CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION I: LOAD COMBINATIONS AND LIMIT STATES DESIGN Ia) EXPECTED VALUES, EXTREME VALUES, AND FAILURE Limit States Design is a probability based design method which (presumably) sets up procedures in which all materials and all structures can be designed to a common probability of failure. A failure rate of 1:10000 is nominally acceptable as an ‘act of god”, and failure rates which are smaller than this figure are acceptable as ‘accidents’. Failure rates in excess of this figure are likely to be caused by known design or construction faults, and are not acceptable as accidents. To assure that an acceptable level of safety is achieved in design, limit states codes are divided into ‘material standards’, e.g, concrete, steel, timber, glass, etc., and into ‘loading standards’, e.g. dead and live loads, wind loads, earthquake loads, eto. In this course, we will use the Steel Design Code AS4100 and the Loading Code: AS1170/0 General Principles, AS1170/1 Dead and Live Loads, AS1170/2 Wind Loads, and AS1170/4 Earthquake Loads Structural Steel (AS4100) Structural steel is a low carbon steel with very high duotility. A typical stress-strain diagram is shown below: ome aso 300 wala wing Claw se” Tleaw Vises Waa Wass Wana atocs — Exton* For the purpose ofthis course, all Australian produced steel will be grade 300+, which has a nominal yield strength of 300MPa and a nominal ultimate strength of 430MPa. Values of yield can vary from batch to batch, and the steel code uses @ factor of 0.9 to give a minimum expected yield strength of 0.9 x 300 = 270MPa where the failure is ductile. Ultimate strengths are more inconsistent, and the steel code uses a @ factor of 0.8 for what is considered a brittle failure. Where the material is not manufactured under lose tolerances, there is a possiblity of lower strengths being produecd by faulty manufacture. In these cases (e.g. welding) even lower @ factors are recommended (0.6). These are specified in Table 3.4 of AS4100, ‘The ¢ factor is known as a ‘capacity factor’.422 Strength @) ‘The diagram below shows a Gaussian Probability Distribution for ductile and brittle failures i \ Deble / \ Bottle B50 50 «880 pee eee Loads and Load Combinations Loading on a structure consists of a combination of dead loads (permanent attachments to the structure, e.g. beams, columns, partitions, cladding, tiles, walls, floors, plumbing conduits, lighting, insulation), live loads ( movable objects within a structure, e.g people, partitions, furniture, floor coverings, machines ), wind loads ( pressures on the windward faces, suctions on the leeward, side and roof faces ), and earthquake loads ( inertia forces duc to lateral motions). All of these loads have characteristic differences. Dead Loads are always on the structure, so that combinations without dead load are impossible. But dead loads are often estimated by the designer (since the actual member sizes are not known until the design is completed). ‘Therefore, the code uses a factor of 1.20 or 0.9 to represent the limits of uncertainty in the designer’s estimate, AS1170/1 gives load combinations for the strength limit state in AS1170.0 Section 4.2 and TABLE 41 TABLE 44 Me sie combinations for the wlkimate linic states used in checking srength (Gee SHORT-TERM, LONG-TERM AND COMBINATION FACTORS Slause 7.2.2} shall be as follows, where the loxg-erm and combination factors ae given in Table aaemerite 8) & = (1336) fexmana ation aly (es oe apply co pesuesing o BE, = 1126, 1.50} —_permanentand imposed action enero © 6 © 1126.14) permet loge imposed aon cee a. i ® E = (2G, We 0) pormanest, wind and imposed action oe 07 oe a 2B = (080,44) permanent and wind action reversal vesting or ou oa 1 Ey = (G6, V1 permanent earthquake and imposed action Bex o a os BE = (1.26.5. ¥4Q] permanent action, acsons given in Clause423 and St vo a6 v6 Inposed action otter 10 os |® ‘Note that 120G accompanies live load (both downward) to give a maximum downward combination and 0.9G accompanies wind load (dead down and wind up on a roof) to give a maximum uplift combination. Live loads are intermittent loads on a structure, which have a nominal maximum value which occurs once in a 50 year building design life. Live loads are more difficult to estimate than dead loads, and the code uses a factor of 1.5 to account for that uncertainty. Itis important to understand that live loads do not occur in any fixed pattern, but can be moved at will to apply to any part of a structure. Consider the simple structure below: thr dae tell | freestureug I I ApSSOL SLAIN sa/on 8 09G es ~~ “> eee 15Q ss Dar oe a $0, 2 Max Combination: 1.206 + 1.5Q; } ee ON ‘The worst moment in the roof oceurs for the combination 1.20G-+ 1.5Q) , where the live oad Q is applied only to the end cantilevers (not over the middle). Note that the load combination 1.2G + Wu + 1.5Q does not appear anywhere in Table 2.2 of AS1170.1. This is because the probability of worst live load with worst wind (both 1 in 50 year events) occurring on the same day is too small to consider. Instead, the combination case is 1.2G+W,+0.4Q, which considers a partial live load with maximum wind, Live loads are also very dependent upon area, It is very possible that a small portion of a building will be highly loaded ( e.g. people watching a sporting event or pallets stacked in one area) but itis less likely that a complete building will be highly loaded everywhere. ASI170/1 provides for reductions of live load over large areas in Section3.4.2 and AS1170/2 provides similar reductions for wind loads in Table 5.4. Recommended material weights and live loads are given in Appendix A and Appendix B of ASI170/1 Wind Loads are calculated in Sections 3 to 5 of AS1170/2. ‘These are based on a wind pressure which varies with height and which is influenced by terrain. AS1170.2 defines 4 types of terrain: 1 = open grassed fields or salt las, 2 =rural areas with trees and scattered buildings (and open ocean), 3 ~ suburban areas with low-rise buildings, and 4 ~ es with hob rie buildin, wee = ' ‘The base wind pressure is calculated from _p(z) = % pV(z)*CpArea and the relevent Cp values are given in Section 5 of AS1170/2. Earthquake loads are based upon a percentage of the weight of the structure applied horizontally to a building in an inverted triangular fashion. . The basic formulae are given in Section 6 of AS1170/4. These can be summarised by: Vins = (CSIR) G where: G = Dead weight + 40% Live Load C= 1.25a/T”* a=0.09 T= period S~ 1 for solid ground v = 1.25 for soft sand 5 for clay 5 for normal steel or concrete construction = 8 for ductile earthquake construction 5 for reinforced masonry construction .5 for unreinforced masonry construction —» a afa Meae = V x 2/3 H When the designer has selected his @ factors for the material and his 7 factors for the loading, failure is defined as the region of overlap between the loads ( actions ) and the resistances ( materials and sections ). Nominally, this overlap should produce a 1:10000 probability of failure. Consider the case of a 20m tall building (6 floors) with a 24x24m plan area in Terrain Category 3. We will begin by assuming a felt and gravel non-trafficable roof with main steel girders running North-South at 6 m spacing and purlins running East-West on 1 m spacing. The vertical columns are on a 6 m grid East-West and an 8 m grid North South. The floors are 100 mm concrete slabs on steel girders. Loads on the Roof: Dead Load: — felt/gravel Insulation batts Purlins 3kg/m @ Im Girders 40kg/m @ 6m Total ‘Non-trafficable Live Load: ‘Wind Uplift: 0.6x(0.94x46)"x-0.9/1000 Design of a Purlin: —— 0.43 kPa, 0.05 kPa 0.03 kPa 0.07 kPa 0.58 kPa 0.25 kPa -1.01 kPa Interior PurlinDesign of a Main Girder: W=(0.96+Wa) 9x0.51-1.01)xlm =-0.55 kNim * Note that purlin does not carry the Girder Exterior Purlin W = (0.9x0.51-2x.1.01)xlm 56 KN/m* * Note local pressure multiplier of 2.0 Interior Girder W = (0.9x0.58-1.01)x6m = -2.92kN/m Exterior Girder Wy = (0.9x0.58-1.5x1.01)x3m = -2.98 KNin* * Note local pressure multiplier of 1.5 Loads on a Typical Floor Girder (North-South): Dead Loads: Conerete Slab 100mm thick 2.4 kPa Suspended Ceiling 0.4 kPa Lighting and Ducting 0.2 kPa Total 3.0 kPa Live Loads: Offices+Corridors 35kPa ‘Tributary Area = 48m” Area Reduction: R= .3 + 3/f48'= 0.733 Reduced Live load = 0.733 x 3.5 = 2.56 kPa. (1.2G+1.5Q) —= (1.2341 5x2.56)x6m = 44.6 kN/m Loads on a Typical Interior Column: Tributary Floor and Roof Area= 8 mx 6 m= 48 m?Roof Load = (1.2x0,58+1.5x0.25)x48 = 53 KN 48,R 1.2x3+1.5x.73x3.5)x48 + 53 =410 KN .61) = (1.2x3# 1. 5x.61x3.5)x96 + 53 = 706 KN 144, R=0.55) = (1 2x3+1 5x.55x3.5)x144 +53 = 987 KN Floor 2 (A= 192, R= 0.50) = (1.2x3+1.5x.50x3.5)x192 +53 = 1248 kN Floor 1 (A= 240, R= 0.50) =(1.2x3+ 1.5x.50x3.5)x240 +53 = 1547 KN Maximum Ground Floor Column Load = 1S47KN Horizontal Loads Due to Winds: For Perth in a suburban terrain, we use a 1000 year return design wind speed of 46m/s for an importance level 3 building. The building width is 24m and the effective C, is +0.8 on the windward face and -0.5 on the leeward face. Since pressure on the front and suction on the back give additive forces, the overall building C, is 1.3. This gives: Zz v@ “pVBC, 20m | 43.2m/s | 34936Nim 10 }39.0 28473 0 [39.0 28473 We can caleulate the lateral load on the foundation and the moment on the foundation using the trapezoidal rule of integration: Viase = 10/2 ( 1x34936 + 2x28473 + 1x28473 )= 602 KN Mbese = 10/2 ( 1x20x34936+2x10x28473+1x0x28473 ) =6340 KN-m Horizontal Loads Due to Earthquake: We will begin by estimating the building frequency to be 1 Hz (T= L4-We will assume it is normal steel! construction with a soft sand foundation (R5-45,8 = 1.25). The building is in Perth (a = 0.09) C= 1,25x0.09 = 0.112 S=125 R=45 G sref 5 floors = [ (0.58 + 0.4x 0.25) + 5x(3 + 0.4x3.5) ] x 24° = 13x10? KN‘Viese = 0.112x1.25/4.5 x 13x10° = 404CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION II: DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS Ma: Concentrically Loaded Tension Members Tension members are conceptually the simplest members to design, since they are under relatively uniform stresses, and they are never plagued by problems with buckling (instability). Tension members are also very stiff, and do not (generally) require the consideration of deflection. Nevertheless, tension members require the designer to consider a relatively large number of failure modes. We will begin the design of tension members with those relatively special members that can be loaded through the centroid, which is known as concentric loading, A concentric load produces uniform axial stress (no bending), o=P/A. We will consider two critical sections under tension, a) at the mid-length of the member where there are no bolt holes, and b) at the end of the member where the member is connected by bolts to another member: 200UB22 Avgross = 2870 mm™ Agen = 2870 ~ 2x22x5 = 2650 mm? Ageoss Arnett It is apparent that the stress at the end is higher than the stress at the middle, since the x- section has lost material where the bolt hole is cut. The failure modes for the two sections, however, are very different. The middle will fully yield, so that the member will elongate over its entire length, leading to excessive deflections. Therefore, itis logical that the failure stress is the yield stress, cy (=f, in AS4100 ) = 300 MPa. This failure mode is described in clause 7.2: Nea AshAtthe ends, the higher stresses would reach yield before the middle, but the length (that of a bolt hole) is too short to cause large deflections. Therefore, the ends can reach ultimate at which point a tearing failure occurs. It is logical that the end failure relates to the ultimate stress, oun (= fu in AS4100 )= 430 MPa. This is also included in clause 7.2: N 85K An fe For concentric loads, kx= 1.0. The 0.85 appearing in the nett section provision allows us to use @ = 0.9 for all tension provisions, noting that the brittle end failure should be = 0.8. There are also localised failure modes around bolt holes which cause tearing or ripping of the section: me , bo % ‘These latter failures are normally prevented by minimum bolt hole and edge distances as shown above. In all tension applications, ¢ = 0.9. The design capacity of the section, then, is given by @ Ny Clause 7.1. What is the design tension capacity of the 200UB22 shown above: GN C= Ag fy = .9x300x2870 = 774000N = 774 KN ON. = 90.85k: fa: Aa =.9.8531x430%2650 = 871700N = 871 kN The smaller capacity controls, ie. the section yields in the center before it tears at the ends. Ub: Eecentrically Loaded Tension Members In order to have uniform axial stress, o= P/A, a member must be loaded through its centroidal axes. In many cases, this is both expensive and impractical. Consider the simple angle section below, where the centroidal axes do not fall on the angle itself. To load this member concentrically, it would be necessary to use a connections like the ones shown below:Ms ne In this latter case, the member is placed in bending as well as tension, particularly at the ends of the member. Combined tension and bending increases the stress and reduces the capacity of the section. Thus, while it is cheaper, there is a loss of capacity as a result Consider the solid rectangular section below with a height (h) and a thickness of unity (HD), which is loaded in tension on the bottom face. Elastically, the stresses in the section are given by: AreashxI=h Tom 1 xh12=W2 Axial Stress: 6, = P/h Bending Stress: 6, = M y/lax = Ph? x h/2/H/12 =3P/h ' ate oe % o™=Pih(1+3)=4P/hIn the example above, the section could only carry % of the concentric tension when the section reaches first yield, That is a very high price to pay fora cheap connection. The situation improves somewhat if we let the member fail plastically rather than elastically. Consider a plastic stress block which changes from compression to tension a distance (y) above the bottom. T=R-F.=o,(y)-o(h-y) = oy(2y-h) Mase Fiyl2~Fayt(h-y)2) ry Y'/2 - oxfh-y)(hty V2 oy (yh) To equal a pure axial pull at the base of the section, the moment about the base must be zer0: Mosse 0 = y*— 7/2 This is a quadratic equation which gives y= 0.707h and (T/Tw) = 0.414 In plastic failure we can take 40% of the concentric load, which is an improvement on the elastic case. Plastic solutions like the one above are yery tedious, and AS4100 provides correction factors, kx, for eccentric connections in Table 7.3.2. Consider an elastic angle seotion witha log length of (h) and a thickness (tI) ae yoy T= 5/24h° o™* = T/(2h) + Th/4 x (Bh/4) / (5/24h? )= TH(2h) x [1 + 9/5 ]=2.8 T(2h) Ancelastic stress block gives a ( 1/ 2.8 = 35% ) capacity at the first yield in the member. ‘The plastic assumption provides an alternative. Again, the moment about the base must be zero if a pure tension is applied at the bottom of the angle.WA Fe=oy(h-y) hg Rtq- Fa= oy) Fe = oy(h) : -Fra, Fa % Moe = 0 = Fe(y#(h-y)/2)— Fu (9/2) - Fa(0) 7 0 = (hey) (vH(b-y)2) - Gy) (9/2) = oy (2-¥*) ‘this is again a quadratic equation, which gives y= 0.707h and T= Fy + Fa -Fe= oy hty-(h-y) )= L414ay h, which is 70% of the ultimate tension. ‘Comparing the (above) theoretical value with the AS4100 correction factor in Table 7.3.2 leads to an interesting conclusion. For an angle section, AS4100 allows 85% of the concentric capacity, not the 70% value that the theory (above) predicts. This implies that ‘the AS4100 values are based on test results rather than on thes ‘Test results on ‘real’ tension members use splice plates with some resistance to bending. This bending ‘moment at the base of the section leads to extra capacity, which is allowed for in the code. We can now proceed to calculate the capacity of members based on failure at both the middle of the member and failure at the member ends: Calculate the capacity of a 75x75x6 angle with 20mm bolts in the angle and splice plate: AS = 867 mm? A™ = 867 - 22x6 = 735 mm? Note (above) that a 20 mm bolt requires a 22 mm hole for construction tolerance, Using Clause 7.2 of AS4100: ‘Yield Failure @ Ni = 0.9x300x867 = 234 KN End Failure @ N= 0.9x0.85x0.85%430x735 = 205 kN ‘The section fails at the bolted end at 205 KN.) ‘There is a general tendency in design to try to keep connections and splice plates as short as possible. In this case, it is often economical to stagger the bolt holes as shown below. Ina staggered bolt pattern, the end tearing failure must be considered along several planes: 2528 Ie: Nett Areas and Staggered Holes get? = 723 = 2x22x7.8 Agel = 723 ~ (3x22 ~ 2x25/4x25) 7.8 = = 379.8 mm? = 305.7 mm: The correction factor in AS4100 for staggered holes is given in Clause 9.10.3, where the nett area is the gross area minus all holes on a failure line plus the sum of (s"/4g)t_ for each staggered line of the pattern, Id: Bolt Sizes and Numbers of Bolts There are two types of failures of bolts in tension connections: a) a shear failure through the bolt itself, and b) a bearing failure in which the bolt clongates the bolt hole (Le. a failure of the plate or ‘ply’). These failures are given in AS4100 as Clause 9.3.2.1 and 9.3.2.4. Using these clauses, it is possible to construct a table of bolt capacities. In all cases, we assume short connections so that k; in Clause 9.3.2.1 is 1.0, Note that the computed bolt values below contain the capacity factor @ for both shear and bearing failures. Mild Steel Bolts f.=400 = 0.8 for shear = 0.9 for bearing Diameter |] Shear Shear Bearing One Plate Two Plates | 4mm Plate 6mm Plate 8mm Plate 12 224kN 44.8KN S9kN 89kN 118kN 16 39.8 796 B6 118 157 20 622 124.4 98.3 1475 196.6 24 89.6 179.2 118 17 236High Strength Bolts f,=830 12 46.5KN 93KN 16 82.5 165 20 129 258 24 185.9 371 SOKN 78.6 98.3 11g 89kN 118 147.5 77 118KN 157 196.6 236CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION I: DESIGN FOR PURE COMPRESSION Ia: Euler Buckling and Effective Lengths Design of steel columns is almost universally controlled by buckling failures, since columns are generally long and slender. Buckling failures are described by the famous Buler Buckling Formula shown below: P* = WP EIAKLY and the code form which can be derived from 1° = /A PN = BIKLYVA = WELTY ‘The term (KL/1) is known as the section slenderness. The ‘effective length’ of a column is defined as the length of the half sine wave in the buckled shape. There are several exact solutions for which the effective lengths can be shown diagramatically: Cases with No Sway: Top and Bottom both restrained laterally open jet Pin— pin: So eee eee eee eet ‘ . ST 4 oe Reet Wa Pin— fix: : acceaeareaa é tow RLF. ra keke SL Cases with Sway: Top moves laterally relative to the bottom t eee aya jo eter eee 7 Pin= pin oy f= f } — rire Pin fix Sea eee eee eet rye tes ize {I} / ; oT4 SN ees cme Fix fix FoEEEeeeE eee eee eee eee eee Rls Gb> Vat 20 Understanding Sway and No-Sway is crucial to the design of building systems. In many low-rise buildings it is economical to allow the columns to bend under the action of wind and earthquake loads, so that the building moves horizontally (it sways). To resist the wind loads by bending, itis necessary to align the strong direction of the column in the direction of the wind, The columns are connected to the beams by moment resisting connections to form a ‘moment resisting frame’: a ye Frat Itis not generally feasible to resist wind loads in the perpendicular (weak) direction by column bending, since in the weak direction the column is both too weak and too flexible. In this direction, the column is generally braced (no sway). In this direction, the beam to column connections and the brace connections are generally pins (non-moment carrying). ats e a pel eeeee tS JT wok ehccohen A typical moment resisting frame is shown below in which the column has an effective length of KL, = 2.3x6m = 13.8m (sway) and an effective length of kLy=0.5x6m = 3m (no sway) (see effective lengths via AS4100 in the next section). end elevation Site Elevation 7" We flo SuAY wae ¢L IM: Calculation of Effective Lengths for Non-standard Cases In most practical situations, columns are neither pinned nor fixed, but are attached to other members (beams) which provide some end restraint. A pin end is simply an infinitely small beam and a fixed end is an infinitely large beam, AS4100 contains two graphs, Fig, 4.6.3.3 (a) and (b) for cases of no sway and sway. The graphs are used in conjunction with modifying factors in Table 4.6.3.4. The theory behind these two graphs is derived from the tendency of the joint to rotate (due to columns buckling) and the tendency of the beams to resist rotation (due to bending). There is a factor at each end of the column, y, which calculates the ratio of column rotation to column restraint ( [2 EV. cotence) / [EEWL teana). The term EVL is characteristic of all expressions which relate ‘moment to rotation: Case Moment Virtual Work Expression 7 ‘ "GEE memerty 10s SME of, As he ae eo é (32 2 eran te acta) ror S OM ge Ms NE & ca ton Me "CED nem 2028 Em Orme Ms tye “ ca = MC % z 2 SMC 2H, 2M H ce MEMO) 20% SHCEMI,, os BE me CEO As an example of a building with no requirement for modifying factors, consider the building below and column (g-k) on the ground floor.Sway Building neues : Bee | 2800831 3 ‘aiove 32 e e 9 n 25qv031 ~] 3 : ‘ he & £ & P= (2 x 44.5/3)(2 x 63.2/8) = 1.87 poem = 10, kKL=21x3=63 ‘Consider the same building with pin joints in its central bay: ‘Sway Building a : ?P Pe x e jot Pa tere fe ? , 3 3 7 io w & . P= (2 x 4.5/3 x 63.2/8) = 3.75 ye = 10 KL=2.45 x3 =7.35 In the example above, a pin at the column face means that there can be no moment, resistance, and the beam is not counted. A pin at the far end of the beam, however, still provides some moment restraint and requires a modifying factor (B ~ 0.5). Mle: The Effective Column Buckling Stress (0 = af) Euler buckling theory assumes a perfectly straight column with no misalignment of the loads with respect to the centroidal axis of the column. In practice, all columns have some construction tolerance and some inherent residual stresses from the rolling mill. ‘This means that columns have initial stresses (imperfections) which affect the ultimate@ failure of the column. Extensive experimental work from the 1940’s to 1970"s produced empirical curves to account for imperfections and the method of manufacture: ° oy Yielding Failure =o, A Imperfect Columns: Buckling Failure = 2 EV(kL)” Ne= Oe fy A hr AS4100 has 5 categories of columns, for which we (in this course) are only interested in 2: a= 0 (UB and UC sections) and a = 0.5 (Channels and Angles). These categories are represented as columns of a, factors in Table 6.3.3(3). INd: Effective Sections in Compression Some members which are used for columns have either thin webs or thin flanges or both. “This is true of UB sections, where the beam web is usually very thin to minimise weight. When these members are used as columns, these thin sections buckle locally as shown below: Buckle Pattern Stress Distribution f Yields First. 1 | ‘Where local buckling occurs at or below the section’s ultimate load, the segment that has buckled will carry less than its full load. Account is made for this loss of capacity by a form factor, kr , which reduces the buckled section to an ‘effective section’ as shown below: ‘Note: Values of (kp) can be found in the BHP Section Manual for UB’s and UC’s‘The factor, ke, appears in the effective slenderness of the column in Table 6.3.3(3): de (KLIt) ke 6/250 ‘The last term in the equation for Aq arises due to the table being ‘normalised’ to 250 grade steels (Australia pre-1998),@) CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION IV: DESIGN FOR BENDING IVa: Section Capacity in Bending In earlier design codes, the stress in a beam was assumed to be elastic, and failure was defined by the moment at which the outer fibre reached yield. The new limit state code allows for a failure where the entire section reaches yield. Note the different stress blocks and moment capacities for a rectangular section below: wey ate e : c Blastic | | la Plastic * 4 +-T fe = Strain Stress Strain Stress C= 4 bh? oy C= bh2o=T d=23h d=12h M=Cd= 1/6 bh’ oy M=Cd= 1/4 bh’ oy ‘The elastic relationship gives M=Z oy, where Z = 1/6 bh’, and the plastic relationship gives M= So, where $= 1/4 bh’, Note that the BHP Sections Manual lists both Z and S for each section. A rectangle (above) is a very inefficient section in bending, and that is characterised by a 50% increase in S over Z. I beams (UB Sections) are much more efficient in bending, and the typical UB section has only 12-18% difference in Z and S. Like columns, beams can buckle in their webs and in their compression flanges before the full yield moment is reached. In this case, AS4100 presents a reduction of capacity i Clause 5.2.4 in terms of an ‘effective section modulus’ Z°™. Z75x10° ok)@ If the beam in the example above had been controlled by strength rather than deflection, ‘we would have required more bracing, probably at the 1/3 points of the span. IVf: Web Failures in Beams ‘An ideal UB section would have the thinnest web possible, since the web is a rectangular section in bending, and is very inefficient. Note in the BHP Section Manual that the webs are much thinner than the flanges. Thin webs are unlikely to reach full yield before buckling, so local buckling of the web becomes a significant design problem. This problem is most critical at points of support or points of concentrated load: Failure By Local Yielding ‘When a concentrated load or reaction is placed on a flange, the web (which supports the flange) is placed in compression. Since the web is thin, the local stressed under the load can cause local yielding. Shown below is a moment connection with yield failure under the compression flange: ao 7 © as 25008 25 a AS4100 calculates the capacity of a web in Clause 5.13.3 and Fij 5.13.1.1. In this clause, an ‘effective bearing area’ is defined by the dimension by; in which the concentrated load is ispersed through the flange. For the problem above bye = 8 + 2.5 x (8420) ~ 78mm Roy = 1.25 x 78 x 5 x 300 = 146 KN Rey = 0.9 x 146 = 131 KN < 344 KN (n0 good)@3) ‘Once we have satisfied yield, we must check further for web buckling. In Clause 5.13.4, buckling is equated to column buckling on a height (h) for a rectangular web section of dimension byty defined at the mid height of the web. Again, for the problem above: te C= 1i2b0/bt=C/12 = 2.08 Ja = 232/2.08 300/250 = 176 = 0.224 9 x.224 x5 x (784117) x 300 593 KN <344 KN (no good) Anse If the web is insufficient to carry the concentrated loads, it is common practice to add stiffeners, as shown below. The stiffeners increase both the bearing area and the buckling moment of inertia. Again, for the problem above: 60x8 Plate both sides Failure by Yielding 344 (ok) Although itis rare for a UB web section to buckle under uniform loading, large plate girders (welded sections) typically have very thin webs which are subjected to buckling in shear, Shear buckling is covered in Clause 5.11.5.1 and 5.1.5.2CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION V: DESIGN FOR COMBINED TENSION, COMPRESSION, AND BENDING Va: Tension and Bending: No Axial Buckling If we were considering only elastic stresses, we would write the condition for yield in the section (See also Section 2) as: Oy >= Obend + Gaxiat or 1 >= oteng / Oy + Gast /y This expression plots as an interaction between bending and axial load, and is linear Sexist /y 1.0 Unsafe 10 heat / Sy Since AS4100 is a limit states code (ultimate not first yield), the form of the interaction equation is re-written in terms of ultimate moments and ultimate tensile forces Axial Only Nt= oN Ne/QN <1 Bending Only M* = 9M M*/@My=1 Combined 1 >= N*/gNt + M*/QMy Rearranged MP/QMy <= 1 -N*/QN M* <= @Mby (I -N*/@N,) Clause 8.4.4.2 The only difference between ultimate and allowable is the real form of the interaction diagram. For Plastic failure, the interaction diagram for a rectangular x-section is shown below.Max= oyb(yh-y) Par = oyb(h-2y) ty ¢ s Me THe % M*/@ My 10 Coole, — Prhe Theory 1.0 NON The ultimate interaction diagram is not linear, but Clause 8.3.2 is. Therefore AS 4100 is conservative in its treatment of combined actions ( itis a price paid for simplicity ). Vb: Compression and Bending: Amplification of Moment (M**= 6 M*) ‘The most important difference between tension and compression is that tension tends to straighten imperfect members, and compression tends to increase the imperfections in members. If the imperfection is a bend, the increase in deflection automatically creates an increase in bending moment. Thus, any initial bending (M*) caused by static loading (first order structural analysis), will be increased if compression forces act on the member. This phenomenon is called the amplification of moment due to buckling, and is a second order phenomenon in structural analysis. The amplification can be related to the ratio (P/P") in the member ( or N¥/N, in AS4100). ‘The amplification factor can be derived from a simple rigid columa/spring . Perfect Column: i Free Body: P P a Stes 7 “ af “1 it i! i ‘ ifYM.~0 = (P38 -KSL) (P-KL)8=0 PT=KL Imperfect Column: Free Body: Pe 3 ja— KS $0) ° 3M,=0 = (P8-K[S-3JL) (P-KL)8~KL 8, (@-P™)8 =-P™3, 8 =-P%5, /(P-P™) 8-8 €1/(1-P/P) } Mee =M+ (1 /(1-P/P®) } The multiplier { 1/(1- P/P*)} = {1/(1-N*/N.)} is given in Clause 4.4.2.3 for sway buckling, and appears with a modifier, ¢m = 0.6 —0.4 Bm , for no sway in 4.4.2.2. It is important (above) the value of P™ be calculated from buckling in the strong axis of bending ( Ix. ), since it is only efficient to use I-beams (UB's) bent about their strong axis, This will be true even if the buckling is in the weak axis direction since the weak axis becomes a combination of axial buckling in the weak direction, and lateral torsional buckling due to strong axis bending. Ve: Buckling in the Di ion of Bending: In-Plane Buckling The first case of buckling under combined actions is the case where the structure moves laterally in the plane of the frame, and continues to move in the plane when moment amplification and axial effects are taken into account. This is shown schematically below: et@ In the case of in-plane failure, lateral buckling is not considered. Thus, the bending is controlled by @M, (not by @ My ). The axial component is controlled by @p Nex in the plane. Mt =8 Mt = 9 Z.(1-N*/QNa ) ‘This equation can be found in Clause 8.4.2.2 of AS4100. In examining this equation, itis clear that if the column is unsatisfactory for pure compression, N* > @ Nex, then the r.h.s, of the equation becomes negative. This would be an automatic indication to use a larger member or to add more bracing, However, Clause 8.4.2.2 has a sub-clause for N. which says (we) are allowed to use effective lengths less than one (as if the column were non-sway). The sub clause should only be used affer the column has been checked for pure compression (no moment). This is because a failure under pure compression must still be prevented to satisfy Section V of AS4100. After the column has passed Section V, the cffcctive length can be reduced for Section 8! This is a somewhat controversial sub- clause, that can only be found in the Australian Code; it has been rejected by the Euro Codes and the North American Codes. Vd: Combined Lateral Torsional Buckling and Axial Buckling: Out-of Plane Failure Before a design is complete, the possibility of bending moments causing failure out of the plane of bending must be considered, Out of plane failure is shown schematically below: . 7 44 failureAS4100 considers out-of-plane buckling in Clause 8.4.4.1 M**=5M* = oa, GmfyZ-(1-N*/@Ny ) Where the only difference is the inclusion of M, and Ney. ‘Ve: Sample design for combinied compression and bending Consider a two-story office building and the bottom story column BE. The building is unbraced East West (sway) and braced North South (no sway), Column BE is subjected to an axial load of 420 KN and a bending moment of 25 kN-m. ok 3 estetien t Y fe at 1) Calculate M**: y= (2x22.2x10°/3000)/(2x63.2x10°/6000) = 0.702 "= 10 (pin) Sway KL = 1.85L = 5550 mm, No = (x? 2x10° x 22.2x10%/5550") = 1422x10° N 8 =1/(1 —420/1422) = 1.42 M** = 1.42x25 = 35.4 KN-m 2) Check Pure Compression In Plane KL/t, = 5550/68.4=81 4, =81 300/250 = 88 = 62 @Nex = 0.9 x.62 x 3004730 791x10°N (ok) 3) Check In Plane with KL = 3000 and 2,=44 300/250 = 48 and a,=.869 @ Nex = 0.9 x 869 x 300 x 4730 = 1109x10° N 38.1x10° <= .9#300*310x10°x (1 — 42071109)&) <= 52x10°N-mm (ok) 3) Check Out of Plane with KL = 3000 axial and L, = 3000 bending KLity = 3000/38.5 = 77.5 =775 300/250 = 85 1, = 645 @ Ney = 0.9 x 645 x 300 x 4730 = 823x10° N L=3000 M,=93x10° M.= 194x10° = 0.6 { (93/194 +3 - 93/194) } = .75 Gg = 17X25 | 6.25" + 125° + 18.75 = 1.81 0404 = 1.36 limited to 1.0 38.1x10° <= 0,9x1x300x310x10°x ( 1 - 420/823 ) <= 40.9x10° (ok) The section passes all checks and is satisfactory.CIVIL 3111: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN SECTION VI: DESIGN OF WELDED AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS ‘Via: Bearing Connections in Bending In Section II, we listed bolt capacities in tension, based on the failure of a bolt in shear or the failure of a ply in bearing. Now, we will extend this design procedure to splice plates in bending. Web splices can be used to create moment connections in beams where the moment is relatively small. Shown below is a 180 UB section with a 140 mm deep splice plate. > oot 7 1808 i Spc 13810? mm? Sy= 78x10" mm? First note that the relative values of Sq. for the Splice Plate and for the Beam are very different. This means that the plate will fail before the beam, and the splice must be placed at a point of small moment. It has been common design practice to locate web splices at the 1/6 points on the span, since these aré points close to zero moment under uniform load: Pa | = E l he whe eee ‘A web splice can be subjected to a combination of axial load, bending and shear as shown below: a ooo T oo0o°o oo0o°o Vv&) “For both axial load and shear, we simply divide the total load amongst the individual bolts to get a vector of force on each bolt: For bending, we require a suitable model of the bolt force distribution, since the forces will not divide equally as in the case above, An elastic model has been used in most codes based on all bolts having an equal ‘spring stiffness, K’. When the joint is rotated rigidly (Le. the splice plate is rigid and the bolts deform), we get the spring forces and the total moment from geometry: B Ze K5,2 KR my es KR For spring(i): &=Ri6 5 = KRiO For the splice plate: M = ZFR,; = ZKR°O @=M/ZKR? Bolt Force (i): = K 8; = KR,0 =MKR,/EKR? =MR/ ER? From the above model, itis (obvious) that the maximum bolt force in bending coincides with the maximum radius, since the denomenator is a constant for all bolts. The example below shows the vector addition of forces due to shear axial and bending actions:o ®& 4 Yo “a OO fo} mR feg® 000 or oggyo |* © ot Tq ores Ty a A.check of the bolted connection (above) is not complete unless the splice plate itself has been checked in bending. In this case, we must calculated S,x for the splice plate, removing the holes that have been drilled: 4 Se=¥% bt—2Dty h M*=0.9 f, Sex (moment only) “Eo M*=09 f Su(I—N*/qN) (combined actions) Mt “The check (above) is simple a strength check for pure bending for a rectangular beam using Section 5 added to combined actions using Section 8 of AS4100, If we wish to construct a bearing type connection to provide full beam moment capacity, it is usually necessary to connect splice plates to the flanges to carry the moment, and to use a small splice plate on the web to carry shear. This is accomplished by dividing the forces as shown below: igned to the top flange plat. T (assigns p flange plate) | v (assigned to the web cleat) =——c {assigned to the bottom flange plate)Vib: Butt Plate Connections ‘The bearing type of connection described above has become less fashionable in recent years due to modern aesthetics and also due to a combination of construction, transport ‘and manpower costs. It is now more common to place connections at the member ends, where the moment is very likely to be a maximum. For transportation, cach member should (ideally) be able to stack compactly on a truck (in bundles), negating the use of protruding splice plates. ‘This has led to the development of butt plate connections (below): colomn ‘A butt plate connection is é3sentially a bolted connection in tension. Where the plates tend to pry apart, tension is taken by the bolts. Where the plates are compressed together, the compression is taken by the plate:In order to construct a butt plate connection, it is necessary to pretension the bolts to hold the connection in contact when there is no load. It is important to recognise that the application of pretension has no effect on the ultimate bolt capacity. Initially, the pretension in the bolt balances the contact pressure between the plates. Under full load, the bolt tension remains, but the pressure between plates disappears, and the bolts simply balance the applied load. BRee Loaol After Loacl = oh —eT=0 t— Te2k, qo ioe % ae Historically, a major problem with butt plate connection was the presence of ‘prying action’, which can cause premature failure in the bolts. The diagram below shows a very stiff plate with no prying in the bolts, and a flexible plate with prying action: Stiff Plate FBD Flexible Plate eae oe bo 7 Itis possible to design butt plates for prying or no prying, but stiff plates (no prying) are generally too expensive, Butt plates will always have two bolts per line in a UB connection. In the following, it will be assumed that each bolt is supported by a length of butt plate which spans from bolt to bolt (the gage distance, g). Looking down from the top, the web will transmit a total load, T , to the two bolts, such that a thick plate wall produce bolt loads of T/2 on each bolt. A thin plate, however, will produce a bolt load of ‘T/2 + Q, where Q is known as a prying force:& In order to analyse a butt plate, it is necessary to create a simple statically determinate model. In this model, each bolt is supported by a portion of the plate cantilevered out from the beam web. ‘This portion is a ‘tongue’ of width (g), where (g) is the spacing between bolts: Top View End View Web a ree a | ee Prey ae mest et re 5; 84S ‘The dimensions of the ‘tongue’ are (ste) in length, (g) in width and (\) in thickness, where e = edge distance to centre of bolt, and s~ web distance to centre of bolt. tt Each ‘tongue’ transmits a force (T) to the beam, so that at each level the beam web supports two “tongues” and a total force of (21): 4 T le = A (cece = ‘Thick plates and No Prying Action ‘When the end plate (butt plate) is thick enough to carry the full bolt load without, yielding, the result is No Prying: ‘ae SF =F? T = bolt force = 830Aroi M,= 300 gt’/4 = Ts t= (Ts/75g)*Thin Plates and Prying Action In general, No prying results in butt plates which are too thick to weld successfully to the thinner UB webs and flanges. Therefore, it is more common to select a reasonable plate thickness ({), and to limit the tension (T) which can be carried by the plate. Consider a single ‘tongue’ which has failed by yielding of the plate: Top View | FBD The tension (T) transmitted to the web can be calculated from the plastic moment in the plate (My= oyS,,), and the bolt force (F) can be calculated from geometry and the tension (1): to" tec = 2M,-Ts-) T T 1Mu nee 1? dey sg Tat Fe Teer) -Ma — F2 (Teese 2 (Teva + Ft le FF: T @raslavVe <— ‘The Prying design results in a thinner plate, but a slightly larger bolt force (F>T) than for the previous No Prying solution. Since bolts are much cheaper than plates, prying action becomes the ‘standard? butt plate design standard. FeT™ Re (ess 1 Alad/e@) To design a butt plate connection, we first assume from beam theory that plane sections remain plane. The bolt carries a force (F), but only transfers (T) to the beam, web. The ratio between (F) and (T) is the prying action multiplier ( R= (e#s/2+d/d)/e ) derived on the previous page. Since the plate always fails first, an oversize bolt adds nothing to the moment capacity. ‘Thus, the ‘effective stress’ in the bolt is always 830/R at failure, End View Forces Stresses are x _—___830/R ats 2830/8 su at ate 2abtgscg. S19 at 2% ete. 2 IF c ote b Note that all of the relationships are derived from similar triangles. The height (y) to the neutral axis is found by equating the compression and tension forces: oP" = (830/R) x (yi(h-y-a)) compression C=%xo' xbxy Wae* APEX [(830/R) + (830/R) x (h-y-a-g)/(h-y-a) + (830/R) x (h-y-a-2g)(h-y-a)] Although this expression can be solved, it is easier for design to set up a trial and error table to determine (y): yom c T. total 10 25 40kN 300kN 20 80 120 295 30 © 130 220 290 C4T . gluten 40 200 310 280 cor@) al example above, the solution would be approximately 35mm for In the hypothet o). ‘The design moment pM, is calculated by taking moments about the bottom of the plate: My = 2T(h-a)}42T(h-a-g)+21 (h-a-2e)-Cy/3 Vie: Friction Grip Bolts Friction grip bolts are used for applications where repeated loading (fatigue) occurs, or where the nature of the loading is likely to produce long-term loosening of normal high strength or structural grade bolts, A friction grip bolt transmits load between plates by frictional forces rather than by bearing. In the schematic below, the bolt shank is in pure tension, and there is no contact (no bearing) between the shank and the plate. im geder | | Satceld = iT T <—— t: : ae PEER o, te Friction grip bolts are very sensitive to surface preparation and surface coatings. Many coatings which are required for rust protection, ¢.g. galvanising or lead paint, can destroy the frictional resistance, and care must be taken to specify the surface preparation before a friction coefficient is assumed. Grease and oil are common contaminants that must be removed before friction grip bolts are put in place. Friction grip bolts are designed not to slip under Serviceability Loads (See ASI 170/1). For ultimate loads, the bolt can go into bearing, and the difference between the ultimate and service loads is taken in shear by the shank of the bolt. At ultimate, the bolt must survive the combination of shear and tension. Consider a 24mm friction grip bolt with an assumed friction coefficient of 0.35 under a serviceability load of 70 KN and an ultimate load of 110 KN Bolt Proof Load=210KN —-V;= 0.35 x 210= 73.5>70 (ok) Ultimate Shear= 110-70 = 40 kN Clause 9.3.3.3: 40x10? / 0.8*0.62*830*1*247/4 + 210x10°/ 0.9*830%n*247/4 <1@) Generally, the serviceability check is sufficient, since the proof load Table 15.2.5.1 leaves sufficient tension capacity in reserve to satisfy Clause 9.3.3.3. 2144.62 <1 (ok) ‘Vid: Welded Connections Welds fall into two general classifications, 1: GP General Purpose Welds, for which @ = 0.6 and 2: SP Special Purpose Welds, for which @=0.8. GP welds are far more common, since they apply to unsupervised construction, where weld inspection is likely to be minimal, GP welds are typically loaded to only 50% of their ultimate strength, SP Welds are specified for critical fatigue applications or for critical joints, where the welds are loaded beyond 50% of their capacity. SP welds arc generally restricted to in-house construction where there is provision for continuous inspection and weld quality testing This section will consider two types of welds: 1) Butt Welds and 2) Fillet Welds. Butt welds are used to join plates via direct tension, and fillet welds join plates by shear: Butt Weld Fillet Weld a ae Vib: Butt Welds A butt plate can be classified as Complete or Incomplete Penetration, depending on the method of welding. In general, 2 complete penetration weld must be accessible to the welder from two sides. A complete penetration weld has a design throat thickness equal to the thickness of the material, and the member generally takes its full ultimate load in tension. An incomplete penetration weld usually restricts access to one side, leaving gaps at the root of the weld. An incomplete penetration weld has a design throat thickness less than the thickness of the material, and the ultimate tension capacity of the joint is controlled by the weld. Complete Penetration Incomplete Penetration) There are two common electrodes used for welding low strength steels: 1: EA1XX and 2; EABXX. The (41,48 ) designation refers to the ultimate strength of the weld 410MPa and 480MPa, and the XX designation is for the flux coatings required for specitic applications Check the capacity of the Butt Plate connection below using Clause 9.7.2.7: Category GP, Full Penetration t= 25mm, E41XX aa Plate: N,=0.9x25x100x430 = 9675 kN Weld: N,=0.6x 25x100x410 = 6150 kN (controls) Category GP, Incomplete Penetration = 18.75 mm, EA8XX Weld: N.=0.6x18.75x100x0.6x480 = 3240 KN Note (above) that a tension member would normally carry a limiting design load of: Plate: Ny 0.9x25x100x300 = 6750 kN Vie: Fillet Welds A fillet weld runs along the side of the plate, and has a design throat thickness, , shown. below: ‘The throat thickness does not take into account reinforcement of the weld above the straight line joining the weld extremeties (since reinforcement does not add to strength) ‘The critical shear plane of the web is perpendicular to the weld surface whether the weldis in line with the load or at right angles to the load. Check the capacity of a GP E41XX Fillet Weld shown below: - Jt" SO t= 0.707x12 = 8.5mm L=50+ 100+ 50=200mm Vw = 0.6x0.6x410x8.5 = 1.25 KN/mm. Ni= 1.25x200 = 250 kN Having examined fillet welds in tension (similar to bolts in tension), we now consider a web splice plate with welds subjcoted to axial load shear and bending (similar to the bolted web splice). Tension and shear are considered the same, but vectorially they are in perpendicular directions. ‘The shear flow ( v ) is distributed around the entire length of the weld: rl In bending, the applied moment is treated as an applied torque, according to the formula t=Tr/J=Mr/J,and J= PdA= dA + ydA = Int ly. The calculation of [x and ly is generally performed by ignoring the thickness of the weld, and treating the section as an infinitely thin line:T= 1/12 Wt + 2bt (2)? = (b°/12 + bh?) t = Top Ay? y= 2btb/2/( 2beeht) = bA2béh) Ty = 2bt(b/2)" + 26°12 - (2beh}t[b/2beh)]? = ( 23 b*—b‘(2b+h) )t Consider the bolted splice plate in section Via, with a 12mm fillet as shown below: i [ots —> Wok .)tH Ine v=ViL kWmm, We can consider critical points on the cross section z = 188 Point: | 277 4%» Nh Re [TECH = 507 Nima w ae 277 Ae Re SaerereT = 525 Nm Point2: [77 —> 16 Point 1 produces the largest resultant (605 N/mm), and this must be compared to Clause 9.73.10 of AS4100 for a GP weld ( v* = 0.60.6*410#8.5 = 1254 N/mm ). The weld is therefore, adequate.