Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Week14 PDF
Week14 PDF
For thirteen weeks, we have studied many features of soil behaviour, notably stiffness
(including compressibility) and shear strength. There are still lots of other topics to be learnt
concerning soil properties. In this lecture series, we have limited the variables mainly just to
stresses and strains. However, some geotechnical problems require considerations to other
variables, such as pore fluid conditions, temperature and time. As the sphere of
geotechnical activity expands, these variables are increasingly coming into mainstream
geotechnics from what might perhaps been considered more ‘fringe’ issues. In this last
week of the lecture course, we shall have a glimpse of the role that these variables play in
geotechnics through their effects on soil behaviour, focusing on three specific topics.
Unsaturated soil mechanics is a big branch of soil mechanics. The ‘unsaturated’ states
normally mean states at which soil pores are filled with fluid (such as water) and gas (such
as air). This arrangement makes the mechanics of the system very complicated, because
now we have surface tension that works between the fluid and gas phases, in addition to
the inter-particle forces (i.e. what we know as effective stress under saturated conditions)
and the pore water pressure.
1
Unsaturated soils and suction
r Ts
ua − uw =
θ r
If ua is the atmospheric pressure (i.e. zero),
D/2 uw is negative. In unsaturated soils, the
water pressure is often negative.
Kelvin’s model of two discs in contact In the two-disc analogy (Kelvin’s model),
the inter-particle force, F, is expressed as
Ts
D/2 ua
[(
F = 2(u a − u w ) r + D
2
)cosθ + r ]
uw
F The inter-particle force is proportional to the
suction. The suction therefore gives
Ts additional stress to the soil’s skeleton (that
is, additional to other external forces from
the boundaries, such as overburden
pressure).
u a : Air pressure
u w : Water pressure What if the water content increases?
Ts : Surface tension of water/air interface
The pore radius r decreases and eventually
F : Inter-particle force Ts disappears, bringing the suction to zero.
2
Shear strength in unsaturated soils
How to express the strength and deformation characteristics of unsaturated soils is still a
debated issue and under extensive research. A simple expression for unsaturated soils’
strength analogous to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion is:
τ = (σ − ua ) tan φ ′ + c′ + cs
Effective stress is no longer
useful. Use total stress
(minus air pressure).
‘Apparent’ cohesion
due to the metric suction
Rainfall leads to increase in the water content, decrease in suction and then decrease in
shear strength.
-5
-10
-20
14 /08
12 /08
9/ 8
16 /08
13 /08
17 /08
24 /08
31 /08
7/ 8
21 /08
28 /08
5/ 8
19 /08
26 /08
2/ 8
23 /08
30 /08
6/ 8
20 /08
27 /08
4/ /08
/1 8
08
0
/0
/0
/0
/0
11 /0
8/
0/
/5
/5
/5
/5
6
/6
/6
/6
7
/7
/7
/7
8
/8
/8
/8
9
/9
/9
/9
10
10
140
120
Rainfall record
Rainfall intensity, mm/day
100
80
60
40
20
0
51
51
51
51
51
1
51
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
/5
6/
7/
8/
8/
9/
0/
/5
/5
/5
/5
/6
/6
/6
/7
/7
/7
/8
/8
/8
/9
/9
/9
10
7/
5/
2/
9/
6/
/1
10
17
24
31
14
21
28
12
19
26
16
23
30
13
20
27
4/
11
3
Other ways in which unsaturated soils’ properties become relevant to practice: Examples
Example of how
permeability changes
with water content:
θ : Water content
h : Hydraulic head
Kr : Relative permeability
(Kr = 1 when saturated)
Unsaturated soils exhibit expansive or contractive (collapse) behaviour upon wetting (i.e.
increases in water content). These apparently contradictory features are better interpreted
and modelled in recent years. Some of the soils are intrinsically expansive (see the photo)
due to soil-water interactions at molecular levels. However, many soils can exhibit both
phenomena depending on the initial state
(e.g. Alonso et al., 1990).
e Expansion
by wetting
High suction
Collapse
by wetting Low suction
4
20-2. Soil behaviour at extreme temperature
Parts of ground that undergo severe temperature changes are limited in their extent.
However, they are often the most vital parts for human activities.
5
Behaviour of soils at high temperature
Looking through the literature, the following features of soils’ behaviour at elevated
temperature are commonly reported:
6
Behaviour of soils at low temperature (Frozen soils)
As easily imagined, frozen soil (< 0oC) has higher stiffness and shear stiffness, as the pore
ice takes part of the load. These advantageous features of frozen soil are exploited for
foundation engineering in permafrost areas, and for excavation and sampling work through
artificial freezing. As ice’s stiffness and shear strength themselves become higher at lower
temperature, so do frozen soil’s.
7
20-3. Time effect (Strain rate-effect, or viscosity)
The strain rate-dependent behaviour of soils derives from (at least) two different
mechanisms. One of them is related to delayed dissipation of pore water pressure, as
typically seen during ‘primary’ consolidation of low-permeability soils. This is fundamentally
a soil-water coupled problem. The other kind of mechanism seems to exist, which does not
involve pore water pressure as time-dependent variable. This mechanism seems to be
more relevant to, for example, creep under sustained loads and the secondary
consolidation.
e ε&0 10 1 ⋅ ε&0
Soil group Cαe / Cc 10 2 ⋅ ε&0
Inorganic clays 0.025-0.075
and silts
Cαe
Organic clays 0.035-0.083
and silts
1
10 − 2 ⋅ ε&0 Cc
Peats 0.05-0.085
(Summary of data reported by Mesri & 10 − 1 ⋅ ε&0
Godlewski, 1977) log p′
Isotach behaviour in compression
In many types of soil (both sand and clay), Isotach curves of stress-strain relationships
can be drawn, which represent relationships for different, fixed strain rates. The isotach
model, one of the simplest models to interpret the time-dependent nature of soil’s stress-
strain behaviour, assumes that the isotach curves are smoothly transferrable if the strain
rate is changed (see the diagram).
8
Examples: Two natural clays (reproduced from Tsutsumi et al., 2010)
See how the Osaka-Bay Clay obeys the isotach law, while the Louiseville Clay does not.
0 24
3.
2.
5x
6x
10
10
-7
2. 6
-6
26 s -1
Volumetric strain [%]
s
-1
x10
3.
3x -9 s
x1 -8
5x
5 0 -
10 -1
-6
-8 s
s 1
10
2.
s
-1
6x
-1
1
-6 s
0
3.
28 3.5
5x
-1
x1 -9
10
0 -1
-7 s
s
-1
10
30
15 32
1000 10000 200 300 400 500
σ'v [kPa] (Logarithmic scale) σ'v [kPa] (Logarithmic scale)
The effect of strain rates is observed not only for compression behaviour but also for shear
behaviour in a wide range of geomaterials (clays, silts, sands, gravels, and indeed many
granular substances). Prof. Tatsuoka and his coworkers have been vigorously investigating
the strain-rate effects, and categorised them into four patterns (see the diagram).
9
References
Abuel-Naga, H.M., Bergado, D.T., Ramana, G.V., Grino, L., Rujivipat, P. and Thet, Y.
(2006) “Experimental evaluation of engineering behavior of soft Bangkok Clay under
elevated temperature,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
132(7) 902-910.
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. (1990) "A constitutive model for partially saturated
soils," Geotechnique 40(3) 405-430.
Andersland, O.B. and Ladanyi, B. (2004) "Frozen ground engineering," 2nd edition, Wiley
and Sons.
Campanella, R.G. and Mitchell, J.K. (1968) “Influence of temperature variations on soil
behaviour,” Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE 94(SM3) 709-734.
Cekerevac, C. and Laloui, L. (2004) “Study of thermal effects on the mechanical
behaviour of a clay,” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech. 28, 209–228.
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. (1994) “Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve,”
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.31, pp.521-532.
Gens, A., Sanchéz, M., Do, L., Guimarães, N., Alonso, E.E., Lloret, A., Olivella, S., Villar,
M.V. and Huertas, F. (2009) “A full-scale in situ heating test for high-level nuclear waste
disposal: observations, analysis and interpretation,” Geotechnique 59(4) 377–399.
Goughnour, R.R. and Andersland, O.B. (1968) "Mechanical properties of a sand-ice
system," Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE 94(SM4) 923-950.
Jotisankasa, A. (2011) Personal communication.
Jotisankasa, A. and Mairang, W. (2010) “Suction-monitored direct shear testing of residual
soils from landslide-prone areas,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering 136(3) 533–537.
Komine, H. (2010) Personal communication.
Mesri, G. and Godlewski, P.M. (1977) “Time- and stress-compressibility interrelationship,”
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE 103(GT5) 417-430.
Mitchell, J.K. (1976): “Fundamentals of soil behavior,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sayles, F.H. (1968) “Creep of frozen sands,” U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory Technical Report 87-11.
Tatsuoka, F., Di Benedetto, H., Enomoto, T., Kawabe, S. and Kongkitkul, W. (2010)
“Various viscosity types of geomaterials in shear and their mathematical expression,”
Soils and Foundations 48(1) 41-60.
Terashi, M., Tanaka, H., Mitsumoto, T., Niidome, Y., Honma, S. (1980) “Fundamental
properties of lime and cement treated soils (2nd Report),” Report of the Port and Harbour
Research Institute 19(1) 33-57. (in Japanese)
Tsutsumi, A., Tanaka, H. and Kawaguchi, T. (2010) “Development of an extremely slow
constant rate of strain oedometer and its application to several clays,” Proceedings of the
Japan Society of Civil Engineers Series C 65(3) 660-670.
van Genuchten, M.Th. (1980) "A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic
conductivity of unsaturated soils," Soil Science Society of America Journal 44, 892-898.
10