CONTENTS Algebra. Linear equations Indices & powers Equations Simultaneous Second degree & quadratic Common logarithms Binary & denary systems Hexadecimal system Geometry Graphs Trigonometry Revision questions Answers 22 24 27 34 37 40 43 52 61 65 aoALGEBRA In the mensuration section of this book, we have, for convenience used letters instead of words and produced equations that have provided a general expression for the required shape or form, For example, the area of a rectangle (A) is equal to the breadth (b) multiplied by the depth (d). Thus, written algebraically this becomes A= b xd, providing a general expression into which any positive value of breadth and depth can be substituted and the area thus determined. Algebra is a field of mathematics that deals with the relationships of numbers using general terms. Equations formed using this method are called ‘algebraic equations’ and below are some examples of these. As they stand, they cannot, of course, be solved, as this would require additional information. () 9 2x+3y=7 (i) s=ut+ Kat? (ii) B= ee (v2 - w) (ivy R E-V Within the same problem, ‘ike’ terms will carry the same value, as t does in equation (ii) or V in equation (iv) Numbers such as 2’, part of 2x in equation (i) are called coefficients, so ‘3’ is the coefficient of y, in the same equation. ‘The laws and signs that were adopted for arithmetic are also applicable when dealing with algebraic expressions, as we will see. Often, given a general algebraic expression, a particular solution is required by allocating numerical values to each symbol For example 1. Find the value of: Bay - 2az + 2yz Where x= 2,y=4andz2=1 Substituting the numbers for the symbols (3x 2x 4)-(2x2x 1) + (22x4x 1) = 24-4416 = 36Example 2. Find the value of: Ty(x + 22) When x= 3,y=2andz=4 (7x (3 +2% 4) 14(3 + 8) 154 We are aware that a ‘unit of mass’ (kilogram) cannot be added to, or subtracted from, a unit of length (metres). Only those of the same unit can be added or subtracted. Likewise with algebraic expressions, only like symbols can be added together or subtracted apart Thus, ax + 4x+ 3y-y = 6x + 2y (adding the x’s and y’s separately) and Sp +7q-p+6q = 4p + 13q (adding the p's and q’s separately) However multiplication does combine symbols. Hence xx By xx = 6x¢y With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as seen below. Bxxxxy + 2x j _ xty @X?y 2x Eva In this last example, a procedure known as ‘cancelling’ is applied. This is used to simplify the expression . 3g. In arithmetic a fraction such as 2 can be simplified by cancelling to 7. Since Bl sx4 3 16 4x4 4~ Applying this process to the following example: 12x? y°z 36x y?2? _ PRK KK RR Y YX SOx RE KR BR Re xy 32 Cancelling may also be applied to bracketed terms, provided that the contents of the brackets are identical ie: s(x + y) t(x + y) - _ sy - ~ they) s t ‘Thus, to simplify the expression x +2(3x + x) - 6x + 2x xe 2ag- 0 x+8x-3 = 9x-3 which may be written as 3(3x- 1) Sin > 3 is common to ‘oth terms. = When dealing with the addition and subtraction of fractions in arithmetic, you will remember it was necessary to have a common denominator, thus when \ 2 adding 2 and z a. common denominators of 3 x 5 (=15) is used. Note, the multiplication of the initial denominators ensures that a common denominator is obtained Thus 2,1 _ a2, Ie 3x 5 Sx 3 _ 10.3 © 1571510+3 s _ 13 18 In algebra, fractions are dealt with in a similar way. 2.1 x y The common denominator is x x y = xy Example 1 Ae ~) Example 2. a asa single fraction. 1 Re Common denominator = R; x Ra = RiRz = TxRe | TeR) RXR, R, xR; ~ RR, _ R.+R RR, 32 . Example 3. Express ~; + =-5 asa single fraction. aa ~ Common denominator is a? (already incorporates a),Example 4. Express the following as a single fraction x 2 3 x-3 Common denominator is 3 x 2 (= 6) (x-2) x2 _ (x-3) x3 3x 2 aernaee = He?) Hed) 6 _ x= 2)-Hx-3) 6 ax +9 This section has covered a lot of ground, so to check your progress. Try activity number 9 on the next page.Activity 9 1. Find the value of the following: (a) 2x + 3xyz - Szy when x= 2, y=3andz= 1. 5 ib) xy -ye- (ob) gy -yz-2 when x=3, y=4andz=-1 xy + ab + Sx yb-xa+2 when x=2, y=3, a=4 andb=5. (c) 2. Simplify the following expressions (a) 38p - 20q~ 12p- 8q + 14q (b) x + 2y-32+ 2x-y + 32 ayz ~() —we. Saya (d) 2(8x-2y) + 2y+y-6 (e) Ty +3 -(2x+4) + 2x 3. Write each of the following as a single fraction, @ +5 (0) 3 + 2 +2 (d) -6 aAnswers to Activity 9 1 fa) 7 (b) 25 () 4 2. (a) 26p- 14q (b) 3x+y f) 1 Sxy?z (a) 6x-4y-4 () Ty-1 3. (a) Sy+2x ay (ob) 2+ 3x4 2x — 5xz = By? As we have previously seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or quantities, however care must be exercised when the removal of brackets is necessitated. Consider a rectangle whose sides are respectively 5 and 3 units, as shown in figure 1. The area of this rectangle is the product of the two sides ie 5 x 3 = 15. 5 Fig. 1 A RECTANGLEIf however, the sides are now expressed as (3+2) and (2+1), then the area would still be obtained from their product, but to achieve this a particular sequence of operations would be required a 3 2 —— Multiplying the sides together may be written as: (3 + 2\(2 + 1) U To solve this the sequence of operations would be: (3 + 2)(2 + 1) on Sequence 1 2 3 4 (8x2) + (3x1) + (2x2) + (2x1) = 64+3+442 = 15 If the sides of the rectangle are now expressed in algebraic form as shown in figure 2 below, the removal of the brackets would still require the same sequence to be followed (x +4) (x +2) @(x + 4)(x + 2) po (x + 4x + 2) Sequence 1 2 3 2 (xxx) + («x2) + (Axx) + (4x2) = x2 +2x + 4x +8 = x2+6x+8 (by collecting like terms) Example 1 Multiply (x - 3) by (x - 7) (x-3)(%-7) x? - 7x - 3x +21 = x@-10x+21 Example 2 Multiply (2x - 5) by (4x + 3) = (2x - 5)(4x + 3) = Bx? + 6x- 20x- 15 = 8x?- 14-15 Example 3 Remove the brackets from (3y ~ 7)(2y - 2) = 6y?-6y-14y +14 = 6y?-20y +14Activity 9a terms. (a) (7x + 4)(2x + 3) (b) (2x~ 1)(2x +1) () By 2)2y- 4) 2. Remove the brackets from:- (a) (2x - 5)(2x + 5) (b) (8x ~ y)(2x- y) (c) (Sx + 3)(3x + y) 1. Multiply the following bracketed terms together, collecting like Answers to Activity 9(a) 1. (a) 14x? + 30x + 12 (b) 4x2-1 (c) 6y?- léy +8 2. (a) 4x2-25 (b) 6x? ~ Sxy + y? (c) 15x? + Sxy + 9x + 3y In the last section the multiplication of bracketed terms is fairly straightforward, provided the rules are followed. On occasions, however the reverse process is sometimes required. This is not so easy, and may require a trial and error approach. Consider the example of (x + 4)(x + 2) Multiplying the brackets together gives: x24 Ox 44x48 = x? + 6x+8 10To return to the original bracketed pairs it is necessary to first start with a pair of brackets: ( wo) given that the first term, in the expression x? + 6x + 8 is x? and that this is the product of x and x, an x may be placed in each of the brackets. (& ye) ‘The last term is 8 and this is obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or 4 x 2, but only the sum combination of 4 and 2 will provide 6, the value of the middle term. So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives: & 4 2) As every term in x2 + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with sign allocation. Both the 4 and 2 will be positive. ie, (x + 4)(x + 2) This process is known as ‘factorisation’ with the quadratic expression x? + 6x + 8 being factorised into (x + 4)(x + 2). Example (1) Factorise x? + 8x + 15 =x Me ) Now 15 is obtained from the product of 1Sx1 or 5x3 but only the sum of 5 and 3 will give 8, thus the solution is = (x + 5)(x +3) Example (2) Factorise x? - 9x + 14 7x 2) For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be -9, both must be negative, ie (x - 7)(x- 2)Example 3 Factorise x? - x- 12 = (x 4) 3) 4 and 3 are chosen since their product is twelve and their sum is minus one if considered as ~4 and +3. Note that it is the larger of the two quantities which takes the sign of the middle term of the original quadratic. ie, (x-4)(« +3) Example (4) Factorise 6x? - x - 15 ‘This example is much more complicated that the preceding ones, and can only be tackled by trial and error. This is because 15 may be formed by the product of 15 x 1, or 5x 3, and that 6x? may be formed by the product of 6x and x or 3x and 2x. This leads to many combinations. ce ts ie) or (3x )(2x_—) with (15) 1) o ( 3 5) Here the solution is (2x + 3)(3x - 5) but there is no easy path to factorise such a quadratic equation. Example (5) Factorise x? - 9 This is a special type of quadratic and should be recognised as being ‘the difference between two squares’. Factorising such an expression is relatively easy and needs only for the root of the number part to be found. It should be noted however that the signs associated to these roots must be both positive and negative as shown below. {x ~ 3){x + 3)Activity 9b x2 -9x + 20 (b) x2 - 9x - 22 () 2-25 (a) 6x? -22x + 12 —_——— Answers to activity 9(b) (a) (x- 4-5) (b) (= 11)(e + 2) (©) (&- 5) * 5) (d) (2x - 6)(3x - 2) Solving Quadratics using the Formula: -bt yb’ —4ac 2a x is probably the best method, however factorisation provides and alternative method. Consider the quadratic equation, x?- 10x +16 =0 Factorising the LHS of the equation gives (x - 8)(x- 2) =0 It follows that either from which or from whichie the solution to x? - 10x + 16 = 0 is x=+8o0r+2 Activity 9c 1. Solve the following quadratics using the factorising method. (a) x?- 16x + 39=0 (b) x?- 10x + 24=0 {c) x? +.15x+36=0 (a) x?-81=0 (ce) 4x2 + 6x-28=0 ———————_— Answers to Activity 9 (a) x= +413 0r+3 (b) x= +6 or +4 (c) x= -3or-12 (4) x=+90r-9 7 olor () x= -2or-5 Linear Equations An equation is a statement that shows equality between two expressions, for example Im = 1000mm. Equations may be thought of as a simple beam balance with the fulcrum of the balance situated at the equals sign (=).If balance is to be maintained, and a weight is removed from one side the same weight must be removed from the other (at the same distance from the fulcrum) to maintain balance. If the weights are doubled (x 2) on one side then they must be doubled on the other. The equals sign (=) is important so that what is done to one side must be done to the other. Like a balance anything may be done to one side of the equation, provided that exactly the same is done to the other side, so that equilibrium is maintained. Examples of linear equations are: 7-x=21 and 5x-6=20 You will notice that linear equations contain only x or other symbol, raised to the power 1 (ie x!). This index is rarely written. Higher powers such as 22, 2° etc, do not occur in linear equations Linear equations are also known as ‘equations of the first degree’ or just ‘simple equations’, When presented with a linear equation, such as x+ 1 = 5, it is necessary to ‘solve’ the equation for x. This means that the unknown term 5G is to be isolated on one side of the equation. For the example given it would be necessary to remove the +1 from the left-hand side. To do this subtract 1, but remember what is done to one side, exactly the same must be done to the other, so 1 is also subtracted from the right-hand side leaving x= 4. je x+1=5 (to isolate x) x+1-1=5-1 x4 ‘The equation is now said to have been ‘solved’, and the value of x= 4 is said to ‘satisfy’ the equation. Example 1: Solve the equation Sy + 6 = 21 Sy +6=21 sy +6-6=21-6 15. 3 by ny (Dividing both sides by 5 to isolate y) 3 Note: For clarity it is always advisable to keep all equal signs in the same vertical line. If like terms occur in an equation, these need to be collected together on one side Example 2: Solve the equation 4x - 7 = 5- 2xFollowing the above procedure 4x-7+7=5-2x+7 4x=5-2x+7 4x+ 2x -2x+7+2x 6x +7 6x~ 12 6x _ 12 6 6 x=2 ‘This may appear unnecessarily complicated. A simpler way is to realise that a change of side involves a change of sign. Thus for the last equation: 4x-7 = 5-2x 4x+2x=54+7 6x= 12 12 xed 6 x=2 Example 3: Make ‘R’ the subject of the equation. Before the right hand side can be inverted, it must be written as a single fraction, you will remember this from a much earlier example. On the right hand side the common denominator is Ri x R 2 (=RiR2) oR: | IRL R,xR, R,xR, R, R, RR, * RR: RR, RR, = —RiR._ (inverting both sides) R, +R, Thus: -|7 Al— Bl- AI— 2 Note:- This is worth remembering as it is the solution for finding the Total resistance (R) of a pair of resistors Ri and Rz connected in parallel.Example4: Solve the equation Multiplying both sides by3 == x 3 = 10 x 3 5x= 30 Dividing both sides by 5 = = 2 x=6 Example 5: Make x the subject of the equation 2(x- 4) = 6 Method 1 Method 2 2(x-4)=6 2[x- 4) = 6 2e-4) $ (dividing each side by 2) 2x~8 = 6 (opening the brackets first) x-4=3 2x=6+8 xa3t4d x= 14 x=7 xe 2 2 xe7 ‘This section has been fairly intensive so now try Activity 10.Activity 10 Solve the following equations. (a) 3x-6=15 () £4+3=7 2 ss] © 9374 {d) 2y-1=3y+4-6y fe) 3(x+ 2) =30 + 2(x-4) eee x Make x the subject of the following equations. 1 ‘Answers to Activity 10 (a) 7 (0) 8 (0) 24 @) 1 e) 16 fl xd (a) Xm +X tb) 10 or gh SianIndices and Powers In previous work on areas and volumes it was shown that 3x3=3? and 2 x2 x2=2? You will remember that the small digit was known as the index and the number to which the index is attached was called the base. ‘The index is the power to which the base is to be raised and indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by itself. ‘There are six basic laws that relate to indices. Note that these laws only apply to indices with the same base. ‘The six laws are: (1) exe =20> for example xt x x9 = x7 (2) +20 = xebfor example 2 + x2 = x1 or simply x (3) (aaj = x08 = a8 for example (2°)? = 2% (4) for example (5) for example x? (6) anything raised to the power of zero will equal 1. je, a®= 1, 20=1 2 x ‘The reason for this is seen -vhen you consider ~;, Using the second law, x 3221230, however we know that ~ a 1, hence =1 One of the uses of indices is to simplify expressions. Study the following examples. Example 1 x2y3z x xy?z? = xetiy(seaigit+2) = xysz3 xty'e! Example 2 aes xyia = 2 Myl3-3zi5-2) xly0z3 xz 19-Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Simplify 2.vy x Vx.2vy? = tye x ty xX . uy% (8)*y7)4 ¥ = xtyt 2° x28 242 23-41 os 10? x10)" 10° =10* 10°) - be = (10512 = 108a Activity 11 Simplify (a2) x8 (by absat 42 simplify ~24 xyz Express the following with a positive index. fy? » + Express the following as fractional indices. fa Yee (po) ve 1 () kz Simplify the problems below to a single index, and hence solve. 25 x 2° oe (b) a -21Answers to Activity 11 iepeen (oleae) (b) at xy 2 3 a 1 ® 3 (b) 2 4. fa) (b) (c) 5. fa) 28 (=32) (b) 29{=1) (ce) 102 (100) Simultaneous Equations Equations will often contain more than one unknown. The equation x + y = 6 is an example, and cannot be solved without further information. It simply provides a relationship between the unknowns. If however, another equation could, at the same time or simultaneously, be formed containing the same unknowns, then a solution would be possible. For example, if, under the same conditions, a further relationship of say 2x + 3y = 15 was obtained then a solution for x and y would be obtained thus: . equation (1) Example 1. x* oe 15 equation (2) 2x+ 3y To eliminate ‘y’ from both equations, equation 1 is multiplied by 3, this will cause y to become 3y. Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 will remove all the Y’ terms. Subtracting 22Having obtained a value for x (=3) this value can now be substituted into either of the original equations to obtain the value of y- Thus substituting x= 3 into equation 1 A final check can now be made, by substituting the values of x and y into the remaining equation 2. 2x + By = 15 Hence the left hand side value is 2x 3 + 3 x 3 (a value of 15) and equal to the right hand side. Example 2. Solve the following simultaneous equations for x and y (1) (2) ‘To eliminate ’ Adding Substituting x= 3 into equation (1) to find (4x3) -3y =18 12-3y = 18 -3y = 18-12 -3y= 6 y= Check, substituting for x and y in equation 2 Left hand side = 3 + (2 x -2) =3-4 =1 which equals the right hand side. If you feel happy with this section then try activity 11 on the next page.Activity 12 Solve the following simultaneous equations. If you use the check, you will be able to see if your answers are correct. 1, 6s-t=17 4s+t=13 ptq 2p + 3q= 13 3. 21-3m+4=0 3l-2m+1=0 4 Sx- lly = 29 5. Ss+7t=-17 t-5s=13 Second Degree and Quadratic Equations So far we have solved equations where the unknown ‘x’ has had one value. However, equations of the second degree or quadratic equations contain terms of 22 and when solved these will provide two answers. For example consider 2 The solution for x is V1 which has two answers +1 and (ie 1x 1= land -1x-1=1) Often you will find that quadratic equations take the general form of axt+bxtc=0. The quadratic equation x? ~ 5x- 6 = 0 is an example. By comparison, it can be seen that a= 1, b=-Sandc ‘There are several ways to solve such equations, but one very straightforward method involves the use of the ‘quadratic formula’. The formula:Example 1 When used for the equation above: sp — ax 1x-6) 21 5225 + 24 is lengthy but can be used to solve any quadratic ‘As you have seen this method be put into the form ax? + bx+ c= 0. equation provided it is, or can Example 2 Solve the quadratic equation x? - x= 20 In the form ax? + bx + c= 0, this becomes. xe-x-20=0 where a= 1, b=-landc = -20 -b+ vb? - 4ac 2a Using the formula x = -25--o -(-l) + yA)? = (4x 1x -20) 2x1 Livi + 80 5 or4 A check on your answers can easily be made, by inserting each value of xin the original equation and checking that the equation still works out. hence the left-hand side of the equation x? - x = 20 is 52-5 = 20, equal to the right-hand side. for x=-4 the left hand side becomes (-4)2 = (-4) =16+4 = 20, again equal to the right-hand side. Note: Should you, at eny time in your solution of quadratic equations, arrive at a situation which requires you to find the square root of a negative quantity, then you will be unable to proceed any further, as a solution is not possible using the mathematical principles you have considered so far in this unit. efore you will be able to check Now try the following problems (Activity 12). As br your answers for yourself.Activity 13 a Solve the following quadratic equations 1. xe-3xt+2=0 2. ae eee 3. Qxt-x=3 4, x@-x= 20 Answers to Activity 13 You can check these yourself. After finding the value of x put it in each equation and see that it [works out. Common Logarithms (logs) Used extensively in the days when there were no electronic calculators or computers. They made the process of division and multiplication simpler (in particular when dealing with large numbers). Since the introduction of Palculators common logarithms (logs to the base 10) are ‘ttle used, but other logs (logs to the base e for example) are part of some equations and therefore in current use). Indices, as you will have appreciated, are used to simplify problems, and you will remember that the problems you encountered required the indices to have the same base. This is a very similar situation to that used with Common Logarithms, or Logarithms, in which numbers are written to a common base of 10 and raised to some power. For example since 1000 = 10 we say that the Logarithm of 1000 is 3. Or logio1000 = 3 Similarly 100 = 102 1ogio1 00 = 2Ten itself is ten raised to the power 1, (10!). The one is not usually written hence since. 1 then — logio10 10 1 also, since 1 = 10° (see laws of indices) then —logiol = 0 Of course any value may be expressed to be base 10 and raised to a suitable power. For example 2 = 1003010 so therefore logio2 = 0.3010 also 50 = 101.6990 therefore logi050 = 1.6990 Considering this last example, logio50 = 1.6990, the logarithm itself, can be seen to be made up of two parts, the 1 and 0.6990. Special names are given to each part. The 1 (in this case), or number in front of the decimal point is called the characteristic of the logarithm, whilst the number behind the decimal point, ie 0.6990 is called the mantissa. ‘Tables of common logarithms (logarithms to the base 10) (log tables) are available for any number. These provide the value for the mantissa but leave the value of the characteristic to be decided by inspection. (These tables are supplied in booklet form to include log tables, antilog tables, and possibly many other mathematical tables and data. Many calculators have log and antilog functions). For example 753 = 100 x 7.53 = 102 x 1098768 - logio753 = 2.8768 (the characteristic is 2) 1000 x 4.732 = 103 x 100-6751 Similarly 473: logi04732 = 3.6751 (the characteristic is 3) and 3=1x3 = 10° x 109471 logio3 = 0.4771 (the characteristic is 0)Studying these examples you will probably have noticed that the characteristic ig simply one less than the number of digits to the left of the decimal point in the original number. ie: the number 257 would have a characteristic of 2. the number 7460 would have a characteristic of 3. the number 97642 would have a characteristic of 4. A most important fact to remember is that the mantissa is always positive, but ‘as we shall see, the characteristic may be either positive or negative. Continuing with these examples, lets now consider the number 0.07. Now 0.07 is the same as a0 or ae or 7 x 107 (see laws of indices). Thus 0.07 = 10?x7 10-2 x 1098451 2.8451 logio 0.07 You will notice that the negative sign now appears above the characteristic instead of in front, this is deliberate and is to avoid making the whole number negative (remember that the mantissa is always positive). Written in this way it ie termed ‘bar’ and the above logarithm is spoken as ‘bar’ two point eight, four, five, one. Consider one further example, 0.000 471 0.000471 = 104% 4.71 104 x 1006730 4.6730 Jogi00.000 471 A negative characteristic will always occur with numbers of less than 1. Again this can be obtained quickly by inspection. Simply count the number of zero's, including the one before the decimal point, the total will be the value of the bar number. ie: 0.4 characteristic is 1 0.04 characteristic is 2 0.004 characteristic is 3 Putting numbers into logarithmic form is done to make calculations easier, however, before attempting questions that make use of logarithms we must understand the reverse process, that is how to obtain an ordinary number from log number.To do this antilogarithms are used. Again tables of antilogarithms (antilogs) exist, which eliminates the need to search through the main body of numbers in the log tables. If, for example, having made your calculations in logarithmic form, you end up with a log of 3.7521, then using the antilog tables and the mantissa part of the log only, 5650 is obtained Now consider the characteristic of 3 the answer is 0.00565. (moving the decimal point three places to the left from the standard form 5.650 Note: You may find that in many situations that logio is now abbreviated to simply Ig or log. Now lets look at the use of logarithms in solving problems. Multiplication This operation is achieved by adding the logarithms of the quantities involved. Example 1 57.43 x 2651 By reference to log tables 1g57.43 0 = 1.7591 Ig 2651 3.4234 Adding 5.1825 Using the antilogs, to convert this logarithmic value back into an ordinary number, gives 1523. Considering the position of the decimal point from the characteristic gives an answer of 152300. {moving it 5 places to tixe right from the standard form 1.523 Division requires the subtraction of logarithms. Example 2 25.34 + 0.0751 in 1g 25.34 = 1.4038 1g 0.0751 = 28956 Subtracting 2.5282 Antilog 3375 Number = 337.5 30‘This question has become much more complex, due to the ‘bar’ quantity involved. Remember that the mantissa is always positive, so during the a ibtraction of 9 from 4, just after the decimal point, 10 had to be ‘borrowed! from the next column to make the 4, 14. Having ‘borrowed’ ten it was then necessary to ‘pay’ this back, This made the 2 or (-2) become 1 since 9+ 1-1. Subtracting i from 1 gave a characteristic of 2, ie (1- {-1])- Powers and Roots Example 3 (4.732)9 Ig 4.732 = 0.6751 ( x3 2.0253 Antilog = 1060 Number = 106.0 Example 4 (0.2531) 1g 0.2531 = 1.4033 ( 8 —x8 3.0165 2 Note here that in the multiplication of 4 x 5 = 20 the 2 is carried over, this is, of course positive. When 1 is multiplied by 5, giving 5 the addition of +2 gives an answer of 3. Antilog = 1039 Number = 0.001 039 Example 5 0.05731 Log 0.05731 = 2.7583 x +3 To divide 2 by 3, could prove difficult, however by changing 2 into 3 makes it easier to divide by 3, but this changes the value, so to return to the correct value, 1 is added to the 3 -31ie 2.7583 is the same as 3+1.7583 now dividing through by 3 gives 1.5863 Antilog = 3858 Number = 0.3858 Recapping on the operations we have performed using common logarithms. 1, log(AxB) = log + log B A 2. log t = log A-logB oe 5 log A - log 3. log An = nlogA 4. log¥A = ~— og & n This particular section has been quite intensive, so lets see how much you have understood by trying Activity 13 on the next pageActivity 14 1 Write down the characteristics of the logarithms for the following numbers: (a) 4270 (b) 73.4 (9.74 (d) 0.613 Given that the mantissa of logio5.243 is 0.7195, write down the logarithms for the following numbers. (a) 0.5243 (b) 52430 (co) 52.43 (a) 0.005243 In the following, the antilogarithm is given, write down the ordinary number it represents. (a) The antilogarithm of 3.4781 is 3007 (b) The antilogarithm of 2.3162 is 2071 (c) The antilogarithm of 0.6143 is 4114 (@) The antilogarithm of 1.4688 is 2943. Given that lg 3.71 = 0.5694 Ig 532 = 2.7259 and lg 0.0721 = 2.8579 Solve in logarithmic form: (a) 3.71 x 532 (b) 3.71 + 532 () = Yo.0721 (d) (532)? Answers on the next page1 (a) (b) (©) (a) 2. (a) (b) (o) (a) 3. (a) (b) (c) (a) 4 {a) (b) (c) (d) Answers to Activity 14 Ho 1.7195 4.7195 1.7195 3.7195 0.003007 207.1 4.114 0.2943 3.2953 3.8435 1.6193 5.4518 Finally, before leaving this section on logarithms, you may encounter Naperian or natural logarithms. These have a base ‘e’ where ‘e’ is a mathematical constant of value approximately equal to 2.718. The use of ‘e’ is often zelated to the field of growth and decay and is a more convenient base than 10 when dealing with higher mathematics. The symbol In is used for natural logarithms and like common logarithms, tables of values are available. Binary and Denary Systems ‘The mathematics covered so far has dealt with numbers from 0 to 9 and since it uses ten figures it is called the decimal or denary system. Ten is the radix of decimal numeration and of common logarithms (a radix is the number or symbol used as a basis of a numeration scale). Since computers work on whether there is or there is not a signal, a system having a radix of 2 has become very important in computer design. Such a system is known as the Binary system and has only two figures or digits 0 and 1. These in turn are known as ‘its’, the name being, formed from the words binary and digits. -34-Lets now consider the denary number 1111. And understand how it is constructed. By breaking the number down, we can see that it consists of one thousand, one hundred, one ten and unity, Putting these in columns, shows the formation of the number. 108 10? 10! 10° 1 1 1 1 Tx 103{ 1x 102] 1x 10!| 1x 10° 1000 100 10 i Total sum = 1111 ‘The binary number 1111, however has a totally different value and uses powers to the base 2. Again, using columns to illustrate this. 2 | 2 | 2) | 2 1 1 5 1 | Known as the mantissa of the binary number Bex1|2x1|2ix1| 2x1 s | 4 2 1 _| The equivalent denary number Total sum = 15 To avoid confusion between binary and denary numbers a subscript 2 or 10 can be used as appropriate. Thus (1111)2 = (15)0 Example 1. Convert the binary number 10101 into a denary equivalent. Working from the right to the left we have ascending powers of 2. oy 2 2 2! 20 Mantissa 1 0 1 oO 1 24x 1) 23x0]2?x1/2'x0)2°x1 Denary value 16 o 4 oO 1 Total sum = 21 ie (10101)2 = 2110 Example 2. Convert the binary number 100101 into a denary equivalent.mB ] 2 | 2 ) 2 ) 2 | 2 Mantissa 1 0 0 1 ° 1 23x1|2*x0|2>x0|2?x1] 2x0] 2x1 Denary value |_32 | 0 o | 4 ° 1 Total sum = 37 ie (100101)2 = (37)10 Working in reverse (from a denary number to a binary number) a method known as the ‘remainder’ method’ may be used. This involves successive division by 2, noting whether there is or not a remainder, Example 3. Using the previous denary number of 37 check that the equivalent binary number is 100101 Denary Remainder 287 218 ———— 1 9 ——— 4 2a 2ji Binary number is obtained in this direction ie. 100101 HooHreo Example 4, Determine the equivalent binary number to the denary number 45 Denary Remainder 2)45 222 1 ay ° 25 1 2)2 1 Binary number read in this 2yi 0 direction = 101101 - 36Addition of binary numbers When adding binary numbers the following laws apply. SUM CARRY 0+0=0 0 O+l=1 0 1+021 0 1+1=0 1 ‘The procedure for adding binary numbers follows that for denary numbers but the carry bits are moved one place to the left. Example 1. Find the value of the sum of the binary numbers 110 and 1101. fr ji jo 0 [1 | Summing vertically row ‘a’ and ‘b’ 1 | 1 | Using the summation laws. row ‘a’ eet row ‘>’ SUM 1 [0 Tare row ‘ce’ CARRY 0[1 o 1 Summing vertically row ‘b’ and ‘c’ row ‘d’ SUM 0 1 Using the summation laws. eee 7 row'e’ CARRY _ 1/0 |0 |0 Summing vertically row ‘d’ and ‘e’ row SUM t]o [O11 11 | Using the summation laws. Row ’ completes the addition i.e. 110 + 1101 = 10011 ‘A check may be carried out by converting the binary numbers to denary. (110)2 = (6)10 (1101)2 = (13)10 (10011)2 = (19.0 We have covered a lot of ground in this section, now reinforce what you have learnt by working through Activity 14 on the next page. The Hexadecimal System You will recall that the two digits ‘0’ and ‘1’ in the binary system were called bits. In the organisation of the computer memory, bits may be arranged in groups of 8 and these are called bytes, These may be conveniently arranged in groups of 4,Combinations of 4 bits - 0100, 1100, 0110, ete will allow 16 unique patterns to be produced. To allow for this a numbering system with a base of 16 is used. This is called the Hexadecimal system or hex for short. The hex system was devised as a shorthand to present binary patterns. ‘The following table shows the coding of the hex system from 0 to F with the associated denary and binary number DENARY BINARY HEX CODING oO 0000 0 1 0001 1 2 0010 2 3 0011 3 4 0100 4 5 0101 5 6 0110 6 a oll 7 8 1000 8 9 1001 9 10 1010 A ll 1011 B 12 1100 c 13 1101 D 14 1110 E 15 ali F The use of the alphabet after digit 9 in the hex system keeps the hex coding for a four bit binary word to a single digit. A sixteen bit binary number such as 0001010101101100 can be coded to hex by taking each set of 4 bits and allocating each set a hex code, ie: binary code 0001]0101|0110 |1100 hex code 11s 6|c So 00010101010110 binary is 156C hex and is written as 156C16. - 38 -Activity 15 1. Convert the following denary numbers into binary numbers. (a) 5 (b) 12 () 18 (4) 210 2, Convert the following binary numbers into denary numbers. (a) 1011 (b) 101 () 101110 3, Determine the value of the following binary numbers, using the binary method of addition. (a) 111 +101 (b) Luan a111 {) 10010 + 10110 Answers to Activity 15 1. (a) (101 1100 10010 11010010 qd 5 46 1100 (b) 11110 (c) 101000 a -39-Geometry The following section deals with basic geometric constructions, with all arcs being drawn using compasses. 1. To construct a parallel line to another IOS + The compass radius is set to the required distance apart for the parallel line and two arcs are constructed. A line is drawn to just touch the top of the ares. To bisect a line The compass radius is set to greater than half the line length and arcs are constructed above and below the line from each end of the line A and B, leaving the radius unaltered. A line joining these two intersections bisects the line To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line A ‘The compass is open to any radius and with the compass point placed at ‘a’. where the perpendicular is to be erected, two arcs are struck on each side of ‘A’. These then form the centres of two further ares, drawn with the compass radius increased. Where these intersect a line can be drawn to A which will be perpendicular to A. 40To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line A c D ‘An arc is drawn from the point (A) with the compass set at a radius greater than the distance to the line, to cut the line at C and D. The eeGius of the compass is now reduced and two further arcs are drawn ‘with the compass point at C and D to intersect at E. A line drawn from ‘a’ through E will form a perpendicular to the line. To bisect an angle Using the point where the two lines intersect as a centre ‘A’, an arc is Grave cutting both lines at B and C. These now form the new centres of two additional arcs drawn with the same but reduced radius that intersect at D. A line drawn through this point to A, bisects the angle. To construct an angle of 60° to a line ic D‘The compass point is centred at the point ‘A’ to which the angle is to be drawn and set to any radius AB, arc BC is drawn. Without changing the radius, the compass is now centred at B and an arc is drawn to cut CB at D. Aline drawn through D to ‘A’ will form an angle of 60° with AB 30° can be obtained by bisecting 60°. To divide a line into a number of equal parts D To the required line (AB), a second, construction line (AD), is drawn at any angle. Using a compass set at any radius the number of required divisions (in this case 9) is stepped off equally along the construction line. The final point ‘D’ is then joined to the end of the original line (B) Parallel lines are then drawn to this line from each of the stepped-off points, dividing the line into the required number of equal parts. To divide a line proportionally a 3 S B D ‘The same method, as for 7, may be used. For this example, the line is required to be divided proportionally into a ratio of 2:3:5. The Construction line AD is therefore divided into 10 parts (i.e. 2 + 3 + 5) and parallel lines drawn in the same ratio as that required.Graphs Graphs provide a visual representation of data and show, in many case®, the cia tion of one quantity with another. The most common form of graph is one which uses a pair of straight lines, known as axes, that are drawn at right angles to each other. Such a pair of axes are known as rectangular or Cartesian axes. The horizontal axis is referred to as the x-axis, and the vertical axis as the y- axis (y for high). The point where these two axes meet or cross is called the origin and is given the symbol ‘0’. Conventionally values, along the +208, and to the right of the origin, are considered positive, whilst those to the left are negative. Likewise with the y-axis, values above the origin are considered positive, whilst those below negative.To locate a point on the graph both a value of x and a value of y are required. ‘These are often written in brackets with the x-value always written first (x,y). Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph are called the ‘co-ordinates’ of the point, further, the x-distance from the y-axis is called its ‘abscissa’ and the y-distance from the x-axis is called its ‘ordinate’. Co-ordinates measured in this way are called ‘Cartesian co-ordinates’. ‘The graph above shows the location of two points with the co-ordinates of (5,4) and (-2,-6). Many relationships between two quantities are directly proportional. A practical example of this is that achieved in a tensile test, which involves the gradual extension of a metal rod by the application of a slowly increasing load. APPLIED LOAD —C length extension Plotting values of applied load against the corresponding extension (while the material remains elastic) produces the type of graph shown below. Load Extension ‘The graph is a straight line which passes through the origin. This shows that _ srlues af load are directly proportional to the extension produced (Hookes law. Robert Hooke English physicist 1635-1703). ie load a extension or load = extension x constant rearranging this, load extension constant je if any load is selected and is divided by the extension it produces, thena value will be determined that will be the same for any other load divided by its corresponding extension ie, a constant value will be obtained, 44On a straight line graph this constant (value) is often achieved by selecting any two points on the graph, as shown below. LOAD AXIS = constant az ar Extension = b2-bi 1 bz EXTENSION AXIS In a general sense, with the x and y axes, the relationship of Y = constant is x similarly obtained. y-axis: x-axis ‘This constant, in the general case, is a measure of the slope of the graph and is given the symbol ‘m’. Thus Or With straight line graphs that do not pass through the origin, the relationship y=mx alters to ysmxtc Where ‘c’ is a value measured on the y-axis, from the origin to where the graph cuts the y-axis. 45-“T¢ ‘This relationship is an important one and is called the ‘straight line law’. x-axis Of course not all straight line graphs will have a positive gradient, as the one above, ie rising from left to right, and not all values of ‘c’ will be positive. The graph below has both a negative gradient (falling from left to right) and a negative value of ‘c’ Tt axis Lets now consider graphs of particular equations. Consider 2y - 4x = 6 Rearranging this into the form y = mx + We obtain 2y = 4x + 6 (transposing the ~4x to the other side changes it's sign y = 2x +3 (dividing through by 2) 46 -By comparison with the straight line law, y = mx* c, it can be seen that fa) the gradient ‘m’ has a value of +2 ‘And (b) the value of c is +3 A gradient of 2 would be 2 units vertical for every 1 unit horizontal. ie 1 ‘Thus the drawing of the graph that represent the equation is made easy, requiring the location of only two points, (1,5) 2 ‘The first point is located from c= +3, and the second (1,5) from, =a TT ta 34ST x-axis > Lets consider a further example, 9x + 3y = 12 Rearranging By = -9x+12 y= -3x4+4 again, by comparison with the straight line law y = mx + ¢ (a) gradient = -3 (b) c=+4 A gradient of -3 is 1 3 \Thus the resulting graph for the equation 9x +3y = 12 appears as y-axis 1 34 3 © = L = (1,1) > “ll W\a al xaxis simultaneous equations of the form y = mx +c may be solved using this graphical method. Consider x+y =6 and 2x+3y= 15 Rearranging both of these equations into the form y = mx + ¢ we obtain. yo-xt6 (gradient m = -1) and yo 2x (gradient m= -2) a gradient of -1 is , 1 a gradient of 2 is 248 -‘Thus the resulting graphs appear as yoaxi x + By = 15 x-axis ‘The point where the two graphs cut each other provides the solution to the simultaneous equations, ie for this question x=3 and y=3. itis worthwhile studying how coefficients and constant affect the position of the graph representing algebraic equations, so try now activity 16. Activity 16 1. Draw the graphs that represent the following equations, showing clearly the value of c’ and ‘m’. by first putting them into the form ye=mx + ¢ where necessary. fa) yrx (b) (c) (a) ys-x-d () y=xt2 (9 y= ’xt3 (yr 4x+2 | (hy) -2x+8y=10 2. Using 1cm squared graph paper, solve graphically the following simultaneous equations. 4x-3y = 18 xt 2y=-1Answers to Activity 16.Ifyou feel confident with straight-line graphs lets move on to some that are a little more complicated. You will probably have realised by now that if x, raised to the power of 1 (understood but rarely written) occurs in the equation, then the equation is a linear equation, ie when represented graphically will produce a straight line. Now if x is replaced by x the graph will become curved. Quadratic equations take the form of ax? + bx+c=0. These can be solved graphically and will produce a curve when a range of values, both negative and positive are selected for x and plotted against the corresponding values of y. Lets consider the quadratic equation y = 2 - 5x + 6. By giving x values from -3 to +5, the corresponding values of y can be obtained using the formula, as below. x 2|-1/o |1 |2 |3 |4 {5 y |30}20l12/6 |2 [o fo [2 [6 Y AXIS 305 = Y-ANS: ‘The values of x when y = 0 ie, +2 and +3 are the roots of the equation. This graph forms a curve known as a parabola. It is a shape that frequently occurs in engineering and you should recognise equations that form it. Other common engineering situations, such as a gas being compressed in a cylinder, produce curves known as hyperbola when pressure is plotted against volume. (Refer to the piston on the next page - it shows the rise in pressure with a reduction in volume},a Pressure Pp Lop Volume (V) POSITION 2 POSITION 1 U CYLINDER PISTON VOLUME PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP Whilst curves known as sine waves represent simple harmonic motion and electrical alternating currents (ac). SIN 6 +I df Tae} =e SINE CURVE ‘The sine wave or sine curve is obtained by calculating the sine of an angle for all angles from zero to 360° and plotting on a graph Plane Trigonometry Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals primarily with the relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle. To study these relationships, consider an arm AB, of unit length, revolving in an anticlockwise direction about point A, which is fixedAs it revolves it can be imagined that a right angled triangle ABC is formed with the right angle at C. ‘As the arm revolves the lengths of the sides, BC and AC, change. These lengths, are of course, related to the angle 8 formed at the centre. If this is the included angle, then the side BC is known as the opposite (to the angle) and the side AC is known as the adjacent (to the angle). If the arm itself, is ane sidered as the third side of the triangle then it is called the hypotenuse and is always the longest side. Three basic relationships are made that involve the angle @ and sides of the triangle. ‘The first is the sine ratio (often shortened to ‘sin’ but still pronounced sine). opposite__ BC Sin 0= hypotenuse AB ‘The second is the cosine ratio (often shortsned to cos). adjacent __ AC Cos 6 = hypotenuse AB ‘The third ratio is the tangent ratio and is obtained by dividing the sine ratio by the cosine ratio. (The tangent ratio is often shortened to tan). . opposite / ran = 808 _ / hypotenuse cos6 adjacent /nypotenuse opposite _ BC adjacent AC Sets of tables exist for all three ratios between the angles of 0° and 90°. They ore used in a similar way to logarithmic tables although care should be taken with the mean difference columns.The mean differences for sine and tangent are added but those for cosine are subtracted. Instructions to this effect are usually written above the mean difference columns. It is useful to know some of these ratios, for instance consider the arm (units length, lying horizontal. In this position 8=0 So, sin @ = 0 And cos 8 1 Revolving the arm to 90° B 6 = 90° Sin @=1 Cos 8 =0 C At @ = 30° Sin 30° = 0.5 Cos 30° = 0.866 At = 60° (, \ Sin 6 60° = 0.866 A Cos 60° = 0.5 ao And, At = 45° Sin 45° = 0.7071 Cos 45° = 0.7071Lets now see how these ratios are applied. All that is known about the right-angled triangle BAC shown below, is the length of the hypotenuse AB and the included angle BAC (= 30°) It is required that the lengths of the other sides, of the triangle, AC and CB are calculated. B 20cm 30° A c To find BC first we can use the sine ratio _opposite_ hypotenuse OPP 20 20sin30° 20 x 0.5 (from tables) 10cm sin@ = sin 30° = opp wa To find AC, the adjacent, the cosine ratio may be used. adjacent cos 6 = ———_ hypotenuse cos 30° = adlacent 20 adjacent = 20cos30° 20 x 0.866 (from tables) 17.32 em If the third angle is required, this can easily be calculated, as the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is always 180° Hence ABC = 180° - (90 + 30) = 60° At this point it is worth noting one of the most important relationships that exists concerning right angled triangles, that is Pythagoras’ Theorem‘The theorem states that in any right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square on the other two sides. 42 + 16 In general, AB? = BC? + AC ? The example above shows this relationship Armed with this and the former ratio it is obvious that many different approaches are now available in solving right angled triangles for either sides or angles, so now try Activity 16 on the next page.i Tan 90°. Tan 0° Tan 60° In the triangle ABC shown below calculate the length of AC and (b) BC B 40 cm ic Given the length of the two sides in the right angled triangl determine the length of the hypotenuse using Pythagoras’ theorem. Activity 17 Calculate the value of le ABC below, B 6cm a SiAnswers to Activity 17 1. (a) @ infinity (b) 0 (co) 1.7321 2. (a) 20cm (ob) 34.64 cm 3. 10cm Before leaving this section you should make sure that you can use sets of trigonometrical tables. The following examples show their use by using extracts from such tables. Example 1. Find the sine of 25°20". Selecting a table of NATURAL SINES STR eee ane | aaad | ai8e [aa7e | 4700 | A905 | 452i [assy [ase | asses (3 [5 fe [iis | i — _t I {TT Sin 25°20" 0.4274 +5 0.4279 Example 2 Find the cosine of 42°39" Selecting a table of NATURAL COSINES SUBTRACT a Se Te se ose ase ar faar7aaT Tea | 7408 | 7396 [7985 |.7373 | 7961 [-79a9 [7997 | 7325 [2 [a [6 [s [101 ase I LTT Cos 42°39" = 0.7361 -6 = 0.7355 Example 3. Find the tangent of 73°50" Selecting a table of NATURAL TANGENTSoe ee es es fe fe a 709} 2914 | 3122 | 3392 | 3544 | 3759 [3977 [4197 [4420 4646 [36|72| 108 [144 |180 ine [al oe I I j Tan 73°50 3.4420 + 72 3.4492 Polar Co-ordinates From our work on graphs we are aware that a point on the graph may be located by knowing it’s co-ordinates, ie a value of x and a value of y, which we expressed as (x,y). These are known as Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinates However, there is another way of locating such a point and this uses the distance (F) from the origin and an angle (6) measured anticlockwise from the axis to the line joint the point to the origin. Such co-ordinates (r,6) are known, as ‘polar co-ordinates’ and are shown below. (r,8) x-axis Itis also useful to be able to convert from polar c-ordinates to rectangular co- ordinates and vice-versa. Using the trigonometrical ratios of the previous section it can be seen thasin 6 = © from which y = rsiné T And cos 6 = ~ from which x= rcos6 r Also tan = % x Example: Express in polar co-ordinates the point expressed in rectangular co-ordinates as (4,2) y-axis r 2 4 axis Using Pythagoras’ theorem =V4? 42? 20 4.472 tno = 2-05 4 © = 26.57° (found by looking into the body of natural tangent tables). Thus in polar co-ordinates the point is located at (4.472, 26.57°). 60-Revision Questions ‘The answer to 10 + 6 + 2- 2-3/8 + 6) is: (a) -26 (b) -31 (58 7 1 21 the sol 2,1, Ais: The solution of |; x 5 * 3) 58 1 29 47 1 expressed as a decimal is: 100 (a) 0.007 (b) 0.0143 () 0.07 Written correct to four significant figures 16.0524 is: (a) 16.05 {b) 16.052 () 16.0524 £750 divided into the ratio of 6:4 is: (a) £624 : £126 (b) £450 : £300 {c) £600 : £150 3 3 expressed as a percentage is: (a) 37.5% {b) 24% (c}_ 26.7%10. ll. 12. 13. The marks of eight students are as follows; 95, 87,60,73,45,82,65 and 52. What is the number of students below average? {a) two (b) three () four The surface area of a sphere is obtained from the formula: (a) 4/3nr° (b) ar? (c) Qnr? where '’ is the radius The value of 5? is: (a) 15 (bo) 5'/s (125 5.2 js + = expressed as a single fraction is: x x 7 (a) xe () S + 2x x Ste x By solving the equation 5x- 5 = 30, xis equal to: (a 7 (GS () 30 x expressed as a fractional index would be: (a) x’ (by x? (x If 2 = 1022010 the common logarithm of 2 is: (a) 0.3010 {b) 2.3010 (c} 0.6020 - 6214, 15, 16. 17, 18. 19. 20. In common logarithmic form, the characteristic of the number 0.00521 is: fa) (b) (c) oun ‘The equivalent denary number of the binary number 1110 is: (a) 14 (b) 3 (c) 30 Given the Cartesian co-ordinates of (15,4) what is the value of the abscissa? (a) 15 (bo) 4 (19 Given that sin @ = 0.8 and cos 0 = 0.2, the value of tan @ would be: (a) 0.16 (ob) 4 {c) 0.25 ‘The equivalent polar co-ordinates of the Cartesian co-ordinates (2,2) are: {a) (16, 30°) (b) (v8, 45% (4,459 To find the vertical height of a triangle you would multiply the area by: (a) Twice the base length (b) Two and divide by the base length (c)__ Half the base length. ‘The shape of the graph that would result from the equation 5x - 3y = 12 would be a: {a) Parabola (bv) Hyperbola {c) Straight line 6321 22 23. 24. 25. ‘The fraction % expressed as a ratio would be: (a) 1:0.25 (b) 14 () 4% 5.645 written correct to one decimal place would be: (a) 5.6 (b) 6.0 ( 57 The solution of (32)? is: (a 38 (b) 35 (c) Ifo then R equals: 1 (a) RR, RR ) Ro 0) R+Ry 2 © RR What is the denary number 10 expressed in binary form? (a) 101 (b) 10 () 1010(b) () Answers to multiple choice questions