Facilities

Boosting facility managers’ personal and work outcomes through job design
Florence Yean Yng Ling Weiyan Toh
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Florence Yean Yng Ling Weiyan Toh , (2014),"Boosting facility managers’ personal and work outcomes
through job design", Facilities, Vol. 32 Iss 13/14 pp. 825 - 844
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Boosting facility managers’ Job design

personal and work outcomes

through job design
Florence Yean Yng Ling and Weiyan Toh 825
Department of Building, National University of Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore

Abstract
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Purpose – This study aims to identify the job characteristics that would boost the personal and work
outcomes (e.g. job satisfaction, internal motivation and output quality) of facility managers (FMs) in
Singapore based on the Job Characteristics Theory.
Design/methodology/approach – The research method is a survey method, and data were collected
using a structured questionnaire from 34 FMs through electronic mail and by post.
Findings – Using t-test of the mean, 23 out of the 39 identified job characteristics are found to be
significantly present in FMs’ jobs. Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed that the job characteristics
that are significantly correlated with personal and work outcomes of FMs include those that use a
variety of skills, in which task identity is present, task is significant, allow autonomy, provide feedback
and meet FMs’ growth needs.
Research limitations/implications – The Job Characteristics Theory is found to be applicable to
FMs’ jobs, but this needs to be generalized carefully because of the relatively small sample size.
Practical implications – It is recommended that the significant job characteristics that are identified
in this study be designed and incorporated into FMs’ jobs. These include setting up teams where
members play their parts well; a reward system when a job is done well; a career path with ample
opportunities for promotion; and communication channels that are clear and precise.
Originality/value – Important job characteristics that could boost FMs’ job satisfaction, internal
motivation and quality of work are identified. In addition, job characteristics that could reduce their
likelihood of leaving the profession are also uncovered. These job characteristics should be designed
into FMs’ jobs, so that firms have high performing and motivated FMs.
Keywords Job satisfaction, Facility manager, Job design, Job characteristics, Work outcome,
Personal outcome, Quality output
Paper type Research Paper

Introduction
Facility management that is a part of the core operational functions of client
organizations will contribute to business and aid the delivery of competitive advantage
(Wroblaski, 2006). In Singapore, while the Association of Property and Facility
Managers was formed in 1995, the profession of facility managers (FMs) has existed at
least as far back as 1973, when the Building and Common Property (Maintenance and
Management) Act, Chapter 30, was enacted. Besides meeting statutory requirements,
trends towards new technologies, environmental consciousness and health concerns Facilities
Vol. 32 No. 13/14, 2014
have further increased the importance of and the need for FMs. pp. 825-844
For FMs to offer real added value improvements to an organization’s core business, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0263-2772
it is vital that they have job satisfaction that will motivate them to be committed and DOI 10.1108/F-04-2013-0031
 F effective in their work. However, few studies on job satisfaction in relation to the facility
management profession have been conducted. Hitherto, it is still not known if FMs in
32,13/14 Singapore are satisfied with their jobs or if they have achieved their desired work outcomes.
The study aims to identify the job characteristics that would boost the personal and
work outcomes (e.g. job satisfaction, internal motivation and output quality) of FMs in
Singapore. The specific objectives are to:
826 • investigate the personal and work outcome levels of FMs;
• identify job and jobholders’ characteristics that are significantly correlated with
personal and work outcomes of FMs; and
• recommend how FMs’ jobs could be designed to boost their personal and work
outcomes.
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The purpose of identifying significant job characteristics is to enable managers to

incorporate them in the design of FMs’ jobs so as to enable them to produce high-quality
output, experience high internal work motivation and job satisfaction and reduce their
voluntary turnover intention.

Literature review of personal and work outcomes

Work outcomes may be investigated from several perspectives. These include the
motivational nature of jobs (Deci, 1971), social aspect of job design (Salancik and Pfeffer,
1978), leadership style (Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006) and job characteristics (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). Among these, Hackman and Oldham’s (1980) Job Characteristics Model
is found to be the most appropriate for this study because it is widely used as the basis
for many other research on job design (Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran, 2005; Joo et al.,
2010) and “generated a tremendous burst of research” (Kilduff and Brass, 2010, p. 309).
The research in this area continues to develop.
Hackman and Oldham (1980) proposed the Job Characteristics Theory in which five
core job dimensions prompt three psychological states which, in turn, lead to a number
of beneficial personal and work outcomes. The links between the job dimensions and the
psychological states, and between the psychological states and the personal and work
outcomes, are postulated to be moderated by individual growth need strength. Their
work had been built upon, and other new variables that have been added include work
commitment (Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran, 2005), self-evaluations (Joo et al., 2010)
and social network perspective (Kilduff and Brass, 2010).
Hackman and Oldham (1980) operationalized personal and work outcomes (which
are the dependent variables [Y] of this study) into the following:
• satisfaction with the work;
• internal work motivation;
• quality of work performance;
• turnover; and
• absenteeism.

These are reviewed below.

Satisfaction with the work is labelled as general job satisfaction (Y1). Satisfied workers
typically stay longer with an organization, thereby promoting experience sharing and talent
 retention (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007). Internal work motivation (Y3) is the extent to which an Job design
employee feels self-motivated. Quality of work output (Y4) measures the value of the
deliverable, and indicates the work effectiveness of an employee (Champoux, 2010).
Turnover (Y5) can be classified as involuntary (such as dismissal, redundancy or retirement)
and voluntary (individuals choose to quit their jobs) (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007). A good work
outcome occurs when there is low voluntary turnover intention (Y5). Absenteeism (Y6) has
an inverse relationship with satisfaction (Rothman and Cooper, 2008). Highly dissatisfied 827
employees tend to be absent more frequently from work, as they may perceive the job to be
meaningless (Bateman, 2009).
Besides the personal and work outcomes identified by Hackman and Oldham (1980),
Hee and Ling (2011) identified pay and other compensation (Y2) as another job outcome.
This refers to contentment with income, bonus, annual leave and other company
incentives (Hopkins, 1983). Organizations that provide a clear progression path with
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strong salary growth could reduce turnover and increase job satisfaction (Bergiel et al.,
2009). A flexible reward system that enables good performers to choose from a menu of
rewards is also seen to increase job satisfaction (Rothman and Cooper, 2008).

Literature review of job characteristics

As presented earlier, Hackman and Oldham’s (1980) Job Characteristics Theory
specifies core job dimensions and a moderator. These constructs are reviewed and
operationalized below.

Skill variety
Skill variety refers to the range of personal competencies required to perform the job
(Hackman and Oldham, 1980). It is operationalized into challenging work tasks (X1),
variety of work tasks (X2) and variety of skills deployed (X3).
Employees who are exposed to challenging work tasks (X1) could increase their
skilfulness and enhance their sense of responsibility, growth and advancement
opportunities (Seashore and Taber, 1975; Ford, 1969; Hodson, 2001). A variety of work
tasks (X2) provide stimulation and job meaningfulness (Hodson, 2001). According to
Hodson (2001), when jobholders are able to deploy a variety of skills (X3), the likelihood
of feeling demoralized and having low self-esteem is reduced.

Task identity
Task identity refers to the extent to which the whole job is completed by a single person,
hence enabling more pride to be taken in the outcome of that work (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). It is operationalized into teamwork (X4) and visible outcome (X5).
Working in teams (X4) allows individuals to experience a greater sense of job
fulfilment and involvement from shared decision-making (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007).
The job satisfaction level of an employee may be further enhanced when visible outcome
from an identifiable piece of work (X5) is attributable to the effort of an individual
(Hackman and Oldham, 1980).

Task significance
Task significance refers to the degree to which the job has a significant impact on the
lives of other persons (Hackman and Oldham, 1980). It is operationalized into sense of
personal accomplishment (X6) and impact on the lives or work of others (X7).
 F Jobs that give one a sense of personal accomplishment (X6) would lead to job
satisfaction (Mercer, 2007). Jobs that are meaningful are those that have impact on the
32,13/14 lives or work of others (X7). However, this feeling of contribution to another party may
be a double-edged sword because while increased responsibilities can raise the
motivation level of an individual, it can also increase the individual’s stress level which
will lead to burnout in the long run (Carnelley et al., 1994).
828
Autonomy
Autonomy refers to the extent to which one has the freedom, discretion and
independence to schedule and determine one’s own work procedures (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). It is operationalized into:
• power to make decisions (X8);
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• input to Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) (X9);

• negotiating with customers and/or other parties (X10);
• independent work (X11); and
• freedom from conflicting demands (X12).

When employees have the power to make decisions (X8), they can determine their own work
procedures, which, when performed well, will enhance their sense of personal achievement
(Robbins, 1996; Yuki, 1989). When a person handling the work is given the opportunity to
input into crucial work documentation, such as the SOP (X9), the feeling of choice and control
over his work can be increased (McKenna, 2000). Allowing employees to negotiate with
customers and other parties (X10) gives them a greater sense of job responsibility that would
push them to perform better and gain recognition (Ford, 1969).
Allowing employees to work independently (X11) by assigning a whole unit of work
to them can enhance their sense of responsibility, achievement and recognition (Ford,
1969). According to Chmiel (2000), employees need to have the right to reject work with
overlapping schedules so that they do not have conflicting demands (X12).

Feedback
Feedback refers to the extent to which a worker receives information about the quality
of his performance from the job itself, from co-workers and customers (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). It is operationalized into receiving appraisals from customers (X13) and
superiors (X14), gaining recognition for a job well done (X15) and having sufficient
theoretical and technical knowledge to perform facility management work (X16).
Receiving appraisals from customers (X13) enables jobholders to gain a perception of
the service standards they have provided (Fraser, 1983). Appraisals made by superiors
(X14) are usually used to facilitate training purposes, reward decisions, identify talent
potential (Chmiel, 2000) or to record unsatisfactory performance (Chmiel, 2000).
Recognition for a job well done (X15) can be in the form of monetary benefit such as
a salary increment or non-monetary benefits such as promotion and praises (Hulin,
1968). Knowledge and skills refer to the degree to which a jobholder has adequate job
knowledge and technical skills to perform the work (X16) effectively (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). Hoxley (2012) found that in the UK, FMs typically majored in building
surveying, and the most useful subjects were those in construction technology and
 building pathology. His study showed the importance of internship in helping Job design
undergraduates acquire more work experience.

Growth need strength

Growth need strength refers to the degree to which a jobholder:
• has a strong need for personal growth and development;
• has a strong need for self-direction at work; and 829
• appreciates and responds enthusiastically to the opportunities for personal
accomplishment provided by a job (Hackman and Oldham, 1980).

It is operationalized into advancement opportunities (X17), training and learning

opportunities (X18), interesting work (X19) and pleasant dealings with clients and/or
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other parties (X20), as well as opportunity to be a team leader (X21).

Opportunities for advancement (X17) give job satisfaction to a motivated employee
(Hopkins, 1983). Training and learning opportunities (X18) concern the improvement of
employees’ performance in different job conditions (Chmiel, 2000).
Interesting work (X19) gives a sense of job satisfaction. Saari and Judge (2004) found
that most employees from the lower-to-middle management level ranked having
exposure to interesting work as their top priority at work.
Pleasant dealings with clients and/or other parties (X20) are important to create a
positive connection that facilitates greater understanding of each other’s needs (Hoots,
2004). Opportunity to be team leader (X21) offers employees additional challenge that
generally creates a high level of job satisfaction (Boseman, 2008).

Work context
The Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1980) postulates that jobholders’
ability to react positively to a motivating job may be influenced by their contentment with
their work context. These contextual factors (X22-X39) are reviewed below.
Work–life balance (X22) refers to the “absence of unacceptable levels of conflict
between work and non-work demands” (Greenblatt, 2002). Work volume (X23) should
be manageable, as an excessive workload has been shown to induce job stress, which
results in increased anxiety, dissatisfaction or depression or feelings of lack of control
over the situation (Chmiel, 2000). Speed of work (X24) should be moderate. Employees
tend to experience stress and emotional exhaustion when their work constantly requires
a fast response (Savery and Luks, 2001).
Some facility management work requires employees to be contactable all the time
(X25), which brings about a greater level of tension, as work problems may be brought
home even after working hours (Rai and Sinha, 2002). Person– environment fit (X26)
refers to the degree of congruence between workers and their environments (Rothman
and Cooper, 2008).
When supervisors form part of the work group (X27) and address work queries (X28),
employees can have beneficial exchanges with them, leading to higher job satisfaction
(Bruce and Blackburn, 1992). Workers tend to be more satisfied when they have good
interpersonal relationships with co-workers (X29) because they can blend into a
community and build comradeships (Maynard, 1986). Jobholders who feel a sense of
belonging to the company (X30) are those who have a supportive work environment
(Bateman and Organ, 1983).
 F Favourable work conditions (X31) can influence the manner in which employees feel valued
by the organization (Newsham et al., 2009). A company management’s ethics and integrity (X32)
32,13/14 are closely observed by employees. Therefore, the management should constantly
communicate with the workers to ensure that their needs are being met (Thomson, 1993).
Companies need to provide employees with adequate resources to perform work
(X33). If employees are expected to carry out work with less efficient alternatives, the
830 conflict between producing quality work and the inability to do so may reduce their job
satisfaction (Randhawa, 2007). A company’s management plays a crucial role in
ensuring fairness in promotion (X34), as this has a positive correlation with job
satisfaction (Patchen, 1960). The opportunity for self-improvement (X35) enables
employees to experience growth and development which leads to positive emotions, and
build intellectual assets at the workplace (Harter et al., 2002).
Quality communication (X37) takes place when the information exchanged is
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authorized, clear and accurate (Hodson, 2001). Communication helps to motivate

employees by serving as a channel to receive feedback and elucidate expectations
(Robbins, 1996). This is manifested by supervisors who encourage jobholders to offer
suggestions (X36) and follow through with them (Rothman and Cooper, 2008). Rowan
(2008) found that having clearly defined job responsibilities (X38) could increase job
satisfaction as the job scope and reporting structure are unambiguous. Flexible working
hours (X39) grant workers greater control over their working life, thereby improving the
match between personal life and paid work (Kelliher and Anderson, 2010).

Knowledge gap
Hee and Ling (2011) investigated the relevance of Hackman and Oldham’s (1980) Job
Characteristics Theory on quantity surveyors in Singapore. The knowledge gap is that
hitherto, it is not known if this theory applies to FMs. It is not known if the personal and work
outcomes are applicable to FMs. It is also not known which of the job and jobholders’
characteristics affect FMs’ personal and work outcomes. It is important to know these critical
factors so that steps can be taken to design these into FMs’ jobs so that their personal and
work outcomes can be boosted. When these outcomes are enhanced, FMs would be satisfied
with their jobs and not leave the company or the profession. When FMs have job satisfaction,
they would also produce high-quality service.

Research method
A survey was conducted as it provides a quantitative or numeric description of some
fraction of the population – the sample – through the data collection process of asking
questions of people, so that the findings from a sample of responses may be generalized
to a population (Fowler, 1988). This was also chosen because it allowed a large number
of subjects to be studied.
A structured questionnaire was designed based on the literature review on job and
jobholders’ characteristics that affect personal and work outcomes. The questionnaire is
divided into the following parts:
• Part 1 asked respondents to provide general information for data classification.
• Part 2 listed the following types of personal and work outcomes:
– general job satisfaction (Y1);
– satisfaction with pay and other compensation (Y2);
 – internal work motivation (Y3); Job design
– work quality (Y4);
– turnover intention (Y5); and
– frequency of absence from the job (Y6).

Respondents were requested to rate the level of the outcome for themselves on a 5-point
Likert scale, where: 1 ⫽ very low; 2 ⫽ low; 3 ⫽ neutral; 4 ⫽ high; and 5 ⫽ very high: 831
• Part 3 listed 39 job and jobholders’ characteristics (X1-X39 independent variables),
identified from the literature review, which may affect FMs’ personal and work
outcomes.

Respondents were requested to rate each factor according to the extent to which they
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agreed that the factor was present, observed, practised or emphasized in their work as
FMs. The rating was based on a 5-point Likert scale, which was anchored as: 1 ⫽ totally
disagree; 2 ⫽ somewhat disagree; 3 ⫽ neutral; 4 ⫽ somewhat agree; and 5 ⫽ totally
agree. A pilot study was carried out on three experts, and minor amendments were made
to the questionnaire based on the feedback received.
The population comprised jobholders with job scope that are primarily related to
facility management in Singapore. The sampling frame was 129 FMs listed in the
Association of Property and Facility Managers database. Samples were randomly
selected from this database. The survey package, which comprised an introductory
letter, a set of questionnaire and a self-addressed and stamped envelope, was mailed out
through the post. To encourage participation, a summary of the survey findings was
made available to respondents who were interested in the research. The postal survey
was supplemented by face-to-face interviews to improve the response rate.
The SPSS software was used to analyze the data. Pearson correlation coefficient (r)
was calculated to find the significant correlations between FMs’ personal and work
outcomes (Y1-Y6) and the independent variables (X1-X39). t-Test of the mean was
undertaken to check whether respondents are significantly satisfied with their personal
and work outcomes. As a five-point Likert scale was used, the test value (␮) was set at 3.

Characteristics of respondents
The survey package was sent to 118 samples by post and 34 usable questionnaires were
returned, giving a response rate of 29 per cent, which is comparable to other research of
this nature. Table I shows the characteristics of respondents.
The majority of the respondents are professionals armed with university degrees who are
involved in the day-to-day operations and maintenance of facilities. An overwhelming
percentage of the respondents are male which is not surprising because the careers in the
built environment are known to be male dominated. Nearly half of the respondents are aged
above 35 years. The majority have five or more years of facility management experience.
They have been with their current firms for an average of five years.

Results
Personal and work outcomes of FMs
Objective 1 was to investigate FMs’ personal and work outcome levels in Singapore. The
results in Table II show that FMs have significant general job satisfaction (Y1).
Respondents also have significant internal work motivation (Y3) and felt that the
 F Characteristics Frequency %
32,13/14
Gender
Male 24 70.6
Female 10 29.4
Age (years)
832 Less than 26 5 14.7
26-35 14 41.2
36-45 7 20.6
46-55 5 14.7
More than 55 3 8.8
Experience as FM (years)
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Less than 5 16 47.1

5-10 9 26.5
11-15 3 8.8
⬎15 6 17.6
Designation
Mid and upper management 7 20.6
Professional and executive 27 79.4
Tenure in present firm (years)
Less than 5 24 70.6
5-10 6 17.7
11-15 3 8.8
⬎ 15 1 2.9
Nature of employment
FM of a facility 22 64.7
FM contractor 3 8.8
FM firm/consultant 9 26.5
Main job duties
Property management 7 20.6
Operations and maintenance 27 79.4
Facility planning 11 32.4
Table I. Relevant qualifications
Characteristics of Diploma 9 26.5
respondents Bachelor’s degree 25 73.5

quality of their work output is significantly high (Y4). Their absenteeism rate (Y6) is
significantly low. Table II shows that FMs are neutral when it comes to satisfaction with
pay and other compensations (Y2). The results indicate a reasonably satisfied group of
FMs.
Table II also shows that general job satisfaction (Y1) is significantly correlated with
many other outcomes (Y2, Y3, Y4 and Y5). FMs need to be given a fair remuneration
package (Y2) to bring about a higher level of overall job satisfaction (Y1). Those who are
dissatisfied with their remuneration package may move on to another organization,
causing losses to the organizations they work with (Rothman and Cooper, 2008).
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Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
t-value Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient
Code Outcomes Mean significance significance significance significance significance significance

Y1 General satisfaction 3.36 3.464 1

0.002
Y2 Pay and other compensation 3.27 1.867 0.414 1
satisfaction
0.071 0.015
Y3 Internal work motivation 3.48 3.909 0.449 0.458 1
0.000 0.009 0.008
Y4 Quality of work output 3.40 3.436 0.417 0.364 0.376 1
0.002 0.016 0.037 0.029
Y5 Turnover intention 3.00 0.000 ⫺0.552 ⫺0.399 ⫺0.386 1
1.000 0.001 0.022 0.028
Y6 Absenteeism 1.64 ⫺9.527
0.000

Note: Only significant (p ⬍ 0.05) correlations are shown.

Table II.

among outcomes
significant correlations
FMs in their jobs and
Outcomes experienced by
833
Job design
 F The significant correlation between Y3 and Y1 may be because FMs who have high internal
work motivation (Y3) experience positive internal feelings, and this leads to higher job
32,13/14 satisfaction (Y1). FMs who are significantly satisfied with their jobs (Y1) also produce
high-quality work output (Y4). This agrees with Saari and Judge (2004) who found that
satisfied employees focus on the work itself and better work quality will result.
Table II shows that higher job satisfaction (Y1) is associated with lower intention to
834 quit (Y5). When employees are satisfied with the various job aspects, the intention to
quit will be lower (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007; Ali, 2008).

Job and jobholders’ characteristics

Table III shows the job characteristics of FMs. Twenty-three of the 39 job characteristics
are significantly present in their facility management jobs. The results are discussed in
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the next section.

Correlation among X and Y variables

Objective 2 was to identify job and jobholders’ characteristics that are significantly
correlated with personal and work outcomes of FMs. Among the 39 factors, 27 of them are
significantly correlated with outcomes (Table IV). The top two factors that impact the most
number of outcomes are advancement opportunities (X17) and recognition for a job well
done (X15), impacting five and four outcomes, respectively. Among the six outcomes,
internal work motivation (Y3) and quality of work output (Y4) are affected by the most
number of characteristics. The implication is that managers could improve X15 and X17 to
bring about better outcomes in various aspects of the job. In addition, Y3 (internal work
motivation) and Y4 (quality of work output) could easily be improved, as they are associated
with many job characteristics. No job characteristics are significantly correlated with rate of
absenteeism (Y6). The results are discussed in the next section.

Discussion
This section discusses some of the results in Tables III and IV.

Factors affecting general job satisfaction (Y1)

Y1 (general job satisfaction) is a composite/macro measure, associated with 11 other job
characteristics (Table IV). Ten of these also affect other outcomes, and are therefore
discussed with the specific personal and work outcomes in later sections. Only one variable,
work volume (X23), is uniquely correlated with Y1 (r ⫽ ⫺0.354, p ⫽ 0.045). High work
volume (X23) shows a significant negative correlation with the general job satisfaction level
(Y1) of the FMs. This suggests that FMs who have greater work volume work longer hours
and have lesser time for leisure, thereby resulting in an unbalanced lifestyle (Leon et al.,
2001). Prolonged periods of handling a large work volume would lead to burnout and
eventually job dissatisfaction (Rothman and Cooper, 2008).

Factors affecting satisfaction with pay and other compensation (Y2)

Table II shows that Y1 and Y2 are significantly correlated. When FMs are significantly
satisfied with their pay (Y2), they also have high internal work motivation (Y3), produce
high-quality work (Y4) and have lower intention to quit (Y5). This suggests the
importance of designing pay and compensation accurately because of its far-reaching
effects on other aspects of work outcomes.
 Code Job and jobholders’ characteristics Mean t-value Significance
Job design
X1 Challenging work tasks 3.90 7.220 0.000
X2 Variety of work tasks 3.87 5.843 0.000
X3 Variety of skills deployed 3.68 5.499 0.000
X4 Teamwork 3.75 4.977 0.000
X5 Visible outcome 3.63 4.221 0.000
X6 Sense of personal accomplishment 3.67 4.924 0.000
835
X7 Impact on the lives or work of others 3.67 5.533 0.000
X8 Power to make decisions 3.67 4.927 0.000
X9 Input to Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 3.74 6.196 0.000
X10 Negotiating with customers and/or other parties 3.96 7.648 0.000
X11 Independent work 3.93 6.486 0.000
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X12 Freedom from conflicting demands 2.80 ⫺1.071 0.293

X13 Appraisals from customers 3.14 0.927 0.361
X14 Appraisals from superiors 3.24 1.722 0.095
X15 Recognition for a job well done 3.21 1.750 0.090
X16 Sufficient theoretical and technical knowledge 3.23 1.225 0.228
X17 Advancement opportunities 3.16 1.093 0.282
X18 Training and learning opportunities 3.37 2.541 0.016
X19 Interesting work 3.27 2.058 0.048
X20 Pleasant dealings with clients and/or other parties 3.44 2.887 0.007
X21 Opportunity to be team leader 3.16 0.927 0.361
X22 Work–life balance 3.23 1.485 0.147
X23 Work volume 3.96 8.149 0.000
X24 Speed of work 3.72 5.794 0.000
X25 Contactable all the time 4.18 7.695 0.000
X26 Person–environment fit 3.42 2.435 0.021
X27 Supervisor is part of the work group 3.17 1.031 0.311
X28 Supervisor clarifies work queries 3.03 0.341 0.737
X29 Interpersonal relationships with co-workers 3.38 2.246 0.032
X30 Sense of belonging to company 3.11 0.784 0.441
X31 Favourable work conditions 3.18 1.099 0.280
X32 Ethics and integrity of company management 3.34 2.333 0.026
X33 Adequate resources to perform work 3.66 4.041 0.000
X34 Fairness in promotion 3.06 0.518 0.609
X35 Opportunity for improvements 3.45 2.517 0.017 Table III.
X36 Supervisor encourages suggestions 3.25 1.542 0.133 Results of job
X37 Quality communication 3.00 0.000 1.000 characteristics
X38 Clearly defined job responsibilities 3.77 10.000 0.000 experienced by FMs in
X39 Flexible working hours 2.77 ⫺1.351 0.187 their jobs

Being recognized for a job well done (X15) has a significant positive correlation with pay
and other compensation satisfaction (Y2) and general job satisfaction (Y1). Table IV
shows that among the 39 job variables, X15 has the highest correlation with Y2 (r ⫽
0.432, p ⫽ 0.012). Recognition of good work performance by senior management usually
heightens the chance of a pay increment or promotion (Bokemeier et al., 1987), leading to
higher job satisfaction of the FMs.
Table IV shows that FMs who see advancement opportunities (X17) in their jobs are
also significantly more satisfied with pay and other compensation (Y2) and the job in
 F Job Y1 r Y2 r Y3 r Y4 r Y5 f Y6 r
32,13/14 variable Significance Significance Significance Significance Significance Significance

X1
X2 0.394*
0.027
X3 0.357* 0.384*
836 0.043 0.025
X4 0.388* 0.435* 0.426*
0.026 0.015 0.012
X5 0.353*
0.045
X6 0.432*
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0.015
X7 0.432*
0.016
X8 0.445**
0.008
X9 0.412* 0.532**
0.016 0.002
X10
X11 0.423*
0.294
X12
X13 0.406*
0.019
X14 0.387* 0.388*
0.025 0.029
X15 0.408* 0.432* 0.477** 0.425*
0.017 0.012 0.003 0.016
X16 0.633**
0.000
X17 0.403* 0.403* 0.474** 0.419* ⫺0.381*
0.020 0.023 0.006 0.014 0.030
X18
X19
X20
X21 0.393* 0.406*
0.026 0.014
X22
X23 ⫺0.354*
0.045
X24
X25 ⫺0.407*
0.017
Table IV. X26
Significant correlation X27 0.502** ⫺0.626** .
between job variables and 0.007 0.004
outcomes (continued)
 Job Y1 r Y2 r Y3 r Y4 r Y5 f Y6 r
Job design
variable Significance Significance Significance Significance Significance Significance

X28 0.417* 0.428*

0.016 0.017
X29
X30 0.413* ⫺0.475**
0.016 0.007
837
X31 ⫺0.478**
0.005
X32 0.352* ⫺0.440*
0.049 0.015
X33 0.368* 0.472**
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0.035 0.006
X34 0.414* ⫺0.390*
0.017 0.027
X35 0.592** 0.571**
0.000 0.003
X36 0.465** 0.443**
0.006 0.018
X37 0.535** 0.453** ⫺0.501**
0.001 0.003 0.003
X38
X39 ⫺0.353*
0.047

Notes: Within a cell, the top and bottom numbers are the correlation coefficient (r) and two-tail
significance (Sig.), respectively; * denotes significantly correlated at p ⬍ 0.05; ** denotes significantly
correlated at p ⬍ 0.01; only significant correlations (p ⬍ 0.05) are shown Table IV.

general (Y1). A promotion is usually accompanied by an increase in job responsibilities

and salary. The new challenges and higher pay keep FMs satisfied and motivated.
When FMs need to be contactable all the time (X25), they are also significantly less
satisfied with pay and other compensation (Y2). Due to the nature of a FM’s job which
involves constant monitoring and control, the working hours for most FMs are usually
longer than the contracted hours (Wroblaski, 2006). Overtime pay may not always be
available to compensate for the extended hours. Having a daily shift work roster may be
an alternative to enable several FMs to share the job responsibilities.

Factors affecting satisfaction with internal work motivation (Y3)

Internal work motivation (Y3) is significantly correlated with job satisfaction (Y1) and
work quality (Y4) (Table II). Seven similar job characteristics affect both Y1 and Y3.
Table IV shows that self motivation to perform effectively (Y3) is associated with being
given a variety of work tasks (X2) and deploying a variety of skills (X3). Executing
several work tasks enhances FMs’ sense of responsibility towards work (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980). Deploying a range of skills and talents will also enable them to apply the
diverse knowledge learnt so as to produce quality work (Y4) that increases their internal
work motivation (Y3).
 F Working in teams (X4) shows a significant positive correlation with high internal
work motivation (Y3) (Table IV). When FMs work in a group, they share
32,13/14 responsibilities, observe and learn from other members (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007). This
sense of involvement and fulfilment translates into higher internal work motivation.
FMs get higher internal work motivation (Y3) when they: have the opportunity to
contribute to work SOPs (X9), are recognized for a job well done (X15) and are valued
838 (X32). These actions by the management suggest that they value human capital as one
of the organization’s assets, and instil in FMs a greater sense of work accomplishment
and confidence. These positive emotional states will motivate FMs to make continuous
improvements, giving rise to high internal work motivation.
Advancement opportunities (X17) and fairness in promotion (X34) show a significant
positive correlation with high internal work motivation (Y3). As these growth
opportunities are beneficial to them, FMs’ internal work motivation also increases.
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FMs have higher internal work motivation (Y3) when their supervisors address work
queries (X28), provide opportunities to discuss job improvements (X35) and encourage
suggestions (X36) (Table IV). When work policies and procedures are explained to new
staff, it takes them a shorter time to familiarize themselves with the organization,
thereby increasing their positive internal feelings. When FMs’ ideas get implemented
with the support of their supervisors, they will be internally motivated, as they feel a
greater sense of work accomplishment and affirmation from the company

Factors affecting quality of work output (Y4)

When FMs are satisfied with their pay (Y2), they would produce higher-quality output
(Y4), which leads to higher general job satisfaction (Y1) (Table II). Increasing output
quality (Y4) can be achieved by the most number of job characteristics, i.e. 14 of the 39
variables (Table IV).
When FMs have the opportunity to deploy a variety of skills (X3), they are also likely
to achieve high output quality (Y4). This may be attributed to the ability to approach
their tasks from different perspectives and refine their work processes or practices,
thereby improving the quality of work.
Working in teams (X4) shows a significant positive correlation with high output
quality (Y4), as an effective team enables decision-making and problem-solving tasks to
be shared (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007), thus resulting in a better quality outcome.
Visible work outcome (X5), sense of personal accomplishment (X6) and work that
impacts the lives of others (X7) show a significant positive correlation with high output
quality (Y4). This suggests that FMs do feel accountable for creating a safe environment
for others and not to ruin lives, which will motivate them to produce high-quality work.
These job characteristics heighten the FMs’ sense of work meaningfulness (Hackman
and Oldham, 1980), which, in turn, translates to better work quality (Rothman and
Cooper, 2008).
Power to make decisions (X8), ability to contribute to work SOPs (X9) and working
independently (X11) have a significant positive correlation with high output quality (Y4)
(Table IV). This suggests that FMs who are empowered and have a heightened sense of
responsibility are in a much better position to close the gap between customer
expectations and service delivery realities, thereby improving the quality of work. With
the experience gained from day-to-day operations, FMs’ input to SOPs will boost work
quality and guide them in tackling any similar problems that may occur in future.
 Feedback in the form of appraisals from customers (X13) and supervisors (X14) and Job design
recognition for a job well done (X15) show a significant positive correlation with high
output quality (Y4). Feedback from customers and superiors provides FMs with the
knowledge of results and allows them to make improvements, thereby increasing the
quality of service provided (Blyton and Jenkins, 2007). Recognition serves as a positive
reinforcement for continuous improvement, leading to higher quality work.
Table IV shows that having sufficient theoretical and technical knowledge (X16) has 839
the highest positive correlation with output quality (Y4) (r ⫽ 0.633, p ⫽ 0.000). Having
sufficient job knowledge and competencies enable FMs to complete a task to a high level
of quality. The competencies that FMs need include:
• familiarity with building systems manual;
• baseline performance and local utility energy and water efficiency program;
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• track building performance;

• monitor and maintain equipment efficiency;
• optimise building and equipment operations; and
• specify energy and environmental goals (Putnam and Price, 2004).

Advancement opportunities (X17) and the opportunity to be a team leader (X21) have a
significant positive correlation with high output quality (Y4). To be eligible for these
opportunities, FMs would take steps to ensure that their work is done properly, resulting
in high quality work output.

Factors affecting turnover intention (Y5)

FMs who are significantly satisfied with their pay (Y2) are less likely to quit their jobs
(Y5) (Table II). Good performing FMs should be retained through competitive pay. In
addition, Table IV shows that there should be a clear career progression path within the
organization (X17) and fair promotion practices (X34) to demonstrate the management’s
dedication towards talent development and job retention (Rowan, 2008).
FMs are less likely to quit if their supervisors are part of the work group (X27).
Table IV shows that this has the highest correlation with Y5 (r ⫽ ⫺0.626, p ⫽ 0.004).
Besides providing guidance, these supervisors can also serve as a vertical
communication channel between them and the upper management (Lawler, 1994).
High-quality communication (X37) reduces FMs’ intention to quit. The communication
channel should help to transmit any dissatisfaction felt by the lower rungs to the upper
management so that employee needs are better understood (Ali, 2008) and the necessary
measures can be taken by the management to encourage employees to stay with the
organization.
When FMs perceive that their firms value them (X32) and they feel a greater sense of
belonging to the company (X30), they are less likely to quit (Y5) (Table IV). It is
recommended that the management makes sincere effort to show that they value their
employees.
Favourable work conditions (X31) have a significant negative correlation with high
turnover intention (Y5). Long and irregular working hours in addition to poorly
designed physical work environments are examples of unfavourable work conditions
that can affect employees’ happiness and health (Hopkins, 1983; Cooper and Cartwright,
1982). Allowing some flexibility in work conditions (X39) will enable individuals to take
 F control of their work and hence reduce their intention to leave their jobs. Rotating shifts,
alternate working days and the ability to claim overtime as unofficial leave (Chmiel,
32,13/14 2000) are examples of flexible work arrangements that enable FMs to enjoy a better
work–life balance, hence increasing their job satisfaction and reducing their intention to
leave the company.

840 Recommendations
Objective 3 was to recommend how FMs’ jobs could be designed to boost their personal
and work outcomes. Some of the recommendations are already provided in the
Discussion section above. This section focusses on the top four job characteristics that
should be designed into FMs’ jobs to boost their outcomes.
Recognizing a job done well (X15) and providing advancement opportunities (X17)
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are associated with four and five of the six outcomes, respectively, suggesting their
important roles. It is recommended that firms have SOP in place for superiors to
acknowledge FMs’ accomplishments systematically, regularly and objectively. Firms
should also design a career path for FMs so that advancement opportunities are clear.
Recognizing their good work and promoting them at the appropriate time require
objective appraisal to be emplaced. Supervisors of FMs should not bring personal biases
and prejudices to the table when appraising them. This allows FMs to be fairly assessed
for rewards such as a salary increase or opportunities for career development. This
nurtures a performance-oriented culture that emphasizes rewarding results rather than
effort, thus, ensuring the right people are rewarded. The achievements of employees
should be publicized within the company, and these employees should be promoted
because these affirmations will enhance the internal work motivation of FMs, create a
positive reinforcement loop that increases work quality and overall job satisfaction.
Quality communication (X37) and team work (X4) are each significantly associated
with three of the six outcomes. It is recommended that regular team briefings be
conducted to facilitate a two-way communication process whereby team leaders or
supervisors can share updated information with their team members, and the latter are
given the opportunity to seek clarification on any matter. This creates a participative
forum involving both supervisors and their teams and provides the opportunity to
resolve any possible conflict, as well as cultivate a climate for more affirmative attitudes
and employee involvement. An “open-door” policy is also recommended where FMs can
freely approach their supervisors to give feedback and share their concerns, as well as
seek clarification on any matter at any time. This management style can have a positive
impact on employee morale and performance because it demonstrates that employee
feedback is valued and the communication channel is always open.
Table IV shows that among the contextual variables (X22-X39), 12 are significantly
correlated with at least one outcome. These are job variables that are uniquely relevant
to the facility management profession that affect FMs’ personal and work outcomes.
Among these, the role of FMs’ supervisors and superiors stand out. It is recommended
that FMs’ jobs should be uniquely designed to ensure supervisors and superiors to:
• be part of the work team (X27);
• set aside time to explain policies and procedures (X28);
• pay attention to FMs’ welfare (X30);
• render help to FMs to get the job done (X33);
 • provide opportunities to discuss improvements to the job (X35); and Job design
• address FMs’ suggestions (X36).

The contextual variables above confirm Griffin et al.’s (2001) study which found the
importance of supervisors in giving job satisfaction because they can provide
encouragement and support.
841
Limitations
One limitation of this study is the relatively small sample (n ⫽ 34), making it difficult to
generalize the findings. However, this should not nullify the results, as there is
precedence from previous construction management research that a small sample size is
acceptable (e.g. n ⫽ 34 in Ling and Soh, 2005; n ⫽ 30 in Low et al., 2012; and n ⫽ 33 in
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Zhao et al., 2013). While it is suggested that the findings be generalized carefully, there
is a need to view the sample size with respect to the size of the facilities management
population, following Ling et al. (2004), who suggested that the adequacy of a sample
size could be viewed as a proportion of the size of the industry in which the research was
conducted. In this study, there are 129 members registered with the Association of
Property and Facilities Management, and 26 per cent contributed to the study, which is
a respectable percentage.
The small sample also led them to be analyzed as one group. Further studies could
collect more sets of data, and investigate the views of FMs managing one facility versus
those offering advice as consultants. Future studies could also investigate the effect of
company culture on FMs’ personal and work outcomes. This is because differing
company cultures and work environments may result in different job satisfaction levels
and work outcomes.
Another limitation is the five-point Likert scale which was used for data collection.
Respondents could have different interpretations of the ratings on the scale. This was
somewhat minimized by attaching a description to each point of scale.

Conclusion
This research investigated 39 job variables to ascertain their roles in FMs’ personal and
work outcomes. In terms of personal and work outcomes, it was found that (Table II)
FMs have significantly high job satisfaction, internal work motivation and quality of
work output. They have significantly low absenteeism frequency. FMs are ambivalent
about their pay and compensation package and turnover intention.
The results show that 27 of the 39 job variables (X) have a significant correlation with
work and personal outcomes (Y) (Table IV). Four variables affect three or more Y
variables, suggesting the need to fulfil these to boost FMs’ personal and work outcomes.
These are: ensuring everyone in the team play their parts well (X4); ensuring that
communication channels are clear and precise (X37); rewarding FMs for a job well done
(X15); and providing promotion opportunities (X17). It is recommended that rewards be
given to encourage cooperation and the achievement of team goals. At the same time,
employers of FMs ought to balance individual performance with group-oriented
contributions, such as sharing of information with other FMs, training of new FMs and
the resolution of team conflicts.
This study contributes to knowledge by showing that several job characteristics
significantly affect the work outcomes and satisfaction levels of FMs. It tested the
 F relevance of the Job Characteristics Theory on FMs, and found it to be largely applicable.
It also identified several contextual variables that are uniquely related to facility
32,13/14 management profession that affect personal and work outcomes.
This study contributes to practice by identifying 27 characteristics of an FM’s job
that are valuable in enhancing their work outcomes and satisfaction levels. As facility
management continues to move towards the non-traditional business context, it is
842 essential that the job satisfaction level of FMs be maintained or improved. Hence,
leaders, managers and FMs themselves may use these findings to redesign their work.
With proper job design, desirable work-related behaviour such as higher work quality,
low absenteeism and a lower likelihood of leaving the job may be achieved.

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Corresponding author
Florence Yean Yng Ling can be contacted at: bdglyy@nus.edu.sg

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