 6.2 SpLining of 8Jl energy level under the influcnce of an ex ternal magnetic field.
~t The le ... el is assumed to have I = 2 and therefore is split into five equidistant sublevels.
k.
~;:::
:Sf ·
@ (.) (b) (0)
::;:e::.
N. ··
~~: :.
'"
+2
r·
x·· +1
<
f~·: t'·~'_-;-"""E=--- _____ 0 f·
~~:: ;
j f·
~:::
~ ::.
~:
;::::< A
-2 L-
~: .
.~r j m,
<
+1
:..
~:: :. : (,.:.c'- '--<E::---- - -- 0 f·
(:::::
- 1 10
%
.;.:..FIGURE 6.3 Splitting of a spectral line under !he influence of an external magnetic field.
Ii:: (a) The initial level (I = 2) and the fuJa11evel (I = I) with no magnetic fi~ld are shown.
;:::: A transition between these levels gives rise 10 the spectral lines. (b) The two levels after
;:::: lbc magnetic field has been applied. (c) The nine allowed trftllsitions between the eight
t:..:-
.;.;
sublevels of the initi lll aD d I1nlll stales.
~::::
;:::."
K: energy·level diagram is as shown in Fig. 6.3: without a magnetic fie ld in
(::::.
;;:." Fig. 6.3a. and when the magnetic field is present in Fig. 6.3b.
f However. for an electric-dipole uansition to take place between two
~r levels, certain selection rules must be ful fi lled: in particular,
~}
~::: · t,1 = ± 1. (6.9)
I Thus, when the field is turned on, we cannot expect transitions between the
m sublevels with the same I. since they do not satisfy Eq. (6.9). Further,
I
Ihe transitions between the sublevels with Ii = 2 to the sublevels with
~):.
z;:.
f:
....... ~~~-.-.--~
- . . . . . . III . . . . ."'"
?
..........-..............
• . . . . . .JI III . .
- . . . . . . . III . . . .- "
I .......... )111
_ • • ..... III Jill . .
- ........... I11III*
- - • • ..... JIll . .
• • • • III III . . . .
- • • ..... III JIll fill
222. 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy

- • • ...... III . .
- • .. . . . . III . .
• • • ..... III . .
- • • ..... III JIll . .
- . . . . . . . . . . . III JIll .~
- . . . . . III . . . .~
-•
-
. . ............. ..
•
•
•
•..
• • III III .II1II ..
. . . . III . . . . . . .~
• ... III ... . .

. . . . III III . . . .
.. •
• • III ... ....
-
· ............ ..
•
•
•
.. . . . . III JIll . .
• ....... III . .
If = 1 that do satisfy Eq. (6~9) are now governed by the additio~~:~m!mf~

selection rule9 ' .·>:::::~~:~:f r-. •
•
•••
• • • ..01 .. . .
.JI . . . . ..
-<-:<. . :. .:.:. ;.*~.

. . . . ... .
-
_
• . . . . ..01 ...... . .
. . . . . . .JI ... . .
' .~::~::::::
8m=O, ±1, .
(6 10·~::: :~:::::..
.........
. . .. ... .....
·- ·.........
........ .... ....
- • • • ... .. .. .. ,JI
• • • ... III ... .. II_-
Let the energy splitting in the initial level be a, and in the finallev~r~~~t~~:~-:::-;
be b, and let A be the energy difference between the two levels when ~9{~~~~~~:ill
~~netic field is applied. Then the energy released in a transition i "~~fiW~
· ........• '.~~
· '.' ........'.I':~
are ~lven 1D ma~x form

Table 6.1; x mdicates that the transltion ,~~(!~
In
forbl(id~n an~ Wlll not take place. :\<8~
At this pOlDt the reader must be concerned about the use of a and b.r:~~
ject to the same magnetic field B, their splitting must also be the same, anQi:~~~~~~ar.~m'
•
.........
••
•
"'. . ~=.,
· ......... •
"
.. .. .0: 01 , .
" ..... oM
-~
• . . . ..I . . . . . ,
• ...... ",.tA
'::::::::~~
Thus, we see from Eq. (6.11) (or Table 6.1) that only three energ~H?l@~~~
J/. " .
; •
·• •
. .. .....
•
•
..
..
II AI III
. . . III
• AI . .
:::::
•
differences are possible · .......•.~~.

• .. • • III
· ::::::::;;:~:
Ei - Ef = A + a(mf - mi) = A + aiim, ·

.. :(J~~:g~
.... ~-~~
+ 1, 0, -1. Consequently. in the presence of a magnetic field B, the singler:@iWi

·.. .. .. ''.. .. .~A:~_ ~%-
'" , hi • E.. .. .ii III iii i Iw!«.:.:_:~_

m of initial state .. ::::::::~:m.:
...
m of " -~
final state
_._ _._Ii_ _ _ _-
'-+2 ___
+1 " 0' -i'
: , -_ _ _ _ _ _......_ _ _ _...._.;_ _ _ _ _~:;::~:::::::%:
'''-2::::::)&
'..J:.,:':::::::::~/...:
. . .....n::.....:
+1 A+2a-b
..
..
A+a-b A-b x X '.iII.~ ~ • ""
.'. '.'.'. ~ ~.
o ......
... ....
"'..,.*."' . . .
.
•
•
•
it
, ......
,'
, . . . ~..
' ~.'"
.-~
I.
.. ...
x A+a A A -a X ..·,'...........
....
.. . ....
· .·,'.·.·,.... . . . »·111..
....
. ,
, ..
A - 2a + b::· ,::::::~:x:~
»~
-1 x x A+b A-a+b ..... .. ....- -. x..
------------------------------!'.,·:".·,','.............
iii ! J Ii
,......."..; :X".
., .. '..'.... .*.
Ii
;:.....
»
.-..
ill'l h '222 "~I
•
,
' . . . . •••
, ,,
, ,
•
.
~
.. . . . . III
"'y • , • .. • • • III
II _
·. ,....« . , ' . . . . . . . . . .~~• •
III
9The selection rules of atomic spectroscopy are a consequence of the addition of angulat; i}~~W~ i
n:omenta. "In. this specific case the selection roles indicate that we consider only electric<,}~~~~~~
dIpole radiation. ":::::::::~::?::
, , .....
,,' ....
. ... Ii.r.":X.
:...~""
, ......
........... . :.1".
,
"" , .... ! ••
.. .....
•• X,
.. ..
• ,,,
I
••""
"" ', .....Ii••~
, • ..... •
........
. ..... .
· ,,... Ii. ...--- , • ...
,',...........re:..
".Ii.X,.
,
Ii",.,. ...
, ... lir • ""
I
I
I
,
•
•
.... ..
.........
.','.', .~.
, ,, , • Ii .. ;II."'" ""
, ,.Ii.,.""
'.".Ii"'~••
·
::::::~~
»:""..
"'.,~~
Ii... I , •
· ·,',, ,.
. •Ii,,/'
.....Ii.r""';:;:;'"•
""-fA.. __ .. J&r
FIGURE 6.4 The polarization and separation of the components of a normal Zeeman
multiplet when viewed in a direction normal (0, and in a direction parallel to, the magnetic
field.
spectral line of frequency v = AI h is split into three components with

frequencies
v_ = (A - /LBB)lh, vo = Alh, and v+ = (A + J.LBB)/h

irrespective of the values of 1/ and If. Furthermore, these spectral lines
are polarized, as shown in Fig. 6.4. When the Zeeman effect is viewed
in a direction nonnal to the axis of the magnetic field, the central com-
ponent is polarized parallel to the axis, whereas the two outer ones are
polarized normal to the axis of the field. When the Zeeman effect is
observed along the axis of the field (by making a hole in the pole face,
or using a mirror), only the two outer components appear, circularly polar-
ized. The lines from !::..m = + I transitions appear with right-hand circular
polarization, and from .6.m = -1 transitions with left-hand circular polar-
ization. The central line does not appear, since the electromagnetic field
must always have the field vectors (E and B) normal to the direction of
propagation.
The splitting of a spectral line into a triplet under the influence of a
magnetic field is called the "normal" Zeeman ejJecI, and is occasionally
observed experimentally, as, for example, in the 579.O-nm line of mercury
arising in a transition I 0 from I D2 to 1 Pl. However, in most cases the lines
are split into more components, and even where a triplet appears it does
not always show the spacing predicted by Eq. (6.8). This is due to the
IONote that both the initial and final states have S = o.

-
- -··~··~~-~-·-X
-
-
• ... III III . .
•
• •
•
~
• III III . .
• ... JIll JIll
• . . . . . III . . . .
-. . :..:
- • • ..... JIll . .
-
-.~
-
. . ..............
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
III
III
III
JIll
JIll . .
III •
- • • • III JIll ..
• ~ ~ - JIll . . III
• ~ • - JIll . .
- • • • • III JIll . .
224 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy -

-
-.~--
•
•
•
•
•
~
•
~
... III JIll

~
• III III . .
. . . . . . III III . .
..... III . .
..... III JIll . .
•
....
• • • .... JIll JIll
-
-
-
•
•
.......... ..
•
•
~
•
•
•
~
•
....
•
.......
.....
III JIll . .
JIll
III
JIll
..
• • • ....... JIll
•
. . . . . III JIll ... ____
• • • • III JIll . . ,..-
• . . . . . . III . . . .
- - • • • III JIll . .
intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron (associated with its spin) ari&~~~~t
will be discussed in the following sections. - >}~:~:~:~
..x.~ -
-·····---~~
- . . . . . . III JIll .. - . . .~.
- • • ...... JIll JIll
- . . . . . . III JIll . ., __ . . . . . . . . .,~
- • ~ • III JIll JIll • • •
• • ..
• . . . III - IIIJIllJIll. .. . ~ ~:::0~
• • • • III III
- .............
•
~ • iX9'"/A • •
.....
..... III JIll
- JIll
-- ... -~~:~@~
• • • • III JIll . .
- • ~ . . . . III . .
• ~ . . . . III JIll
- • • • III III . .
• • • .... III . . . .
-::::::::;:::::~
....~~~
6.2.2~ The Influence of the Magnetic Moment y/...:
:.:.:.~-~ ..
•
•
.....
•
• ... III JIll
III
:......~:
...
• • • ..... III •
• • • III III III
of the Electron
- •• - ... JIll •
- -:.:.:.~ ...
. . . . . III . . .•
:..:..: ~
- • • ... - III . .
• • • ... III JIll
- • • • III III
- • • ..... III . . . .
- . . . . . III JIll . .
In Section 1.6 it was discussed how the intrinsic angular momentum (spi~f@!f®.:·
. . ~:-:~
trons L to gIVe a resultant J; this coupling gave nse to the "fine structure'~>;:::~:mi
of the spectra. The projections of J on the z axis are given by mJ, ~.4lnili~~m~f'~·.r.
11
:::::::~:~~~~~OOm~
... -.. .. .
fL B :/:~~~~~~~ .~
..-.rJl
.......
· . . ........
· · ....... ..
. . . .. ..
.:. ...... . .
·. .--"·m·
.. ::::;..
. . .'.-Jb/.
analogy to Eq. (6.8). . .<M~:~

.......-... ~~
...... ~
..... ::X::::§::
::::::::::~M~~~~
-.. . -
•
•
•
•
••
•
-
III
JIll
~~X=3~
III JIll ....
III
JIll
..
I11III
..
..
!bese conclusions, howev~r, are not corre~t b~ca~se the intrinsic mag~{Ut~II~~II
net1c moment of the e~ectron IS related to the lntrtnslC angular momentum:~>~~~~~m~~
of the electron (the spIn) through -::::::;::::~~:;~-"""'". _ • • • _ ~ ~~~J'" ~
..............
·............
·-............. •
z .. •• III .... ~"" . . ....,....,.
....... ... .."x,

-~
~
- - ~
e en (6 14),- ·. . .... .z.

- . .. .
- · . . ... .... ..
<::::~:;::~::~~
~
.. ~
ILs = 2 S= 2 'sus •
:.~
'··~"~I"'~""
• • • • • IIIIIIIIIII~.
~ ~ ~~
~ »~
~~
-. . .
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
2me 2me
~ ~ ~ ~
• • •
~
I11III
... ~ ....
--.......... .....
· ~ ~ ~ ~
. .
• • .... I11III •
~ ~» ~ ~
....... - ~. ··~z~
~ ....
~»~
.~~ ~
·~·~Z""
and not according 12 to Eq. (6.6). Consequently. the total magnetic moment\!ii!&@
· .. . - - .......
~ ~
IIIIII~
... ~
~
.... ~
of the electron is given by the operator <\~~*~~

............. . z .....
···...... .~~.~~
~ ~
· .... .
~ ~
- ~ ~
' .... -
~
~
~
~
~
~
+ 2S]. (6.15) ......

~ ~~ ~
fL = (/hB/h)[L . .. ............
,-«-:·Z~~'-:~~
....... ,
~
~~
~ ~
- "
... ..... .... ~
·-·...................x ..
• ........ I11III ~ ..
~~
...
- • ~ • .. I11III ~ ~ ..
~ ~
. . . ....
~.
- ·.... I
~
J ••
~
~
II II ..
~ ~
~
11 We will use the following notation: L~ S~ J represent angular momentum vectors that ;i\Jt~}
have magnitude IiJl(f+ 1), n.,fs(i + l)~ li.Ji(j-+ IJ- The symbols I, j, etc. (s is always>}i~~:§~
s = i),
are the quantum numbers that label a one-electron state and appear in the abov~\J~~f.~~~
square root expressions. The sYITLbols L, S, J , etc" are quantum numbers that label a state.::::::::~~:~~
· .... .... ~
with more than one electron and are then used instead of 1, s, j. :.)~~~:~
12The result of Eq. (6.14) is obtained in a natural way from the solution of the»~~:;:§ · ......,.. ~
Dirac equation; it also emerges from the classical relativistic calculation of the "Thomas- :::,}~~:~~~
....
· ·I." •••• ~ ~.
Precession_~' ..... .
-:·::::::~~~~~~
· .. . . .
~
~
.. . . .
• I • • .... •
~
I ...... ~
· • I •• • .. .
..
• I ....... ,
~
I . . . .. - ...
• I •• • .. .
. I
I
,
. . . . . ..
~ ••
~.,
••
• I •• • ••
I ...... ,
......
I •• • ••
I I ..... ~
· •
•
I
,
I..
I
I
••••
••
... •
••••••
•
••
••
~
...... ~
.....• . .
I
• I •• • .. .
I I . . . . . ..
•
. "
I
I
~
. . . . . . .. . . .
••
~~
. -• •
• I ....... .
• I ~ •••••
• I • • .... • ~
I ~ ~. • ..
~
.. . .
- I • .. . . . . •
•
I
I ,
I
~
~ .
....
••
... '~.
•
••
.
...
, ~
I We can think of /L as a vector oriented along J but of magnitude
{L = {LBg 1. (6.16)
The numerical factor g is called the Lande g factor and a correct quantum-
mechanical calculation gives 13
j(j + 1) +s(s + 1) -/(l + 1)
g =1+ 2j(j + 1) . , (6.17)
The interesting consequence of Eqs. (6.16) and (6.17) is that now the
splitting of a level due to an external field B is
(6.18)
and in contrast to Eq. (6.8) is not the same for all levels; it depends on
the values of j and I of the level (s = ~ always when one electron is
considered). The sublevels are still equidistantly spaced but by an amount
Consider then again the transitions between sublevels belonging to two

states with different I (in order to satisfy Eq. (6.9)). However, since we are
taking into accoWlt the electron spin, I is not a good quantum number, and
instead the j values of the initial and final levels must be specified. If we
]3This result can also be obtained from the vector model for the atomic electron. In
Fig. 6.5 the three vectors J, L, and S are shown, and Land S couple inlo the resultant J, so
that
J=L+S.
By t.aking the sqoares of the vectors, we obtain the following values for the cosines
p +z2 _8 2 P +8 2 _[2
cos (L, J) = 2lj COS (S, J) = 2'
SJ
From Eq. (6.15) we see that
/tIILB = I cos (L, J) + 2.s cos (S, J).
Thus
g
IL
= -MB) =
P + /2 - s2
+
2/ + 28 2 - 2[2 )2 + 82 _ (2
= I + "-----,---.,.-----
2)2 2)2 2j2
Fmally we must. replace j2. s2, and [2 by their quanrnm-mecbanical expectation values
j (j + I), elc., and we obtain Eq. (6.17).
::::::::::::~~,.~~
.......~~........ ~
•
•
•
,
~
,
..
..
.JIll ..
....
..
..iI
II1II
III
III
.. ..
III .. ..
• • ~ .. .. .. ..oil IIIJIll.III..... :....

~
·.~ , ~ ........
• ,
• • .. .. ..oil JIll . . . . .
.......-~"""A
.. ..
*
• ~ ... III
·
High-Reso~ution ·f..-..,
• • .. .. III JIll
226 6 Spectroscopy • • • • • ...........111 .III.... ...
• • , ~ . .... . III III III III......

• . . . . . . . III _~~
..
. ··::::::~:::;~:~crr~....c~
...................
· ........... "Yh
·· · .. .... ............
@I'~
•
. ... ..::::; . . . . ..oil . . . . . .~
~.
· ·................
.. .. .. .. ... ..
.......................
· ............
~
..................
•
•
•
..
•
..
..
III
..
..
III
III ... . .
III ......
~
'J
·····.................
. ........ . . c..:
'r . . . . . . . . .~
J..J'"
• ..... ..II ...... ,
. .. .. .. .. .. ......%
·
..... .. ....
c...: .... --
,· ·............
...............
. . . • •.:;;J.
..
..c...:
s · .
....... .
· ·.............
..
.........
,
......
· ... .. . ..........
....
.. .... .
~
~
-.......... .-.
• • .. .. .. .... '-l
. ~:.-:
. . ..... ....
.........
·.·~·.·1
:-: ~.~
L . - .~~
. . . . :-: ~
- ....... ..... ..c..:

" ~ ~ ~
• ••• 1 1 ••
~.:.-:
- ......
· ...... .
.~~
- .~.1
~ ~
• 1
~
.....
...
FIGURE 6.5 Ad~tion of the orbital angular momentum L and of the spin angula?:J(IJI~
n
momentum S into the total angular momentum J, according to the Uvector modeL ':::::}:~::a
~::::.tt
J
,·...... c::;
_ • • • • • .II .. .II .......
-~.J1""'~.t
. ••
. ...J1. :=:;
...... ~
· .. .. .......... .Y-
· ·. .......
•
'~
I I . . . . . II ~
· . . . . . . . . Jill'
• { .............JI'M..-,A
choose for this example ii = 1 and I f =

O~ we have the choice of ji = ~()~~~
1,
or ii -= whereas j f - ~. Transitions may occur only if they satisfy, i~j~It~~@
addition to Eq. (6~9), also the selection rules for j .-:>~:)~;~~
.............
.....
. .. ........-.
· ............ .
~
• • • ........ wi"
• ~
~~
.......... !
•.
j = 0 )0 j = O.
:.>:.~~ ~
f1j = 0, ±1 not (6 .9 a).-: :::::::~:~ ,. I . . . . . . . . . ....
• ~ ... "JI'M••
- .,
• I I
....... :.;.-
~ . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
Furthennore the selection rules for m j must also be satisfied; they are th~,:{III~t
....... ., ~
same as given by Eq. (6.10) , -::»~:$.
. •
.
".·.·
I
,
l~oI
..... r .·.,}
,~.........
........
I I
....... : : :
. . . . .~
:.
..
!~~
:~~~ A ~i~7 n -_ =J::L_- lOa) :-: -: . ...:.
(6.', >:::~~~:::
.~
:~;~ ....
, ' , , •• ..J"•..)III
• ..... .)11.~
,,,
..
,
..
~
'....:=:::.o; , ,
, ,
' , ,
In Fig. 6.6 the energy-level diagram is given without and with a magnetic/}.
I·..• "
:::
1·..• . ., /
,.....,,1
,.......
........::-;
,
=
, ,
, .......... I11III..1
,•...,r..l
:~:~
field for the doublet initial state with I ~ 1 and the singlet final state, I 0'. :/
t
....•
Six possible transitions between the initial states with j = ~ to the final}!.
,~
~.r
.............1•
...... ~
·".. :.-:.
II ........ ,J'
.~
~,.
.... l1li ..
•••
· ...~".1
... ..
•....~....I
1
state with j = are shown (as well as the four possible transitions from'ii;:'r
i).
.
1
,
j -= to j = By using Eq. (6.17) we obtain the following g factors i?

~
·.
'.II" • .4./
••• ~
....~..J
........1
··•• ••••..
~
, ,
,
,
, ..
~ ,
••
• ••••
·........1
•• ,
,•
.
, •..
••
~
1=1 J=2
· 3 -1
8 - 2
,
,•
,
,·..,. .
,.II ....., , /
,
,..••
..
• ••
,
,•
· •.
'
•
~
• • •• 1
•
,
• ••••
·· ..
•~•
•~•
••
l= 1 S=2
• • •
• ••••
••• .
••
.... - 1
)" --2
~
• ••
,••
,• •
·
•~•
g ~ 2.
• •• •
• •
·
•• ••~
• •
• • ••
• •~·· The sublevels in Fig. 6.6 have been spaced accordingly.
• •~
• • ••
• •~
'
··
.
, ..
• •~
·. .
·
In Table 6.2 are listed the six transitions from j = ~ to j -= in anal. ., 1
·,••..,
··,••., ogy with Table 6.1. However~ since now a #- b, the spectral line is split
··•..
··••., into a six-component (symmetric) pattern. This structure of the spectral
··••,,
, •.
, , •
line is indicated in the lower part of Fig~ 6.6; following adopted conven-
•,
•
•
•,
•,
,
tion, the components with polarization parallel to the field are indicated
above the base line., and with polarization normal to the field, below. 14 As
•
•,
•,
•
before the parallel components have llm = 0, the nonnal ones /j"m ± 1.
•
,
•
,
,
., _ 'Iii _
14It is also conventional to label the parallel components with 1t, and the nonnal ones
by (J' (from the Gennan "Senlcrecht").
1·:-> 6.2 The Zeeman Effect 'J2.7
~L
~t TABLE 6.2 Allowed Transitions from jl =~ to 1] = ~ and the Corresponding
Energies
m j of initial state
mj of
3 1 3
final state +-2 +-2 2 ~
I 30 b o b 0 b
+-2 A+---
2 2
A+---
2 2
A----
2 2
x
~:.:-
a b a b 30 b
x A+-+- A-2:+2 A--+-
2 2 2 2 2
,/
mF+~
,/
2P312 +22
(:::-
t
,/ ,~ 1
----, -2
/
,/
" "-
,, C
3
-2
\ 2P ll2 t .::=.:: mJ=+~
1
-2
g=~
28 112 ~ _-'-f--!.-+-'-I----'--'---++_ mF + ~
------------«~ g=2
',~-~~-~--~~
r- C------1
~~~~~: Am=O 1t III III
::::::: Llm=:t1 I I I I I
iliC
:;:::::-
FIGURE 6.6 Energy levels of a single valence electron atom showing a P state and an S
state. Due to the fine structure, the P state is split into a doublet with j = ~ and j = i,
:::=:>
~-'.'.
~-'.' Further, under the influence of an external magnetic field each of the three levels is split
~:~:::' into sublevels as shown in the figure where accollllt has been taken of the magnetic moment
~{. of the electron. The magnetic quantum number m j for each sublevel is also shown as is the
~~~{ g factor for each level. The arrows indicate the allowed transitions between tbe initial and
~:::> final states, and the structure of the line is shown in the lower pan of the figure.
x:>,
~~::>,
~~~~': :
I
The horizontal spacing between the components is proportional to the
differences in the energy of the transition, and the vertical height is pro-
....... portional to the intensity of the components; the relative intensity can be
~1/: predicted exactly since it involves only the comparison of matrix elements
between the angular parts of the wave function.
~:::.
W~::::-:
[f
:':':':':.:A:~*
· .... ·"yo ~
.. " ..... '" . . 'iI'-
-:.:.:.:.:.:.:~
........*
• • .. .. J( ... ...
_:::::=~::;:;:~'l*~
." ..... ·"~h
228 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy •
· •
"
..
......... ..
... JII OJ ..
•
· ............
•
· ......................
•
..........................
-
· . . ...........".
• ..
•
"
....
..
....
..
II
II
II
....
.. ..
......
~
ri
.
As ~e magne~c field i~ raise~, the sep~ation of th~ components c~il~#'f~f~~9}.
ues to Increase linearly With the field until the separation between Zeem:an:::::::®'- - - ............. II./"..IM...;-7,
co~p~nents becom~s on ,the order of the fine-structure separati~n (spaci#fj~j~j~

C m ,FIg, 6,6). At thIS, ~omt th~ Zeeman components from the J .-= ~ --~<~~~~~~~j
and J = ~ "7 ~ tranSItion begin to overlap; clearly the perturbation cau~~~{~~
by the external magnetic field is on the order of the L · S energy and aff~ts.~~~~~~~
the coupling ofL and S into J; J ceases to be a "good quantum numbe#M111ii
For very strong fields, L and S become completely uncoupled; so th$t:i~~:~1
the orbital and intrinsic magnetic moments of the electron interact with .~~~~~~~@
field independently, giving rise to an energy shift <:/)~
I-iB J..tB . ·.·.·.·.·n.:::
8.E = - ... L · B-2 Ii S · B - aL · S .::»~~~;~
,~
~
:.:.:.:':'~A~~
.' '~.·.·_·_-4~
· . . ..... . .
· .... ,
' • ••••••••••A4~
• ••• 'II
-
... .
.~
(6. 1·::rt].. '::::~~~~

'" "".
· "" .......
.~;
· ..... '" "" .
• • • • .. .. A .~
. • • .. .... J-rI
• •••• <II '" .. . . ..1
In this region one speaks of the Pashen-Back effect. The reader can ij6~~~~~~1
more details in the references, in particular in the classic text by Cond§¥~
., .... ~
and Sh0 rtley. .<:::::::::;~;..3
...........
- ~
So far we have discussed the case where the atom has only a' singl~~~~~~~~
valence electron. In Section 1.6 we considered also atoms with two valen:¢~~~~~~~~
electrons and saw that for Hg the total angular momentum J = L+S, whemii~
L results from the coupling of 11 and l2 and S from the coupling of 91 a#4~J~~~
S2. In this case the g factor is still given by Eq~ (6.17), but by using L~.··~~~{f~
and J, the quantum numbers for the coupled angular momenta. . . :<}~~~~~
An interesting case arises in the 579.07-nm yellow line of Hg which·l~f~;~;~:~
7
due to the transition from the 6 1D2 state to the 6 1PI state. (See Fig. 1.241t~~®
for tlle energy level diagram of Hg.) As the reader should verify, by usiIlg(~J&
Eq. (6~ 17), the g factors of the initial and final state are both equal to ~~~}~~~~~
Thus we have exactly the situation shown in Fig. 6.3; and the line split$~~~~~~~
............ :.-
.,
_ I I . . . . . . . . . .~
into three components (normal Zeeman effect)..:)}~~~:~

..
, , .... 01 .... ..
......... . .....
, , . . . . . . II1II.
" ........ iIi
, , , ,, ""
........
.............
-
•
......... .. ,
"
...
, , , , . . . . 01 ... iii .
' ...............,j
....... .. , ,, ,.. ......... ....... iiiII1II

· , ,..........
.
............
,. ..... ....
6.3. HYPERFINE STRUCTURE
, , , ........ II1II
, ,
, .......... ....
,
" .......... ...
........
-
- , ," , , ........ ..
. . . . . . . lflii
.......
-• ,
,
,
"
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ............ lflii
I . . . . . . . . II1II
....... ...
........
......
Spectral lines, when examined under high resolution, do show structui~(~i~~~~ •• ooI." "~
even in the absence of an external magnetic field. As already mentiorie,4~~~~~~~

this hyperfine structure arises from the interaction of the atomic electrortsi)~~~ . . . . . . . 0001 ..
with the nucleus. The largest effect arises from the magnetic-dipole mome*~)~~~~
of the nucleus, but the effect of higher order moments are also observed~t~~~~ , , .. • '" 01 •
A related effect is the isotope shift, which shifts the spectral lines betwee9i~~~~~;~
isotopes, i.e., atoms of the same element but with nuclei of different mas.$:<~~~~~;
... .... ..
, ,
,
•
,
,
,
. . '''""" ..
., ,,, ... ,
,
I
,
.....
• Ii '" •
.
.oil ..
.. . .
, I I ...
........
, , 1 .... ..
.oil •
,
, ',
,
"' I ...
.. .
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, . . . 01 ..
'"
'" '"
....
.......
..... . ...
........... .
,
, ,
, '"
, ,
'" ... .
.
,
, , '"
, , • <II '" •
, ,
'" '"
...
......
... . ..
,,,
'" '" ...
...... .. .
, ,
, ,
, ,
'"
...... ...... .
..
, ,
, ,
, ,
'" .....
.. . .
,
'"
, , • <II '" ..
, ........... ..
..
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
'"
, ' __ • ,A".
...... .
- .. .
6.3 Hyperfina Structure 229
6.3.1. The Effects of Nuclear Spin
Nuclei can have an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) different from O.

We use I to designate the nuclear spin which can take the values (i.e., the
1,
quantum number) 0, 1, ~, ... that can reach very high values for excited
nuclear states. When I ::: ~ we can expect that the "spinning" charge of
the nucleus will give rise to a magnetic moment (see Eq. (6.6)) oriented
along the spin axis •
e
IL =- 2M I,
where M is the mass of the nucleus. In addition, nuclei exhibit an intrinsic

magnetization,15 so that in general we have
e
IL = -gl - 2 1= gI/LNIu/,
mp
where UI is a unit vector along the spin direction, and
/LN = - -
en
2mp
is the nuclear magneton; mp is the proton mass. The numerical factor 81

includes all the effects of intrinsic and orbital magnetization of the nucleus
.. and can be obtained only from a theory of nuclear structure.
The magnetic moment of the nucleus, IL, will interact with the magnetic
field Be(O) produced by the atomic electrons (at the nucleus; Fig. 6.7). This
interaction then results in a shift of the energy levels of the atom by the
t..E = -IL . BeCO). (6.20)

• The direction of Be (0) is that given by the total angular momentum of the
. atomic electrons, namely,16 J, so that
t..E · (.!:!-.) (BeCO))

= Till 111
I· J. C6.21)
15This gives rise to the so-called "anomalous" magnetic moment of the nucleon; for
.. ~."~-,.- the neutron (an uncharged particle) has a magnetic moment of -1.91 /LN.
16The direction of B. (0) is really opposite to J because the electron has negative charge.
.~ ~ . . ---:=::
JIll'" -.
--
- • ..II ..II II
- .......•
•
....-.~.~:.~
••• II .. I11III ~
-.~
-.~.-
•
•
••
•
.... .
•
..II
..II
II
..II
...
..
..
..
. -... .
- ". - II . . . .
• • • • II . . . . . - ..
-• ~
~ •
.... II II _~.-: : : : :
-
• • • .II II _
_230 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy -
---
_ . . . . . . . . . . . .- ........J
..........
•
•
........• ..
•
•
~
••
•
•
..II
-
.II II JIll
II II . .
II . . . .
~
....~~
~
~ ..... II . .-.r~~
_ ••
_• ............. -r_
-
- •
-.~
-
-
•• _
"
II .... -,.J
•
•
•
~ ••• ..II II . . ... . . .
•
~
•
•
•
.......
..II
.....
..II
..II
..II
..
. . .... . .
. . . . ...
-.
JIll
....
"'»~~
.. : . •..;
-.
- ,. . . .
_
• • • • .. - . . liliiii L
- ....... JII .. ..
?.r.-.-~
I r
• •• ..II ..II ...... ..
• •• ~ • JIll ..II . . . . _-
• .'. \ ~ ........._ ..II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
• • • • • ..II .............. J"
·..... .......
. . . .
r- '.' ...........- ........-.
~
- -- -
....... . ...
· . ............
· ·· .. ...........
~ ~ ~ ~~
~
·- ............
- ........
.-. -..~..~~
...............
~
. - . . . ........ . .... ~
-. . . . . . @
....
··.... ...... . ........ ....
- .. ....... .
~
·.................
·........ ... . ..... . . ..
· . . ......... -.9.::
J~_ -<::::::~::~::~~
V B (0) ::::::~:::::::~::**
........ ----~~~~~~
I .......
· . .-.... .. - - • • . . . . . . I11III
.- ....... --.~~
- • • • .II .. ..
by the electrons at the nucleus. :<:>:::::::~~~@

.... , ::;::
......... ::::: ...
· · · · · ',.
• • • III ... •
X
• • • • III III •
• • • • • III ..
• • • • • III..
· .........,.~*X ~
·· ........ • • • • III ...
... ... .~
... .~
· .... ~ ..........~~
• • • • III ... .
• • • . . . III
the possible values of (I . J), which, as we know, are quantized. TIi~i<?~~m

situation is analogous to that of the fine structure, where the interac{:/iiW.
tion was proportio~al to the (L. S) tenn. In that insta~ce the two angulaJ;"·:::m~
momenta coupled mto a resultant J = (L + S) accordmg to the quantum<·>~;@
mechanical laws .of addition of angular momentum. In the present si~ation,rHij§~
J and I couple llltO a total angular momentum of the atom deslgnate4:~.:.\~;~~m
· . :-:-
.... :.>:'~~~«:.:
.... x~~
by F • -"I~~ •• """'''~
. .. "
• I I .......
.'II~ ""~~
"'' :::::
.....
' .' J
, 1 . . . . .. .
. " I~' " ••••

' 1 ....... ,JJrI
F - ! (I+J). (6 22) -:"':::::~:'~~~

»:x ~ .II . . . . . . .~
--........."x:x
• 1
.. ,:. 1 I ..........
•• 1 1 • .II ...
• 1 ~ ......
1 1 • .II ... ..
• ~ 1 ......
- 1 1 • • ...
• ,~ • .II ...... ..J-
An energy level of given J is then split into sublevels having all possible/1M
values of F, namely, the integers (or half-integers) _.>/~~~~:~
.. -.. . .
1 • .II . . . . ..
1 ~ • .II . . . . . . ...
1 1 • .II . . . . ...
~
1 ~ .II . . . . ..
1 ~ • .II . . . . . . ...
, 1 • .II . . . . ...
~
I J - II ::s F ::s I J + ll~

• • .II ....
1 ~ ... ..
- 1 1 ...... ~
1 . . . . ..
~ • ..... I",
1 • .II ... I11III
.. ~
. . • J.:
1 1 I • .II
1 1 • .II ...
1 ~ .II
~
...
1 1 • ..... f ...
1 ....... ...
1 • .II .... ...
1 ~ . . . . I11III
1 1 • .II . . . . ...
!, !
1 . . . . . . . ...
Thus if I = the level is split into two components, with Fl - J + ::ii:i)~*

and F2 = J - ~ (provided J ::: !); if I = 1., the level is split into three ::\i~~~~§
· .......
components with Fl = J - 1, F2 = J, and F3 = J + 1 (provided J 2: 1); :.\~:~:~ ~ .II .....
etc. This situation is shown in Fig. 6.8, and we see that if J is known, the· ·.:i:}~;~:
...... ~
number of hypemne structure components of a spectral line provides direct .:':')~~~~~ 1 ~ .II ...
infonnation on the spin of the nucleus~ . :.:.:<:~:;

If either I = 0 or J = 0, no splitting of the energy levels can ::·ii)~~~
occur since the interaction energy specified by Eq. (6.21) vanishes. This :.::\~~~~~ 1 • ~ ••
is to be expected because if I = 0, the nucleus cannot have a dipole ···ii)~~

moment~ and if J = 0, then by symmetry, the magnetic field at the origin ::\)~~
.......-.. , 1 ~ .. .
Be (0) ..........
0
, 1 . . ..
..
___ 'I •••
~'<.;..:
1 ~ ••
Using Eq. (6.22), we can now obtain the expectation value of the :·:·i;}~ , 1 .....
operator (I ~ J) that appears in Eq. (6.21); referring to the vector model . ::.(~~
1 .....
..
, 1 ••
1 ....
, 1 ••
··, .. ,-
1 1 ••
, ,
·.,
··..,,
1 ~ ••
·· .. ,-
1 ~ ••
·.,
, 1 ••
· · .....
• ••
,
· ·.....
1 1 ••
, 1 ~ •
,
· ·..,,1 1 ••
· ..... ,
. ·..
· ., , 1 ••
···......,-
, 1 ••
6.3 Hyperfine Structure 231
1
J (·1
'P,
A/2
./
I
3
F=2
(b)
~:::::, F=~
180 F=~ 1S~ F=~

I
I
:I I I
I ---v I -v
FIGURE 6.8 Hyperfine strucrure splitting of a 3 PI atomic energy level, and the allowed
transitions belWeen the hyperfine structure componenl5 of this level and a I So final stale
i
when the spin of the nucleus is (a) I = and (b) I = ~.
we write "classically"
I
F2 _ 12 _ J2
cos (I, J) = - - - -
2/J
~~~~~. and replacing F2, etc., by the quantum-mechanical expectation values
~r~· F(F + 1) we obtain
I
A
11E = '2 [F(F + 1) - I (l + 1) - J (J + 1)1, (6.23)
wbere the constant A is given by

?:~ ~ ~ : (Be (0»
~~.:
:::::::'
A=m f.L
IJI . (6.24)
~::::
Note that the energy splitting between sublevels, as given by Eq. (6.23)
K: (and shown in Fig. 6.8), is not symmetric. Further, if we succeed in extract-
ing from the experimental data the constant A. we can obtain the nuclear
r magnetic moment if (Be(O)} is known.

The calculation of the average value of the magnetic field of the electrons
r
at the nucleus {Be eO)}. however, is not easy to perfonn, and depends on the
orbital angular momentum of the valence electron or electrons. Expressions
I
- ·.......
. · . . ---0
.. •
_
•
•
JI
JI
•
•
....
III JIIi .. ..
_ ... ..
• JI • • iii ... ..
- • • • III III . .
_ • •JI• •• ..._ iiiJIll.......
·..
_ • JI .... iii ...
.............• • JI ..... III . . ...

,
.............
. . ...-.......
_ JI ..... III . . ...
- - - ....... ..
,
• ....... III . .
6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy
_
232 --.... ...

- ·............
•
•
•
• • • iii .... ..
•
....
• III III . . . .
-
· . . . .... ... ...
-
•
••••
-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
III
...
III .. .. ..
III . . . . .
III JIll
....... .
• • • • III III ... . .
- . . . . . . III . . till
• • .. ... ... III JIll
-"
for the "constant" A in tenns of the atomic wave function can be found:ikJ!j!lf . ; : ..................... OIl
- -.' ......•••~~~
···.......
•
.......... ..
•
............
....
•••• -
III ....
III ..
- - • • • .... .... III ..
-.' ......•••
· .... -"" ..
~~ ~
• • • .. III . . . .
- - .......••••~~~
- • • .... III •
-............~j~
mercury when examined under high resolution. When the lines are correctlW@!ii:a
identified we note that the different isotopes have different energies. Inde~~}~~~~~it
quadru~ole mome~t ar~ also mdlcated. .:>::::}:~

n~cle~s: The nuc~eus ~ much heaVler than th~ el~on. but we c~ ~~tI;~jl
of the nucleus: The nuclear radius IS much smaller than the orblt of the::::~:~~~~·=
approXImation. For lIght elements the Isotope shift 1S maInly due to th~<~~~~~~~ill
the fimte sIze effect. It should also be eVIdent that we cannot measure th%t§~2
shift between two or more Isotopes. This IS shown In FIg. 6. lOa.. ---)~:~:~:~:W~
---....
_···.·...
....."'~~~ID~'
. .. E«'..
.... ...
.. ..
~
.' .....·.. ............. :«..

·-- •
.. ..
.. . .. ...
~~%
.. .. . .. ....%.~~.
. . . . . . . ..;II . . •
. . . . . lli·
. . ..
_-:':':':':~:~~J".
·
·
·....
•
.
....
..
. . ~~. .
-II ..OIl . . . .
... ....
~ ~m'
~
1=253.7 nm -1J · ·..........

. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. ............
· · ..... ....
· '" . . .
.. · .
---'· ··....... .
'.....'.. .."'~~~%X:~'
..
.. .. . ... . ....
~
............. '" "., '". .. »3' .. ... ....

···....
...........
. . ... .... . :«~
-_.......... ...-..:«"'. .1". ~~.

.... 'A%
·· ... .... ... ..... ..... .
• .. .. .. ..~..
%~
4l"'...
"
·· .......
• • 4 .. .. .... ..
-
.. ..
... ........
,~-~~~.
'" '" ..
.. _
..... ....
. ·,' ..... .... .. . . . %

-
.......
-'"
~
~
.~~.
....
:--:~
-....
•• A .......... I11III,.
• • .. .. II .......... ~
· .. . .... .
.A
• ,
.... . ..
.. ..;II . .
: . - .:.'
199 201 201 201 · ............ . ~ ....~:«'
...· ·..... .........

.......
, .. . . . %:'
».
~
•
. ~ .. .III .... .. ..
F=~2
~
1 5 .. .....
F-=- F=- F=l2 · · .. .. . . .. . ....
-'.'· .......
• •
~
.. . . . . ..II ~%..
2
199 ........ ..
· · . .. .. . .. .. .......
·... .. . ...
..
....
..
....
...
,
~~~%.
....
~~~%
· · .. .. . .. ..... .. ......
.....-:. ....
204 ( 202 200 ') 198 3 ·· .. ......... .. .........
~~:«
F=- . . . ...%. ..
,
, ..
...HI I. i... II II . 2 · · ·
.
··........
.
.........
. ..... . .. . .-:~..
..
I
,'"
.oil • ....
.... ~
...
.... x;.....
·. .... ,.... ··. .··m·
-O.51~\~O.339 )0 0.'230 · . . ....
···.,......."'
• • , • .01 .... • •
) ···..··......... '· ......

. ..x;. x· . ,. . .
cm- 1 . ... ».
• .01 . . . ••
-0.507 -0.491 -0.022 0.230 ···...·. ,,....

. . .
· .. ·h ..
. . ,
.. ..'".. »:'
· , • .. •• rIl". • • • .01 .... ..
h'.
.......
.
,
.... 0.156 ··" .......
·· . .. ....
........ :?:'
· .......
.
. y ·... "'*.
.
.......
,
,, ....
FIGURE 6.9 High..resolution spectrogram of the 253.7-nm line of natural mercury. In thg;»l~~~x~:
lower part of the figure the various components are identified and their separation from the>\~~~~@~
~ition of the 198Hg component ~ also indicated. tNote that the 198Hg component apP earS))11@:
m the spectrogram as the longer line.) ::::::>}~:
. . .
· ....... .
. . ..•X;'.
· ,.... . .',,.....
. . . . . .*.x:
,,
"""'ill
. .
• , ,', ..... * ,
.
01......
• 01....
, , , .. 01
• ..
. .....
••
,
, , , .. 01 • • •
' " .. 0I.~ ~
. . ...
,
. '''·...... " ..... :?

. . .
.'''.01 . . . .
x· , , . ' , 01 .. • • •
. .. ,, ,, ......
. .. Z
. .. ..."
,,,0101 • •
,
· """'%.'
,<.:-:.~.%.,•.
,', '. . . .*.
,
': .... .. ...... ~.*=.

'~.:'~
.. ..... ',
,
, ~
6.3 Hvper/ioe Structllle 233
TABLE 6.3 Properties oflhc Isotopes of Natural Hg (2 = 80)
I
Abundance N (nuclear Q
Isotope (percent) (neutrons) spin) "
(units of iJ.-N) (cm 2 x 10-:24)
198
199
10.!
17.0
118
II' ,°, °
0.876
,
200
201
202
23.2.
13.2
29.6
120
121 ,°, °
-0.723 0.38
204 6.1
i22
124 °° °°
In terms of the solutions of lhe SchrOdioger equation we must consider
both the electron and nucleus ag revolving about the center of mass of the
electron-nucleus system. This leads back to the Schrodinger equatioD for a
stationary artracLive center (nucleus) if the mass of the electron is replaced
by its reduced mass
M
m' = m,. .,.,.:-'.- (6.25)
M+m e'
wbere M is the mass of the nucleus. Then lhe energy of a hydrogen-like
level is given by
En = _ hcRooZ2
2
( M ) ~ _ hcRooZ2
2
(1 _ m e ) (6.26)
n M+me /1 M
where Z is the nuclear charge. For instance. the value of the Rydberg as
obtained from the spectra of hydrogen and deuterium will differ by
RH '" (1 _ m, ) , (6.27)
Ro 2mp
where we set the mass of the deuteron nld '" 2mp. This will shift the
spectral lines by 3 x 10- 4 , which we can observe in the laboratory.
For the heavier elements the isotope shift due to finite mass becomes
very smalL lostead it is the finite size of the nucleus that is the dominant
reason for a shift of the energy levels. Consider Fig. 6.1Gb where curve (a)
represents the Coulomb potential of a point charge. If it is assumed that the
electric charge of the nucleus is distributed on a spherical surface of radius
' 0. then the potential will not diverge at, = 0, but will be constant for all
r ~ '0. Thus the potencial seen by an electron will be of the form shown
.. ...' ~ ~-~-.-~~
~
- -: -:.: -: ..:.::~.
• ••• III III ..
• • • • III III . .
• ~ • • III . . .
- • • • ~
• ... • • - IIIJIllJIllJIll_
- • • • JII JIll ...

• ~ .... - JIll . .
- •
•
~
•
•
•
•
•
~
• ... III
• - III . .
. . . . . III . . . .
... .II JIll . .
JIII-:.
234 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy -
-
-
-
•
•
•
•
••
•
•
. . . . III JIll
•
• III .... JIll . .
~
•
•
•
•
•
......
. . . . III . . .
....... III . .
. . . . III . . . .
......
JIll
JIll JIll
JIll
- ~ • • - III . .
- • • • • III JIll
• • • • III III . .
• ~ . . . . . . . . JIll . . . .
.... -....
- ...... JIll JIll ••
• ~ • • III JIll . .
• • • III JIll JIll •
. . .... -...:~
-.~
- • ~ .... JIll JIll
• ~ •• III JIll _
-
AEj(1}
- • -
-
--~.-
- • • . •. . .
~ ... ...
• .- - III JIllJIll
• III JIll •
....... .
(a) aEj(2) Levels for (b) - • ~ • ... .... III JIll . .
•
•
•
• • .-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
...
•
...
.II
III
-
JIll
III . . -
III . .
JIll JIll
. . - ...
i'o----=::::::::::--:;-."-'r:~::.........'r.';::~::::
• • • • JIll JIll
... - - . . . 1- ~ potnt nucleus

- -
j
i"'--
~ • A
r I
L
-
-
- • • ..
• •
• .......
. . III IIIJIllJIll
- .......
. . . . III JIll . .
III JIll . .
•••
."
,
...
-
... III JIll
III JIll . .
....
JIll
III : : .
JIll •
:~
~_
•
~
•
-- ....... ..
- • • .... JIll JIll
• • • ... III III ..
I - ·-......................
... -......-. -
- • • ...... JIll ..
-~
hv I - ... •
-
•
. . . . . . . . III . .-~
• . . . . III JIll . . .
III III JIll . .
I •
•
•
•
.........
•
•
•
. . . . III JIll
• III III . .
JIll JIll
-, " ••• ~
• L
1 -
-
......
•
•
~
-
• ...
•
•
•
III . .
III JIll . .
....... JIll JIll
• II JIll . .
• • II JIll . .
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
....
•
•
III
III
JIll JIll
JIll
- • ~ . . . . II JIll . .
I - - ,)}~:~:~:-~
........ --~ ...... .... ~:
-iE,(2)1-- I ::.."'.;:;:..."';:;......
""
~:::::m;..M«:
. . .
......... . ~.i'.W@
(A+1) , I .
·.......
· .·............. ..
· ...... . . . ....
::::::::~~~~~:.~~
VN , . .
· .......... .......
,""',·· .i'. 00...
,,,..... .i'·rm·
hv+[AE1(1)-AEt {1)] hv+[AEj (2)-AEt (2)]
.
.. :,>::~:~~~~~
·.; .,;..;..: . .. .."~~.xM·"..
..:
-: 1 I..... /::::::~~::W£w::
:::i-
• E •
· . . . .. . . .
.,' . ,'. . .
. . . . . . . . ...........
.i'~. ......
FIGURE 6.10 The isotope shift of atomic spectral lines. (a) The energy levels of the_ in~_#.#t~~ili~iW~
and final states of two different isotopes with mass nUITlbers A and A + 1 are shown .. Th-~:~~~~rd;
dashed lines show the position the levels would have if the nucleus was an infinitely ~YY.~;~~:~
point; the solid lines show the actual position of the levels which are shifted by a diffe~*~~~~~~it~j
1
amount for each isotope, and for each level. (b) Modification of the Coulolnb potentiru::.~t~;~~::W;~~
........
...,','',,.',,''..,"...r·m· m···
.. . ill··:
.. ..~.
· . . . .."~"··WJ··:
','.'. . ..i'.... ....' · . . .. ~
-. '. '. ~ .......... .........~.... ..J

· ........ "rh~ oJ
l/3 12 10.- 13 : <::::;;:~;:~~::~
ro -, A x. X em, -'-::~:}~:~~~w.~;?
·- -. ....
~~ . . . . ~~ . . . »~. . ..l
......... ......
. " . ". " '.~
~
~" ~
~
~
where A is the number of nucleons. (protons ~d ~eutrons) in the nucleus'MI@Mf

we see that tJ.ro / ro -==- tJ. A /3 A, which can be s I g m f i c a n t . : :}~~:&:~::
. ......... . . . .. ... ......~~~.:*JiJ:z.~~,
_·",." ~ ~~ . ~
-
·....-.
..........
......
. ... . %
.. ....
-
..... .
~
~
~
~~
~ ~
.;-
~
" ~
-.~ -.... ........

'
x·· . ~~
~ ~»
~
~
6.3.3, Measurement of the H-D Isotope Shift - - ....

• '- •••• ~ ••••• ~~ . . . . . . "~~J
..... .... ....
- , . , . . *.1".
~
• • • •~~ II1II...
~ .;-~ ~
~'
·.... .. ..· ........».

z·,
•
··........ .. .,
~
• ~ . . . . . II1II I ....
~ ~ ~ ~
--
·.... .. . ....... . ~
~
~
~ ~ ~
~ .;-~
~
The hydrogen-deuterium shift is quite large and can be measured with ar{i)!M@
instrument of modest resolution. The results presented here were obtained,::::::::::?:::::
........ ... . . - - ~ ~ " ~~
with a Jarrell-Ash grating spectrometer. A schematic of the spectrometer i~f(~~~~~~~~

shown in Fig. 6.11 and COnfOl111S with the generic spectrometer design intrt1~(~~j~r.*~~
duced in Fig. 5 ~ 13. Instead of lenses~ focusing mirrors are used to image th~i>~i~~~~§~
entrance slit onto the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The advantage of usiti~;:H@f
a PMT is that very low levels of light can be detected so that the entranG-¢(}~~t~~
and detector slits can be set to very narrow width. The grating had 63Q<~Ji~~~;~
rulings per millimeter, and the focal length of the lens was f = O~5 m~ Th~f~~~~~~@
spectrum was viewed in second order with a resolution ~A /}... 2 x 1O,-;·~.<{~m~: "'J
The angle of the grating was computer controlled so that the speed at which(}j~~~~~~ • I ........ ~
I ~ • • ~~ . .
• I • ~... ••
....... .
• I I • .... ••
• • I ....... ~
I I • • ~ . . ..
• I ~ ...... .
, ~
I ...... ~
I
I I ....... .
I . . . . ~. . . _
. .... ..
, I • ... ••
I ~ ........ _
I • .... • ..
I ~ .......... _
, ~
I I ••••• ~
, I . . . . . . . ..
I ~ ... ~ • • •
I ~ ....... .
I I . . . . ~_
, I • ..... ..
I I • ..... ••
,
',~
I
........x;..-
~
... ~
. . . .~ •
· --.........
··x.
I I •
I I ~ .... ••
I I •• • ••
· I
,
I
~
........ .
I I ... ~ •
I I • • .... •
I ~ ......... '
I ~ ..... _. •
6.3 HY ller/ine Structufe 215
Top Vlew
f.;~:"':::::::::::::::-_:_: J O ~:,.
\ .. :::::::::::::~~1~~~~~~1~~·~~'___ '_ - D Pm
Vlcwpon
FIGURE 6. 11 Scbematic layout of the high-resolutioo Jarrell~Ash grating specrrometer.
,
··'r-~--~----~----,
•
~ 3 Oelliarlum: ~ "' 655.77 nm
§
i> 2.5
" , Hydrogen: .\'- 650.94 om
•
~ 1.5
"
g,~,~,~-,~~~.~:--";;,;,".,""-:"~,~.,,;;=~~,,,"",:-----;,~,,;:.,o,,---'''',:-!,,
Calibrated wavelength (om)
FlGURE 6.12 The red Jine of th e Balmer series for a source oo nlaimng hydrogen and
deu terium oblicrvetl in high resolution. Th ~ absolute wavelength calibrntion is nOI exact bUI
Ihis bas insignificant effect on tile wHvelcngtfl difference between the two lines.
the spectrum was swept could be adjusted; slow speed for high resolution
and vice versa. Furthcnnore, the grating angle was calibraled to indicate
wavelength in nanometers.
For this experiment the source was a discharge tube containing deu~
terium and an admixture of hydrogen. The entrance slit wa<; closed to a
few hundred 11m, and the fi rst (red) line of the Balmer series (n; = 3,
n f = 2), A= 656.28 nm, was examined. The resulting spectrum is shown
in Fig. 6.12 where the hydrogen line (longer wavelength) is well sepa~
Taled from the de uterium line. Note that the absolute calibration of the
wavelength scale is off by almost 0.3 nm; this is not important iu the
present case where we are imerested in the wavelength difference.
·......... .
" .· . • . ......
. . ... .-.1":-=100000:
· ·...........
· ·..
· ............
. . ····:1:61
•
...
.....
....... ....
•
.
•
. . ..
•
•
•
•
•
OIl
OIl ..
OIl ..
..
• • • • • OIl ....
• • • ....... -OIl ..
. . ·.......... .
• • • • • OIl ..
. . ................... ~~
238 6 High-Res·Q,lutian Spectroscopy .......... . .

. . . .... ....
"" ..
··· .........
" • • • • .of . .
" • • ....... .of . .
........
· ·........
........
•
. ..
. . . . . . . of . .
.
··........ .
"
.....
·........
. . . .. ... .... .
· ........
• . . . . . . of . .
· ..
·.........
"
........ ....... ....

..
· ·........
In terms of the calibration we find that ··........ .. ....
......-..-..... ...
·
~
··...........
. .....
.
(
. ..
· . . . . ..... ..
~
· . ...... ..
····..........
.. ...... . ...
= 655.94 run
• • • .AI .. ..
AH ........
· · . .............
....... ....
.
···..·..............
....... . .....
.......
· . . . .
.......
.·........... ... ......
.. .. .... .. ....
· · ..
.
AD ~ 655.77 nm. .. ......

·· ·......... ..... :,.
..... .,.. ...
• ............ j
·· · ·........ .............. ........-...

· ......... .
• • • • A ... _ •
.
.. .. -
• • .II ..... _
'Convert the wavelength difference into frequency difference ·

· ·.........
. .
•
. ..
•
• • • • A ... _
••• A . . ...
...
. . . .. .... - .. . ..• .II ......... j
·· ........
• • .II A A ... . .
· . . ...... -
• .II • • .. ... ..
• • A .... ...
AD-AH •
·
• •• A
••• A
..........
..... ..
.... ..
-
VH --llD :-' c = -11.85 GHz, ·· .....
·
•
•
."............. . . ..
•
I
•
.II •• A .. .. ..
. . . . . A ... _
•
•
I
•
.II
.II
J
.II
•
•
A",
.......
.. .. •
.. • ... •
•
..
•
ADAH · . . .. .. .
M...
...
• • .II ..... .
...
::::::;~:~::=
. .. . ......
··.........
namely, a fractional frequency change ··.... .. ... .....
~ ...
• .II • • .. ... ; •
Wj...
~
...
·· .........
........... ..
• ••••••••••A••
· .. "..... ...
• • • "II .... .
~VH-D a'A
--',,- . - ., A
= --2.59 x 10
-4
. ·•.·•....•.....•...•....
.......
...... .....
····.........
.. ..... ~
~
.aI
VI) ···...........
.... ...
··.......................
· • • • .. .. .. • .... ~
.-rIIi J
From Eq. (6.27) we expect that .:: ::::=;~::~:~""""ii~~'

· • • ..... ',,!'l~ ..
·:::~:;:::~:~:m~..:
·:::::::::::~~~:
.... ~:--:
.·... .····Wh
. . . . ,.-.
• • • .•. . •. .... ....001•
~.....
WJ]~
JI
..........
· . . . . W'".
:.:.:.:.~.~..
~ ...
.:::::. . .:;::~:.. .~»~..

•• y ...
in close agreement (within 5%) with the measured value.

·
•
· • • .. .. ... •
.. . .
· ..•
.. ..
•
.
· • • • ...... ...
. . . .. .
. •
. . . . OIl •
. . . . OIl ...
• •
•
..
•
OIl •
OIl ...
~4
...
r......
~
...
·
:::::~~~~~~:Wj.~
. . . .. ... .
6.4. THE LINE WI. ITH ·'. --'............ 'W.,. • • • .o . . . . ~ .."'.....
:::::::::~~~ ~ft.~:~
··~·w
• • .,J
must be narrower than the separation between them. Before the advent of.:::/~;~~;~
to a remarkably narrow Width, and used for spectroscopic studles.«~~~~@~~

Spectral lines have a natural width given by::<{~~~~~
...
•
......
"' .. .".,. .
-'.' .....-....."'' '....,,:.
•
• • • • "' ........ l1li ..- ..
·
. ~."'''''''''
A '" ............ ..
/),. E 1 · ............. ..
hV = -h- -". . . . -2-rr-8--r-' (6 28)--:::::::::~::x.::~
". • "' .. "J"J""'" ~
L.l. • ';:::::=::::;:::X:;;:
· ...
............ :-:~··z.. ..•
· . . . .. .. - - . . "' . *. . '"
",
lifetimes are on the order of r > 10 8 s. Thus ::::::::::~::~

f"..J
··.........
..· .....
I
ill..
...
..............*.)1 I • • .. .. : - : : ..
..I".
l1li
. . · · . . ... m·.....
~
1 · .............
. . . .. :,.:.A,
• • • • .. ...
• .. .. ..... ".JII
..I ..•
......
...A,
A
..
tlv< ' 15 MHz. ...

· .
"'J
.........
···.........
... . ...... 0....
• . . . . . . . . . . ..I"
"" 27f X 10-8 ......

...'. ·· .,. ·. . . . .ili'......
·.:~:.:.~..X;.:. . .
~
, ..I...
•
· . .....
• •"
• •. •. ..•
.. ~ ~
• • ..I• ....1
In wave numbers we find 8.V < 0.05 m-l. However, external int1uences)}~~~~t:~~~
do broaden spectral lines considerably; the main causes are as follows;::::)~~~j .............~-.~
the source move in random directions with a velocity given by the<:::)~~;~~~~

•
."' ''··.. ....... ..m·'X. . .......
, . . . . . . .~• ..I
~*
,,
,
··',........
•
... ....... . xx;........... ·..
• .. • ..I ..
.' '·
..· . .
.....
· '..... . ..
m.
'.' , ~ ~
..... ..... .
· , ..I .....
. .....
...
. ' , ' ....... ::::;....A
,
• " ' • .... ~.A
· , ...... ~
··:: :::::~~m·~·:~
'· · ............
. ..................*.
....... '. .... ... ~.
.. . .....
• .. • ~ .. • ..I ..
~
,', .
,,
• '_ ........" .JII"-...
6.4 The Line' Width '1J7
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Consequently, the wavelength emitted

in a transition of the atom is Doppler-shifted; this results in a broadening
of the line, whicb can be sbown to have a half-width
~v = 10-6 If, (6.29)
where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins, and A is the atomic number

of the element. Doppler broadening is most serious for the light elements
and in sources that operate at high temperatures. For example, in an arc
discharge operating at T = 3600 K, a hydrogen line of A = 500 run will
have a Doppler width of 36 GHz, which will mask any hyperfine structure.
For heavy elements, as in Hg (A "" 200), /}" v = 3 GHz, which is still quite
broad.
(b) Pressure (or Collision) Broadening. When the pressure in the source
vapor is too higb, the atoms are subject to frequent collisions, which in a way
can be thOUght of as reducing the time interval /}" r entering into Eq. (6.28).
(c) External Fields. Magnetic or electric fields produce Zeeman or Stark
splitting of the components, resulting in effective broadening of the line.
Electric fields of 1000 V/cm can cause a broadening of tens of gigahertz.
Cd) Self-Absorption and Reversal. TIlls phenomenon is most pronoun-
ced with resonance lines. As the radiation emitted from the atoms in the
.. middle of the source travels through the vapor, it has a probability of
being absorbed that is proportional to the path length it traverses and to
the absorption cross section; this will be strongest in the center of the line
and weaker in the wings. The result shown in Fig. 6.13a is that the line
becomes "squashed" in the center; that is, it is broadened.
(a) (b)
flGURE 6.13 Broadening of 1I spectral line due to self-absorption in the source. The
solid cUlVe is the emiUed line. the dashed cnlVe represents the part of the radiation that
is absorbed. and the dash-dot cUlVe shows the transmitted line, which is the difference of
the two former curves. (a) Normal absorption. and (b) strong absorption especially in the
cenlral region leading to self-reversal.
"
·.....
· , ...--""....
.... -.,-·z ·• ....
.........
"
,
,
, . .. .."""".. .-.
, ......
,
..
,f
..
•
•
..
• ""
.JI '"" . .
""
..... "".
• , .. .. .JI '"" . .
~
·",,_ ."
.
"" " '.
, , ..... '""""..:~
-
.. ....
·· ....... .... .. .......
.
""...••••
..
""
, ........
6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy · ·, ... .... ...""'""""'""..~
238 • ,
, .. .. .. .. ,..
,f
"" """"..
.. .JI .. "" . .
·............""""""..•E~
. ·· ..........
, ........ ....
~
"
, , , , ...
•
•
..
·· ,. .... ........ -.. '""'""~:-
,
...
..
..
..
..
.JI
.JI '""
.JI ..
~
· . .. ..... . ...""
..
• , ....
• .JI .. '"" ...oJ
::~ CJJ
If the outer layers of the source are much cooler than the middle ones~·tht~:~::••• • • .. . . . III
• 'J", ...."'.'
...
width of the particular energy level (due to the Doppler effect) is smalt~~~I~I:::~
-:~ •
in the outer layers and absorption takes place only at the central frequeri~¥~~~~I::~
m Flg. 6.13b. This effect IS very pronounced m the sodIum D lines, rujd::~~:::~j
double~ struC~ ~at 1S frequently nns~en f~r h~erfine structure. O~~~~~~~@@

can venfy the ongm of the effect because it vanes With the voltage usedl(j::~:::~
........••••;:::::: ' ...
excite the source.. '<}:::::.i'w.:~
· ...... . ..
•
....•• •••••••
•
•
..........
·•••
··~wmm·"
~."j
. . . . of ..
. . . . of ..
of ..
:
~
".J,.
.......
.'
•
· .. .. . •
•
•
•
.. of .. •
•
• ...
..
..
. . . of
.. ... of ..
....
...
~'"
...
•.
.. I
.~
.. of .. • .. • •
6.5. THE ZEEMAN EFli'ECT OF THE GREEN ·..... m..

• • • ... of ..
• . . . . . . of
· . . .. ....
· . . ... . .
.. ...
-
.~
LINE OF 198Hg
•
::::A
••••••• •.t'..
• • .. ......... .J-;
·'"...."....
-::··:.:::~~:~.~m.~~.J
............... ~...
......
· .......• @.~.~
•
....
. . . of '.
·. . . . .. m··.r
~.~
• . . . . . of c..
6.5.1. Equipment and Alignment ···:·:·~·:· m·~

• .. .. of .. ..
···...........
.. .. .... .........
... ....
"
· :::::~;::~~
..~~.
..••• '.,;.;.t/.
We now discuss the observation of the Zeeman effect on the A. = 546.1-mnWi@?

the mercury sp~trum, a~d, the e~s~ Wlth, which 11 can be obse~ed. In ~:t~
external magnettc field, It IS split Into nIne components, as discussed In(}:~~:::
detail in Section 6.2.2, In the present observations, a polarizer parallel toi?~~~~:~I~
the magnetic field was used, so that only three of the nine components (the{~~~~~~~~~
rr light) appeared. Furthermore, natural mercury exhibits in the green line a(}~r~~~~ =-:.. ,. , .. • .11 . .
large number ofhyperfine structure components, and each of them forms ai{J~t~~~
Zeeman pattern. To avoid a multiplicity of components in one spectralline,,>~:~:~~:~;
a separated isotope of mercury was used as the source. 198Hg is well suitedi~y~~~t~~~
for this purpose since I =- O~ and therefore it exhibits no hyperfine structure./)I~~~I~I
The optical system used for this investigation is shown in Fig. 6.14/:'~}~~~~~~~~
........ ,.. ,
The Fabry-Perot was crossed in the parallel-beam method with a smalt:'\J~~~~~~;

constant-deviation spectrograph (see Chapter 1). The etalon and lenses',\~~~~f~~~~
are all mounted on an optical bench to which the spectrograph is rigidly ::'<~~~~~i
attached. The pair of lenses L1 fonns the light from the source into a:'i:/~~~®I~
parallel beam, while the pair L2 focuses the Fabry-Perot ring pattern onto . :')~~~i~
the spectrograph slit; the effective focal length of L2 is 8 em, and a further..·::)~~~i§~i
magnification of 2 takes place in the spectrograph. .:;:)j~~~i~
.... ...... , ~
The discharge tube is mounted vertically, as is the spectrograph slit; the·))tf:~

slit width was 1 mm~ It is clear that in this arrangement not only is the ring}~~~§~~~
pattern focused onto the spectrometer slit but also the image of the source'::~)§iE~~
A sheet of Polaroid film that could be rotated at will was used as a polarizet. ,:)I*~~I
. ..... . .
,
, ..... .
'
•
.. 4Ii..--... ..
wi .. ..
,
... ... , .01 . . . . '"
, .... .
,
, ..
"--"
III .. ...
... .-. , III ..... .
........
,, • III wi ...
""
, , .oI...--.. .
, • .01 .. ...
,
,.. ."--
01 .. ...
, ,
01 or...
,
, •
, , . . . III •
,
, ~ 01 .. ..
'
,
..
..
..... .
01 ..--...
. . . 00111
01 ..--..
, .01 . . . . .
.. 01 ..--...
. ..
I . . . . . . . . ...
, , 01 .. ..
,.. ... I
........
..... ..
, , • 01 01"--"
, ,
. . ......
.. .. I
~ .. -'
6,5 The Zeeman Effect of the Green Line of 198Hg 239
Spectrograph slitln ~L1 ~ Source

focal plane of eta Ion ""'"
projection system
Etalon ---Q __ j
Polarizer "-
~ __
{]-~~~~ +:;PP.:
T
O:~~; t--
de:vialion
,prism
:i ~'jJ;j
Doublets
--+5 -'1;'_+__----,
sm to admit only
/
, : dislortion<1 % light produced in

: : uniform field Fleld-current
'TII? conlrol
El(citation coli
II
.------L- Position of (to Lt. oscilla/or)
photoplate
FIGURE 6.14 Experimental arrangement used for observing the Zeeman effect with a
. Fabry-Perot etalon, crossed by a constant-deviation prism spectrograph.
FIGURE 6.15 Optical arrangement for aligning II. Fabry-Perot etalon. Rough adjustment
is made by viewing the image formed by L2. Final adjustment is made by viewing the
etalon from the point F (or F').
The spacing of the Fabry-Perot etalon is t = 0.5002 em; namely, the

free spectral range is FSR = 30 GHz. It is important to adjust the plates
carefully for parallelism. This can be done either by viewing through the
spectrograph with a frosted glass in the focal plane, and adjusting for the
best quality of the pattern, or by a much more sensitive arrangement as
shown in Fig. 6.15. A very small aperture Oess than 1 mm in diameter)
is placed at the position of the source and illuminated with an intense
sodium lamp. The Fabry-Perot plates are adjusted to be normal to the
optical axis by bringing the image of A reflected by the etalon back onto
A. Next, L3 is adjusted until a series of multiple images of A appears when
the observer is located at I; the plates of the etalon can then be roughly
adjusted for parallelism by bringing all the images into coincidence. The
final adjustment is made by removing L3 so that the observer locates his
eye at F (or a mirror can be used); then fringes of equal width do appear
, '.:':':':.:.:.:.m.--.r.r~
- ~..r~ . . . . . III III
• . . . . . III . . . .
, :::::::~:::::~~
'.:::}:;:;::~~~ ~ ~
240 6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy
-
:.:.:.~.:.;.:~~
"
•
· ......... '
• • • III
:::::::::;:;;;o~~
,.• A.' .... ..
, ......
_ ••• . . . . .AA ...........~
• . . . . . . . .II . .
~
:':':':';';';0w.~
..·.........
.............
-.. . . :x'.i'
• . . . . . . . .II ....
• . . . . . . III . . . .~
• .. • • - III . . . .
-
.'.' .·.·.·0 om.'»
_
. . ... ..
r' ' ,• ' ••••• A •...........
·...............
·., ....
• • ~. . .~'
·.·.·.·.·0 %
.... ....
~
1.6 - "
-:<.:-:.:
I, •••• a
. .:. .:.a:~
.................. ~~
- ............. ..
.... ::::
.........rz
- - .............~
....... III ... ... : ....
• A . . . . . . . .II . . . . ..~
1.6
, "
·· ..............
•
•
• • • • • o ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .j
•••
~
III ...... , . ,.~
,
,J",~.
- -. \ ·......................
- ........................" OIl.. .
. . ... ...... ..,.,,.~

- ..............
· .............. ..
•
. . . . . . . . . . . . . lIJ
~
1.4 •• - ................- ......~.J'

· . . . . ........ .. ..-~.
-E 1.2 - ·...................
. .....
• ... .II ......
• ............
-·...........
• • • .. ... ....
I11III:2
· . . . ... .........r·.
",.
",.
...... ........... ... ..

D- ~
··· ·..............
...........
•
•
•
• ...
• ... • ....... II1II ...... ..
• ......... III ......
~
« ~
-- 1 ...........
...... m
" ::>·;::;:::::;oo
..··...........
....•
. ...
"
..~~
'.-....s:;::
• . ~. .... . . . .
....... J
. JfIII~
~
~ .-~.
E ··..... . .- ... ::::

..........
~
. . .. ~
·."'··m
'
.- .-...
~ · . . ..........
· ·.... ... ::;::
.
8 0.8 ·, ....
.....
,
.
. ..,"'.
. .
..............
.- .
.- .- . .
.. ' .•••••• '.I'••. ....
'f
X
t.*
. ~
....... """ .
.... .r•
.
· .....- ' ' ~
.....••.•• ', ~~
0.6 · .::::::;~:::~~~~
· .... .=::::: ~
0.4
:::::;;;~::·::~m~~
· .... ""
.', '
..•
............
· . . . ... ~~
~
~
0.2
.' '::::;;::;~:~::w.»
.....••••.... .
···.."......'". ......... ,--
· ......... "' ~~
· . "'....
.":":.;.:.;.:111~@~
·......•.
........
" '"
. . ... .%
~...:.
,',"'''' ~
· .... ' ...
· . " • • • '-4
~.=--....:
00 2 4 6 a 10 12 14 . )}f~~~~m
Magnetic fie~d B (kG) .. ·::};;;~~;~~
· ....
•••• • • Jr,.r', ~
"'~. ~
FIGURE 6.16 Calibration of the electromagnet used in the Zeeman effect expeI'i:meri(J}II~~~~
The magnetic field is plotted against current; note the saturation at high fields. »~~
·.........
"....... ,........;..... ...*x:~.,...
.···.........•••••••
....'''''''% '" :
'.' .......••••...@ • '" ~ ,
..··..........
.......
". ..........
. ......0.
. ... '.J
·
• • ••••
"
".
'
~
,;/
parallel.to the base ~fthe wed~e fonned by the two plates~ As the plates at~)I~i~~~i
moved into parallelism, the fringes become broader and finally the whol~~\~~~~~
image of the aperrure A seems to have a unifonn illumination (bright 9~j:}~;~:~~
dark depending on the exact value of no = 2t fA). It is equally importail~((f~~~~ · • " • • .... ".J"
that the ring pattern be in sharp focus at the plane of the photographic plate~;{:j:~:~{:
For this experiment Kodak Royal-Pan film was used. ';:'ii\f~~~~t
The electrodeless discharge tube was placed in a magnetic field. A smalJ~{:~:~:~~ . . .. .. . •
· , , I ......... ...
iron core electromagnet powered by a 220-V DC supply was used to prQ:~~}~:j:~:~:

duce the field. The diameter of the pole faces was only 1~ in., and a smaq?{~~~~~
gap (! in.) was used. By tapering the pole faces, higher magnetic field~\)I~i~~~
can be achieved but this reduces the effective area of the field as well a$:'::}:::~
... ..... , " ,.
the homogeneity. The magnetic field was measured with a "flip coil" and}\~~~~
the calibration of field against current is given in Fig. 64169 It is seen th~t(~I~i~a
field strengths of 1.2 T could be reached. . <»~~~~
- .....
..... .. . "' ...
.....
.........
,
, , , , .,
,
, ,, ,
.......
......
....... ..
.
........
" , ··
, ,
.. 01 ..
, ,
, ........ ..
6.5 . 2. Data on the Zeeman Effect
,,,
, ' · · " 0'"1 .
"."
"
....
..
.. ..
....
•• ,1rol.
"'
....
, " , ,
, ,
, ,
,
""
I
"
,
,
..
... .
. . . . . . . . . ..
I
. . . 0101.
I
. . . . . ..
....... .
, I I . . . ~.
I I •• '" .. .
II . . . . . . ..
, I . . . . . . OIl
I • • ... .
• I .. • '" .. ..
The data presented below were obtained by students. Figure 6.17 shows th¢<J~~
546.1-nm Hg line photographed at various magnet settings. As explaine~)t~~ I
I
I
.. .. •
.....
III
I I •••
" , .. 01.
I I .....
I • • 01 •
I • '" • I
...... I
.
, • .. .. I
"'.
I ..... .
, I .... .-
..... ...
I ...... .
, "."
,
,,
, ,
, ,
, , .. '" .-
,
til
.....
,
,
....
•
..
'"
'"
til
.....
.. ...
, , '" J • • •
, ,
, ,
,
'"
, , '"'" ....
, ,
J
......
.
... .
,
,
,
, , '" '"
, , , • • til
, , , ..
J
J
,
••
.....
•
.
'".
....
.......
~
til ....
6_5 The Zee man Effect of the Gr een Line of t98Hg 241
(.)
(b)
(oj
(d)
(.)
r:
:.~j.: ::
RGURE 6. 17 Fabl)'-Perot patterns showing the Zeeman effect of the green lille of rner-
CUI:)'. (See I.h~ Iext for odditional details.) (a) No magnetic field applied. (b-e) A magnetic
field of prog;reMivcly greater strength is applied. Note Ihe splitting of the original line into
(.
triplet of increasing separation.
r..
II.
;;
~r
;;::. earlier, the source contains a single isotope, and the polarizer allows only
.:.. the observation of IT light. We note that the fringes are rather broad, but
r~::-· it can clearly be seen that when tbe field is applied the single-line pattern
F breaks up into a triplet, the separation between the components of the triplet
(;:: becoming larger with increasing field.
i)
,::.. The initial step in the redu(;lion of the data is the measurement of the
V diameters (or radii) of the rings. To this effect a traveling microscope was
W used, and readings were taken directly off the plate: care must be taken
~:: to ensure that the travel of the microscope is indeed along the diameter of
@: the rings and that the crosshairs are properly oriented, When the fringes
~:: in the pattern are as broad as those in Fig. 6.17, it is much more accurate
~:: . to measure the two edges and take the average rather than try to set the
r
I. crosshaini in the center of the fringe. The ring radii squared in the absence
of the field provide the calibration of the data.
[
~: .
~::.
~::
~:-
-·~·
• ..... III JIll . . . . --z
....
• • •
... III JIll
• • • • III JIll . .
- • • ..... III . .
-.~.-
• • • ... JIll JIll
• • • • III JIll
• ~ ..... III . . . .
- • ~ ...... JIll . .
• • • ... JIll JIll
- • • • III JIll . . .
- - ~ .... III .. .
- - • ~ .... JIll ..
• ~ . . . . III JIll
242 6 High-ResoluHon Spectroscopy

- • • ~ ....... III . .
• • ~ • • III . . . .
.. ........ ..
• - • • ... - JIll JIll
- • • • • III JIll •
- • ~ ..... JIll . . .
• • • • ... III JIll

• ~ • • .... JIll . .
- •
. . . . III . . ~
• • • • - III . .
• • ~ ..... III . .
• • ~ ... III JIll . .
- • ~ . . . . III III
- • ~ ..... III JIll
• • • • ....... JIll •
-
-.~.-
•
•
•
•
•
. . . . III JIll
• III III . .
......
0.4 - -
-
•
•
•
•
•
~
~ ...... JIll . .
.,......... -........
• • JIll JIll
• III JIll . .
• • ..... III ..
• • ~ • III III . .
• . . . . . III JIll . .
-. -:::::::::::::wm
... -.
. . ...... . .
• • • ..... III . .
0.3 --.~
-
•
•
•
•
•
-
. . . . JIll JIll
• JIll JIll
• • ..... III ..
~sa
-- - •
•
.. ~
•
~
•
~
~
•
•• -
......
JIll . .
. . . . JIll JIll
•
JIll JIll
III JIll
• •- III . . ~
- •
... III JIll ~
- •
. . . . III JIll ~
- •
• III JIll . . ~
0.2 -
•
•
•
~
•
•
. . . . III JIll
• -
• ... III III
III
0.1 -···········~~ma
• • • ... JIll ..
-
- • • • III JIll III
• ~ ..... III . .
..
I - ~:::::~:::::: ~:::::
• ~ . . . . III ....
E
• ~ • III JIll . . •
_0,.. a •
· · .... .. .....
.. .
I • .,jI II ..~
.
...............
···.......
......-..-..
-
. ~
.
.. ::::::~;~;::~~
-0.2 .:::::~;:~;;:@§~
::::::
.. ::~:~
. . ...mam·:
•
:.-:. • • .. III •
· .........
.'·..................
.... III...:=::;:..
• • • .. III • III
---0.3
· ......
.. :.:.~.. :.....~'Y-
......~:
~ ...
· .. _.. Z .......:..:
-.:.: -;. ;.;~:-~>.-:
:-: -: .:"~""//":::'
.:.:.:.~.;.~.........~
-0.4 I . . . . . - _ - - ' - - " _ - - ' I - -________--..l"---_......L...-_----'_ _- - ' - _ - . . . £ . .' ...........:.:.r. . ...:.:
.
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 }}~~~x::::::
· :::::: ::~~$}
Magnetic field B (kG) · .-:.;-:.~.~~~~.:
...............-~.::::..
FIGURE 6.18 Results obtained on the Zeeman effect of the green line of mercury. (se~i;i!!!w!j
smgle line) IS plotted agamst the magnetic field.}il~:~j
-:.:.:,~~~~.
· .• •,;.-y.....:••
-~::::;:~~::~
were analyzed, and it was found that the central line is not shifted4 However;~>~:~:~:~j
the following shifts are observed for the outer rings for the 1.0-A data: ~~i{~~lli~~~ *..
-
··...
- -. I
. ..... . ....
.. %:
I • ... ... ......
»~.
"*""'
z '..'.
• I • • .... ......
~ ~.
1~.JIIj
--........··x. -...
- I • • .. .. ..
~v+ = 6.81 GHz 6. v_ = 6.60 GHz~

- - ••
- I ....
I • .II .... .. ....
- I ~"~ ».~'
- I • JIIj .... .._
~ .II ... I ........
I • .II .... .. ....

I ...... .. _ •
I J.II .;..:.~
- I • ... .. ....
_ J.II.... ... . . _
- I .... I11III . . . _
, ~ .II ...~ I11III .. ....
The complete set of data is plotted in Fig. 6418, and we see that as predicted·\~~~~~~~~i
the spacing varies linearly with the field, y i e l d i n g \ @ J
I ......... ..
• .II . . . . . .~ .. ~
I •• "~. ." JII
(6 30}, II.·.....X.. ........,

':<:;:~:::
~v = (7.2 GHz) x B(T). 4 , : .>:.:.~.-:~:.
~~ ~
I
I
I
I
~
~~
I I · .......
.......
•
.....
.....
...
...
»~_
~
..
.. ..
_ ~
-.'
_
..
The green line of Hg (546.1 run) connects the 3 S1 state to the 3 p2.:i}~~~§:
Its Zeeman splitting is shown in Fig. 6.19 where the g factors have beenHfW
calculated according to Eq. (6.17). Since the polarizer was set to select:· . ?@i
only components arising in transitions with 6.m = 0, we expect to observe:.}~~~.: I ...... .r
only the three central components, which will be separated b y ) @ i j

,"'......
. .»..,. . . '
·
, ,.......
..
, I.
~.
I. •
..,
.. I
tLB 1 J.LB · ~.
= --,
I ..... .. I
= -. (gi - gf)B
, • III ....
~lJ B. (6.31) ::}*~:'

h 2 h ,
,
,
I
I
~
I
I
........
.... . .
.......
.....
III . . ...
III . . ...
I
~•••
I, .......
,
,
,
I
I.
.......
• III
•
..
...
I
· ....
.... ..
I .... II ..
·
, ....... I
I .... ...
I ..... ..
I. • ...
''''~.
,'~~.i.~..... ,
I I
I • .r....
· ..
I I III • • ,
I~ ..... ~. . . . ,
.r....
.... .
I •
.... ...
· . "...........
,
I
.. .
I
,
...
III
,.~
~.
...
.,
,
. . '~
"·::~;x·
., ,......:~
,
....... ~
6.6 Saturation Absorption Spectroscopy of Rubidium 243
mF+1
."
3S, _ _ _....,(_
- o g=2
" -1
/ mF+2 ~
// +1
/
//
3P2 ----<~~- o g=~
",,"- -1
\. -2
Ilm=O
Llm=±1 (j
FIGURE 6.19 The Zeeman multiplet splitting of the 546.1-nm green line of Hg. It arises
from a 3 Sl to 3 PI transition.
By comparing with the experimental result ofEq. (6.30), we obtain

J-LB = 5.95 x 10- 11 MeV IT
in good agreement with the accepted value of
J-LB = 5.79 X 10- 11 MeV IT.
From these data we conclude that indeed spectral lines are split into com-
ponents when the source is placed in a magnetic field. Further, the splitting
observed was in excellent agreement with the theory of the anomalous
Zeeman effect; the normal Zeeman effect can be excluded. since the energy
. difference between the components of the line was not J-LBB but !J.LBB;
compare to Eq. (6.1).
6.6. SATURATION ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY

OFRUBIDIUM
. 6.6.1. Introduction
. We mentioned in Section 6.4 that if an intense spectrailine is passed through

a region of dense atomic vapor of the same element it may become absorbed
·.'"•..if.,..,,,,, "" .. .. .
........... ---~
. .........,-. ."'"....
···......
"
· ·..... ..... .
· . .. .. """"... ... .
'"
'"
, .........
, ....... . ...
• , , f ...... ..
·......
"
, ., ...........
. "" ... ....
. , , .... -. ..
"" . '".
ill , . . . . . . . . ..
244 6 High-Resolut;on Spectroscopy , ·, ......

.......
.. -"" .
·, .·, .... ...........
.. -"" ""
, ,J .. .. .. "" ..
. •
· , .......
·
· ..
. ..... ""'". ..
.. -"" .. ..
,
,
,J
,J
..
..
,.
..
..
..
'"
..
..
· , ., . .. ........
.. "" "" ....
, ,J ,J ,. _ "" ..
• ,J ,J .........
l' ......
'" _ "" ..
at the center of the Doppler pattern and develop self-reversal (see Fig. 6 .. 11,)~~~~~~~.
:.
· ,.t' .... "'."""
We can take advantage of this effect to make measurements that are ftee~~:~:~:· · ..... .. "" "" ~
from the Doppler effect . <{~~~~~~ ~
frequency_ This is easily achieved with many lasers and in particular wiih~t~~~a~
diode lasers as discussed in the following section. The light (the pu:rlitk~~~~~~~ :
beam) is incident on a vapor cell and tuned in the region of a strong liij~~~~~~:-..!W~
from the ground to an excited state. If one monitors the transmitted light':~~~~~§WI.
as shown schema~ca11y m F1g. 6~20a, will be obse:ved. . :\)~~§~:.m:~

. Next we ~e ~ght.from the sa~e source and ?IT~ct It through.th~ c~~~~~~§;Wj:
probe. beam, the e~perim~~tal arrangement being as. shown in Fig. 6.2~,~jm~
The Slgnal at Dz wIll exhibIt the same general behav10r as DI except th~~:;:~~
there will be a sharp spike at the center of the profile: see Fig. 6.20b. )8~~§W?J
.' .:-~. :·:·:~"7~""""'/."
7...... E~..:
:.:.:.;.:::~
• • • II • ...
'.
··::::::-:-:.~.:.:.o:
::~=::==x~~~x:
· .........ffj'
(a) (b) ·· •
.......... .•
.. • .. ".J" ..
• • II •
. . . . . . . Wj.
~
:: :::::~::.::.. ~~
.........;
· ................
_ _ _ _ _ _+--_ _ _ ~--:
.VI". . ..•. . ..~.
·<:::;::::~ 00·:.. '.~ ~ ~..
A •
::·::::;;::;;.~:
.. . . . . ..
. . .- ..
· • .. • .... • ~.. J
... .
III .... ..
• • ..II ./
· .·... .. ....... ...

• .. • ..It • ..
" ••• III .. .../
• .. .. "It • ..
.... ....
• • .. ..II III • .... ..
· . .. .. . . .. .. .
• ... - .. .... . . II
• • .... ..II • • ..
• .. .. .... . . . . III
,
• . . . . III ..II .... .. ~ ""
· . .. .. ... ..
•
· ..... ""...
•
• • •
..•
•
.. ..
. . . . III
.. "" A
•
....
.. ..
..
~
.i
· . . .. ........ ~:. ...

• • • •
, . -..
..· >;.:.:.;
. .. . ~...
, ·, ......
. .... .;.;.;.:.;.:~~....
~
V- · ·':::::;:::;~:oo··:
...... ....
..... . ~
FIGURE 6.20
probe beam. ·.....
··..'". . . .....
···W·
.. ..
. .
::::::::::;:."" ~':
_ ~.
... .. ... .
·
·
··....
..
~
, ~.~.
.......... ....
' ......• .....J" .J"••
· ... .. ....
~~
. · ....
· ·'·.· .......
. . ..
.
'
..
...
-r-....
"
.
...
~
~.
~
~~~
~'.-
'
....... ........""joj. ....••. .

........
· , ..........
· · .•••
·.·~ ""'rx~III
,
· .... ..... .
Laser
· · ....
,
· · , ......
. . .......
. ........
...""''''' ...
"
'"
~.
~
~
~.
.
,
.........
~
Grating · · ............. .. '''''~
spectrometer ··, .......

...
....
· · .... -. ...
.... "" ..
...
....... ..
*-- .....
~
~.
...:
~.
'
....
~
......... '
' ~~
~
~
~~
~'-Ji~~
ceo · ... ....
.. ' ....... .......
• • • • • .. .. •
~
J"'"..
Input " • • ~~otI, ....
camera · ... "'" .

· .....1'.%
': ::}::~:..row.m,lf'
Glass slide ~.
PeriSCtJpel--~------+--~~ Rb · .::;:;;;,::::w
:-.:
D2····· ....· ... . . .. . II
mirror ..........---.. .
Doppler broadened
absorption
· ·· ......· · · .. . m
~.
· . . . .. ..
· . . .. ..---.
. . . . . . m;
· ........ .
" • • • .M
. . . . . .. . ~
FIGURE 6.21 Schematic layout of the saturation absorption experiment. · ::::::;:::.::~
·:-:·..'·:...·....;·.... ..m
· ,
m ..---
~~
:::::~
·.:~.':;:~:i~~~~oo~
,· · . . w
. ....~.....
. .',', .... ~~
~
&.6 Satur~tion AbsorptiDn Spectroscopy of Rubidium 245
Let us examine what bappens when the pump beam of frequency 1.1+
(refer to Fig. 6.20a) is incident on the cell: it excites atoms with a particular
velocity v+ moving toward the wave vector of the laser beam. When thc
pump has frequency 1.1_ it excites atoms that move in the same direction
as the wave vector kp with velocity L . At IIQ the excited atoms have no
velocity component along kp. The probe beam haC) the same frequency
as the pump at all times but its k vector is opposite to kp. Thus when
v/. = v+. the atoms excited by the pump cannot absorb pbot on~ from the
probe since. they are moving in the v+ direction. namely along the probe
wave vector; similarly when VL = 1.1 _ . However, when VL = VO the atoms
that could absorb the probe beam are already in the ext.."i tcd state due to the
presence ofthc pump beam. As a result there is less absorpuon and a spike
appears in the profile when v sweeps through va. The spike is very narrow
as compan~d to the Doppler profile.
The situation becomes more complicated when there are several lines
(that is, hyperfine structure) under the Doppler profile. For a single line of
frequency va we found that the spike appears at "0. Por two lines present
at VI and 1.12. one will see spikes not only when the laser frequency reaches
l7
VL = Vt , V2 bur also when
(6.32)
Such spikes are "crossover" lines and are often stronger than tlle direct
li[lt:-S .
Saturation spectroscopy can be easily observed in rubidium, cesium,
and sodium and is used to lock lasers to a narrow frequency. For a practical
17Note [bat ifforthe laser frt!Juency VL the Doppler shift (for !he pump beam) by II. ChL~S
of alOms with velocity vir is v" , then the slate thOl is eJ(ciled has frequeucy VI wbere
VL + V(> = VI .
For the probe beam the effective frequency (for this same class of sloms) i.l.
If this frequency happens to correspond to another atomie transition. say at frequency Ill.
then the sbsruprion will again be saturated Therefore the eondiLion is
VL-Va =U:2
as given by Eq. (6.32).

.. '
·.............. . .
~
·· ••..••........ •
~ ,
· ·· .,...
•
.
· . , ... " ....
. .. .. .
·· ··.' ,...........
,
246 6 Hi gh -Res Q 'u t ion Spee tr 0 S cop Y ·· ..,•..,..

· . .. ... . •
· .......... .
•
· . .. ...
· ·.... ... ..
· .• .. • .•
•
· •.• .•...
•
• • • •
• • •
apparatus that can be used in a teaching laboratory; Thorlabs Illar~<~~:~~

complete setup to demonstrate the effect. An excellent description '6'\~~~~
experimental details can be found in a classic paper by K. B. MacA :,;", l<I'~ · ,,'.'. -' "..t'
A~ Steinbach, and C. Wieman, Am. 1. Phys. 60, 1098 (1992). '/{:. ,.~. .
. · ,
..
...
. "
· ·· , ,.. .. .......
• , .. ..... . • .oj
· • • •• •• r;t
•• •• ••
. ·
·
••• • •
,
· •,· •,•• • •
• ..,
•• •• •
6.6.2. The Rubidium hfs Spectrum ·· •.·•... •......••.....•..
. ... . ..
I"
· ..
~
·
· ., ... .'.
... • I •
~
.~.
.....'
··........
. ...... ~
'
'
.' :.; . ,
Rubidium is an alkali (Z =
37) with a single 58 valence electron
2
O~,~~~!gt
'.' .~
the closed shell of krypton (n = 1, 2, and 3 fully filled, 4s 4p 6). N~., .• ~

rubidium has two isotopes .}~-:..:::,
·•'.• •.
•
•
~
·.
· .•
• • • •
I~~
•
with nuclear spin ··'. · ..'.. .

••
............. •
• · •.••.. '.. •.
··... '. .
1 -1
•
- 2~
•
··.... ..."'.' ,-
• • .. • ... ; I••';
· .... . . .;.:;
,-~.
• • • I ... ,
'.~
•··•..•..•..... ••. ..-:.
••
In the absence of nuclear spin the ground state is a 1Sl/2 state and th~<~::"~~
excited states are 2 Pl/2 and 2 P3/2. When the nuclear spin is inc 11{1P.~~~.'·~~::-:'~·:·
· :-:
energy level diagram is as shown in Fig. 6.22.. )j~:.:.:._,
We will work with a single isotope, 85Rb, and consider the trnns ~.• "~~
from the ground state to the P3/2 excited state. In this case the ground ~:.~~::~~;
..........
• • •
· ..
,
.......
' . : ..
· .. .
....
• i .... - .... -
.. i....... ~
r-..
· · ...
· . .
-.. .- 'r.
· .. ... .._.
.......
-:/
· ... .
.
~ ~
- .... -
·
• •
·, i
~
•
_
·• • • •
•
. .
• • i .........
-
~
....... •....
• •••••••
"F-4 ..sa:
F=3 · · . • • •
• • • •••
.·...........
121 MHz 267 MHz · , .. ... ·...........
.. I
5P 312 63 MHz
,,.
• 3
5P312
- 157 MHz
2 ·
· · , .. - -
· • • •
' , .. .. ...
• • .. ••
..·'.. .. .....
· .. .
.
•
....
' .. - - 2 ')iF
1
· • • • •• ~.' ,
· . .. ...
............
· . .. .
29 MHz 72 MHz
·• . . ...
• • i •
· .•.. .
• • i •
•
••••
1 0 · · ...... ,..
•
••
i
• • ...
• · • .•.
.....
..... •
· ... " ..... ..
• • i . - ' ..
• • •
· .
·.·i·.·..
.
· . . -.' .. ....
-
,
~,.
.':->:-:'- • , ~ • .II
~ ..
.>~/ ~~ • • •
• • • • • • • .11 ...
· • • •• • • •• r':.
02=780.23 om --._. F=3 D2=1BO.2.3llm ,.. F.;;:: 2 ...----, -:.>:.: .. ...,.I :~:
~~
!"
· .. -.-.. _. • • • • • oJ
2 5P112 ~18 MHz 1 5P112 •
·· .•••
•
. . .. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
..
..II
• - .II -
• -.II '
~ '~ r":.
• ·•.• .
••••• "•• ";,t-
- -
-:«. ~
· .. . ...
• J • •
• • • .II . . .
·• .• .. • . •
•
• •
.. •. • ,II
.fill.... *
,-
01 ==794.76 nm D1 :0:.:794.76 om . , '. "".,
• • • •
··...
• • • •
···........ -..- '.
· . . .-..
•
• .. , •
• ••• · .•- 1-:"
• •
r-----. s, , F ==3 - - " . '--F=2 ·

'. '.
.
· ...·' ,
. ........
.. .'.~
'.' .~
,~.I"'-
58112 3.036 GH;z 58112 S.BSS GHz ·'. ' -,
• ,..
" 2 Ioo...-..-.-Ao - - - - ,
·• , •
• •
• •• I ...... 0I .. ~
• •
•
• •• I" ••.
•
• •• 4 ....
85Rb (721%) a7Rb (28%)

•
··.
• •
• •
• , • -•
I ...
, ...
o £" .• ' ;.:.::
FIGURE 6.22 Energy level diagram of the low-lying atomic states of rubidium: (a) '~p •.
.'.,.7.7..
..... ,~,~
and (b) 87Rb4 ·.... ,~~~
;;"
· '.',
,'......
, ......
=~;-,. '.
·, ,.
, ". ..~
. .. . . ,.
';';':',"".
........
, ,
.. .
.---~
, "".~
, ...••• ,•• ~~....~,".!'."

,,' ,
, , .. . -: ,"»-"
..
.... . . . x
::~:.::.,;:,~z~~
,,' ... :...:
:.:'-::-:<.. ': ,-:.,:~., '~.
:-:-.'
, ..
,~~:~
,~.
.
· , ...
-
, " '"
, " • 01 "-.IIi"
I
~::::::.
6.B Saturation Absorption Spectroscopy of Rubidium
~~)laS two F levels

247
~::::
~r F =3 and F=2,
~~FWhereas the excited state has four F levels

~:>
~~~>
F = 4, 3, 2, and 1.
~::::>
~;)As can be seen from Fig. 6.22 the hfs in the ground state is quite large. of
~~?the order of 3 GHz, so that one can tune the laser to select transitions from
r:either the F = 2 or F = 3 state. Obviously the Ptj2 state is too far away
Lto cause confusion. However, the Doppler profile, which is of the order
r::of 1.0 GHz. covers all four hfs levels of the excited state. Recall that only
~~)transitions with A F = 0, ± I are allowed for electric dipole.
W. The laser frequency must be at 780.23 nm, which is in the infrared. It
~t'is conveniently obtainable from a diode laser. The diode laser is mounted
f:in an external cavity, which is used to select the desired wavelength and
f:tan deliver up to 10 mW of power. Usually it suffices to send 3 mW to the
~\pump beam and only a tentb of that to the probe beam.
~<"
1~."3. Satu..uon Absorption Experiment
:~>/:the overall schematic of the experiment is shown in Fig. 6.21. The diode
I>~ser is mounted in the heat sink on a thermoelectric cooler to adjust its
fJt:mperature. The cavity is completed by a grating that returns the first-order
:~>\iiffraction peak into the laser. Thus, the frequency is tuned by adjusting
Ijhe grating angle with piezo controls.
{:: ... The diode laser output is a very strong function of laser temperature.
:(Figure 6.23 shows such a calibration curve, and one selects the appropriate
{:temperature with the help of a medium resolution spectrometer. Then the
:npiezo is set to sweep the frequency, and one adjusts the laser current to
>:shift the central frequency while the pump beam is going through the cell.
rAt some point one will observe fluorescence, with an IR viewer or a CCD
f camera, or by monitoring the transmitted beam.
f: At tltis point one can reduce the sweep and setup for saturation absorp-
C.tion measurements. It is convenient to display the probe beam on a scope
:~)with the sweep on the horizontal axis. A picture of the observed fluores-
kcence and of the saturated absorption of the probe beam are shown in
kFig. 6.24. It is always possible to run a second low-intensity beam through
·.............. -
-- ....
- . .. .
• • • •
• • JI •
- • .•.• .•
• • • •
- ·... . ...
· .. .
- - .......-
....
- - .......
. -· .... ...
248 6 High-Resotution Spectroscopy - .. .
- ·.. ... ... ...
• • • •
·- ·..... ......... ~
~
....
- . ..
~
- ·.. ..
~
- ·... ..
~
~
· •. •. ~
- - .......
• • • •
• •
40 r------z------r-~-..__-___r-~_..,._--...,........_-_. . ........
_ ..
. .'.'.
.· ',.r-.'".
J ... • _
- . . ,. .
- ·......... ,. -
- • • » • ---
- - .
...,. .. . ....
- • .•. .
• J • ...
•
·- - .- .......
• • • ....
35 ···.• ...•... ..... ,.

,.
,.
- •.•. .
•••
• .•. . •
- •. . .
·
• • •
-. • - • .• .•
- .... - . .....
- .... ... .. .
·
·• ..• .. ....
- ... ..
· •
· • .• .• .
·
0- 30 - - .. . . . ..
. ·
~ - • .• .• .•
• • •
- • ..• . •..•
- .. .
~
·
;:5 ·
..
• • • •
·
• JI •
· ·... ..
• , •, •
1a 25 · ·... .
".... • • •
• • •
(J) · •.• •• •••• •.•
• ...
~
Q)
· ·• ..•..•
·• .• .• .
· •• .• .
• • •
· · ... . .
r- 20 · · ...
· . .
. .
• •
· •• .• .•. • •
· . • .• .
· ·..... ••
•
• •
.
• •
.• . •
•
• •• •
·· ..•.
•
•
15 ·· ....
· .·• .•,'.-'"•.•
· •·.•.,. •..•
---r..._ _--.l-_ _..J--_ _- - - '_ _.-...I.-_ _-&....-._ _- - - l
·.·• ...• ..•....•...• .
...... .
10
L _______
-
· . . ... • • • • • 001
792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 :-::::::::~·~>;~;"~~{i~~

1 (nm) .....
FIGURE 6.23 Wavelength as a function of temperature for the diode laser use~ : '.<'f
".+'1 ~.
· · '." .
experiment ·.
1
· •• .•• •
• •
(a) (b)
FIGURE 6.24 (a) Fluorescence emitted by the pump beam when properly tuned onto.. ... .
Rb resonance line. (b) The probe beam signal when the frequency is swept over the '"
Doppler peak. The displaced curves are due to hysteresis in the piezo electric driver. /{
. . ,.
. "
·••.. •
, •... •
"
,.
- , • ... •
" .
· ".·
, , ,.
, :: -: -:jot
the nonsaturated part of the cell to obtain the Doppler absorption . . . .L

,
,,
and subtract it from the saturated absorption. .,':'::

Data obtained by students on 85Rb pumping from the F '_ 3 _yor..1"1'n
state are shown in Fig. 6.25. The two prominent lines are the eros
lines [v(F' = 2) + v(F' == 4)]/2, and [v ,..:. (F = 3) + v(P' = 4)]/2, an(k~~:Z
1
the v(F' = 4) line can also be distinguished_ On the assumption that U1~:~~~~
sweep is linear, the position of the other expected lines is indicated~ ....
· . ,-...-.
,
,
.. ,
,,
,
, ,
-~---~
·" ,.,-",-_-~
,
,'.-.
,
..
, , - ,---~
-
• ,, • -.:,:.:.
,
"
- ,".-,-.r~
.'.-.. - ,-.-~
6.6 Saturation Atlscnplion SpllctrCl5Copy 01 Rub id ium l49
6.25 Sliturntion absorption spcctrwn obtained by s.tude nts for &5 Rb

... 3 - F'). The position or;ill Upec:led lines is indicated.
II, 11'2 "::!: 1/13 "n "3

K Fl'JURE 6.26 Suhlnlcted sah.lrnioo absorption spectrum obtained by studen ts for 81Rb
= 2 -., P). The position of aU expected lines is indicated.
· ...... - Z~
• • • •• III ,. .JI
. . ... .. '"..-.......
• • • • ... III '"
~
····...........
• • • • .. - • .;.0;"
............
• . . . . . '" >III
• • • . . . . . . . JIll
..........
• • • • III JIll . .
·· .. .....
• . . . . . . . . . . -...I
• . . . . . . . III JIll . ...
•
'" ......
• • ... oil JIll
... ... ... .. . .

.. ........
• .. • • .. III >III _ .
250 6 High-Raso'lution Spectroscopy • . . . . . . . . . . .!III . .
'"
.AI_
· ............. ..
• ..... III! . . . . OIl ,
• .......... oil . .
• . . . . . . III! OIl! .III
• • .. .. ... oil ... . .
· .. .. ... .. .. ..]~
• • .. ... .. JIll . . lioii
• . . . . . . . oil . . . . . . .
• • .. .. A III ..
• • .. ... ... III .. •
=~
- .......
• • .. ..
.. ..... . OIl!OIl!. .. .
. • • .II ... ... JIll! ..

~
Finally Fig. 6.26 gives the subtracted saturated absorption spectrumi.ot~;k

87 Rb starting from the F ~ 2 ground state. Again the prominent lines ar~ ffi~~I:?- ~
crossoverlines [v(F' ~ l)+v(F' -:- 3)]/2 and [v(F' = 2)+v(P' = 3)]i~~I~Ik~:::::m
the v(F' = 3) line is also evident The location of the other expected liii~$~~~~~
is indicated. <{{{:::2
··.............
..... . ..
As is evident from the data the saturated absorption lines are very sh~~p~~~~~:::
Thus instead of sweeping the laser frequency one can use a servo cir&i~~i~::
to keep the laser frequency fixed on one of the lines (actually on its Slop¢}t~if.j
reaching a stability of ± few megahertz, in absolute terms. ·ri!!&~~ .
· . . . .. .
. . .. -. .
··............
• ••• - of . . .
· ....... .
• .. .. .. ... of .. •
• . . . . . of III .. ;
,
'. ' .......... .

···...........
• .... of of .. .
......--. . ...
• " .. .. - .of •
;
• . . . . . of .. .
· ·.....
, ........
6.7. REFERENCES ··.·...............
. . .... .
. ....
.. • ....... of . . . .
· ...... -...
. . .. .. .
.........
•
"".
• .. .... of ..
.
... -...
_
· ·. .
· ·.........
. . .... .. 4%
..
· • • • • • • ~.
---
J
B. U. Condon and G. H. ShortJeY1t The Theory of Atomic SpeclTa~ Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambri4~~~~~a
~ 1951. This is one of the most complete theoretical treatments on atomic spectroscopy~ b~(~~~;§~ II
an advanced level. .<::::::;~;'"

· .... ~3.:
H. E. White .. Introduction to Atomic Spectra~ McGraw-Hill, New York, 1934. This book c01;ltalti~~:~
· . . ........
extensive data on atomic spectra.. and the treatment of the theory is based on the Semiclas$.\~=~~ :-:
approach oftbe vector modeL '-::::::::~::~. • • ~ • of . . . . .
H. Kuhn, Atomic Spectra.. Longman's, London~ 1962. Agood book on a slightly more advanced l~Y.~~~:;
than White"s book referred to above. :::::}=~ . :.:
S. Thlansky, High Resolution Spectroscopy" Methuen, London, 1947. A very comprehensive and:~i~~~{~ 1m
treatise on the instruments and techniques of high-resolution spectroscopy. . \}::=::;... .
H. KopfernuUl, Nuclear Moments" Academic Press New York, 1958. This book contains a ~~~~:~~~ ~
I
complete discussion of atomic hyperfine structure, of analysis methods, and of the conclusio_~n.·~.·::~~~~
.
· ...~••-~:?~.I''''':
obtained from it :::::::;:=:;::·Wd
W. Demtriieder, Laser Spectroscopy, 2nd cd., Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 1996. A very comprebe~~~itl
and up-to·date coverage of the field. ·i:rii!i~~~~~
··· ............
.......
................
~
· ·......... .
"
....
•
..... .. . ~ .... IIfII ..
··.·.......
•
...... • • ...... A ..
- ....... . .
" ....... A
.
- _. . ......
... .. ..
.......
·- ..........
-..... .. ..
~
~
~~
:.:::::;:::;:.::~~
::::::;:;::::~~~~
-::~:~:~:~:~~~.:r.~~
. .. - -
··.. .........
~
• • • •
• •••
·• .• •. •
~
-
~
· ....
I J ••
• • • .. 01
. ... • • •
" .. 01
· ..... .. .
·· .......
• • • • 01
• • " • 01 ...
• • • • 01
• " • 01 •
• • • 01
• • • • 01
'}}:'f.:i
-: ::::::::::~~.~
,'-::::::::::~M
··:<:;::~~~~~
• ,; ... "----"YN
·.::::::::~~:~
'" ..... ~
·.
•
· ..... ,
, ..
,
, ..
•
•
01
01
............
,,,
, ,,
,,,
.'"':-:":~"::=l
..
... ,
,
,
,
,, • 01
·'::::::;:~~~
· ' ,:-:.; ••.r7f.:-:
"::«'Y.I.
,
,
' ., . .• ...... . . 01
01 •...-· -'
1 :>:-:·
.0::::::
~~~( CHAPTER 7
~~j.:::
[(:"
Magnetic Resonance
Experiments
::
::::~ ~
7.1. INTRODUCTION
We saw in the previous chapler that when an atom (or a nucleus), with
angular momentum L (or n,
different from 0, is placed in a magnetic field
B the states that correspond to different values of the quantum number m
acquire an additional energy
Il
!:.I.E = L Bm. (7.1)
Here JL is the "magnetic moment" of the atom or nucleus. When electrons

are involved, /L is on the order of the Bohr magneton JLB while for nuclei
Il is on the order of the nuclear magneton, JLN. In convenient units
/LB/ h = 14.01 GHzjT

f.LN/h = (f.LB/h)/1836 = 7.62 MHz/T. (7.2)
k:: 251
'iIf
... .,.,., .. ----:::::
_ "" -. .
......
- • ~ ., .. III . . . .
- ... .,.,
_ • ., .. .JI ... . .
., ........ ..
. - • • ., .. III . . . . ...
~
~.
.- , ............
.. .,., ..........
_ • • • • .,., II• .JI............
..... .... -:.-:

, • ., ., .JI . . . . .- .
252 7 Mag neti eRe sonanc e Expe ri ments . - ............

_., "' ............ -:;;;;
_
_
,
•
••
,
II
II
II
II
_
II
,
...
...
•
_
. . . . . .JI ..
• ... _
.JI
.JI
........
r~
.JI . . . . .- •
.JI ....
. . . . . . . .~
- ~
,
_,
••• "' ... - JIll "" . . . .

~
. -',. ,.•• - .. ""=--:
" ' . . . . . . . . . JIIII . .
"' "' ......

• • • • "' II ...... ""
' ,
-,
,
................
•
........_-,..J'"... ..
•
II
"'
...
II
.. ..
. . . . . ._ . .
..
-~~
JIll . .
'. ,-....•
. . "'11.-............
, II "' ... _
-
"" . . ... II ... _ .. ..
- , • II .. _ .. ..
" II II _.JlllJIII . .
• - , II II ... .. .. .. ..
, • II _ II .. JIll . . . .~
• , • II . . . . . . . . . ._ . .
'.'r- ...................-.
......... -. .
, "' II ... _ . . . . .~
_ . . . . . . . . JIII . .
a _
_
,
,
,
"' . . . . . . . . . JIll . .
.....
,
....
II .011
_
_
JIll
.. .. .. •
.... ..
t=1 -
- .. ., .........
_
•
••
•
.......
•
II
II
......
....
..
JIll . . ...
JIll . . II1II
---;.----.,...-me=O .... "" .... .

m
~
•• II ... JllllJIIII,, __
_ • • II ., .011 .. .. . . • ,
-"
- •• .JI ., .. JIll . . . . . ...
...........
-
-
' •• ' • • II ...................
•• II II .JI . . . . . . _.
.-~
...
~
a
, •• II _ .... ~~_
-:':·:·;~;~;~:~:~:~oooo
··........
. . . .... . .
··....
..... "" . • • • • ..I.
~
III
~
~
~
~ ~
~~x
.
."· ...... :.-:-

••••••••••••••••••
~
•
- _~111:~~ . " _.. 1111II1I ·
•
·~
•
. . . III~ . .
• • III ~ ~ ..
• . . . . . . . ~ III
" . . . . . . . . . . .~IIIIIIIIIIII....: . .,
FIGURE 7.1 Splitting of an energy level with l = 1 into three components when .p~~i:~
in a magnetic field :::::::~::::::~:
···..........
.. ......
•
• • • . . . . ..r ..
. ..
....JII"~':tJ.
I J
~
...
··.·........
..... . ..
. .......
• . . . . . . . .r ......
·• .• .• .......
• •
. ~
~ ... .r • •
·'~~ ....".....::~.
• • ~ . . . ..r ..-,4"".;
".L" '.-,If.
• ' . . _ ..r ..
•
• •~• ...
i .... .
.r . . .,::..
In Fig. 7.1 is shown the splitting of an energy state with I = 1.;mi~~

its three sublevels. As discussed in Chapter 6., in optical spectros~~i~~
we do not observe the spontaneous transitions (labeled a in the figw~l~;a
between sublevels with different~: because they d? not satisfy. the sele?:~~~~~
rule Al =
± 1. Instead the splittlng of a level1s observed through;::,·.,.~~;:?
small difference in the frequency of the radiation emitted in the transiti()~~?
.......... ~ ~~
between widely distant levels (with ~l = ±1). It is clear that if we c~ijj~~~~

directly measure the frequency corresponding to a transition between th~i.~~:~
. . . .. '" "" .
. . . . . III . . .
spllttmg would be obtru.ned. »?~~~;m
h~wever. ~sll1~ns ~th fl.l = 0, fl.m = ~~ do occur when ~g~rrenl

reduced by a factor (v / c) from the case of an e1ect:rtc dIpole tranSltiOll. W~~~~i~
l 2
therefore conclude that spontaneous transitions WIth 6.1 ","7 O~ llm = *~~~~~~~~~
will be very rare, especially if the system can preferentially return to::j~~;~:~:~~
ground state (lowest energy state) by a fl.l = ± 1 transition. On the o'-~,fi;i~
hand, in ~e presence o.f an. electromagnetic field, indu~ed transitions ha§iJm
a probability of occumng If the frequency of the field 1S equal (or at le£i~t::::~m. " '.~ • • • • • • •A . ."~~
fairly close) to the energy difference between the two levels; induced tr~~}i:~~
sitions toward higher or lower energy states are equally probable. Furth~#~}~~~~~
.... .r-=- ",~
the transition probability is proportional to the square of the strength of th~t~~~~

electromagnetic field (that is, the total number of quanta) so that if a suffi;+{~;~
ciently strong radiofrequency magnetic field (of frequency vo) is availabl~'{~~§~i
magnetic-dipole transitions should take place. .<>}~~~ , , ... ~" • .J
This fact is, of course, central to the operation of the laser discussed il(:~~:~
Section 4.1. In that case the atomic state has an electric-dipole moment anMW
........... . , , ,• •
I I ......
.,1 . . . . ~
~
, I •• 01 .. ..
• • • oj ..... .
I
,• ••
~~
"--"
• .1 ..
1For atomic systems v is on the order of the velocity in a Bohr orbit, namely~ (v / c)2 ~fi~~~~;
-6 ,','."'~ ..'
5 X 10 •
I
I ' I".· .......

,
,...
I
.......
..--. . .
I
......
• 01 ... ..
.
, .. • 01 .. .
. ,,.. .... '" . ....

I I ..... ..
".·.01.0111
, • 01 .. ..
,
I
,...
.
......'" . ...
......
I • '" .. ..
, , . "' . . .
,
, ......
,
,
..
.......
, , ..... .
,
,
, '" . .
.. .01 "' ..
, ,
...
,..... '" '""'"... .
,
.....
, , ,......
,
.
.. .01 ... ..
, ...
, .... . "'"
.. .
,
...... ..
, , ... .
, ,, • .01 .. .
,
,
,
,
,
....
...
......
. .
. . . . . 01
• 01 .. .
.. 01 .. .
,,,,
, """
, .... 01 "'" ..
,
, , . . . . Ji
... .
..... ..
7. 1 Introduction 2S3
",trio-di.pole transitions arc induced by the external electric field (at the
frequency) of the laser beam.
referring to Eq. (7.2) we see that for a 1-T magnetic field the energy
of either nuclei or electrons falls in the range of frequencies that
be easily generated. It is also of interest to estimate the magnimde
radiofrequency (or microwave) magnetizing field. which we wiU
esill"'te by H, to distinguisb it from the static magnetic (induction) field
vacuum B = p.oH. An H field of magnitude ItP/4rr Alm~(equivalent
B field of 10- 4 T = I G) corresponds to an energy flow of
411" X
&.85 x
10-7 (10')'
4Jf
10-12 X R:2.35 X
W
102 cm2'
(7.3)
can be easily generated. Calculation shows that this field strength is

liI,,,!",,te for inducing [J8nsitions. Finally we must be able to detect the fact
I• types
a tranSition took place; this may be done i.n several ways and is one of
~~::~:~hh,g factors between the various of magnetic resonance
:-: example. in the first magnetic resonance experiment. performed by

:: . I. Rabi and coUaborators in J 939. a beam of atoms having J = was 1
:·passed in successian thr'Jugh twa very inhomogeneous magnets A and B
::' shown in Fig. 7.2. A homogeneous magnetic field existed in tbe intermedi ~
::: ate region C where a radiofrequency (RF) field was applied. If a transition
:~; took place in region C from a state m = +4[0 m = -~, that particular
':= atom was deflected in an opposite direetian in field B and thus missed
: the detector. Hence. resonance was detected by a decrease in beam current
.:: when the frequency afthe RF field was tbe appropriate one far the magnetic
field strength in C.
m~+ l
Wf~i
-- ~ ~
O-- ~ f --~~-q~.,o
0,00 ~) ~
Slit
FIGURE 7.2 The atomic beam aaangement of I. I. Rabi and collaborators llSed to detect
~: : magnetic resonance lransitions Ln atomic energy ,levels.
• •
· ..... ... -
~ • . . . OIl . . . .~
"
" "·~.A
• •
··..............
• • ... .oil OIl ..
..........
...... ..
. ....,.......
~..
"
.........
··............
.
" . . . . . of .of . .
...........,. .....
·.......
" "
"
254 7 Magnetic Resonance Experiments.::::::::::::::::-

· ........... . •
•
"
"
•
......
.II> .... All . .
.oil . .
. ... ... .. . . .
• • • • ... II . . II . .
"
•
· .............
"
•
•
•
,
•
•
•
...
II
II II . . . .
II OIl . .
..~
-
·
· ..........
. .. . .. ... .
•
.
• • • .. II . . . . ~,
Another method for detecting t1)e occurrence of resonance is to ob.s~~::? ~ .' ...... .oil
the absorption of energy from the radiofrequency field when transi~:~~n~~~:

toward higher energy levels take place. This technique is used in mtist~~
nuclear magnetic resonance ) experiments and in electron magrieilit~~: - - • • • A .. .. .. ..
resonance (called "electron spin resonance," ESR) experiments . fu ext?¥£~~~~:

iments with atonuc vapors or transparent materials it is possible to det~i:~:; • • • • II1II .........
the magnetic resonance effect by changes in the polarization of th~J atoi~it~~~~~.

radiation (llm ¥= 0) or by selective absorption effects. <{~~~~~§:. ~..
=-=
Apart from i t8 intrinsic interest as a way of inducing transi tiolls betW~~~~ :-:
the energy sublevels of atoms or nuclei, magnetic resonance has becQili~~~~~ . . . . . . . AI ..
an important tool of physics. The atomic beam experiments of Rabi.~~~~~~

his coworkers led to very precise measurements of the hyperfine Structqf~~~~~~:
of atomic systems and thus to accurate values of the nuclear moments. "in{a~~~~~: . . . . . . . . . of ..
nuclear magnetic resonance experiment transitions are induced -betW~~;:~~· · . . . . ... .... ",..
the sublevels of a nucleus placed in an external magnetic field. How¢Y~f.;§~~~

the atom to which the nucleus belongs must have J .:.,.! 0 (diamagrl~:~q#~~~-:r.r f e '
large electronic magnetic moment would mask the effect. By mearis:.:~~~:~~~: ~
a high accuracy.><)~i~~m
The NMR signal depends not only on the nucleus under study but also:&.Jjj~
the environment in which the nucleus finds itself. In fact the observatior{~:t~i~mJ.3
nuclear magnetic resonance in solids and liquids depends on the rela:xati~iiJ~~~
of the nuclear spins through their interaction with the lattice. Thus~ nucle~:~:~:~:~~
on the properties of many matenals m the solId or liqwd state. . }}~~~~~~ffi~~
1t was realized that the Width of the observed resonance line for pro~~~;}~~~l
SplIt the energy sublevels~ When a very homogeneous field was applled ili:~t):~i§~:~ l
proton resonance line was shown to exhlbit a fine structure on the order of;U!i@t
0.01 G (10- T). This structure depends.on the organic compound to whic~::t§w.j
6
the hydrogens of the sample belong. Wlth even more homogeneous fie14~}~~i.1::
a hyperfine structure on the order of O~OOl G T) is observed. Iti~(~~~~~
(10- 7
this fine structure that has made NMR such an important tool for analytic~~~~~~~W~
. tty. . :-:.:·:·:)W .
.'. -:.:.:.:. . . . . . '. "':
Chetrus • • • • • ottiI."", . . ..
The term electron spin (or paramagnetic) resonance is used for tr~H?~
siti~ns bet,,:ee~ the Zeeman levels of quasi-free electrons in li~uids a~~{~
solids. In pnnclple, we should always measure a g factor of 2.00 (If we de~/:::~~::::~
. '.........
'"~'X'''
......
...........
. ",.......
.........
.
:$.. ..
. . ,
,,,
,'"
. . . 01 II1II . , •...
....... . '
'
.........
,....
, ••
, ,
,
.
j • tI otti/... ..
Ii . . . . ....
Ii . . . . . ...
' , ..... x
, .... Ii . . . .....
, ' , ..
• . Ii..
Ii.. ....•...
, ........ .
...
, , . . . . . . . II....
....... .
'
, . . . Ii . . . . . ...
" ... J • • •
,,........
. '. *.. .'. '"
, , .. Ii . . . . . ...
,
,, • II . . . . . ...
, , . . . 0001 . . . . . .
",'
,
.......
......... ..I':~
, , • Ii . ...
,
..,
..............
,... Ii... .
,
" ,
"'"
~.,.;
,,','." .. ··x'
.......... .J"..
IIII!; 7.2 Th, Rot, IN M.""',·D'",, T,,",I<I,", ""
~, ,:.~·i
~.
.. .,·:,::
.. :.,.. .,.: wim free electrons); instead a great variety of g factors and stnrcrure appears
in the resonance lines due [0 the different effective coupling of the electron
~:::: ,with the crystalline field. These effects depeod on the relative orientation
;::.:. of the magnetic field Bo and the crystal axis. Thus, electron spin resonance
~\j.: is a very important tool in the study of crystalline structures as well as in
.. . Lbe identification of free radicals in chemistry, medicine. and biophysics.
~~::: : This chapter is organized as follows. In Section 7.2 tbe coq.ditions for
f inducing magnetic-dipole transitions are discussed from both the quantum
~.-_ "and classical point of view_ In Section 7.3 we introduce the mechanisms
~:: -
.... . essential for the observation of eoergy absorption in nuclear magnetic
ili.·-:. .:: resonance and electron spin resonance experiments, namely relaxation
. and saturation. We also discuss the idea of free induction decay and
~:-
~~: >pulsed NMR. The techniques and results of nuclear magnetic resonance
.'. :..experiments with protons are presented in Section 7.4. We conclude with
( ' a discus.<iion of an electron spin re.<ionance experiment that operates at
@:- microwave frequencies.
:.?",:.'.: As was the case in the previous chapter the discussion is limited, and
, the reader may wish to refer to some of the many exeeUeot monographs
V and texts on this subject. A list of suggested references is given at the end
of the chapter.
7.2. THE RATE FOR MAGNETIC-DIPOLE

TRANSITIONS
7.2.1. Quantum Calculation
Thc experimental signals in NMR involve the participation of many nuclei.

In this sectioo, however, we will consider the effects associated wilh a
single nucleus: we use the lenn Q single spin. We will return to an ensemble
of nuclei in Section 7.3.
Let us consider, for example, a nucleus with angular momentum I (mag-
nitude Ii.j I (l + 1)) and magnetic moment p- orienred along the spin ax is.
For nuclei il is customary to express the proportionality between the .<ipin I
and magnetic moment p- by
p- = ylit (7.4)
wnere y is called the gyromagnetic ratio; as can be seen from Eq. (7 .6)
below. y has dimensions of mdians per second-teslu. The gyromagnctic
.· ...... ..-.
- -- ..• .. ... .. .......oil ,
.·........
-- .. .
.. .. ......
..
·... .. .. ......
-
- •
.. . .
.. .. oil .. ..
"
- . .. .. .... . . ..
• .............AI....
·· ........ ..........
-•
..
• .. - "111 ,III
256 7 Magnetic Reson anee Experime nts · . . ..

-
···.,.. .. ,.. .. ..
.....
"
··.... .. .. ..
-
- .... , ..
--·............
·, .
""
. ,
II JI
-·-...... .... .......

-
·
•
·.... .. .. .. .... ,.
• .. .. ...
-
I.AI
.
- . . . .. .
................. r-...
.... ... ...-.-.-.."..........
-
- -
·-·...........
·.....
.·.......... .......
"
,
"
. . .. ..
.... .... - -
- - -
- ... -.-' .. -,
· . .... ..
• " . · . · ... • . . . . w I ..
fill ~
--_a_Ii.-.. ~ (~ikBo) ···.......

• ••• '.. .. .. ...
-• -•
....... .. .... ..-.....--"--.
• .. oil .. _ :,.-
"
· ~ ,~.
_Ii
- ..... .
·- ...... .. .-........
· .... .. - .--
,
---.-~ .... -- a ·....... ..... ,
· . .. .. -
'
• • •
..............
• • .. .. "..if-
· ··... .
..... . .........
"
· .·
••.•':
•. .. •... :::
•
· • ..... -~"
• .. .. ~~
·
~,
r ~ .....
· '.' , ........... - ,... :;-
.
;:- . .
.
·. .. ............
.
•o •.. .. .... .......
,
· ·. ... .. ......
-:,.t,
iii ¥
- - , , - ' - "_ _ -~ (~ tJ.So) · . . .. .. --
............ • I JI JI •
..~.
···........ .:.:....-
• • • " .. :..... ' - ,III
,~-
• • • • • • ,01
FIGURE 7.3 The energy of the four sublevels of a nucleus with spin I = ~ whel(~~#..
in a magnetic field Ro. Note that the energy depends on the Id.orientation" of the 8P.W.~jf;'" .~
respect to 80; the magnitude of the spin vector is 111 = I~ (~+l j. \/} ~-~
··•·..•...•.......•...
• • • •
··.............
-
.._..
_.
·....-. .. ,. -
· ........ ,
-.,. .....,
· ...
• • • • .... •
'-.t_....
I
:". .:::';"-:-"';::=':~
ratio y cannot be calculated from a simple expression such as .,:,~~.~=~~9J-:::
the g factor of atomic electrons in Eq. (6.17). (For instance, for the .'j:r~~~~~'
-:. ,"~.":.' :..;:-.;r(...
t'.
y = 5~586 JLN, where J-tN is the nuclear magneton.) "<::::)-'.

In the presence of an external magnetic field Bo. the nucleus ::?- emil#:;
any 'of the (21 + 1) sublevels labeled by m I as shown also in Fig>::-, . .:.:":
:-, ._. '.'
We can then write for the energy2 of these sublevels (see Eq. (7 .1)) :>}:~ .~ • - 4 •
:::
. • .::: =: '.}
•
'. .'. .-.
•
- .-. .
E 1 /L .. ..::
'-'
ii - -n, I
~
Bom = -yBom,
• • •,
· ·...
=« ..;~:~_~
• •
so that the energy difference between any adjacent sublevels (Am

is simply . :.:::::: ~
. '
-.....: : : : ,'*"....
'.''::
:. '.'
,-_
:«.
. .. :
ilE -
. n = Y Bo = (J)O~ (~t~,~'~~
.':: <:-.: :::; •
.
'.:.:::: ~~ ..
·......
•
-:. • · . •=. .. .J'
'. '. '. -_.-' .....-",-..

--
Thus for protons in a field of 1 T the resonance frequency will be '. '. ...
- ~-
:':::::
.·•..
·
~
.-
•,
....~.:.:.:-; ..
.-::"<':::~'.~
Vo - 5. 586J.tN Bo = 42.581 MHz (Bo = 1 T).
-<:: ' ... ::.:':'~::~;~~
---
~:::.: .:~:. .:
..... " . :... ",...
Consider then the simplest case, namely, I = ~; for which only two ~.~.::./.~~-. ~
i.
levels exist, m = - ~ and m = + In addition to Bo, let a weak field...~. )i~~~;~~~
rotating in a plane norlnal to Bo with an angular frequency (i) be intI u( ll1;q~~ c~~~a.
::~./<::
'. . . .
Taking the z axis along Bo we write the two components of Hl as · .':::~::::::~:~~
. . . . ,,-. .- ·-:·.:.;.:... . '::'~':a"~.,.
.
, .;
· '::'-::::'~':'::
.... :~'~~i"
,
, ,
',
, -'
, ....... ;., .. ~
.•,'.',.•,-,":::'•.<:',:
I'P_~i!1J
,
,-
., ·, ,,, ..-... .:.-
, .. . .
2Instead of energy, we use for convenience angular frequency; the transition TIl J~,70'~ .. ..
is llv = (AEjn)/(27r) = UJo/2rc.
, ,
•
. ,
,, ,, a
,
·· .,, -:.: .
• •
,.. '. III
•
7.2 The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions 257
we assume that
additional energy of the nucleus, due to the field HI, is
I = IL' HI = yli (Hx1x + Hyly) = y~Hl (l+e- 1wt + Le+iwt ) ,

~ (7.7)
h=lx+ily and (7.8)
the energy specified by Eq. (7.7) is very small as compared to that

by Eq. (7.5), it can be treated as a time-dependent perturbation 4 ;
to first order, the transition probability is proportional to the absolute
of the matrix element
(7.9)
i and f stand for the initial and final state. As usual the matrix
:,"""oU",..,~L is evaluated by peIforming the integral
.M = f 1/Ij'J{t 1/1i d3x dt, (7.10)
where Jet is the perturbing energy of Eq. (7.7). We must include the time
:aeipenlaelilce of the wave functions
1/11 = u(l, m') exp (-i ~ t)

1/Ii =u(l,m)exp(-ii t ). (7.11)
Here primes refer to the final state, and u(l, m) stands for the time-
, part of the wave function. Evaluating Eq. (7.9) with the help
3We expand the exponentials and obtain
(Ix coswt + ily(-i)sinlLlt) + (Ix COSlLlt - ily(+i) sinlLlt)

= 2(Jx COSlLlt + ly sin wt).
4See, for example, E. Fermi, Notes on QuaJllwn Mechanics, Lecture 23, Univ. of
:Chicago Press, Chicago. 1961.
········'·······mJ"~
•
• •
•
. . . . . . l1li l1li ...
•
.. • ... III III .. ...
• III III .. ..
...-£_
- • .. . . . . l1li JIll! lOll
- • • ... .. JIIII .. ..
- • • • • l1li l1li .. ..
- • .. . .. ..
.. ... ... .~
. .IIIIII. . £
- • • • .. III .. ..
- • • • • III l1li ..
•
. . . . . III ..
..~~
. . . .....
•-
..
• • ..
l1li III
.AI ..
•JIIII ..
• • • III JIIII .. .. •
• • • • .. III JIll! ..
258 7 Magnetic Res 0 n anee Experiments - • .. • ... ... JIll! ..

-
-
•
•
•
•
III .. ..
.. JIll! ..
oil ..
...
• .. • ... III III .. ..
..
•
...
oil
•
....
III
..
- • • • ... III JOIII . .
- .. • ... ... JIll . .
··........... .. ..
- • .. ... ... III! III! ..
.........
- . . . . . III! lOll . .
-
.
•
. .. ..
............. .... .. • .. ... ... l1li l1li .. ..
-• • • .. .. If ..
.... ... . . . . . .. . . .
• ....... of . . . .
-- ..................... ~~J'
of Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11) we find that - - .. • ... ... l1li .. .. ..
-
- -.-.-. . . . . . ~ III ..
• • • • A l1li . . . . . ...
- .... * oil oil . . . . -
• • • ..
.. . .• . ....
. . III oil. .... .III w.~
- • .. • • ... III . . . .
· • ...................
• ......... .oil ..
.. • • .AI . . . . oil ~~
· ............
_-r:.n~.H_l
• •• .AI
E --,. £'. + ,.,

Of .oil . . ...
................
...........
• ...... Of . . oil .
M= exp • - ................
· - ~~
~~
-l • - '-'V t dt · ......... .. •
•
.........
' . . . . . . . . AI . .
Of .. ..
2 Ii
• . . . . . . All . . . .
. . . . l1li l1li . . . . .~~.
· ........ ,. . . -"'-fO.l'.
• • •
• . . . . . . . . . .of . . . . .
- .............. ""m; • • • ....... Of .... IW
...................* ,........
- • • . . . . . . . OIl .. ••
• • • • l1li • .. .. .. • ~
- - • • • A • ~ M ~ ~
. -• "
£-£' .·........
. . ....... .. .
-
•
"
•
•
•
•
•
A
• • A M M . . . . ....
•
•••
•
....
A M . . . . . . . . .~~
A .. ..
A .......
~
*
+ (I, mill-II, m)
• •• A A .. ..
• _···.·.·.·.·.·A···-""'~ • •• AM ..... ...
exp -l l - ---OJ t dt .. ' ......... 0.:« .. "

•
••• A
••• A
A . . . . '.J'A~.
M ~ ..
·n
, • • • • A _ ~ ..
· ..........
t _ -
.•
.. .......
••• A
...
.... ..
~
- •••• A .. . . . . "'-"'.
'" .AA ..... : ....
(7 :1·.'·:2:)":::::::~r'''''''''
.......
·..' . ..........
... ..~:::3 • • I .......
• '" ......... ....J"......!
. . . .. .. .. :;:;:
· ............ '-r.......
.·:..:·;·:"'~"""':"':m
· . . .. .. .. .
......................... ,
The matrix elements of the operators 1+ and I_ares · ....................... ..

...
'" .... :m
• • •• '" .....................i1i~~
· ;:::::::;~~;:~~i:~
·'.'. .••••••.r'.....~ .... .
'. · · · . . .···00
···....... . .... . ....
.... ..
.. . . . . . . .,. . . .;1
for elther 1+ or L. The mtegrals over tune m Eq. (7.12) are essenttaU$::::::i$.
~ functions (but see below) expressing the conservation of energy aDwm~
showing that the transition probability is different from zero only if <:}?~
·........ m.w.
·........
. . ''/:%.
· . . . . . . a:::: ~
for m' = 111 + 1

.'. I ...............
• • • .. ... ,J-"IJ
£' - E =-= 1itll . :::;~=:::::;:m'1d
. ...............
... . .
,', '
'"
~~
.:':.:':':A:m~~
·..........
.... .............. V~
and W
.'·, '. ....•.•
-:. »:.:.:~w. ....··. .. .. .m
'~··
" '.' ~
E - £' =-= IU:.u for m' --: m - 1t (7.13\J.,. /))~l1fi

. • A~'.l":
.......... .. , "'
, ,. ....... ~.J
"~.""'J'"'",
that is, when the angular frequency of the rotating field is equal to the en;:rgy;{!!!;ii]
difference between adjacent m sublevels. Using Eq. (7.6), the condition~}~~~~~~ ..... - , ~
of Eqs. (7.13) become simply >}~:;~ ,

,
, .... . .
.......
..!
I
......
, . . . . . . . .,..!III
.......
!III ..
Ii
= wo.
. . . . . . !III
...... .
I
·.....
..............'"
I . . . . . . . '"
fiw = fiy Bo
, • -II . . . . . . . .
, , '"
",
• I ....... Ii
• . . . . !III
I "' "' . . . . Ii
, I . . . . ...
I ....... Ii
I . . . . . !III
I ..... ..
To complete the calculation of the transition rate we must integrate (the.<\~~@

absolute square of Eq~ (7.12)) over the density of final states. This leads to~:/~~~~?
Penni's golden rule6 ":}~~~i~
......
· .....
,
, ,,
, ,
.....
....
...... ..
.
..... ..
··,,,
,
, ...
... .
.
....... ..
...... ......
27t 2 ·· ,
,
RiJ = ""Ii IMI p(E), (7 .14) ::::~;~~:

· . ...
.......,.
. .. .".
,
, ...
,
,
. . , , ..
, ....
. ,
. ..
· ,, ,..."' . "''''
'".,.
, ... .
. ....
· ·, "' ... '" ....
, .... ..
· ,"' ... '" ....
• - ,
,
, . '"
,
........ ..
...
5See E. Fenni (1961), Lecrure 28. :)~~
6See E. Fenni (1961), or L. Shiff, Quantullt Mechanics, Chapter 8. McGraw-Hill, }~}
•• · '. •
New York, 1968. ..:~:=;:

-,
· ..
••
' I .. I
•• ••
• ••
• •
.r
· • ..
, I ....
, I .. I
··.. ••
..
··, ,•..,•,,
, .
··, ,...,,
, ,.,
··, ,.. ,
, .
· , ,..
· ,...
·, ,..
. ,. , .
7.2 The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions 259
.~
where RiJ is the transition probability per unit time (or transition rate) from
the initial state i to the final state f. In Eg. (7.14), M is the time-independent
part of the matrix element given by Eq. (7.12) (that is, without the integrals).
peE) is the "density of final states" and gives the number of states f per
unit energy interval that have energy close to £'. For example, if the final
state f has an extremely well-defined energy Eo, then peE) -* 8(E - Eo);
if the final state has a certain width due for instance to a finite lifetime or
other broadening effects, then peE) expresses this fact mathematically.
W We require the function peE) to be normalized and can also express it in
teITIlS of frequency
1
peE) = p(hv) = h gel!)
with
~:::::
~~:::'
J peE) dE = f g(v) dv = l. (7.15)
He Combining Eqs. (7.12), (7.14), and (7.15) we obtain for the transition rate
W
=::::::
1
in the case I = the elegant result
~:?' y2H2
~:::: ,
R-I/2-HI/2 = R+I/2-+-1/2 = ~ g(l!). (7.16)
~r:
::::>',
~~~> In the above equation v is the frequency of the perturbing field (RF or
~~{: microwave), and g(v) gives the shape of the resonance line; note that g(v)
~::::' will be significantly different from zero only for v ~ I!o. Note also that
~~/ . in Eq. (7.16) and in the equations leading up to it, HI must be expressed
::=::
::=::
;..:-:. in tesla, namely its value in amperes per meter must be multiplied by
J'.','
~}:' the permeability of free space fJ-O. We have deliberately not included this
::=::', factor in the equations to avoid confusion with the symbol for magnetic
~~~~:
~:::'
moments.
There are two important comments we want to make at this point. First
Ii
~",'.
as can be seen from Eq. (7.12) or (7.16) the rotating field HI will induce
~:::'-:
........
;;:::::' transitions from mJ = -!to m f = +1
with exactly the same probabi-
~~::::
~?"
lity as from m f = +1 to mi = -!.As a result, in the presence of the
J'.", field HI both levels will, on average, be equally populated. This argument
remains valid for any value of the nuclear spin. Secondly, while we used a
II!! perturbative calculation the two-level system can be solved exactly in terms
~~::-: of simple functions as described, for instance. in the Feynman Lectures,
~:>.
~:::::
~~:~ :
........
i~:
...
...",.""
· ._ ,
...
"
,."" ...
,"' .........- ~ ~ -~-
··, ." " " "..'"'"'"......... .

"
, . . . . . . . . .-JIA
.. "........
....... _
"" .....
"
·.....
"
•
-,,,
•
,
,."" ...
••
"
,
"
"
"
"
,.
,.
III III ..
.... ' " JIll
.. of . .
,
:.~
260 7 Magnetic Resonance Experiments :»))~:~:~:.

·...
. .. "" ",."..,.""""""""......"" ....
· ·..." " ",.,.""""""""""......
· ......",...""'"""""......
" "
Vol. ill, Lecture 30.7 We will make use of the exact solution inSectionjjiii~i'rI'ri"
when we discuss pulsed NMR and free induction decay. ;;::::::}::::~:·&'~-:.I
· ~:~::::::~::::::A~.·:::::·j'
. . " - ... ~~~
~
• • " " III III ..II _
- .. - .•- •..........
,. " • """"""..""..II ~~
-', J
. . . . "" "" "" . .
""..........
"
7.2.2. Classical Interpretation -:»~~~~~~~~~:~:

.'..........
_
,......." .".." ....... .
-
-
m ~ ~-x:7.
- ' " ' ' ..... __ ""f~
" " ~
_ ••• "..Il ......... ':..;
..
• • • " " • • "" ..II . .
• _ . " ... ..Il . . . . . . . III
• • •
" .......... :...-;:
.a .:II ..... ..
Below we show how the effect of a rotating radiofrequency field .c.~·l1iJ.~:· • • • • A ... • ... ..
understood also on the basis of a classical modeL Consider again a n1f~leiji:::~

with spin I and magnetic moment IL = YIiI. Let J be the magnitude -(j(~;
angular momentum, which clas sic ally will be just J = Til, and let it ri)~~::,«:.~
8
an angle ewith the z axis as shown in Fig. 7.4a. If a constant magnetic:.~

Bo is applied along the z axis~ the field will exert a torque on the mag~.~jJM;
..........•••:.:.
moment, given by ··.>:::::::~~::~:~.
........-.--.-..-•.
........
....•....•.., ..'J'..... . .
.. • •Q¢I
·· ........
. • • • ... • .......'1'1'
:~~~
~.t".
T = JLxBo = y(JxBo). (l;~t?~~::%~.;~

•
•
•••
• • •
<II ......
.. .. • .oi •
• ,-"r.......,
, .~""J'I,
dJ ,·······",,··m
....'. ·,·,····'··J'·-m
La = T = y (J X Bo). ,(7.~:f·,·~~~:~;~~a::::a::::
' . .. ··.J'. ... a::::
dt .' ....... ":'~':':':".~~
·~m
Wo Independent of () !I -::::::::::;::~
· .... A. W.
wo ~ - , x", n ~ I n z = -y Bonz' (7·~·~)}~~m

J "'- . ....
'.' ......
• . •'·AA. c~.~
• . . -::--.It.
ath· · th dir · .:~>~{;~:~w.
w her~ D z 18 e unIt v~ctor In e z eCfion.. . ;:::j/(~~~~~
This phenomenon IS called the Larmor precesslon and the angular:ft~:::::~
quency given by Eq. (7.19) is the "Larmor" frequency- It is fascinati#S~i~~@.
even though not surprising that the Larmor frequency has the same vaIij~)~@
as given by Eq. (7.6) for the transition frequency between any adjacci(~~~~~~.........::-: · ,
levels (tl.m = ± 1). Further, since the angle () is preserved, the energy:~9~~~~~~~
the nucleus in the magnetic field remains a constant <H)~i~~~
· , , ,.
I ~ ....
. ....
• .I . . . .
..
~
:::.-:
E = -IL · Bo = -y't:.IBo cos 86
fl, (7 · 2(\).'
,\:I.:
...1.
r
':::~:::x
.•
·. .........
. :-~..:...:-
••• .
.............
•
,J
· ........'"
,
,',
, ",
We now introduce an additional weak magnetic field HI oriented::~~:(~~~~~

· ....... , ./
the x-y plane and rotating about the z axis (in the same direction as:. tli~:~:~~~:~
.......... ..
.....
· .........
........... .. . •
,... .•. .•. .... .• .... ....
. , •
.,
01
01
--." t
.... . :x , ,
"
' ,. . . . .
" ...... '.t
7 See also A. Das and A. C. Melissinos'l Quantum Mechanics, Section 5.1; Gordon 'shd~~i~~~~
, ....... .
Breach, New York, 1986+ : ::::}}:~~:::

8Instead of its quantumOLmechanical (QM) value I = n.J i(! + f). :::,:<~~)]~~~~
....... . ,
,,,
,
,
,
.....
• • • • II
...... . "
. . . . . II
.........
..... . ".
, ,
, , ,
, ,,,,
, ,
.....
.....
......
..... . ..
"
, ,
, , . . . . . II
, , . . . . . . II
, , ......
.....
...... . ..
.... .
, , . . . . II
, ,
,,, .......
......
, ,
, ,,, .....
......
.... ..
. ".
, ,
,
,, .....
..... ..
...... ..."
....... ".
, ,
,
, ,
, , .....
......
... .
, . , . ..
......
....
..... ."
....
.... .. "
, ,,,
·. ,
, ,,,
, ,
, .......
, .. _._ •••...J'
7. 2 The Rate fo r Magneti c-D ipole Transitiorls 261
(.) (b)
, ,,, .,
",
)(:--+', -~-y
;.
--------y
" , ,' ~ ./
~
x
> FIGURE 7.4 Precession of a magnetic moment 14 when placed in a magnetic field Bo.
, (a) The spi n precesses with angulu frequency wo = y Bo: thc angle () is a constant of the
molion. (bjln addition to 8 0 a weak magnetic field III is now also applied. HI is rotaulIg
about the z ax is with angular flUJ.ueney Ctl() and therefore p. precesses about H I with angular
, treqnene), wI "" Y HI: 8 is no longer conserved.
"Larmor precessing" spin I) with an allgular frequency w. If the frequency

w is different from ~. the angle between the field H I and the magnetic
moment JL will continuously change so that their interaction will average
out [0 O. If, however. W :;::,; WOo the angle between I.L and HJ is maintained
'- . and a net interaction is effective (Fig. 7.4b). If we look at the system in
a reference frame 1'Oluting ubout the ;z: mis wilh the Wl15ufur vdudty wo.
then the spin will appear to make an angle 1/1 = 90° - e
with H I and
according to the previous argument will stan to precess (in the rotating
frame) about HI. This corresponds to a "nutation" and aconscquentchange
of the angle (). whicb implies a chaoge in the potential energy of the nucleus
in the magnetic field (Eq. (7.20». The change in () is the classical analogy
to a transition between sublevels with different til. We see that (a) such
transitions may take place only if the rotating field has an angular frequency
',~,: ' (V = W() = Y Bo. and (b) that the angle () wilt continuously chaoge with
an angular frequency WI = yHI. The effect of the radiofre<jllency is to
:l: populate, on the average. all values of e.lbat is, allieve/s, equally.
However, i£the field HI is applied only for a short time I. such that
(Vjt = it , then a spin that was originally at an angle fJ (w.r.t the z axis) will
find itself at an angle :rr - () (or at an angle 8 from the -z axis). This is
the equivalent of the QM transition from m = - ~ to m = + U the field 4.
l,:. is applied for a lime t such Ibat Wj t = 2)1 . then the spin will end up at
, the same angle w.r.t the z axis (in the same state) and so on. By applying
· .........
...... -jIII--
"
•
•
~
. . . . . . . OIl OIl
• ~ . . . . . . . . . . JIll
---~
· ........... ..
" • • . . . . . . . . . ;iii
• •• ~ . . . . . . . . . . JIII
" •••• . . . . . . ;iii
· . . . . . "XX
• . . . . . . OIl
• ~ • • . . . . . OIl . .
• • • • • OIl ... . .
• ~ . . . . . . . OIl
262 7 Magnetic Resonance Experiments :.)}~:~:~:::~

•
.."'·..............
•
.. :..:
... ..... . . ......Jo:...
JI • • • .. .. OIl
· ........ ......-r
•••
••
j
j
••
........
III...
,:..
. .. . .
..
RF pulses of selected duration we can thus manipulate the spin state}WJ~~jr ' . ·1.... • .................. ..
will make use of this idea in Section 7.3.4. -::;::::::::::::

..... -.... ..
·
;.:.:.:.:.:.;.;.~~. ~
• . . . . . . . . III AlII III
• • • • • III III OIl
• • • • • ... .. .. OIl
••• _ • ..tJIII ...
• • • • ... ... .. .. OIl
• • • • • III III .III
• • • • • ..II III AlII III
• • • • • - III .II
• • • • • ... .. . . OIl
- • • • • .. . . ... OIl
• • • . . . . III . . .JII
- • • ..... III III ...
··· ·.........
• .......... OIl ..
........
. . ..... ......
- • • • • II III ... . .
• . . . . . . . OIl . . .JII
..........
7.3. ABSORPTION OF ENERGY BY THE
• • • • • OIl .. OIl ..
....
.:~
,
....... ....
·· .. ......•
•
•
••
..
" ..
"
A
•
......
A .. ~
..
..
NUCLEAR MOMENTS
• • •
••• . . . . . _ _OIlIIIIIi;
A • ... .. OIl
"
· .............
.............
· ...............
-
......
•
~
•
....
.. • ... .. .. .. IIIIIi
A OIl . . . . . -
.................
· . . . ... . . ..
• • ~ • ... .. .. .. ~ lflii
- .·.. ........ . . . ..
~
• • • • .... .. .. ~ lflii
....
.
·- .. . .. .... .......
. . ..
~
~
~
~
~
~
··111''''111.''
... ...........
•
- .. ... .
.......
~
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . lflii
~
....
~ ~
~ .
7.3.1. Relaxation and Saturation .

· ......... .
.
· ··............-..-...-.....
· •
'"
• A
'" ........
...
---
..
·· ..........
. ... .. . ...
· .......
···.. ......... .. .. .. .
• • A .....
... ...
· . . .-.... ..-. . .
'" "
'" '" .. ...
We saw in the previous section that a radiofrequency magnetic field rij~¥~~~~~a·=
or atom. In the case of atomic-beam experiments the atoms are free, wIUltt.~~~~t:
u:e l~ter~ctJ.on Wlth the t~ermal bath that tends t~ restore the BOltzm??%~
distributlO~, wh~re .the s~m can relax by tr~s.femng en~gy to ~e latti.'o/:M~
observation of energ~ absorption from the radiofrequency field when thNi@jiJ.

resonance frequency IS reached. ::"<:~:}~:~m
To understand this last statement, consider again the simple caseoqf}~~~
nucleus with spin I = !.
In the presence of a magnetic field Bo it is SPUfti~jm
into the two energy sublevels with m = +4
and m ~ -!.
As remarke:~:):~:~:~
. . . . ...~ ·
before, the rate (Eq. (7.16)) for transitions:./it~~~~~:~

~ ......... ~
·- ..........
A.:g. -
.. .z
. . . . . . . . . . . lflii
• ••••• A
1 1
•
• . . ............
• . . . . . . . . . . . lflii till!
• • .. • .. • .... r····011
........ :g..
• • .. .. .... .,r:
";rJ'
- ~
m=+-2 m= ...... - (7 .. 21 OJ.)·,. ........

A •••
-,) Q.~ .:.:.:.:..~..

•....•....
.... ..
. . ... ... ,
rOIl
--
2 ........
·..................
............ .
- , ~
..
. . ..
......... -
-- - ~
. ... ...
·. ...........
...... ,~ ~
•
-
•
J
~
•
•
•
•
..
J
•
•
....
.. .. ..
~
..
............ .. - - , • • ~ J • .... ..
is equal to the rate for transitions .·........ . ...... . .... _

- -
-
• J ~ • • • • ... ..
~
.......
·· ......
...•. ...""'. '%"'".
...... -.,~
- ,
, ~,
..... .. .... ... . .

~
·· . .... .. -
-'~
- I • • ......
"~Jo:
~
- ~
~
I
~ ~
~ . . . . . .~:x..
..
1 1
-
I
~
I
I
...... ~
• .. ....
~ ~~
..
..
m "-- ) m=+- . (7 21b· ...........

·)·';:::::::::~::·~
- ........ .
.......
. . . . .... .. i".
" • j- .............~..
2 2 · ·.............. • •
•
I
,
I
I
........ ~
•••• _
I
..
........
.........
~
:.
.
I ......... .
.
, I ......... .
. .. .
• I I ......... .
. . .....
I ....... .
• I .. • • • .. .. •
The number of transitions per unit time is given in either case by · ..

- I • I ........
_:.-:
•
· - . . . .. ..
•
•
•
•
•
I
I
I
,
"
I
I
..
I
..
.........
........... .
........
I
~
......
•
.......
.....
•
.. ...
..
..
..
.
.
•
• I ......... .
:)" - ...
.:;:::;::;~~:::
(7 ·22· . . .......
...
I .. I ....... .
...... .. ....... .
- ,
;', ' ................
,
··· .........
.. . . . . ..
-'
,
• , . . . . II II .. II
, ,, ...
where Ni is the number of nuclei in the initial state. Further~ transitions of!(~~~~~~~~ , , • • II . . . .
the type in Eq. (7.21a) absorb energy from the radiofrequency field, where~;~:)~~~~~~
.....
...... . .
.......
........
...... ..
. . , ",
,
.......
...... ..
...... ,
, ,
,,
, ,
,
, ,
,
l
I
. . . . . . ..
...... .
, I . . . . . . ..
I . . . . . . ..
, I . . . . . . ..
, I . . . . . ..
, I ...... .
I I . . . ..
, I ..... .
I , . . . ..

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EXPERIlVIENTS IN

Amsterdam Boston London New York Oxford Paris Sao Diego

TIlis book is printed on add-flC(; paper. e

All rl€,hts [cs~rved.

Lib;"ruy of Con~ Caro1og CanI Nmnbc:i. 2002117796

lnttm~ljonal Sl;lnclard Book Number: C}.12-489851-3

PRIN1'E.O IN THE UNITED STATE'S OF AMERICA

To the memory of my father

Preface from the First Edition xv

3 Electronics and Dara Acquisition 89

3.5. Op4;rnllonal Amplifiers 119

6 High-Res(Jlution Spectroscopy 215

6.1. Introduction 215

7.4. ExperimenlII.l Observation 0 r the NllcieM Magnetic

8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay 295

9 Scattering and Coincidence Experiments 367

10 Elements from the 171e01}, of Statistics 423

B A Short Guide to MATlAB 477

C Laser Safety 483

D Radioactivity and Radiation Safety 485

E Optical DefectiDn Techniques 489

rt is generally accepted thai training in the sciences, especi:llly at the

in the junior and senior labor..tory cour!.es.

A defining characteristic of present-day physics is that many of the quan-

1.2. THE OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

In 1909. R. Millikan reported a reliable method for meMuring ionic charges.

phltes thal can be ahemntively charged to a coostant potential + V. - V.

F± = ±nt~(V Is) - ~JI'a'~(P - o)g =6rrar;d (lilt·)

A convenient method of analysis is to write Eq. (1.4) as

1.2.2. The Experiment

11::: Ma...--da 1017

1 Exp eriments on Quantization •

on which a subdivided millimeter scale bas been scratcbed. 2 The eyepiece

back into focus tho entire micro~ope should be moved.)

so many partic1c.~ in the mil;roscope field that without excessive eyestrain

to tak-e mca~urements in the shortest possible time $ince, as previously

It is also important to make measurements on as many charge.....

where rJo(T) is the V1SCO&ity of air a~ a function of T (Fig. 1.3), b =

STb.ls formula.. alt.e.roatively parameterized with hi P = Ai, "'here I h the mean-free

accumtc value for G.

1.2.3. Analysis of the Data

Pistm,.ce of fall d'"' 7.6:J )( 10-4 m

TABLE 1.1 Data fnom the MiUikan Oil Drop &pcrimcnt

;} Cl "" 4.66 x 10- 7 tn

(1.5 Flelo Opposmg Gravity

n (Number 01 Alac:tmn l:ha!g~)

Averaging the appropri81e columns in Table Ll (See Eq. (1.5)) we find

AI = -0.1526 ± 0.0046 g-I HI :;: 0.0346 ± 0.0009 S-l

Ie! == (1.52 ± 0.05) x 10-\9 C

Az = -0.1419 ±O.0042 s-l B2 = 0.0401;1: O.OOH> s-I

leI =::: 1.602 19

1.3. THE FRANK-H ERTZ EXPERIMENT

~?:r\ 1.:3 The Frank-Hertz Experiment 11

8Wh~n !hey F:main oollncJ ~fttr the C<JHi&i(JI'l,

FlGURE 1.5 Different cun~rlIlill!lS of the potential in II Fl'lI ok -Het tz JU't'<lJlg<!II,errt:

on a monotonically rising curve; indeed lhe number of electrons reacbing

contact potential difference so round can be ust:d to correct the ionization

1.3.2. The Experiment

In this laboratory a lnercury~fillc:d tube made by the Leybold Cowpany

required to eliminate AC pickup and induced voltages. The diagnun (')f

FIGURE 1.6 Skt'lCh of a cyiindri(;w Fral1l:-Hcl1.Z tuk

~:~::Irisertedthrough the small hole of the futltace. The JUJlction should be

16 1 Exp 9rim&nts on (luantintion

:~~s;a:~dditiOnal small effects such as the fine and hyperfioe strucrure.