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    Denis Odic

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    CONTENTS ONE iwrnooucTiON ‘Beet Hasory 2 net nraectin wo the Teton of Aronts TWO. FLUID MECHANICS Fis Dyanice Baler ation of Maton Detcrnnaton of FeeStenm Velo Desi of Tras Alseed "ety Potent and Seam Fanci lemenry Flo Functions ‘The Catan of Pos for Wel Deed Body Shapes "The Cuca tnd ‘re Nani Caen of Pots ow Aroued Arar Body THREE THE GENERATION OF LIFT Xie Ato Furies NACA or Dg See NACA f Senet 0 Preto of Atal ete Pia Fs Sia Pape asseen CONTENTS ‘ONE wrrooucrion (Bet Hitry A et Intodution othe Tecan of Aeooacs Two FLUID MECHANICS is Stace and the Atowpbere e's uation of tine Bernas Eaton Detention of Tie Apres ‘he Cet of lows for Well Defed Body Shoes "Te Cacia Cylinder ‘Te Namal Calton of Potent Pow Arad Airary Body Stipes THREE THE GENERATION OF LET ‘Wie Geomety ‘Need Fain NACA Four Dit Serie Dat Sees sees 1) Moder Ait Bovelopnens Prettn of Altos Bear Manin Lit Sst age Seat Bape agsehexaneee ee Sseseesvennsace Letting Edge Devices ‘Phe Opin Ao for gh it “The bina Lift 4 ase Wig seat of Fuselage on Con, test f Trin on Cr. sunt of Cas fot Cpe Alan Cofption FouR oRAG en Oe Brg of Shean Staes iia Boe a of nds Dg Ease ages ‘on Sako nd pve Pa Pe Aen ra Cont ‘rg iin Cote Aer of Si sna Dae Gem oe Tet Apa Dre PIVE_LIET AND OPAG AT HGH MACH NUMBERS lave Behavior of feist Pact Sf Mae Number Sunni Plow a igh Mach Number Odie Shock Wives Sperone ow (Acker They) is Soper Lenin Fons ett th aro he to it Dg of Tn Te |SiX_THE PRODUCTION OF THAUST Sree oe ores Theo sein Contos Retsing Wo Gas Trine Prfranse {ontatne Compan of he Pevtermance Tuo}. Turan. ond SEVEN AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE Effect of Wind Btn Feld ent ‘Geserakied Peer Rewaed Curve "eh Bavetre Maseseing Envelope (¥- Dig) Hoey Mens or Opin Teicaie ‘he At of katate td Sting 10HT STATIC STABILITY AND CONTROL dnt Systep—Fuces Maen nV ‘agin! ue Sy Sekt New Plt nd Sse Main Gocsad hry Cone cans Fe We Soma ace ‘ine Fon Feo of Lit Cote “este a Siar cintt Fores Cex Sch Factor 4 ute Eval Cea of Sk Face ‘Secreta Ste Sly eur Ste Coen Snes Conteaon Stree Ste Mara Sieatynacentne Toraos Sate Berar Conk: enter Ang er ‘Stahiletor Angle per g me Siet Foe pete Si it Coesin tec of Fiseage a Nase ‘Beat of Prope Scan Lead Deco 9a Subse Conta eageees 88 Re Conta 9 the Ue of Spies counting Bets ans Mt ith Ssesip Ane Dede ee NINE LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTROL auton of Moon ‘4 Sumeury Look st the Say Devas an Other Parmeter “Rfectng Lonptinl Dynan: Moon X Datatvs an Parameters 2Z Durance in Prsneers [oieation and Reducton f Euan of Logi Motion oe Coetseals Mote Shes ‘hom thane Psd Mode) ‘engi! Five Quaies Pak Path Sty TEN LATERAL-OIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTHOL "Afeing Ctr Beton Dyas Maton s Mole Shoes Ro Mose Lage Dba Pine Qs [APPENDIX A THE Si SYSTEM APPENDIK 42 STANOARO ATMOSPHERE APPENDIX AS. AIRPLANE OATA APPENDIX A4 NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS Invex AERODYNAMICS, AERONAUTICS, AND FLIGHT MECHANICS ONE INTRODUCTION ‘Acronis is defined at “the science tht teats of the operation of ‘Hteraft; aso, the art or scence of operating aircraft” Basia, with Sororities, one ie concerned with predicting and controling the fores and inoments om gn acral hat tnvclng trough the atmonphere ‘A BRIEF HISTORY ‘Thursday, December 17, 1908 “ihen we got wp a wind of Betwen 20 and 25 mies wa Blowing from he om, We sot the machine out ely ond put ow the signal forthe mem at the ‘tation. Before we mere gute ready, John T. Dani, W. S. Dough, A.D. iheriige, W.C Brinly of Manto, and Johny Moore of Nags Head aived. “Ajierraing the engine and propellers fow minutes to et thar woking ‘nde. It on the machine af 1035 forthe fst ta. The wit, according 10 ‘ur anemorctes a thls tne, wus Blowing le oer 20 miles (erred) 27 Ines according tothe goverment anemameter at Kity Hak On slippig the zip the machine sted of mereosing speed to probably 7 oF § ms. The ‘machine fed from the teh hast ait as entering the fourth ral. Mr ‘anil took picture justo Uf the racks found the contr ofthe fromt ruler suite dif on account of ts being balanced to near the crater ond thus Baa tendency to tur sl when started 0 thatthe rudder was tuned toa for on ome side and then 00 Jar on the other. AY a resi the machine wouldve suddenly to about 107! und then ar sudden. on taming the rudder, dart for the ground. A eudden dart when out abou 100 fet from the nd of the tracks ended the fight. Tne about 12 second fot know exactly {5 wich was nox promptly stoped) The ee for thong af the engine wat ‘akan aed the sid under the raddr racked. After pais at 30min fer TH o'clock Wil made the second tra “The above, taken from Orvle Wright's diary, ax reported ia Reference 1, describes cuankands tet stained, controled, powered ght ia a 1. That the rato of dif tf in welt shaped surfaces i es at ales of Incidence of fee degree 40.12 degrees than at ame of thre dss.” CDi what we now call “dra cat in arched arfacs the contr of preatare a 90 degrees i near the enero the surface, but moves sols forward asthe ane becomes less {it cic! angle sarin wih the hape and depth ofthe eure is reached, “fer which it moves eupdiy toward the rear Til he angle of mo ft own” atu pir of superposed, or tandem surface, has le ti proportion to anit than aber surface separetely, coe after maKingallowence for ‘eight end head rsttance of the connections.” “These statements and other remark (ace Ref. 1) show thatthe Weight ‘brothers had good understanding of wing and all Behavior well beyond thot of eter eaperimenters of the ine Following their frst secessal fights ot Kitty Hawk, Noth Caroling, a 1903, the Wh Brothers returned (ther hore in Dayton, Oho, Two Years Lee thy were making hts there, amor route. im excess of 30K and inn whe oters were sil trying fo gt ofl the pun, ‘Moat of the sucess of the Weight Brothers est be tributed to their foun reeare, which ize their sed tunnel and numerous experents Sith controled Kites and. les. However, tei work wis ail io son ‘egre, o the glilng espriments of Ono Lienthl and Oetave Chanute Begining i189, ilenthal, working near Bec, Germany, male ap- ‘roximately 2000 gliding fight over # St pesos. Based on messirements ‘Shrined from these experiments, he publiated ubics of hit and drag measurements on which she Weght Brothers based their early designs Unfortunately, Lilenhal had ao cans of providing doeet seoljamic comma to his ghdere and rsd instead om kinesthetic consol, whereby ne Sted his weight fore anata sie fo side. On August 9, 1996, os the Fert of a gust, Oto Lilenthal lst conte snd ecssbed from an alta of ‘ppeoaimately iSm. He died the next day. Dasing 1896 and TR¥7, Octave ‘Ghani, nspcd by Lalitha work, desaned and bit several ses that Sere down by ofher near Mile, Indians. Chanute recoguizedLikenthals onto probans aad was attempliag to achieve an “automate” sabi i his designs. Chanute’ principal eoatnbution was the aditon ofboth verte thrill stabiing a arfaces In tion, he went tothe "S04," OF Upaae, confguaion for edded stength Unfortuately, he aso ried on hnesthate contr ‘When the Wright Brothers began this win experiments in the fall of 1900, they realized tht adequate conta shoot al three ex ms ove of the major preaqulsites ta successful fight. To provide pach contol (eae Up or down), they revred toa sllmovsble horzoaal al mound infront of Apaice stony 6 the wing. Yaw control (Ge. taming to the left 2 ght) was accompliabed by Ineans of an albmovablevortkal al mounted behind the wing. Toei method {tril contol (ce, lowering oe sige ofthe wing nd ring te be) wes ‘not as obvious fom photographs as the controls about the other two axes: Here, the Wriht Brothers devned s means of warping thet "Sox" wig 50 thatthe angle of ineidence was Increased 0a oe she and deeteted om the ‘thers The verted tal o adder, was eomected othe wingoneping Wires So {it produce what pilots eer today a coordinated tom, "The Wright Brothers were well bead of al oer avalon enthusiasts of thir era infact. ws ol anil 33 afer thle est ght at 8 similar Capabty wan emomtrate, this by Charles apd Gabrel Von in Paris, France (Ref 12). On March 3, 1507, Cartes Voisin ade cmtroled ight ‘of epproximetaly 107m in an silane simi ia appearance to the Wright fyer A second mackie but by the Voisin Brothers for Hens Farman = ‘lycie and auomobe race, was Bown By Farman later tht eat on Migs That exceeded 2000. BY the end of tat year at ast ve others suceeded in folowing the Weight Brothers’ ead, and aviation ws ots way "Taday we ure ale to explain the eval of the carly eaperinenters ia a ‘ery rations! way by applying wellesbishal serodyasnie principles that have volved over the fears tom both analysis and experimentation, These evelopment tave thes beginings with Sit Isaac Newton, who his een fatled the fist fel Mud mechantian (Ref. 13). Ia 1687 Newton, who ie probably best known for hs work in tld mechaees, reasoned hit the Fesitance of 4 body moving though + Mid is propo! 10 the Aid ‘density, the veotyguare, and the area of the body. "Newton sve postulated the sac force ia viscous Mud be propor ional 1a the velocity padient. Todo. any Ait Obeying this relationship 6 fetered to aos Newtonian fui In 1738, Danist Beroul 3 Swics mathematician, published hs teats, ‘Hydrodynamics whieh was flowed in 74 by a similar work preduced by hit father Joh Bernal The Bermolis made portant cotibtions to linderstanding the Rehavioe of fids Iq parcuar Jobn introduced the ‘Soncept of fterma posture, ané he was probaly the Fest to apply momen tam priniles oifatexal uid elements eontuid Euler, another Swiss mathematician, ft pt the science of nydrocvoamiss on a firm mathematical hase. Afound 1738, Er properly formosted the equation of motion based ua Nevwonian meezanks and the tron of Jahn and Daniel Berowli It was he who Art derived alone 8 Iiteamlne the relationship that me ster to tay Be "Bernas equation.” ‘he nedyaamie theres of the 1806 and early 18008 developed frm the cay works of there mathematars. Ie 189 the Engl engineer, Freerck Will Laschester- developed «theory fo prodit te aerodynamic Tehavir of wings Unfortunatly, ths work was not made generally Known able 11 Largest Avert Exola Stating wth he Wight Brothers —— ——— Table £4 (connues cor ror FE om oo 5 A BMEF wrROQUETION 70 THE TECHNOLOGY OF AERONAUTICS 9 uni 1907 in book published by Lanchester. By then the Wright Brothers had been yng for yt. Much of the Knowledge that they ha lborously ‘deduced trom experiment cou. have been reasoned from Lanchester theory In 1894, Lanchester completed an analysts of aplane Sabi tht ‘ould also have been of valde fo the Wrshts. Again, this work Sis tot Published wat 1908 TLancestes wing theory wus somewhat intuitive in its development. 1918 Lodaig Prana a Gecran professor of mechanics, presented athe ratial formulation of hee-dinensionl wing theurs today both men ate edied with ths secompishment. Prandaiso made another portant onto to he scence with his formalized Boundary aj concept “Around 1917 Nala Ergrovich Foukowski (the spling ba been ak Sized)» Rassan professor of falls! mechance and erodynamis io ‘Moscow, pblshed” «series of lectures on hydrodynamics a WAh the behave ofa family oF altos was investigated analytical "The work of thee einy hyo: ane aerodynamicit contributed Ile, s ny 16 the progres and ultimate socess ofthe strung vo By. However, Teas the amlvea base lls By Euler and those who flowed him on which the api progress in aviation was bull. “Atte 1906, the list of avstrs, npincers, and sietists contributing to the development of aviation grew rapidly. Quantum improvements were Accomplished withthe Une of fap ceratale gear, the eantlevered Wins ‘ibmetal constuction, and the tbojet engi. This impressive growth Alocumented in Table Note that ia less thin 10yr fom the, Weigh Brothers fst Bight the Useflload increased from 667 (01) to more than 13.00 GOOD. Inthe nest 10 the sel oad increased by a factor (1 TOs toy terme than 178% 1076 (ao AOD) for the Lackeed C58. ‘Ou slate of Knowledge js now sch that one can predict with some ‘erainty the performance of am aplane before its ever flown. Where ‘salvia or mmerial techniques ae insufcent, sophisticated experimental, Fees are ued to investigate ateas such 5 iit dvies, completed tee-dimensonalfows a tubomachinery, and eerotbermodymnics. Tot Aint Fa Novos Pacne 70H Wr tes a sie, ‘A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNOLOGY OF AERONAUTICS. Consider the siplane in steady linking fight shown in Figure 1.3. The term stanly means thatthe apne nt aseeerating. hence, ll forces Ed ‘mometts on th sctafl mun be ih balance. To be more precise, one states ‘hatte vector sm of al force and moments om the aiplane mist We = ‘To depict the anger sore cles all forces ate shown acting trong the enter of gravy (ey Alten the resutat of all the forces mst past Table 4 jcomnun rd oo ed Figure 13. Forces ane moments onan alae ina tay climb throwgh the center of gravity, i 6 nt generally tre that any one of the forces, mth the exception of W must sty thir condos Te ths gre Vcopreseat the veloty Vector ofthe aplane's center of gravity. Ts vectors shown iacined upward from the horizontal through the Single of clin, 8. The ange between the horizontal andthe Trt line is ‘denoted asf this ine taken tobe the reference line of the splene,the foe states that the skplane ir pitched up through this ange. Tho angle between the reference tbe and the velocity Vector, 8 As eferred a8 the tage of attack of the arlane. Later we wil ase oer anges of aac Telerenced tothe wing grometr: this, one mast be creat a tterpeting lt tin dag data presente as funtion ofthe angle of sack ‘The thrst, Tis the propling force that balances mainly the ar0dy~ namic dragon the ailne. 7 canbe produced by a propeller, a turbojet, 3 The lift, I. is defined as the component of all aerodynamic forces ‘enerated By the ara in the direction nora t the veloky vector, Vin level fight this means principally the upward vertical force produced bythe wing. Generally, however, it includes theta and fanelage forces. For ext ‘lin anlngmnny sirraft require downward force oa the hovel tall In order to tm out the nose-down pching moment produced by the wine Maps This wimming force canbe wena equing «wine ft atceby ceazens of the silanes weight Simiar to the lit, the drag, D, is defined as the component of all serodyramic orcs genetted by the aipane in the deco opponte 0 the ‘A BRIE WrRODUCTION TO THE TEGINCLOY OF AERONAUTICS TH velocity vector, V. This force i composed of two principal pats, the paste {ag and the induced drag The minced drag fe eenerated 9 result of ‘producing i; the parasite drag isthe drag of the fsenge, landing peat, rte, and other surfaces exposed tothe alr Tete 2 fin plat concerning the diag of the wing to be meaoneé ete that willbe elaborated on later. Pare of the wing drag contiter to the parasite drag and i rometines feferred tos pro das. The profle dag i clove) equal wo the drag of the ‘ning a zor Mt: however, des increase with increasing It. Ths Increase Js threfore usually inlade as pat of tho induced dra. a Sit sense this i incocet, owl Become clearer Iter on W tthe rors weight ofthe alan and by defn, ats atthe centr cof gravity the plane and is drected veraly downward is composed fof the empty wight ofthe allan und its useful loud. Tis later weight ‘telus the payed persengers and cargo) and fhe fel weight “The pitching moment, Mf, defined ux postive fn the nore-updiection (clockwise in Pipe 13) and resis from the disibton of aerodyeamie forces om the wing tail fuselage, engine aces, and ater srteces exposed tovth flow ObviusyyH the icplae inti, the sum of these moments about the center of gravity mst be zr. ; We know foday tht the aeroyeami forces ona aiplane ar the sae swhather we move the alpine Uugh silat or fx the eplane and move the al past In ater words, its the eave motion Between thea and Liplane snd got the absolte motion of either tat determines the wetdy- amie force. Thr rstement wat a always so obvious. When be leaned of the Wright Hroers’ wind tonne tests, Octave Chante wrote 10 them on (etober 12,1901 (Re 1.1) and refered to "natral wind." Chanute com etre in his eter: 1 seoms to me tat there may bea diference nthe rent whether the ait {is impinged upon by a mosing body or whether the wind impinges upon the Sune body af rst. In he later cout each molecule being dren from Behind. fens to tomer more of ty sheng tthe body than In he former case when the Body mects cach molecule tucestinly Before that time to reat On Fortuately, Wilbur and Orvile Weight chose to believe their own wind Retuming to Figure 13, we may equate the vector sum ofall frees to er, ince the silane i equ. Hence, in he dretion of Hiht, T eos(0=8)-D~ Wsin=0 a Weon tL =P sin(o~8)=0 an 12 o0ucnOW “These equations can be solved for the ange of climb t give yt Ts05(0=6.)-D In thie form appears om both sides of the equation. However lt vs assume prio hat 6 ata (8) are sll anges. Ao except for very High Setformance snd V/STOL (ect r short aks and nig) planes the {us for ost aiplnes i oly a fration ofthe weighs Ths, Pqution 13 « aa ange os For silanes propelog by rwhojets or rackets, Equation i ia the form that one eould-noemally use for calculating the ange of climb However, inthe ease of tiplnes with shaft engines ths equation is mated 10 tht we ea eal with power inten of rst ist, consider tyustng propel tht moves a detanceS inte fat constant velocity, V. The Work thatthe propels performs during ht ine i sotiusl power 78 But Sit x cqunl tothe vlocy of advance ofthe propeller, Hence the power alae frm the proper ven by Pow TV “9 Sinry, the power reauited by 4 tay traveling through the ai with velocity of sed Raving rag of D wl be Baquaton 4, by eulying ough by WY, we vet WEVA) Pos Poss wo “The quantity Va, ithe verti ate f climb, Vi. The diferece between the ‘ower that Is eaulted and that sealable fe rofrred to athe exces power Pe Thus Equation 1.6 shows thatthe verte! rate of climb canbe obtaned by equating the excess power t9 the power reqused te Mit the miglanes ‘elght at the rate Vj. In operating an plane this means the fallowiag A Pilot is fying ata given wpecd in stay, evel fight withthe engine three ‘nly partly open If the plo advances the trots while maining 2 ‘Tha, rewrniag 19 ‘A emir mrnooUCTIN 10 Rie ECWNOLOGY OF AEROMUTICG 19, constant airspeed, the power from the engine wil hen be in exes ofthat ‘Sure for evel ahs and we plane wil lib. ‘Sunpove, stead of keeping Ht onsat, the plot, while opening the tote alows the akspeed to increase In soch a manner nt mas Constant slide, Whet a wide open thote (WOT condom i eiched the ‘Sunmum power avalele i eqal tothe power feued. Tas i he om. {ion for maximum sitopecd "stright and Fve” rom tis it intoductin into silane performance, iis bviows that vee must be able to estinate the aerodynamic forces 08 the aiplane before me {an predict it performance. Ako.» Saculedge of the chatacters of power pln propelsor combination is essential Tain to performance, the aren of "0g quite” is very im povtan tothe nceptanct of at sane by the cstomer. Fig qualities Feten primary to tabity and cont, bat ko cocompasses plane [et us bry Consider the pitching moment M, showa ia Figue 3. This ‘moment, which must be Zero forse, tried ih, results mai from {het onthe wing an a Im on, comibatins rs rom the fseae, faces propusor, an distbuton of reste over the wing, Suppose 209 ‘hat the inane fe winmed in steady, lve! Might when is suddenly Sstrbes (ously by seus ean fpet fom the plod) suck that tptches up by some amount, Before ean respond, he anes pth il essestly bovzotal so thatthe see between the velocity vector andthe plane's as imtmomentary incrsed Ie wil be shown later ta, a given speed he Imoment, Nee dependent om this anle defined previously as the angle of Each. Sine the moment vn italy zo Before the srlane was dstarbed {follow tan general wil ave same vale other than Zero de tothe Increase in angle of tack. Suppose this increment Ms postive. In ths {ise the tendency Would then be forthe ale of stack (0 ietese even farther Ths isan onsabe stun whee the alae, whee disturbed, fends to-move even further fom fs steady-state conto. Thus forthe Spline fo exhbit a more favorable, sable response, we dese thatthe Increment in M caused by an ange of ask change be agave Tis Is abot oe for we can go without consicerg in dal the senertion of aerodynamic forees ani’ moments on an aplane and is Somponeatss The preceding discoson far shown the importance of being Bio sredt ths quan rom ath perormnce ond ite guar Siewpoite The folowing chapters wil present detafed ataytsl a ryote mater suene to deermine the performance aed stbity St0 como shurcterst of an spl. ‘Ri you stay the matt fo fellow, Keep i ind ta it took the ery aviton pioneers a iftine to aeumulste nly fact of the Knowle? {hats yours to gain wih few months of dy 14 wmooucrow sre primary syste of wits oe wed in stent the SSIs te AT, Since this system fst now being adored We Intranets tothe Bagh este. preset ABpEnY ie ee re tama with bot systems, nie mbsf A Ae the Enlh pte, Fora mare complete exansion of {he's oyster, see Reference 14 PROBLEMS 1 Coe te tte of tin fan eae having runt weih Cote te ong rato of 180 at forma veloc of Tome of 025 a ene Vm meters et second. Coren practice 0 PSs Ear cc pr mint What woul be your amar in the ar ot the este al and rack pitared below rei equim? Wich sre stale? 1.3 Amara wei 450001 (01171) ad eau S972 0) 04 ta ci Net a caper of Bes (79 mph. he alae foe! Sea an ye) how fast wil the aan cin when the throe vanced to te wide open poston? sa Riameed on hh ertco-eiht atthe onl fc Foran aan ain, for cornin VISTOL alsa the tt necessarily et ge upward sigan wih pest othe etion of TE in angle Ts dened as show that coun Teen 15 Astsent poses agains the side of bling wit x fore of 6N for AARRGr Li ow much work was done? ee ifcaodag ao of 15,1 i a an alte of 10 a rere tne epi An port 1k (2 ies) end. Wl the plot be ale to reach? REFERENCES ny sean tr Mr 2 eR er ne, ees ee eect eee 1s ag agen 1a Reefs, eglewood Cit, NI. 1965. Apptcaton Ps a nr se, Washington, D.C,, 1969. * Government Pring 1 Cleveland, F. A. “Size F Cc SSeS, Seba et rt at Two FLUID MECHANICS ‘This chater will tess the princiles in Hoi mechanic that are expect ‘ily important to the study of aerodynamics. For the reader whose pre uration does no ineloge Bid mechan the material ths chapter sho be tffcene to understand the development in succeeding chapter. For Imore complete tratent, soe aay of the many avalible texts on Aid mechanics (eg Rels.21 and 22), Unlike solid mechanic, one normally deal wth» continuous medi in the study of fil mechanics Am aplane fa Mght doesnot experience = Sudden change i the properes ofthe a sucoundig it.The steam of watt ftom a rehose exerts steady force on these ofa burning Biking ke ‘he impulse on a swinging bat as Ht compects withthe discrete mass of the Tn sold mechanics, oe is concerned with the behavior of ven ie system of said masses ander the infoence of force and moment vectors Systen, bu with the Now of comtinoous Haid ast Under the lauence of Asribetedpresutes and shea stesses "The tern fd should not be comfered withthe term lg, wince the foxmer includes ot ony the aller, bul gases ax well Generally Bui i defied as nny sabstance that wil realy deform under the invence of hearing forces. Thun» fi nthe antonyn ofa soi. Sine th aside and tases salty ths efletion, they se both Known an Bulls A lgud i Sistine from agus by the fee tat the former Is ary incomgvessibe Unie a gas the volume of ven mass of liquid remsine independent of the pressure imposed onthe mas ‘FLUID STATICS AND THE ATMOSPHERE Before westag the mote sificaltcat offi in motion lt us comer fod a est in sate equilbam. The mass per une volume of «ud I efi as the muss deny. uweally denoted by. The macs demalyie constant or Huis, bt ti fonction of temperate, T nd presure,p for po ektT en in efete to the eas constant se hs valu of 287.3 9PK sec fr aie ‘normal temperate In Equation 2 Tl the themodyranico absolte temperature in doprecs Kelvin. T and th Celis temperate, tare tlated uy rerems en ‘A. containe fled ith sfigid ic pctred in Figure 2. A freebody ingrnof smal hg of the fds shown ta Figure 2.1. This slog has & Ira (2%) unit cross-sectional area and x diferent ength of dh, Acting downward ver the eper urate the sae resure,p, while acting upd ove the Tower face tis same pressure plus the fate of increase ofp with depth muted bythe shang i dept, dh. The state pressure so acte Layard ‘round the ses ofthe element, but ths contbuls aotung fo the balance of forse in the vera eeetion, ln nition to the pres forces, the weight ft the id elsneat, pth acts vetcaly downoad; i the provisions ‘Suaming forces onthe clement nthe verti! divection kad to Boon en Integrating Baton 23 from h =O athe surface to any depth, hres ln thesia pretore at function of the depth or en were pe the atmorpheri peste athe fee surface ‘A.manometer is device frequcny used to measre pressures. ti based om Equation 24, Consider the experimental setop pictured in Figure 22 Here, «device hnown os pitotstati tbe ts mmecsed i aed aligned Svith'agas ow. The impact ofthe gas being brought rest at the nose ofthe {ube producer pressure hiher thas that along the ses of the Tube. Tis pres, know at he foal pressure, taneeited through a tae tone Sie ofa Ushaped glass tube aril fled with uid. Some distance back from the nose ofthe pitts te the presere fe sxmpled hough sll ‘pening tht fe ish with the sides ofthe tube. This opening Wi far ough tuck fom the mote, Joes mot stu the Gow so that the presse Simple by itis the same as the sac presure ofthe undisturbed ow. This ati preture ie tana tothe right si o he pass Uctube manometer The ttl pressure, being Niger than the state presse, cases the qui i te lett side of the Utube to drop whi the lev on the i ie rises. we denote pas the statis pressure and +p a8 the ttl presee,the pressure a the Sttom ofthe Use canbe escalated by Equation 24 vse fier the right of et side of the tube, Equatng the resus rom the (vo sides b+Ap+ =P Rta he) p= oe ah es ence, the diterece of the oui eels inthe two sds of the manometer ‘na direct measre ofthe pres difeenceappicdseross the manometer Tihs case we cond then determine the difternve between the ttl press ==) Tam ‘igure 22. Pactsai tube coonected ta Utube las mano snd state presse in thes fw from which, ax we wil se later the Nelocty of the gue canbe calls "Now consder the variation of tate pressure through the atmosphere. Again the forces ating oma ierentil asso eas wil be eated ina nner Sima tothe development of Egoation 23 for lau. However will be {ake to be the altitidesbose the ground aad sige the ruviationlatace tions now opposite tothe dection of increasing hy the sin of Eauaton 2.3 ‘changes For the stosphere, ae, 6 Bam eo “The mass density, toot x constant in this ese 0 that Equation 2.6 ‘unmot heintgrated immediately. lm onder to petty the integration the ‘ation of state, Equation 21 1 substted for. which ends teeth an po RT From experimental observation, the vation of temperature with a tide Roown or at eats standard variation hat bee speed on, Up toa hide of I hn the temperatures akon to decrease inet with tude at trate, known a the lapse rte, of 6S1°Clkm. Tas, Equation 27 besomes Tt pT Raa som en were 6 the rato af he state pee a ite fo the pete tsa iceland ithe conespondingsicine taper a ‘Ung the canton of ste the comesponig deal ra, oi obtained mediately tro Eaton 2 ono om Using the standard lapse rate a se evel temperature of 28.15°K, 888 function of tude fy piven by omen 10) suber isthe attade in Kilometers “The lower region ofthe atmosphere upto a atu for which Equations 28 10210 hold eelered Yo atthe troposphere, This the vegan in which ‘mot f today's Byiag is dove. Abowe I Km and up to om alitude of {ppcoximatly 23, the temperature i seary constant. Thi region forts the lower part ofthe strteaphere. rough the mainder of the sratoopere the temperature increas, Yechnganproxiatly 270° at an alae of Figure 23 prevents graphs (akeo om Ref. 2) ofthe various properties fof the sandare atmosphere as a function of abide. Each propery Is ‘resented asa ratio tos standard ve eve vale denoted by the stbotpt "0." In addon to pp, and T the acoustic velocity ond kinetic cosy ste presented. These to properis wil he defined later. ‘One normally thinks of tae asthe vera distance ofan plane above {he earths surface. However, the operation of an airplane depends on the properties of the ar trough which i i Ming, ae on the geomet Reig ‘Ts the slide is requenty speci in terms of the standard etmospher. Specialy, one refers Yo the presse elltude othe density altitude tthe ‘eit i the standard atmosphere corresponding t tbe presse or dens. ‘espectvely, ofthe atmosphere ia Which the airplane i operating. AN i ‘lane's alee simply an absolute pressce guar alba according to ASSES TRE TESS “ga J ct rt | 7 a < “4b. | | FSS ‘igre 23° Te standard atmosphere the standaidstmosphere has u manu adjustment to allow for variations in scx level Bojometic pressure. Whee set fo standard sea level pressure (Comm Hg, 2992 Hy), ssaming the istrment and Sate pressure Source to be fee of eros; the alee Wl read the pressure ade. When set. ‘he local sen level barometric pressure wich tbe plot can obian over the 22 rue mecwNcs radio while in fight, the abimetr wil ead closely the tae stitute above sea Tove. Apt must refer Coa chart peseibing te ground elevation above sea level inorder to determine the height shove th round, ‘rLuio brnamics We wil now ets fil tht moving tht, aon o wave ‘on forehand bering fey ml be cme “sinc ow oan steamined shape pte age 24 Note that hi ae abled “womens fow'this mea seh a {ow cd rnc nt a ro corde an yin eee Ogre 25) amt docs not ened on he thd conte: For vamp the oof wind ound 2 ta ea emotestck ssn o-dneoa ‘cep nea the top Here te wind oes over we ao he sch and ‘keto in tesmenon: Arse sample Pe 3 mig erent ihe fow trou a eumincd st ot te ove tha pars he ‘ingot atighning sane The tiedmantonl cutee of Bs tape ‘might be the blimp. a“ Sever ers of fow rund body npn re oe in Fare 24 Fiserv that he Bow tte by mean of ween. Aste lina imu tinea he Row sch te vey ol sos ‘Mtn the recy vst get tein to-do @ veo veer ‘igre 24 Two-dinensiona! tow around a seed sheoe ruponaucs 23 tow if (0) defines the poston of x streamline, (2 elated te the and y omposgnts of the veloity, as) and vs) BY Be ew [Note that he body ssfae tsi x 3 streaaio. in iecedimencional ow a sface swept by streamlines is krown a & stream Surface, uch successes bow a 9 seam be "The mass Row accelerstes around the body as the fesul of contouous istibion of prestere exerted o0 the Mid by the Body. AR equal and SGppositereseton mast occur on the body. This sate pesrare dsibton, Ring evenyuhere nova the body's srface, x petred onthe lower af rahe body in Figure 24, The small rows repreneat the local state pressure, De tcntve to the state pretur, py inthe Mad far removed from the body Ker the aose pie greater thn py further af the pressure becomes negative {atnveto pI hie sai pense distribution, acting norma othe surface, [S imown, forces on the Bay can be determined By integrating this pressure In addon to the local state pressure, shearing stresses resting from the i's viscosity ao ive ee To ody fees. AS Hud pastes over 8 solid Sorina, the Rs pasties taneditely i contact wit he surtace ate Deou {o rest Moving nay from the surface, soecessve layers of fui are slowed by the shearing stresses produced BY the der layers. (The term “ayes” Is ‘oad nly ae convenience fe describing the Md bev. The Mas shears Ins contingous manner and nota discrete layers) The rest thin ayer of Slower moving Mul, known ss the boondary lye, adjacent tothe surface [New the front ofthe body this Iyer sr very this and the flow within Ii ‘tron witht any random or urbulestRatuatins. Here the fui particles tit be deeribed st moving lon inthe layer om parallel panes, of laminae ence the flow i Yefered foo lamina. ‘some distance back from the nove ofthe body, iterbances tothe fow (ea. trom urface roughness) ren longer Sumped out. These disturbs ‘deny smi, andthe laminar boundary layer undergoes transition to “arbuleat hounds layer Ths ayers canary hike than hein one Sri characterced by a mean veloc poof om which smal, randy Aucwating velocity component are superimposed. These flow regions a shownin Figure 24 The houndary layers are pctred considerably tier than ‘hey actually are for puoses of dustin. For example, onthe wing of an ‘plan ing t 10 m/s tow alte, he erbulent boundary 10 mack om the lading edge ord be only sppronnately Lc hick Ihe layer wert lumiane ais pine tickers would be approsiatly 0.2 cm Retusing to Figure 24, the tuaiat boundary layer continues to ‘sien toward the rea ofthe body. Over this parton ofthe surface the Aud 24 rue mecians is moving ato a region of increasing state pressure tht i ending to oppose the flows The slower moving Mid in the Boundary layer may be Unable to bvercone this adverse pressure gradient, so tha at some point the #0% ually sepuates trom the body surface. Dowaetream of this separation Pring, reverse fow wil be found long fhe surace wit the sate pesire eal constant and eau to that at the point of separtin, ‘At some distance downstream of the Body the separated flow closes, and a wke i focmed. Fete, a velocity dflency representing» moment [ot bythe uid is found ear the center of the wake. Ths decrement of momentum (nore precisely, momentom fn) i dzet measure f te BOO? ‘rag Ge the force om the body i the direction of the fresteam veloc) "The general ow pattern described thus far can vary. depending onthe size and shape ofthe Body the magne of the fee trem Velocity, sd he properties ofthe Bid. Variations in these parameters can eliminate transition ‘Goe might reasonably assume that the forces oma body moving through x ‘uid depend in some way on the mass desi ofthe Hui, p the sizeof the body, snd the Body's selocy, Vf we asome that any ot force, Fis opertinal 1 the prodt of these parameters cach raised tun unknown power. thes Peeve In onder forthe basic units of mas, length and time to be consistent, it me a Considering M,L, an Tin onder leads t tise equstions fo the wnknown fxponents a, 8, and'¢ from whih if fou tat a=, b=. a 2 Fepve en) For a patil force the constant of proportionality in Euston 2.12 refered to at coecint and ss modified by the tame ofthe forse, fot ‘example, the hit coeffient, Thus the it abd dap force, Land Dy can be caprered L=pysc, e213) D=bvisce em) [Note tht the square ofthe characteristic eat has Been replaced by a reference afet § Also, factor of 1/2 has bee italuced. Tit eat be one, sige the it abd drag coetiiens, Cand Cn are abirary at this point The quaaty” pV ix refered to. the dvoumie. presse, the ‘Sieance of which wil be made Sle shorty ru onuucs 26 or many aplication, he cosets Cand Crema constan fra siven gomaticshpe ove we range of opeatingconon or boy se Fer dimplewecdenensna aif aa ang of stack il have si [Sin ef approsimaly 0 for veltes fom few meters person Spe" enor” addon, Cw Be almon ndpendet of he is Titel However,a more rigwow sppbeaton of dimensional say te icing ihe Rt.) ln one porosity in Equation 212 publ eng dependent om number o iments parameters “Two of the most important of these are known as {he Reynolds mbes ant Mach mmber, Meine e140) ee) where! is characteristic lngth, Vis the freestteam veloc, the Cheficint of vitconty, nd ais the velo of sound. The velocity Of sound he sped ot which small pressure itutance fs propagated through the fi ot this pin, requis no further explanation, The coefcent of scons, however, is aot as well Koown and wal be elaborated on Teference to Figure 2, Hee, he velocity proie i plied inthe boundary Taye of laminar viscous ow overs surface. The viscous shearing produces shearing reve of om the wal. Tas force pe unit nen is elated 1 the fradient ofthe Yelocy wp) a he wall by en i #(@),. an Actually, Equation 2.18 is applicable to calelting the shear szeses ‘between il element and wot rested simpy tothe wal, General, the viscous searing sree in the fil in ay plane parallel fete How and s¥ay a ‘gure 25. Viscous tw ascent to sre, rom the wal given by the product of and the velocity gaint normal to the dirstion of fo. “The hnematie viscosity,» sdefined as the rai of 1 1 vet is defined ea matter of convenience, since itis the rato of a top that foverne the Reypolds number. The kinematic viscosity for the standard “Tmospere fe chded in Figure 23 ne am svere frac of the standard 3a evel vale, "A physic) signifance canbe gven othe Reynolds number by mul ving numertor and denominator by V and dividing by waa a In the folowing mater (se Equation 228) the normal eesire wil be sown to be proportional to pV? whereas, from Equation 215, 4Vl is Proportional 19 the seiring sree. Hence for given How the Reynols umber tn proportional tothe rath of normal pressures Gnerti free) (0 ‘rcoos searing stresses. Tus, relatively speaking ow i ess viscous han “nother How ke Reyoois amber is ger than tat of the secon ow. "The Mach number determines to what extent Mud compresibty canbe redlested (cry the var of mse denaiy with prestre). Caren! et transports for example can cruise at Mach aumbers up to proximately 08 tere signcont compress effect are encoantere. 'M Tower Mach numbers, two flows arc peometrcly aad dynamically simar ithe Reynolds numbers are the saat for both ows, Hence, for {xample, for «given shape, Cp for Body Tem long at 100s Wil be the Same as Cp fora 1-m fong body at IOs. As another example, suppose traniion occurs 2m tack from the lending edge of = Bal late signed with & flow having a vlochy of Sa. The, at 2Savs vanstion would occur at 8 distance of 4m from the eading edge. Obviously the effects of Rand Mon Simenstonlss aerodynamic coeficints mst be consiered when ilerpeting test eults obtained with the uve of small model For many eases of iferes 0 aerodynamics the presse feld around 9 shape can be cakultedansming the ai to be iviaci and incompressine Sal corections can thon be made to Ie resling solutions fe sceount for these “eel fu eects Corectons for viscosity or compress wil be onsered as needed i he following chapters CContervation of Mess Pid passing though an aren at velocity of V has mas ow rate cual to pa This easly seen by reference to Figure 2 Hove ow is | | a =. F fe 7 ‘Figure 26 Mate ow though a sutace ictred long steamtube of crosescctional area A. The fad velocity is cual to Ve At time "0, pote smal slug of Au of tnt, f,about to ‘ssa reference plane. Artime I ths cue slug wil ave passed through the reference ple. The vlume of tho spi A, 50 that a mass of pA was teamorted scrote reference plane during the tie IV. Hence the mass fate of Bev, mis ven bY map iy =eav a6, Alongs streamtahe (which may be conduit wi solid walls) the quant AV ‘monte constant mises oto necumblte nthe system Forlocampressie fom piv canst 0 tht the conservation of a leas othe conti) rinse AV constant |AV is the volume flow rate sad i sometines referred to as the fx Similay,pAV isthe many an The mas fx tough surface muipled by the velocity vector st the surface It dfined se the momen Mux. General, ifthe velocity vector is aot noel to the surface he mate Mux wl Be pAven with the momentum ux writen as Av aw hoce mi the unit vector sonal to the svtae and in the dation in which, the fur ip defined to be poriive. For example, If the sufoce ences a ‘volume andthe et mat un ot of the volume i to Be aleulted, mould be circted outward trom the volume, an the following ina w hla over the ene sutace ‘ent wou be [free Comite he conservation of mate peed to» derail contrat ute sire nano! ot wit tee Acar Star L's i Bigue 27 Tae fow psng trough as one hs ‘shy Comment stad he cna he sect he ma ist, eiperivey Te eoepangConponsts on th pi fie the cement ue found by exguna them apr tad Atpgig tecoadorer sad pene ie nse te tase Bot thou eg ace be (aA Wang intr exresin forthe ter tree fas asthe net mass [290222] aray ‘The et mas us ot of he ieee ms gl the at a which the mvs fed conte wine semen ice pen -Sparay | (oure 27. Arwctangar Serer convlsurace Since Sx andy are arbitrary, follows tha, in general, three dnensions the preceding equation can be writen in vector notation Berge an tere isthe eta pert dl ete by ae Vay Re ‘Any physically possible fw mst satisfy Equation 2.17 a very poi in the For an incompressible fl, the mass density 3 constant, so Bauation * vivo ew “The above fs known asthe divergence ofthe velocity vector, dv V. ‘The Momentum Theorem “Te momentum theorem in Mud mechanics i the counerart of New= too’s second law of tution sid mechanics, which sates that foree Imposed on a system produces a rte of change ia the momentum of he ‘Sytem, The (beorem com be extydetved ty treating the Mid a a colecton SF nud parses an apolving the second law. The deta of the derivation habe found in several texts (eg, Rel. 21) and will ot be repeated here ‘efning «cont surface ov 3m inagiary closed surface through which ‘fv x passing, the momenta theorem state “The sum of extemal force (or momens) acting on a contol surface end intera forces (or moments) acting on he Rid within the como race produces change the fof omentum (or angir momentum) thous Fe surface and wn instatancour rate of change ef moment (or angular momenton) of the fs partes win the contol surface.” Mathematically, fo linet motion of anv Mi the theorem canbe expres investor Botton BY -[fosssen=[Jowr-nesea ff fover aan {In Equation 219, mis the uit arm directed outeard from the seo, 99 Au weoues ‘enclosing the volume, V. Vi the velocity vector which wnerally depeeds tn poston and time B represents the vector sun fall boy foress within the contol srace acting the fad. p ie the mass deny of the Bad feed asthe mar per unit volume, For the angular momentum, =f fowxnw-masr2f ffowxnd 20 Here, Qs the vector sum of all moments both internal and external, sting ‘on the conta surface or the Mui within the surfaces he radios vector ‘uid parte, “ara example ofthe ut ofthe moment theorem, conser the force on the Buning building produced by the fchore mentioned atthe beganing ofthis chapter Figure 2 states a pose fw’ pattern, admitedy ‘implied. Suppose the nozzle hes «diameter of 10em and water fishing ftom the sezte with velocky of Ome. The mast denety of water ie approximately 1000kgim™= The" -contalsueface shown date Equation 219 wil now he writen for the system in the 5 dvecton Since the ow i steady. the paral derivative wih respect tie of the Yume intra! given By the lst term on the right ste of the espaton Vanlhes. Alo, B i zero, since the contol surface does not enclose any gure 28. ject water moacting on 8 wal bodies. Ths Equation 219 bocomes [ones [,fowv-nas Measuring p relative 19 the atmospheric static prestue, p ie zero everywhere song the contol surface excep al the wall Here misdirected to ihe reht so thal the surface integral om the left comes the total forse ted othe Mui by the pres onthe wall IF reprevents he mage Sf the tual fore onthe -iw=f, fowv was For the Mui entering the coouol surface onthe let e=-t For the Moi leaving the control setace, the wit normal to this csindia ‘srface his no component inthe x direction. Hence, ur J, foxes esx fas The surface integral reduces to the aozele area of 7.85% 10m! Thos without actully termining the presse dstibtion on the wal he toa Forse on the wall found fom the momentim theorem to eal 28.3 KN. ue Equation of Motion “The prinsinle of conservation of mass, applied to an elemental cont surface, edt Equation 217, which must be satisied everywhere inthe BOW: Simdary, the gomeatum theorem upped to the Same element leads (0 nother st of egpation that mot hol everywhere Referring again to Fagute 27. ps the static pressure a he centr of the element thet, om the centr of the right face, te tats presute wil be eRe “Tis prensure and a simi pressice om the left fae proce a et force inthe = direction equal 9 ~Baray 32 rue meounes Sine there are nobody force presen nd the fd i assumed ivi, the above force must equal the net momentum Mux ot ps the instantaneous ‘Change of fd momentam contained within the clement “The momentum flux out of he igh Lae inthe = section wll be [mele ‘Out of he upper face the comesponding momentum Mux wll be [str ne he inartancous change of the Gull momentum contained within the Jouansy Tus, eauting the net forces in the direction tothe change in omentum and mocentom fx sad using Easting 2.17 lads to yy My pM Le aan wae ay par en Generalizing tis to thse dimensons rests i » st of equations known 38 ule’ equations of mation, -12 con) 1 am» te ae) oe Nae mai wit 2 ee ef Eatin 22 the feat of The ape he te hl a sd inversion lr span cme ween Bema te amy 1b vec ade ft peri 6 to wth ah rm in eu Else 2 2 +-Te-0 am 1 isthe cur ofthe velocity veto, FV, and is knowns the vorticity, tise veveld 2 rn 29 ‘One can conclude from Fauation 2.24 that, for an inviscid ud, the ory is constant long 4 steamline Sines, far removed from a Days he ow is asually taken (0 be union. the verity at that location iy ert hence, itis tro everyahere Bormout’s Equation ‘Bernoul's equation i well Known in fad mechanics and relates the pressure tothe velocity alone a streamline In an evscd incompressible fom was frst formuleted by Euler i the idle 170s, The dertion of this tation follows from Fale’ equations using the Tac that slong a steamlie ihe velocty vector i tangential tothe steaming 229 Iuiply Equation 2224 though by dx and then substitute Easton for edi and sede Also the fst erm ofthe eqution wil beset eau 0 ero; that i this time only andy ow wil be Sosiere. WM ect ay uM ae Las Sinurty, moipiy Equation 222b by dy, Equation 222 by de and substute Eainton £6 for way dy and dvb respectey, Adige ice equa reuts peret rent forp and Vs V being the Iga ofthe cn chy ony he sen. This at en ea trom te fc a Thus, along streamline, Euler's equations become vavet. em 4 riuw Meow pismo function ofp Le the ow i incompressibie, Eaton 227 can be inetd immediately to sive p+\pv'— constant ex the Now i uniform a aint, Equation 228 becomes Dp +IpV" = constant = + lp¥ em Here V is the magnitade of the local velocity and pis the focal sate pressure, Vand pz ae the corresponding (cestveam valet, Eualon 2.2 iowa as Bermoull's equation “Te counterpart to Equation 229 for compressible ow i otsined by suing pressures! density changes 1 follow an entropic proces. For ach proce Plo” constant ex) 1 the tai of the specie het at constant pressure tthe spec het at onvant volume ands cq spproaimatly to 1 for al Substtung times referred to asthe compressible Bernoulli's equation. YP = constant ean 7B = constant ean This equation can be writen in terms of the acoustic velocity, Fest iti necesar to derive the acoustic velocity, which canbe done by the use ofthe Stationary disturbance in‘ steady ow across which the presute, desi. tnd veleity change by smal imerements. Inthe abseece of body forces und = (0 don da a? But, trom comin, (oe apyus a 4e e230 ao ce ‘owe 24. staionay eal turbance a steady compressie How: 1s the salt dscubancef stationary in he steady flo having a velocity of then obviously a isthe wot ofthe eiturbance relative to the fa, By ‘inion, fotows tha given by Equation 22, te acount velocity, By the we of Equation 20, the acoustic velocity is abtained ax a-(2)" ex) ‘An aermate form, using th eqution of state (Equation 2, asc” 34 ‘has Eaution 2.31 canbe writen vat constant a9 “The acoustic veloc is alo inched in Figure 2.3 forthe standard atmos Determination of Free-Stream Velocity [A Tow spoods (compared to the acoustic velocity) a gas flow is essen. tity lacrosse. tn this este, and or tat of # haul, Exuation 22 ‘pln Ifthe Rad brought To vest so tha he Joa velocity 2st then, from Equstion 229, the local prev, refered 10 in this cave Ws Che Sanat ot tot resuree 1 equal fo the sun of the festrean ste Dresnie, pad pV 12 Tic te term scaled the dymamte pressure so 5 Frequeaiydepate by the symbol. Thus pace" ea where ns the total pees, also refered 0 a the stagnation or reservoir pressure The pte static tbe shown in Figure 2.2 measures (Pep. and i Drobaly the mot commoe mane sed fo determine trpecd. However, otce that Equstion 26 contains the mass density that mut Be determined efor the sirspeed can be calculated. The most seadly achieved By ‘eusving, i addon wo the dilference between the stagnation pressive and the state prestre, the sati presre Heit an the temperature, The Jesity ‘then determined fom the equation af tte (Equation 21 ‘At higher speeds fend we will no exuine whale high) Equation 229 ‘0 longer olds that V- mnt be dlermined foe Equation 231 Via py 96 ro mecnancs [At this point he subscript» hasbeen diopped so that pg and V without 2 Sbseris maybe los! oe tram ales. ‘Remembering tht pip i the square of the acoestic elocky, the receding equation becomes we Pp Using Equation 2.3, this an be writen as em The dynamic pressure, gi elie ss abv ex) hic can be writen in terms of he Mich members a= home Combining this with Equation 2.37 gives ee. Zale ex “The sqote root of Equation 29 i presented graphically in Figure 2.10, “The departure ofthis fonction from unity fa measure of the eror Be incurred in eacuting the arpeed from the incompressible Berl ear ton Below a Mach numberof the err i sen fo be lss thin 3, Determinetion of Tre Alrspeed using tring pilot son lars thatthe srspeed that appears on the speed indicator ot the tre speed Iestend, mort to determine the tive auspeed the pilot mast ao teal the umeter ani use ir tow peratures The plot then revoris tot small hand cecustor or, dn some stance, aa the il te send inde accra Tallow for the atmosphere papers “The airspeed instr in nothing more thin an acura ferential pres sare age Calibrated according 10 Equation 23. Tis equiion can be puta _ lesen

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