COMMUNICATION

Meaning
It's nearly impossible to go through a day without the use of communication. Communication is
sending and receiving information between two or more people. The person sending the message
is referred to as the sender, while the person receiving the information is called the receiver. The
information conveyed can include facts, ideas, concepts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, instructions
and even emotions. Even animals also communicate. Usually, they communicate, through non-
verbal means, they express their feelings, pain, pleasure, joy, sorrow, anger, pity and other
emotions. But their language is silent. Besides silent languages, there is a special kind of
language - verbal language. Verbal languages can be used by those who are able to form all sorts
of concepts. Since only human beings are able to form all sorts of concepts, therefore verbal
languages have been evolved from and confined only to humans.

Definitions
Generally we define communication as the process of transfer of information between two
sources with the information being understood by both. Some remarkable definitions of
communication are given below.

"Communication is a field of knowledge dealing with the systematic application of symbols to

acquire common information regarding an object or event."

-Kell

"It is the transmission of commonly meaningful information. It is a process that involves

the exchange of behaviours.”

-Luther

"Communication is the process of making a message understood by satisfying the need sets and
ego sets of a receiver."

-A. Kumar

"Communication - the exchange of information and the transmission of meaning - is the very
essence of a social system or an organisation."

-Katz and Kahn

"Communication is the process of meaningful interactions among human beings. It is a process

by which, meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings."
 - Dr. McFarland

"Communication is a process of transmitting ideas or thoughts from one person to another for the
purpose of creating an understanding in the thinking of the person receiving communication."

- Brown

"Communication is a dynamic process in which, man consciously or unconsciously affects the

cognition of another through materials or agencies used in symbolic ways."

- Anderson

"Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages."

- Sanborn

"Communication is nevertheless an attempt at making common the basic condition for the
origin, the existence, and the development of every social relationship."

- Fauconnier

"It is a two-way process which cannot be adequately understood in terms of simple engineering
or mechanical analogies. It is uniquely a human relationship from which, emerge all civilizations
and culture without which, man as we know him, could not survive."

- Fearing

EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION

1. Silence Phase. Primitive men were moving without language for their business of living. But
there were big sounds all around them. Lions roaring, huge trees falling, heavy rains falling on
mountain tops with peculiar thuds, thunder following lightning, gurgling rivers formed from
noisy water falls, and so on. It is possible that one old human uttered a noise, slighting a fierce
animal in the night and that caught the attention of fellow humans, some standing outside the
cave and other inside. Somehow, the noise produced by the old man conveyed the sense of fear
and alarm to his companions, and all of them huddled in the corner of their dark cave expecting
the lion to come and attack them. Luckily, the lion had passed by. And when it was dawn, streaks
of sunlight entered the cave in a gingerly fashion and the inmates could see one another. They
exchanged a smile of relief and joy. One of them dared to peep through the crevice at the
entrance. Gradually they gained self confidence and stirred out to a bright, lion-less environment.
And they must have uttered sounds of joy But still they did not have a language with words.

2. Verbal Phase. Silent phase came to an end when sounds produced with joy and happiness or
fright and alarm, began to be introduced by humans. Gradually, sounds began to acquire
meanings - some with joy and happiness, others with fright and alarm. A third set of sounds (of
the 'ouch' family) began to be associated with pain. Thus evolved their unwritten sound
dictionary! Humans of a certain region had their own characteristic set of sounds to express their
meanings. In course of time not just a few years, but centuries or even millennia humans of small
settlements (probably agricultural settlements near big rivers, meaningful speech evolved. It
happened some 35,000 years ago.

If we take 35,000 years as one calendar year, the technique of writing and the materials for
writing (such as palm leaves, papyrus, the stylus, parchments, dyes, natural inks, vellum, scrolls,
etc.) developed some 6000 or 7000 years ago, in the third week of October in imaginary
calendar.

(a) Litho Printing

Second century A.D. was the starting period for Litho (stone) or wooden block printing.
Writing, as mentioned before, evolved in the 7th or 8th millennium B.C. It is said that it
developed in the Euphrates-Tigris delta, in the region of Phoenicia, Sumeria or Akkadia,
what is important is that the people of that region started to make marks on the clay or
sand for sounds - each cuneiform figure representing a sound. Invention of writing was
really a great achievement of human kind. When this system of writing spread to regions
around the Mediterranean Sea - to Greece, Mesopotamia, Egypt, etc. it acquired different
names. The Greeks called it alpha-beta (the first two characters of their sound-writing
system) which when transferred to Rome and the Latin region acquired the name
alphabet. The Egyptians called their system, hieroglyphic (priest's writing, literally) and
the people of the Indus Valley, of Mohanjodaro and Harappa called it Brahmi (the
language of the Gods).

(b) Individual Letter Blocking

Whatever was written in clay cuneiform style or using stylus took a long time to
complete. Humans needed a quicker form or device for replication of a written document,
especially religious text, accounts of the quantity of grains coming to the temples from
different sources, etc. Printing originally meant hand-printing or making imprints by the
hand. Gradually, impressions were made on wood (by cutting and chiselling) and on
stone (lithography) and these etchings were copied on to parchments or paper (from
papyrus) using natural dyes (later called printing inks). Even this required a lot of time.
There arose the need for individual blocks for alphabets. This system pf individual letter
blocking was invented by the Chinese in the first decade of the 10th century (by a man
named Pi Sheng). It spread to Korea in the 11th century. The Koreans perfected a system
of printing from these individual movable letter blocks. The system was prevalent in the
Far East in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries.

(c) Movable Type Printing

 It were the travellers who got credit to carry on knowledge from one part of the world to
other. Marco Polo, the great European traveller and travelogue writer was greatly
impressed by the system of printing from movable types. Probably he carried the
information to Europe after spending two decades in China and the Far East. He probably
impressed upon scholars and printers about the desirability of printing from movable
types. But it was left to a goldsmith in Mainz, Germany, by name Johann Gutenberg to
use the new system (movable type printing) in Eu¬rope. This happened in 1450 A.D.,
that is, in the middle of the 15th century. After the invention of writing in the seventh or
eighth century B.C., Gutenberg's invention was the second great revolution in
communication. It accelerated the process of printing. In one year, the number of books
printed in Europe rose to 25,000 copies from the mere 25 copies produced in the pre-
Gutenberg era. No wonder, Gutenberg is credited with the epithet, Father of Modern
Printing. The art and science of printing did not flourish, for some mysterious reason, in
the orient. The result was that the orient was pushed back into an intellectually non-
productive era when the Occident galloped intellectually and succeeded in spreading its
view of the world around the globe.

(d) Printing on a Large Scale

Back to our imaginary calendar. Gutenberg's technological marvel, the first major step in
mass communication (printing on a large scale) occurred on or about December 27 of our
magic calendar.

(e) Telegraph System

The telegraph system, also known as the Morse Code was developed by Samuel F.B.
Morse of the United States in 1844. Originally intended for exchanging messages
between trading and military posts, the telegraph was first used in a big way for
maintaining contacts between and among railway stations. The railways became the chief
commercial artery by mid-19th century in England, North America and most parts of
Europe. Then they spread to the colonies of England, Holland and other Western powers.
Soon the telegraph system became widespread in the European and American colonies
through¬out the world. On our calendar, this event could be said to have occurred on
December 30. In a few "seconds" from the invention of the telegraph by Morse and
others, wireless telegraphy and the radio emerged, mainly to maintain quick contacts
between corporations on the land and their ships at sea

(f) Motion Picture

Meanwhile, the motion picture had appeared on the horizon, entertaining many millions
including even those who could not afford the luxury of owning a radio set or of
subscribing to newspapers and magazines. This was especially true of societies consisting
of very large numbers of illiterate people.
 (g) TV and Satellite Communication
If the motion picture and the radio appeared at 10 a.m. on December 31 on our calendar,
TV which actually was in the making during the late 1920s and early 1930s, became the
most fascinating medium of entertainment at 5 p.m. on December 31. Satellite
communication, video display terminals (VDTs), video cassette recorders (VCRs),
videotex, teletext, community antenna TV (CATV), closed circuit TV (CCTV), cable
system, 'virtual reality' (VR) and other telematic, computerized systems of
communication (we can call it communication) came on the scene by about midnight.
The media scene is throbbing at the threshold of the New Year, at least in rich countries,
generally and in poor countries' rich quarters, with the latest devices of electronic mail (e-
mail) and the Internet. Today, we see the phenomenon of convergence among different
systems of communication since electronic devices are used in all the media.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

The MacBride commission's observation, "communication maintains and animates life. It is also
the motor and expression of social activity and civilization; and runs a thread linking the earliest
memory of man to his noblest aspirations through constant striving for a better life" summarizes
the characteristics of communication.

1. Communication encompasses sharing and distributive justice, the basis of communitarianism

and communion since its root is communis or communicate.

2. Communication is social interaction through messages.

3. Its basic process is intrapersonal, which is wholly individualistic.

4. Communications are constructed for the people by the people.

5. Communication is the language of life.

6. It creates a common pool of ideas and strengthens the feeling of togetherness.

7. It serves to contribute to the liberation of mankind from want, oppression and fear and to unite
it in community and communion, solidarity and understanding.

Objectives of Communication
A. In Society.
The Objectives of communication are given below:
1. It has to educate the members of the society through various media tools. Example: Books are
used to study and enhance knowledge levels.

2. It has to keep the society abreast of the news, views, and concepts that are relevant to its
immediate neighbourhood, other societies, the nation, and world. Hence, the onus of
responsibility of making enlightened and elite individuals in a society lies mass communication.
Example: News about a scamster is telecast on TV and our masses learn how he has duped the
public.

3. It has to provide vital daily-use data through TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, videotext,
teletext etc. that could be used by the members of the society to carry on the daily routines of
their lives. Example; Teletext services provide information about the arrival and departure of
trains.

4. Communication informs the targeted audience about new products, services, and concepts

that they can buy or use. These products, services, and concepts can be old or new for the
targeted receivers. Thus, communication informs the new targeted audience about old products,
services, and concepts. It also informs the targeted audience about new products, services, and
concepts with equal finesse. Example: Ads of clearance sales.

5. Communication motivates people take some actions in their own interest or in the interests of
the place, society, nation, or the world.

6. It continuously impinges upon the minds of the audience and tells them about various
products, services, concepts. These concepts need not be of a commercial nature. Certain
communication exercises are executed to keep the audience informed and make them take
certain actions. Such action or behaviour patterns develop the audience and / or preserve the
social, political, environmental, or intellectual norms in which these audiences thrive.

7. Through its wide reach, communication transforms the society. It gives information to the
elements of the society; such sets of information could be related to local polity, economy,
health, sports, entertainment, global polity, the sciences, IT etc. Hence, it changes their thought
processes and makes them modern human beings. In this context, its powers are incredible !
Mass communication has the capability of transforming traditional non-participant societies into
modern participant societies.

8. Communication acts, in the societal context, to dissuade the masses from doing such things, or
buying such products or services as are harmful to their health or to the society in general.

9. It has to entertain the members of a society through some mass media tools to make them
relaxed and prepared for their next bouts of tough life. Example: A child plays Internet games in
a Net Parlour.
10. It has to inform the society about various phenomena or events so that its members could
take situation-specific decisions for avoiding, using or facilitating such phenomena. Example:
People cast their votes when the media urge them to do so; hence, they keep the democratic
traditions of a country alive and morally upright.

B. In an Organization

Communication, integrates various activities of any organization, therefore, is essential for the
internal operations of the organisation. It helps the management of a firm managed most
effectively. All the three levels of management - strategic, tactical and operation - depend upon
finely designed (and transferred) messages that, in turn, deliver concrete results in the
organisational context. Today's corporate world is Tout a fait dedicated to the art and science
effective communications. Every manager must learn how to communicate with the member^ of
the external and internal environments of his firm, lest hi$ firm should pay the price of his
ineptness in its operational gamut.

The goals at this level are primary and secondary.

(a) Primary Goals

1. It monitors the performances of the employees at all the levels. It also controls the working of
employees by monitoring their performances and taking corrective actions.

2. It develops an attitude among the employees that is necessary for motivation, co-operation,
and job satisfaction.

3. It establishes and informs the members of the organisation about its goals.

4. It develops plans for the achievement of such goals.

5. It is used to lead, direct, and motivate people. It helps the top brass create a climate in which
people may like to contribute with zeal. Its aim is to ensure that status and author of every
employee is accepted.

6. It prepares workers for organisational changes, which are likely to be implemented in tj

organisation in the future.

7. It encourages suggestions from subordinates in work conditions.

8. It helps in reduction of costs, proper use of materials, time management, work study, time
study, and identification of deviations from predefined norm's. Thus, it ensures that the
productivity of the firm improves.

9. It improves labour-management relations by keeping both in contact with each other.

10. It satisfies the needs of employees for recognition and a sense of belonging.
(b) Secondary Goals

Secondary goals are as follows

1. Communication helps the managers of a firm stop or check gossips, rumours, and grapevi

2. It elicits suggestions from subordinates for improvement of work conditions and environm
within the firm.

3. It satisfies the needs of employees of a sense of belonging to the firm. It also helps the
management improve the Quality of Work Life (QWL). Hence, the employees feel that they
areloved the firm.

4. It maintains intra-organisational relations through informal communication channels.

5. It entertains employees, though on rare occasions, through informal get-togethers, parti and
festival celebrations.

(c) In the external environment of an organisation

1. It advertises the products, services, and policies of the firm for the sake of knowledge oft
customers of the firm.

2. It informs customers about changes in a product or product lines.

3. It builds a healthy image of the company in the media so that shareholders maintain th faith in
the company and new investors are attracted to invest in it. It also creates a ck image of the
company in the government and bureaucratic corridors so that financial a legal hassles are
minimal for the company.

4. It informs the society, concerned government institutions, and NGOs about the social wa
charity work, and environmental issues handled by the company so that a clean and I manity-
oriented image could be formed in the minds of masses and the officials of' government.

5. It uses propaganda, PR, and publicity for achieving the long-term and short-term goals of firm.
These goals can be achieved if it w^ns the publics, various ministries and / or dep ments of the
government, and NGOs in its favour. It uses propaganda, PR, and publicity so; this is the latest
trend in the realm of communication and seems irreversible at least now.
COMMUNICATION MODELS

Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the

human communication process. In this section, you will learn about three models of
communication:

a. Linear model

b. Interactive model

c. Transactional model

I.Linear Model of Communication

It is a simple one way communication model. The message flows in a straight line from sender
to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only task that a receiver does here is to
receive the message. Different models that follow linear model of communication are:
 Lasswell's Model
 Aristotle’s Model
 Shannon Weaver Model
 Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Lasswell’s model

Lasswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold

D. Lasswell in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear
model or one way model of communication) is regarded as one the most
influential communication models.Harold Dwight Lasswell, states that a convenient way to
describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions:

 Who: the person who formulates the message

 What: the content of the message
 Channel: the medium by which the message is being communicated
 Whom: the person or persons who receive the message
 Effect: the outcome of the message.
Advantage
 It is Easy and Simple
 It suits for almost all types of communication
 The concept of effect

Disadvantage
 Feedback not mentioned
 Noise not mentioned
 Linear Model

Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as

Aristotle's Model of Communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and
was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the most widely accepted among all communication
models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5
primary elements:

1. Speaker

2. Speech

3. Occasion

4. Audience

5. Effect.
The Aristotle's communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most
important role in it and is the only one active. His words should influence in audience mind and
persuade their thoughts towards him. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the
speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.

Shannon Weaver Model

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an
American scientist both of them join together to write an article in Bell System Technical
Journalǁ called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as Shannon Weaver
model of communication .According to the Shannon-Weaver Model, communication includes
the following concepts: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver and feedback. Furthermore,
there is also concept of noise included in the model.

Elements of Model

1.Sender(Information Source)
The originator of message or the information source selects desire message.

2. Encoder(Transmitter)
The transmitter which converts the message into signals.

3. Channel
Channel is the medium used to send message.

4 .Decoder (Receiver)
Decoder is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the receiver who
translates the message from signals.

5. Receiver (Destination)
Receiver is the person who gets the message or the place where the message must reach. The
receiver provides feedback according to the message.

6. Noise
Noise is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc. which does not let the message
get to the receiver as what is sent.

Advantages

 Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the noise or
problem causing noise.
 This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the model applicable in
general communication.
 Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Disadvantages

 Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.
 The model is taken by some critics as a "misleading misrepresentation of the nature of human
communication" as human communication is not mathematical in nature.
 The Shannon-Weaver model, by its very nature, encounters some difficulty when applied to
human communication. Its origin as a model to be applied to telecommunication, rather than
to interpersonal human communication, limits its application due to the linear, unidirectional
makeup.

Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position and suggests
that the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, the Berlo’s model of
communication takes into account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo’s model of
communication operates on the SMCR model.

In the SMCR model

S - Stands for Source

Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The person or
source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the factor related to sender and is
also the same in the case of receiver:

 Communication Skills
It is the individual’s skill to communicate i.e. ability to read, write, speak, listen etc. If the
sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than if the
sender's communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp the
message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include the
skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc.
 Attitude
The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person's
attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the
message.
 Knowledge
Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its effect
more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the message
effectively.
 Social Systems:
Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender's way of
communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message. Place and
situation also fall under social systems.
 Culture
Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find
something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture.

M – Message

A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the
form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are

 Content
A thought has to be put into words and content has to be prepared. Content is actually the
 matter or the script of the conversation. It is in simpler words, the backbone of any
communication.
 Elements
Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, postures,
facial expressions, body signs, language, etc.
 Treatment
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also
effects the feedback of the receiver.
 Structure
A message cannot be expressed in one go. It has to be properly structured in order to convey
the message in the most desired form.

Code
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text,
video, etc.

C – Channel

Channel actually refers to the medium how the information flows from the sender to the receiver.
In mass communication and other forms of communication, technical machines might be used as
a channel like telephone, internet, etc. But in general communication, all the five senses are the
channels which help human beings to communicate with each
 Hearing- We receive the message through hearing.
 Seeing- We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing.
 Touching- Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like holding
hands.
 Smelling- We collect information from smelling.
 Tasting- Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

R – Receiver
Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that the
thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender for
the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as intended if
the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill.
Other factors are similar to that of the sender.

 Communication skills
 Attitudes
 Knowledge
 Social Systems
 Culture

Berlo's Model has mainly, four components to describe the communication process. They are
sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the component is affected by many factors.

Criticism
 There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
 The model does not mention about barriers to communication. There is no room for noise.
 It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
 Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel
which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).
 Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.

II. INTERACTIVE MODEL

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where
speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send
messages. Schramm came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener
providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to
the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to
speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both
ways. This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have
common fields of experience, or fields which overlap. This model is described in Schramm's
book "The Process and Effects of Communication".

Concepts of Schramm's Communication Model

Schramm’s model of communication includes the source which is also known as the encoder, the
message or the signal, and the destination which is also recognized as the decoder. The model
addresses the sociological aspects involved in communication. Communication or commonness
can take place if the fields of the source and destination overlap as shown in the figure below as
the field of experience.

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

 Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends the message (message originates)

 Decoder – Who receives the message
 Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret

Advantages
 Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion.
 As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful in general practice.
 Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active.
 Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that can occur during
interpretation of message.
 Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver as intended or
not.
 Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
 Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the communication process in
many other ways than the traditional ones..
 Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in interpretation of message
and brings change in the message value.

Disadvantages
 This model can not deal with multiple levels of communication and complex communication
processes.
 There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicates the process and
the model can not be implemented.
 Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

III.TRANSACTIONALMODEL

The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent.
In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as communicators and both play
equally important role in communication

There are three implications in the transactional model:

 i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing
process. You are changing, the people with whom you arecommunicatingare changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.

ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.

iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

Transactional model relates communication with social reality, cultural up-bringing and
relational context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback like gestures, body language, is also
considered as feedback in this model. Different models that follow transactional model of
communication are:
 Barnlund's Transactional Model
 Helical Model
 Becker's Mosaic Model

Barnlund's Transactional Model

Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal
communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages
happens simultaneously between people which is popularly known as Barlund's Transactional
Model of Communication. Barnlund’s Transactional Model presents a multi-layered feedback
system for all parties involved, and recognizes that anyone can be a sender and receiver at the
same time. The layers of feedback consist of both verbal and non-verbal cues sent concurrently
with the message itself. This further suggests that the feedback could take equal standing as the
message itself. The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as General
Transactional Model.

Components of Barlund's model

Cues refers to the signs for doing something. As per Barnlund there are: public cues, private
cues and behavioral cues.

 Public cues ​(Cpu) are physical, environmental or artificial and natural or man-made.
 Private cues (Cpr) are also known as private objects of orientation which include senses of a
person. Both these cues can be verbal as well as non-verbal. Another set of cues are
behavioral cues.
 Behavioral cues can be verbal (Cbehv) as well as non-verbal (Cbehnv).

Advantages

 The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.
 Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback.
 Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages

 Barnlund’s model is very complex.

 Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each
possess a similar "code book". (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but
understood.)

Helical Model
In 1967, Frank Dance proposed the communication model called Dance’s Helix Model for a
better communication process. The name helical comes from “Helix” which means an object
having a three-dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or
cone. He shows communication as a dynamic and non-linear process.
Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where continuousness of the
communication process and relational interactions are very important. Communication is taken
as a dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as our
experience and vocabulary increases. At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows
bigger as the communication progresses. The same effect can be seen with communication of
humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the knowledge grows steadily as
you know the person better. It considers all the activities of the person, from the past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past behavior and
experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and grows upward in a new
way. It always depends on the lowest level to form the message. Thus, the communicative
relationship reaches to the next level in which people share more information.

Advantages

 The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes communication
process to be two way.
 The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages

 The model is taken as more simple than it should be.

 Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
 It is not testable because it is abstract.
 It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.
 Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
 Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks in situations as
well as events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.
 The purpose of communication is not always growth.

Becker's Mosaic Model

Sam Becker presented a mosaic model of communication, arguing that traditional concept of
the message has severely limited usefulness for understanding contemporary communication.
The model explains the complexity of human communication. This mosaic consists of an
immense number of fragments or bits of information on an immense number of topics. . . .
These bits are scattered over time and space and modes of communication. Each individual
must grasp from this mosaic those bits which serve his needs, must group them into message
sets which are relevant for him at any given time, and within each message set must organize
the bits and close the gaps between them in order to arrive at a coherent picture of the world
to which he can respond.
Becker assumes that most communicative acts link message elements from more than one
social situation. In the tracing of various elements of a message, it is clear that the items may
result in part from a talk with an associate, from an obscure quotation read years before, from
a recent TV commercial, and from numerous other dissimilar situations—moments of
introspection, public debate, coffee-shop banter, daydreaming, and so on. In short, the
elements that make up a message ordinarily occur in bits and pieces. Some items are
separated by gaps in time, others by gaps in modes of presentation, in social situations, or in
the number of persons present.”
Becker links complex communicative events to the activity of a receiver who moves through
a constantly changing cube or mosaic of information . The layers of the cube correspond to
layers of information. Each section of the cube represents a potential source of information;
note that some are blocked out in recognition that at any given point some bits of information
are not available for use. Other layers correspond to potentially relevant sets of information.”
 Components of Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication
Empty cells- Unavailable messages or sources
Vertical layers- Set of similar messages
Cells- Messages and sources

Advantages of the Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication

 The mosaic model of communication shows the complexity of communication and says
communication is dynamic.
 The model explains why the exposure to message varies.
 The model also talks about individual differences between people.
 The message is said to be interpreted in comparison to the information available and
relationship of the bit of information.

Disadvantages of the Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication

 The mosaic model of communication does not explain many dimensions like environmental
and social.
 The new bits of information are useless if the last bits are lost.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

1. In the Individual Context

(i) It provides knowledge

(ii) It gives way to commercial success.

(iii) It enforces and adjusts behavioural patterns

(iv) It helps in socialisation

(v) It creates legends

2. In the social context

(i) It educates people and makes them capable on various fronts

(ii) It persuades the targeted subjects to buy products and /or services;

(iii) It generates enthusiasm in the minds of the targeted subjects to develop or modify views on

particular issues; and

(iv) It dissuades them from eschewing some habits, products or services that are harmful to them
or to the society in general.

(v) It provides information.

(vi) It helps in social revolution and transformation.

(vii) It performs incidental neutral functions

(viii) It builds an image of individuals or of non-business organisations in the minds of the

masses.

3. In the organisational context

(i) It serves as an essential tool for direction

(ii) It assists in decision making

(iii) It keeps the employees enlightened.

(iv) It informs the employees informed about their obligations.

(v) It builds good employer - employee relations

(vi) It facilitates the basic management process.

(vii) It directs with finesse.

(viii) It interacts with the members of the external environments.

(ix) It acts as a basis for MBO.

(x) It co-ordinates employee's actions.

(xi) It promotes leadership effectiveness.

(xii) It gives feedback of the lower cadres.

(xiii) It evaluates performances for control.

COMMUNICATION TYPES

A. On the basis of the number of participants.

This classification of communication is based on 'either a man communicate with
himself, or two men communicate with each other, or more than two Men are indulged in
this act.'

1. Intra-personal Communication
When a man communicates with himself to develop useful ideas.

2. Interpersonal (Dyadic) Communication

When a person communicate his thoughts to another person.

3. Intra Group (Multiadic) Communication

A complex form of communication which occurs between more than two individuals.

4. Intergroup (Association) Communication

The communication which involves two groups

5. Organisational (Institutional) Communication

The form of communication which is used in business enterprises.
 6. Public Communication
The form of communication in which public (which can be heard and addressed) is
involved.

7. Mass Communication
When a person or firm communicates with a very large group o people or society without
meeting them in a conference hall or meeting room.

B. On the Basis of Direction of Flow

This classification is based on the guiding factors in a firm or institution. In a firm, orders can
move down and reports and suggestions can move upwards.

1.Downward Communication. In this type of communication orders or informations move

down wards from superiors to subordinates.

Essentials of effective downward communication

• Downward communication flows from a superior to the subordinate staff.

• Its objectives are

 to give directives about some job,

 to explain policies and procedures,
 to convey assessment of performance
 to explain the rationale of the job.

•Its limitations are

 under-communication or over-communication,
 in case of a long line of communication, there may be
 Delay
 loss of information
 distortion resentment by subordinate staff

 To make it effective
 in-charge should be adequately informed
 in-charge should be clear about how much to communicate
  some authority should be delegated to lower levels to shorten the line of
communication - information should be passed on to the correct person.

2.Upward Communication.

When informations move upward from subordinates and continues up to the top of
organisational hierarchy. It is an important type of communication which controls purposes.

Essentials of effective upward communication

• Upward communication moves from the subordinate staff to the superiors.

• Its importance is

 provides feedback to the superiors,

 releases the pent-up emotions of the subordinate staff,
 provides the superiors with useful suggestions,
 makes the introduction of new schemes easier,
 promotes harmony

 Its channels are

 superiors keep an open door,
 complaints-and-suggestions boxes,
 social gatherings,
 direct correspondence,
 Reports
 counselling

•Its limitations are

 employees are reluctant to express themselves,

 employees fear that their criticism may be interpreted as a sign of their personal
weakness,
 great possibility of distortion,
 bypassed superiors feel insulted

 To make it effective
 superiors should take initiative to get close to the subordinate staff;
 keeping the line of communication short,
 prompt redressal of legitimate grievances.

3. Crosswise (Diagonal) Communication

This type of communication involves different people on the same organisational or different
levels of the organisational hierarchy.

C.On the basis of way of expression

On the basis of way of expression, communication can be classified into six major groups.

1.Written Communication.

In this type of communication, message is sent/obtained through printed or hand-written texts.

2. Oral Communication

It may be of two types

(i) Audio. It refers to the movement message for ears, while the speaker is not present before the
listener,

(ii) Verbal. It refers to the transfer of message by words, while the listener is present before the
speaker.

3. Visual Communication

When the communication involves the use of more visuals and less text.

4. Audio visual Communication

When the information is obtained by the combination of pictures with voices.

5 Non-verbal Communication

This type of communication involves the use of face, gestures, attire, eyes etc. for the transfer of
an information.

6. No Comm (No Communication)

It refers to the total elimination of the response of the receiver to the message of the sender. The
reason for this behavior could be psychological, unfavourable conditions or flaws in the business
deal.

D.On the Basis of organizational structure

1.Formal Communication
 In this type of communication, informations are sent and authenticated by corporate firms,
government departments, NGOs, social service groups etc. that have strict and rigid procedures
to achieve their respective objectives.

2.Informal Communication (Grapevine)

It arises due to informal relations between persons and grows spontaneously from personal and
group interests. Verbal discussion, a gesture, hod, smile or even silence can be the indium of this
type of communication.

E. On the basis of Objective

Objectives of communication may be social, political, education, entertainment, business or

news and views.

1.Mass/Societal Communication

In this type of communication masses are communicated to be addressed certain burning issues

2. Socializing Communication

This type of communication involves individual talking, exchange of e-mail, Internet Relay
Chat (IRC), video mail and newsgroup discussions.

3. Political Communication

Political speeches, meetings, conferences, rumours, propaganda, publicity and election

campaigns are involved in this type of communication.

4. Educational Communication

When communication is done to educate the masses.

5. Business Communication

When communication is used for business purposes.

6. Entertainment Communication

When communication is used to entertain people.

7.News and Views Communication

This type of communication is used to convey or obtain news and wide range views.

8.City Information Communication

It concerns data regarding city elements.

9.Data Collection Communication

It is used to collect useful data.

F. On the basis of environment of the firm

On the basis of environment of the firm, communication be classified in two groups:

1.External Communication

If the information of communication is related to those elements that operate outside the
organisation.

2.Internal Communication

When the information is related to those elements that are a part of the organisation.

G. On the basis of the modes of mediation

1. Human Communication.

According to DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, "human communication begins when one person
decides what he or she wants to arouse a specific set of internal meaning experience in another
individual by initiating a significant symbol. The process of communication has been completed
when the internal experiences of the receiving person are more or less paralleled to those
intended by communication.... there are semantic, neurological, psychological, cultural, and
social dimensions in human communication."

2. Mediated Communication

This type of communication involves the use of media to send the message across to the receiver.
The media would be used when we plan to communicate with

i.another person

ii. a group of people

iii.organisations

iv. institutions

v public and

vi the masses
Barriers to Communication
Barriers to communication are those factors which produce obstacles in the way of reaching
message to the receiver. There are five kinds of barriers to communication :-

1.Personal Barriers.

Human beings differ from one another because of different geographical, economic, social,
educational or occupational backgrounds. Some characteristics are inherited by them due to their
birth, family backgrounds, upbringing or social events that are unique to them. These include:

(a) personal emotions;

(b) biases;

(c) perceptual variations;

(d) competencies;

(e) mental faculties;

(f) five senses and

(g) psychological problems

2. Semantic Barriers.

Semantic is the science of meanings. A word can carry as many as five hundred meanings.
Semantic barriers arise due to differences in meanings, which people attach to the different
words.

The meanings of the words are not in the words; these are with us. A poor choice of symbols or
their confused meanings could distort communication. Semantic barriers can be subdivided into:

(a) word interpretations;

(b) gestures (handshakes and frowns);

(c) language translations;

(d) signs and symbols; and

(e) cue meanings.

3. Organisational Climatic Barriers These are the barriers that are created due to problems in the|

culture of the organisation and also, due to lack of proper directions of the managers or top brass!

These are as follows:-

(a) Fears

(b) Fears of being misinterpreted

(c) Fear of distortion by grapevine

(d) Fear of exposing oneself to criticism

(e) Fear of getting fired.

(f) Poor or Ego-centered Supervision

Poor supervision may create obstacles in the communication process. Typically, the person may
think that he is being ignored or dominated.

(h)Insincerity and Lack of Confidence

Insincerity means that communication is superficial Lack of confidence means that the message
or the communicator of the message is not trustworthy.

4. Organisation Structure Barriers

When the organization structure is not properly defined, the responsibility and authority are not
assigned and channels are also not clear. Thus, communication is likely to be ineffective and
even harmful. These barriers are as follows:-

A. Lack of chain of command

B. Bureaucratic

C. Political manipulations.

D. Class conflicts

5. Technical Barriers

These are the barriers that arise due to

(a) space or geographical distance;

(b) mechanical failures and disturbances;

(c) physical obstructions (too much emphasis on the organisation structure);

(d) technological malfunctions (like bad telephone lines, poor printouts from the printer etc);

(e) improper time of communication; and

(f) wrong time of communication

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

There are the two wheels of effective classroom communication, those are the teachers and the
students. A teacher with a 'blazing character' and freed from commercial faint can be expected to
command the respect and admiration of the pupils and produce the necessary effect on their
minds by way of helping them manifest the perfection that is already in them. According to
Indian tradition, student-teacher relationship was inaugurated by the religious ceremony called
Upanayan. It is not like the admission of a pupil to the register of a school or a college on his
payment of the prescribed fee. The spiritual meaning of Upanayan is that the teacher holding the
pupil within him as in a womb, "impregnates him with his spirit and delivers him in a new birth.
The pupil is then known as a Dvija" (born afresh). In the home of the teacher, the students were
treated like his own son. Here the personal touch and living relationship between the pupil and
the teacher make education. The students belonged to the teacher and not to an institution. In the
modern school system, the teachers teach the pupils by class and not as individuals with their
differences. Like an automation, the teacher enters into the classroom at the appointed time and
delivers as best as he may on his intellectual load. At the stroke of the hour he mechanically
walks out. Thus everyday the teacher-stranger meets the student-strang¬ers only in the
classroom. As a rest of which life does not come in contact with life. Indian tradition proves that
education becomes effective and fruitful only to the extent to which there is personal touch
between the teacher and the taught. While in the classroom, the teacher is a master, off the
classroom, he is a companion, while looking after their personal needs, he plays the role of a
matter. He is a playmate on the game field. Such varieties in their relationship keep the position
of teacher high. To the pupil, it is a rare privilege to be with a teacher whom he observes in
various roles. Therefore, those who work as teachers should have a natural feeling in respect of
student-teacher relationship. Consequently, students become humanized and learn to live and act
like normal human beings. They become thoughtful, concerned, courageous and dedicated men
and women in future.