Tonya Bettineschi

Dr. Payne

His 400

December 7, 2016

1
 “The Legacy of Dixie Week”

During the 1950’s, the University of Mississippi inaugurated Dixie Week which

resembled the underlying issues of race and color in the American South. At this time, people in

the Southern states resisted integration while trying to save their heritage and history. Created to

allow Ole Miss students to understand and remember the Confederate South and Southern

traditions, “Dixie Week” received a lot of opposition and had a profound impact on the culture

and the people at the university.

The students at the University of Mississippi starting as early as the 1940s, began to take

on a more extreme version of Southern pride. Events that occurred during this period both in the

United States as well as abroad had a significant impact on the university and its students. With

the rise in nationalism, however, came the “a period of extreme Confederate patriotism” in
1
Mississippi.

The reemergence of the Confederate spirit and pride in white supremacy surfaced after

the 1940s. One would assume that by this time race relations would have improved, however, the

University of Mississippi was finally beginning to strengthen as an institution. Prior to these

years, the university saw a number of events that prevented students from pursuing an education

and kept the enrollment numbers extremely low. During the Civil War, it was difficult for the

university to flourish. “The opening of hostilities” caused by the Civil War, “naturally affected

the academic life of the campus for the worst.”2 Students of the university left in order to fight

for the South in the Civil War and education no longer became the main focus of the university.

1
​Michael Alan Upton​, "Keeping the Faith with the University Greys": Ole Miss as Lieu de Memoire (University of
Mississippi, 2002), 79.
2
The Ole Miss, 1948. University of Mississippi. 1984, “A Century of Ole Miss”,33.
2
Instead, the university had to face much more pressing challenges such as lack of students, the

destruction of Oxford and returning to a state of normalcy after the Civil War.

The students who left the University of Mississippi during the civil war were considered

heros. About 136 students of the university joined the University Greys. The Greys were part of

Company A of the 11th Mississippi Davis Brigade. These soldiers were present at the last charge

at Missionary Ridge which served as a “high water mark of the South.” 3 The University Greys

were placed on a pedestal in the eyes of Mississippians because they “made of a lost cause... a

thing of glory that remains for all time an inspiration” to the future generations that attended Ole

Miss. The University Greys left behind a lasting legacy and sense of pride in the South.

When celebrating their history, the students of the University of Mississippi focused

more on the accomplishments of the University Greys in the Civil War then they focused on the

students who left to fight in either of the World Wars. The Civil War had a much greater impact

on the university because “the war came to Ole Miss.”4 The University of Mississippi played a

significant role in the Civil War. The Lyceum, located in the center of the campus, was used as a

hospital for injured Confederate soldiers. Fortunately, the university was spared from the

“desolation and ruin left by Union forces” during the war. 5 The university’s former Chancellor,

Frederick Barnard, had left the university after it closed due to the war and went to Columbia

University where he became the president. Barnard established many connections while he was

in the north. As many other southern institutions were being destroyed by the Union soldiers,

President Grant ordered the preservation of the University of Mississippi due to the efforts of

Barnard. The university remained standing after the war, however the city of Oxford was

3
Ibid, 33.
4
Ibid, 34.
5
Ibid, 33.
3
destroyed. The casualties of the war had a massive impact on the lives of students and residents

of Mississippi.

Again, the university faced another challenge in establishing a legitimate university

during the Reconstruction Period. Between the years of 1865 and 1877, the south was under

reconstruction from the Civil War. The university had always been “interwoven with the life of

the people of Mississippi” and so Ole Miss concentrated on rebuilding the city before it returned

its focus to academics and education. The Reconstruction Period was used as a time to rebuild

the state, the institution, and the spirits of the students.6

After Reconstruction Period came to an end in 1877, there came period of “normalcy”

that came to the South as well as Ole Miss. The university was finally able to turn their attention

to academics and began to make improvements to the school. In 1882, the university began to

admit women and also witnessed a significant increase in student enrollment until 1916. At this

time, the university was challenged with many political and education reforms. In order to be

considered an official university, Ole Miss had to make adjustments to its curriculum and

lifestyle. However, it failed to meet these requirements and so it was temporarily removed from

the accredited list of universities.

In addition to Ole Miss facing changes and struggling to reclaim accreditation, the United

States entered World War 1 in 1914. Similar to what had happened during the Civil War, many

university students left the school in order to “show the spirit of the Rebels in the Great War”

and fight for their country.7 These students were extremely influenced by the students who had

come before them and joined the University Greys during the Civil War. The legacy of the

6
The Ole Miss, 1948. University of Mississippi. 1984, The Second Hundred Years, Chancellor's message 20
7
The Ole Miss, 1948., A Century of Ole Miss, 35
4
University Greys inspired students to fight for the country. The university lost many students in

World War 1 and experienced similar losses that were faced during the Civil War. World War 1

had affected student enrollment numbers and education in many ways. It took the university

many years to recover from its losses. As the university eventually began to see improvements, it

had been put on hold once again in 1941, with the beginning of United States involvement in

World War 2.

When the United States entered World War II in 1942, the entire country was affected.

There was a rise in nationalism throughout the country, including the southern states which had

resented the North since even before the start of the Civil War. During World War II the nation

seemed to be united as one. On December 7, 1941, the United States declared war against the

Axis Powers after Pearl Harbor was bombed. The war had directly affected the University of

Mississippi because “thousands of Ole Miss students and alumni were in the nation’s military

forces” within 6 months of President Roosevelt's declaration of war.8

The challenging history of the University of Mississippi shaped the attitudes and value of

Ole Miss students for generations to come. Due to the events that the university had to face, it

took until the late 1940s for the university to gain respect as a national institution. Although Ole

Miss had a grueling past, the “spirits of the south was still unconquered”9 by the many challenges

faced since the opening of the university in 1848. In order to honor those who came before them

and struggled to make the university great, the students in the 1940s believed that through their

thoughts and deeds they could further strengthen the university and remain “true to those who

have preceded” them.10

8
David G. Sansing, The University of Mississippi: A Sesquicentennial History (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1999), 256.
9
The Ole Miss, 1948.,A Century of Ole Miss, 35
10
The Ole Miss, 1948., The Second Hundred Years, 20
5
 The university faced many setbacks due to the large numbers of students who left the

school to fight in the war. In addition to these setbacks, the white population of Mississippi and

the students at the University of Mississippi, in particular, turned their attention to the resistance

of a changing society in America. During the 1940s, segregation became a topic of concern for

the federal government. Under the presidency of Harry Truman, the federal government began to

address and tackle all instances of segregation throughout the United States. Mississippi became

resilient to resist all attempts of integration in the South. White Mississippians felt severely

threatened by new integration policies that were implemented during this time period. Similar to

how Mississippians felt during the 1860s with the abolishment of slavery, Mississippians during

this time period felt as though those same rights were being taken away by integrationist policies.

The overall goal of Mississippi residents was to preserve white supremacy in the south.

This wide spread feeling throughout the South led to the creation of a new political party in

1948. President Truman drastically affected the southern states when he changed his democratic

political views in 1948 and “placed himself squarely behind civil rights legislation."11 Truman’s

administration implemented radical legislation that helped to desegregate the South and other

parts of the country. During his presidency, the Supreme Court overturned the court’s decision in

Plessy v. Ferguson. This Supreme Court case had originally ruled that Jim Crow laws were

constitutional because although public places were segregated, they were so on the basis of

“separate but equal." The decision in Plessy V. Ferguson justified the actions of whites

discriminating against African Americans solely based on the color of their skin. Truman also

made attempts to desegregate the military, ensure fair employment practices for African

11
​Kari A. Frederickson​, ​The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932-1968​ (Univ of North Carolina
Press, 2001), 2.
6
Americans, and make lynching a federal crime. These revolutionary demands angered many

white southerners who did not want to see such radical changes threaten white supremacy and

the old way of life in the South.

Harry Truman first discussed his ideas at the 1948, Democratic Convention in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was very well known at this convention that if Harry Truman was

elected, the democratic party would “continue in a direction inimical to the South." 12 Truman’s

plan for office would disrupt the segregated environment that existed in the South by forcing

states to integrate. Southerners were quite aware of Truman’s civil rights agenda and saw him as

a threat to the southern way of life. The Democratic Convention was a pivotal moment in

American politics. Prior to 1948, a large majority of the Southern States were democrat,

however, Harry Truman redefined what the party stood for. This Democratic Convention drew

democrats from all around the country, both Northerners and Southerners. H.L. Mencken, an

American journalist reporting on the convention, compared the Democratic Convention to the

Civil War in his description of the night before the convention. According to Mencken, there was

a “nervous calm that fell upon it in the days before Gettysburg” that was felt at the convention

the night before the “Confederate Army, sworn to knock off President Truman” had arrived in

Philadelphia. 13

The Democratic Convention stirred up similar feelings of animosity and tension that

existed during the war between the states. Once again, Northern and Southern states squared off

in another argument over the status of African Americans and the power of white people in

society. The Civil War and the Democratic Convention were similar in that both regions of the

12
​William E. Leuchtenburg​, ​The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B.
Johnson: ​Walter Lynwood Fleming Lectures in Southern History​ (LSU Press, 2005), 192.
13
​William E. Leuchtenburg​, ​The White House Looks South​, 193
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United States argued over issues concerning African Americans and their roles in America. The

Civil War was fought over slavery; Democratic Convention caused fights over the legal status of

blacks and civil rights legislation. The Northern states supported President Truman and wanted

to see the implementation of legislation that would protect the rights of African Americans. On

the other hand, the Southern states showed “massive resistance to President Harry Truman’s

initiatives on civil rights” and refused to support him.14 The Democratic Party, therefore had a

sharp split down the middle as Southern states were highly in favor of protecting the rights of the

white population. At the end of the convention, Harry Truman stood at the head of the ticket and

the Southern Democrats were at a loss.

The angered Southerners at this convention decided to get up and leave in order to protest

the civil rights agenda of Harry Truman and to show that they would not support or elect him

into office. The Southern states, led mostly by Alabama and the state of Mississippi, “resolved to

reconvene in Birmingham to organize a third party”, one that would have the best interests of the

white southerner in mind.15 Truman’s administration promoted civil rights and so, “many white

southerners believed his measures signaled the beginning of an insidious campaign to destroy

cherished regional ‘customs and institutions’” that were in existence throughout the south. 16 In

reaction to the radical legislations presented by President Truman, angry white southerners

decided to break apart from the Democratic Party in which they were originally a part of.

The State’s Rights Democratic Party, also known as the Dixiecrat Party, was established

after the Democratic Convention and the nomination of Harry Truman in 1948. This new

political party emerged due to the “impositions, arrogance, and ambitions of the

14
David G. Sansing, ​A Sesquicentennial History​, 263
15
​William E. Leuchtenburg​, ​The White House Looks South, ​195
16
​Kari A. Frederickson​, ​The Dixiecrat Revolt, ​3
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Yankee-Dominated Federal government” and its supposed attempts to spoil the traditions and
17
take away the rights of Southern people. The Dixiecrat Party was the conservative south’s

response to the election of Harry Truman. The plan behind the formation of a third political party

was to “strangle Truman’s program by winning electoral votes to throw the presidential contest.”
18
In 1948, the South selected Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina as the Dixiecrat

Candidate for president. The South hoped that Thurmond would be successful in opposing the

National Democrat Party and beat Truman for the presidency.

The establishment of the Dixiecrat party was significant because it marked the

re-emergence of Confederate pride. Southern states such as Mississippi and Alabama had been

successful in making sure that presidential candidate, Governor Strom Thurmond, was listed as

the official candidate of the Democratic Party on voting ballots throughout all deep south states,

excluding Georgia. Georgia remained loyal to the national Democratic Party, however, the rest

of the confederate states recognized the Dixiecrat Party as the official party rather than a Third

Party. Although they were not fully successful in preventing Truman from taking office, the

Southern Dixiecrats had a tremendous impact on the election. Southern states had casted their

votes in favor of Thurmond and resulted in Truman losing many electoral votes. The efforts of

the Dixiecrats almost resulted in Truman losing the election. Although unsuccessful, the

Dixiecrat Party still managed to build pride throughout the South.

1948 was a significant year at the University of Mississippi. Students and community

involvement in the creation of the Dixiecrat party had created a new sense of pride in Southern

roots and the history of the south. In addition to the creation of a new political party that spread

17
Michael Alan Upton, ​Keeping the Faith with the University Greys​, 87
18
​William E. Leuchtenburg​, ​The White House Looks South, ​196
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Southern nationalism throughout the deep Southern states, the centennial celebration of the

University of Mississippi created pride in Mississippians about the university and the state’s

accomplishments since 1948. Mississippians took pride in the fact that their home institution

continued to represent the “hopes, the ambitions, the faith, the striving of the people of a great

state” for an entire century.19 The 100th year anniversary of the University of Mississippi

allowed for reminiscence on the events that had challenged and sparked the progress of the

school.

Looking at the history of the University of Mississippi since its opening in the year 1848,

is crucial to understanding the mindset of the students who attended the school almost 100 years

later. The emergence of the Dixiecrat Party in 1948 and the centennial celebration led to the

inauguration of Dixie Week. Although the Dixiecrats immediately dissolved after the 1948

election, their impact lasted much longer. From this time period, many former Confederate

symbols were introduced to the University of Mississippi’s campus and many students developed

extreme pride in the history of the South.

Dixie Week was first inaugurated at the University of Mississippi in 1950. Dixie Week
20
was a “seven day celebration of southern heritage” and quickly became a campus wide-event.

In 1950, Dixie Week started as “Dixie Day.” It was one day when the university students,

faculty, and community joined together to celebrate the events of the past. With every annual

celebration of Dixie Day, more events were added to the day and shortly was extended to a

week-long celebration. The secession speech resembled Ole Miss student’s growing hatred

towards the United States government and the changes it implemented on the South.

19
The Ole Miss, 1948. University of Mississippi. 1984, The Second Hundred Years, Chancellor's message 21
20
David G. Sansing, ​A Sesquicentennial History​, 263
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De-segregation became a serious threat to Mississippi during this period. People in the South did

not want to integrate and so they did everything in their power to prevent it. Dixie Week served

as a time for Southerners to join together and fight to preserve the legacies of the “antebellum
21
South and the Civil War” and its lasting impacts on the university and Mississippi as a whole.

The University of Mississippi first held Dixie Week as a way to honor the fallen soldiers

of the Confederate Army and to keep the spirits of the South alive. People in Mississippi argued

that it was not acceptable that there was no memorial dedicated to the soldiers who lost their

lives fighting in the Civil War. Many argued that the UNiversity Greys could not be honored
22
without “a memorial that bears their name.” An event dedicated to the Greys in order to give

back to those who had died for a Lost Cause was deemed appropriate by the students.Since the

university did not have a memorial, they created Dixie Week “to remind us of the sorrow and
23
pain experienced here at our “Ole Miss” during those days of war.” Ole Miss served an

important role during the days of the Civil War. The Lyceum, which sits in the center of the

campus, was used as a hospital for the Confederates. The University Greys were instrumental in

the fight against the Union. The Greys were students of Ole Miss who had dropped out of college

to join the war. Ole Miss’s involvement in the war led students in the late 1940s to feel obligated

to create an event that would remember all those who had served.

The students at the University of Mississippi showed a great amount of respect for their

elders who had joined the University Greys and served in the Confederate Army. Dixie Week

was intended to honor those students and preserve the memory of them. The celebrations of

21
Michael Alan Upton, ​Keeping the Faith with the University Greys​, 79
22
Ibid, 79
23
Vertical Files “University of Mississippi--Dixie Week”, University Small Manuscripts Box 45 Folder 26. “Dixie Week
material, 1945-1972.”, 1945 program
11
 24
southern heritage served to “commemorate an example set for us by our ancestors.” The

students who had joined the war served as role models for students throughout the school’s

history. These students believed that the actions taken by the Confederate soldiers were examples

of bravery that current students should “strive to attain in [our] work to build a better university,
25
a better South, and a greater nation.” By celebrating Dixie Week, students honored the bravery

of those students who came before them and were reminded to make contributions to strengthen

the South like the students who had tried to in the past.

Dixie Week was officially inaugurated at the University of Mississippi on November 27,

1950, however, the celebrations truly began two years prior to this date. The students began to

celebrate southern heritage in the form of Dixie Week during the “university’s centennial

celebration in 1948”26. The fact that the university had been operating for 100 years gave the

students extreme pride in the university and how far it had come. To honor the school’s past, the

students came together to celebrate the school’s opening in 1848. The students recognized and

admired the actions of the University Greys and the impact they had on the university. Since the

Civil War was such a massive part of the university’s history, the students wanted to honor that.

The members of the university’s ROTC “procured Confederate uniforms and other

accouterments, including a replica of colors” to remember the soldiers of the Civil War.27 The

university, during the 100 year anniversary, adopted the Rebel Flag and began to play “Dixie” as

a school song. The school’s adoption of these Confederate symbols and the Centennial

24
“Dixie Week material, 1954-1972.”, program.
25
“Dixie Week material, 1954-1972.”, program.
26
David G. Sansing, ​A Sesquicentennial History​, 269
27
Ibid, 269
12
Celebrations that “reenacted the enlistment of the University Greys” were powerful images that

survived throughout the 1950’s and became included in the events of Dixie Week28.

The events that took place during Dixie Week resembled the old way of life in the South.

The celebrations focused on life in the Antebellum period and sought to re-enact events that

commonly took place during this time period. The events of Dixie Week created a “Confederate

memorialization that saturated the local atmosphere."29 The students continued to carried the

legacy of the University Greys and southern heritage which led to “a strong collective memory

of the Civil War that was forged at Ole Miss” through the celebrations at Dixie Week.30 The

events of Dixie Week were purposely designed to be a reminder of white supremacy and

domination over African Americans. The United States government sought to incorporate laws

that would disband segregation in the South. As a result, white Mississippians felt threatened and

wanted to incorporate Dixie Week in order to show their strengths and keep their history alive.

Students at the university as well as members of the community came together at the

Student Union to begin the festivities of Dixie Week. The

first thing that happened on the Monday of Dixie Week was

the reading of the Order of Secession. The United States

flag was removed from the flag poles and replaced with the

Confederate Flag. The president of the Associated Student

Body read the same speech the Confederacy gave to declare

their secession from the Union in 1860. This reading from

the balcony of the Student Union on campus, marked the

28
Ibid, 269
29
Michael Alan Upton,”Keeping the Faith with the University Greys”, 85
30
Charles W. Eagles​, "The Price of Defiance” (The University of North Carolina Press, 2009),​4.
13
beginning of the Dixie Week festivities. The secession speech resembled Ole Miss students’

growing hatred towards the United States government and the changes they were implementing

in the South. Dixie Week served as a time for Southerners to join together and fight to prevent

the destruction of Southern heritage. Once the Order of Secession was read, the university

officially declared their secession from the United States for the duration of Dixie Week. This

signified that Ole Miss had slipped back into the past in order to relive the days of the

Antebellum Period.

Another significant event that occurred during Dixie Week was the re-enactment of the

assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.

His election sparked the secession of the Southern states from the Union beginning in 1860. The

Southern states recognized that the election of Abraham Lincoln would result in the outbreak of

a Civil War due to his policy to contain and outlaw slavery throughout the United States. His

presidency severely threatened the way of life in the South. Lincoln was assassinated in 1865, by

John Wilkes Booth. Many white southerners initially felt joyful when they heard the news and

some even “secretly applauded the deed where circumstances permitted." 31 The surprising

reactions from the people had an effect on the following generations of Southerners.

In the 1950s, the students at the University of Mississippi decided to add the event of

Lincoln’s assassination into Dixie Week. The Confederacy seceded from the Union after

Lincoln's election into office and since the students already incorporated the re-enactment of the

Order of Secession speech, the university students also believed it would be appropriate to

re-live the day in which he was killed. After Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, James Wilkes

Thomas Reed Turner​, "Beware the People Weeping: Public Opinion and the Assassination of Abraham Lincoln”
31

(LSU Press, 1991), ​99

14
Booth “became somewhat of a hero” to Southern whites. This feeling carried on in the minds of

Southerners who believed Lincoln was determined to destroy the traditions of the South. In the

1950s, the students wanted to carry on the legacy of John Wilkes Booth and “made clear their

political preferences and racial values” by adding the assassination to the events of Dixie Week.
32

Perhaps the most disturbing detail of the week-long celebrations was the slave auctions

that were held in front of the student union. In 1953, after Dixie Week had finally been extended

from a day to a week, more events were added. The auctioning of slaves was a new addition to

the week. On Wednesday of Dixie Week, a “Slave auction in front of the student union building”

was scheduled to be held between 10 o’clock a.m and 11 o’clock.33 These auctions were an hour

long and people were able to place bids on the slaves. The highest bidder would receive the

rights to the person for the next hour. The slaves who were auctioned were then required to

“serve their master” between 11 and 12 o’clock.34 The slave auction clearly celebrated the past

by recreating slavery in the 1950’s. At this point in time, slavery had been outlawed for almost

90 years, yet the University of Mississippi found a way to bring it to campus in a celebratory

way.

The slave auctions served as an essential part of Dixie Week because it celebrated the

former slave system in the Old South. Students would gather around outside the Student Union

in order to participate in “one of the most popular events” of Dixie Week.35 Typically, male

students would be the bidders and the female students would be the ones used as the slaves. Male

32
Charles W. Eagles​, "The Price of Defiance”,​58
33
“Dixie Week material, 1945-1972.”, 1945 program
34
“Dixie Week material, 1945-1972.”, 1945 program

35
David G. Sansing, ​A Sesquicentennial History​, 270
15
students, who dressed in Confederate style clothing and sported fake mustaches, “eagerly bid on

cheerleaders at the slave auction."36 These cheerleaders and other female students who were the

“beautiful maidens sold as slaves” during the auction, were put on a stage and waited to be bid

on. Once someone had won the auction by offering the most amount of money, the females were

required to spend the rest of the day, or in some cases, the full week waiting on and obeying their

“master”.

Although the

slave auction and the

secession speech were the

most popular events of

Dixie Week, the students

also celebrated Southern

heritage in other ways

throughout the week as

well. Other “activities

throughout the week included a street dance, enlistments, jitterbug contest, mule race, memorial

service, and victory dance."37 These events all included events that resembled life in the

Confederate South. On the first day of Dixie Week, a “memorial to Confederate Dead” took

place in front of the Confederate Soldier statue located in The Circle in front of the Lyceum.38

The Confederate Statue was the only monument on campus that honored the University Greys.

After the university students read the Order of Secession and lowered the United States flag, they

36
The Ole Miss, 1959. University of Mississippi. 1959, 22
37
The Ole Miss, 1959. University of Mississippi. 1959, 26
38
“Dixie Week material, 1945-1972.”, 1945 program
16
would then attend the memorial service. This event reminded students of the sacrifices of the

students who came before them. Honoring Confederate soldiers and the South was the main

reason for the inauguration of Dixie Week in the 1950s and so they made it a point to incorporate

this into the festivities.

Other events that were included in Dixie Week festivities were the Bull Run, beard

growing contests, and mule races. These events were relevant in Dixie Week because each

represented a symbol of the old southern ways. The mule race would take place on the Friday of

the week and was held at the practice football fields on campus. Students and other community

members were invited to participate in the races. The reason they used mules was because the

mule once had a significant role in Southern agriculture during the mid 1800s and up until the

early 1900s. During this time period, “the mule was used more extensively in the south” than in

the northern states of the Union.39 The mule served as “another cultural trait that reinforced the

identity of the South” which separated them from their Union counterparts.40 The incorporation

of mules in the Dixie Week festivities goes to show the extent at which the students at the

university were willing to go to recreate the feelings of the Antebellum south.

Beard growing contests were a big event that took place as well. Participants would grow

their beards to enter into a competition. The beard growing contest began on Friday after the

mule race was completed. Later on that night, Ole Miss fans attended the Pep Rally. The Pep

Rally was held to pump up the fans before the last day of Dixie Week which ended with the

football game between Ole Miss and Mississippi State. At this Pep Rally, the “preliminary

judging of beards” took place. This round of the contest determined who would move onto the

39
Martin A. ​ ​Garrett, "The Mule in Southern Agriculture: A Requiem." (​The Journal of Economic History​ 50, no. 4
1990), 925
40
Ibid, 925
17
final portion of the competition on Saturday. During the Antebellum period, beards became very

fashionable. Men began to grow beards of “all styles, lengths, and degrees."41 Beginning around

1825, the beard came into fashion and was particularly popular amongst white plantation owners

in the south.

The beard growing contests during Dixie Week may seem to be a trivial event, however

the beard had a large historical significance in the South. Soon after 1825, the beard had quickly

transformed into a symbol of white supremacy and power. Growing a beard oftentimes required

a lot of maintenance. It was necessary for someone who had a beard to have a barber or someone

who was trained to trim and upkeep facial hair. For this reason, plantation owners were able to

grow beards because they had the means to keep it tidy. They relied on a few of their enslaved

African Americans to serve as barbers. This pushed slaves into another position of inferiority to

their master. Having a beard was another way that white southerners were able to distinguish

their power over African Americans.

The men who participated in the contest went through two rounds of judging. The last

round was held on the final day of Dixie Week right after the “Battle of Bully Dog Run” football

game. This was the final game of the football season at Ole Miss and was the matchup between

the Rebels and the Mississippi State Bulldogs. These two in-state institutions were purposely

scheduled to play each other on the last day of Dixie Week to boost the spirits of Mississippians.

The game was referred to as the “Battle of Bully Dog Run” because it was a play of words on the

Battle of Bull Run and also incorporated the school mascot of Mississippi State University.

41
​James M. Volo​ and​ Dorothy Denneen Volo​, The Antebellum Period: American Popular Culture Through History
(Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004), 159.
18
 The Battle of Bull Run was a significant battle of the American Civil War. The Union

and Confederate soldiers fought on the battlegrounds in Virginia in this first major battle of the

war. The university chose to remember this battle on the final day of Dixie Week because it was

the first time that the Confederate Army had defeated the Union. This victory was a major

accomplishment for the Confederate soldiers as it gave them hope and determination to carry on.

The title of the football game was chosen to represent this battle of the Civil War. Students

wanted to relate the Confederate victory with the school’s goal to prove victorious over the

Mississippi State Bulldog football team. The title implied that the players intended to fight to win

the game just as hard as the Confederate soldiers fought to defeat the Union at the Battle of Bull

Run in 1861.

The other time slots during Dixie Week included many other forms of Southern ritual and

traditions. Students “stood in line to join the Confederate army, drank mint juleps, and sang

Marse Bob’s praises.”42 These were all symbols of the south that were brought to the University

Campus in order to commemorate the Confederacy. The “student social activities” that were

implemented throughout Dixie Week “indirectly revealed racial attitudes” of the Ole Miss

students.43 These traditions had deep ties back to white supremacy and the old ways of the

Confederate states in America.

The Mint Julep emerged as an icon of Dixie and the American South in the 1850s. It was

not until after the Civil War that mint juleps became popular, however, a general of the

Confederate Army, Richard Taylor, was offered the drink in 1862. From then on, the Mint Julep

was historically significant in the south. The mint julep began to spring up in Southern pop

42
The Ole Miss, 1959. University of Mississippi. 1959, 22
43
Charles W. Eagles, “The Price of Defiance”, 58
19
culture, movies, and even became a favorite drink of Mississippi native, William Faulkner. The

alcoholic drink soon became a popular symbol of the South. Throughout Dixie Week,

participants were encouraged to “to stop in the grill for a Mint Julep” and enjoy the southern

drink.44

As the students drank their mint juleps, they also participated in the enlistment of

Confederate soldiers. This day was dedicated to the re-enactment of the enlistment of soldiers

into the Confederate Army during the Civil War. Students would line up for an event that was

designed to mimic the brave soldiers of

the Civil War as they signed up to fight

for the South’s rights. In addition to

committing to the Confederate Army,

the students would also surrender any of

their belongings that represented ties to

the United States of America. Once they

had enlisted, the students would “exchange their worthless American money for string ties,

membership cards and Confederate banknotes” which all were symbols of the Confederate South

during the early 1860s.45 Enlistment Day took place on Tuesday and before the day ended there

was a street dance that everybody attended. The events that were included in the week-long

celebrations of Dixie Week were successful in recreating the “the good old days” in the

American South.46

44
“Dixie Week material, 1945-1972.”, 1945 program.
45
The Ole Miss, 1957. University of Mississippi. 1957, 26
46
The Ole Miss, 1959. University of Mississippi. 1959, 22
20
 The university students throughout the week made sure to praise the Southern hero

Robert E. Lee. Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer of the Confederate Army during the

Civil War. He was in charge from 1862 until the South surrendered in 1865. Because Dixie

Week was dedicated to remembering the soldiers of the Civil War, they also made sure to honor

the general who led those soldiers at the Battle of Bull Run and throughout the entirety of the

war. Robert E. Lee was given the nickname Marse Bob because he served as the “Master” of the

Confederate troops and led them to victory at some battles and helped them see through to the

end of the war, regardless of the number of tragedies the South experienced. Southerners

recognized the importance of Robert E. Lee and wanted to praise his efforts during Dixie Week.

Dixie Week was held on the same week every year. It was scheduled for the 4th week of

November in order to keep the date consistent. The Thursday of Dixie Week was scheduled as a

Thanksgiving Dinner. There were no other events scheduled for this day because it was a

national holiday. Some students would leave the campus in order to spend thanksgiving at home

with their families while others stayed at the university and enjoyed the thanksgiving meal that

was provided.This particular event was rather contradictory of the practices of Dixie Week. The

Thanksgiving Dinner on the schedule served as a brief hiatus in the celebration of Southern

Heritage. It was a contradiction of their week of “secession from the Union” because they took a

pause in order to celebrate an American holiday. It is interesting to consider this as a

contradiction because Ole Miss, at the beginning of each Dixie Week, would declare their

independence from the United States, yet they would celebrate a national holiday. It was also

odd that they took a break for Thanksgiving because it was declared a national holiday in 1863,

during the Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln was the first person to officially declare this as

21
a national holiday. Considering that Ole Miss students only days earlier had re-enacted the

assassination of Lincoln, it was puzzling that they did not reject the holiday altogether.

After Dixie Day was first started during the centennial celebration of the university, it did

not take long for Dixie Week to become an essential part of campus life. Not only did the

students at the University of Mississippi come together during the week long celebrations, they

also worked hard to ensure that Dixie Week went as smoothly as possible.Dixie Week became an

annual event that was treated and prepared for similarly to Homecoming Week. The students

placed equal importance on these two university events. Homecoming was a celebration of the

school and mostly its sports team, whereas Dixie Week emphasized the history of the school and

the South as a whole. Because Dixie Week was so important to the Ole Miss community,

organizations dedicated their time to planning the events and thought of numerous ways to

improve the overall experience.

Dixie Week became an annual event which saw campus-wide involvement in its

planning. The main organization on campus that had the most involvement in the events was the

Associated Student Body. The Associated Student Body was made up of student officers and

played the biggest role in organizing the events that were scheduled to take place. Not only did

the ASB schedule the events, but they also hosted the student dance which concluded Dixie

Week.

The ASB dance was the conclusion of Dixie Week. They hosted a dance for all

participants of the week. It was right after the “battle of bully dog run” football game. At this

dance they would announce the winner of Miss Ole Miss and Colonel Reb, which were campus

positions similar to that of Homecoming King and Queen. This dance was attended by many

22
students and participants of Dixie Week. The ASB hired the Red Tops to play music at the dance

hall and provide entertainment for the night. The Red Tops were a musical group that was

well-known throughout Mississippi during the 1950s.

The Red Tops were one of the most popular bands in Mississippi during this time.

However, what is most interesting about this particular band that the ASB hired for Dixie Week

is that the performers were all African American. Although it may seem that hiring an African

American band would be a contradiction to the celebrations of southern heritage, it actually had a

deeper historical significance. In the Antebellum South, it was common for whites to rely on

their slaves for means of entertainment. “Slave singers and musicians often performed for

whites” during the Antebellum Period.47 Slaves were used as performers because their masters

did not have to pay them and also because it forced the slaves into another inferior role. Having

African Americans perform enhanced the feelings of white supremacy and so “Ole Miss

continued the tradition after World War 2 when black performers remained common” during

Dixie Week.48

Every event that took place during Dixie Week required a large amount of planning. Each

year, the days and weeks leading up to the event were very important to make sure everything

went smoothly. Almost everybody on campus had a role to play and took part in the preparations

for the celebrations. Dixie Week was a major deal to the students at the University of

Mississippi. When looking through yearbooks from the year 1948 through the year 1959, almost

all of them mention or dedicate a page to Dixie Week. Pictures and stories of the events of this

47
Charles W. Eagles, “The Price of Defiance”, 55
48
Ibid, 55
23
week were included in numerous yearbooks to carry on the traditions and reflect on the events

that happened that year.

Many organizations and clubs around campus took on a contributed to the success of

Dixie Week. Aside from the Associated Student Body, fraternities and sororities on campus

devoted the most time and energy into the planning of Dixie Week. The planning became a

year-long priority. Greek organizations would dedicate officer positions and day chairs devoted

to planning. “Dixie Week Chairs” were given a special mention in many of these yearbooks.49

The fraternities and sororities would participate by creating floats and entering the running for

Miss Ole Miss and Colonel Reb. A large number of participants during Dixie Week were

affiliated with a Greek organization.

Another organization that supported Dixie Week was the Pride of the South Band. The

band of Ole Miss resembled the spirits of the South all year long through their half- time

performances at football games. The band sported brand new uniforms in 1957 that closely

resembled Confederate soldiers uniforms during the Civil War. They also became known for

playing Dixie during football games and other university events. In addition, they stretched a

large confederate flag across the football field during halftime performances. Even when it was

not Dixie Week, the band contributed constant reminders to the students and the Ole Miss fans

that the spirit of the confederacy could not be conquered by the northern states and the federal

government which had tried to limit the South’s power for many years.

The university also created a club that had the full intention of keeping the memory of

Confederate Soldiers Alive. In the 1950s, The Sons of Confederate Veterans became a club on

49
The Ole Miss, 1959. University of Mississippi. 1959, 23
24
the Ole Miss campus. This club consisted of students who were proud of their Southern heritage

and wanted to preserve white supremacy throughout the South. In order to be a member of this

club, a student had to be a direct descendant of a Confederate soldier who fought in the Civil

War. This exclusive club became a dominant force on campus. They contributed services during

Dixie Week and held other events throughout the year to keep the spirits of Southerners alive and

prevent the integration of the Ole Miss campus.

The celebrations of Dixie Week had lasting implications on the University of Mississippi

entering the 21st century. As mentioned earlier, many Confederate symbols were adopted into

the mainstream culture of Mississippi during the celebrations of Dixie Week, as well as the 100th

year anniversary of the University of Mississippi. The students wanted preserve the legacy of the

Confederacy by weaving powerful images and symbolism into the fabric of Ole Miss. As a

result, the university has faced disapproval and criticism for the symbols that were incorporated

during Dixie Week that still remain on campus today.

The behavior of the students who attended Ole Miss during the 1950s, had a severe

impact on how the University of Mississippi is viewed today. The reputation of Ole Miss has

been tainted by the events that took place during Dixie Week. The celebrations of white

supremacy in the 1950s shed a light on the symbols that were incorporated at the University of

Mississippi that are considered to be discriminatory or racist. Within the last 10 years, the

University of Mississippi has received many criticisms on these symbols and has made attempts

to part ways with its strong southern identity.

The University of Mississippi is known as the Ole Miss Rebels. Both “Ole Miss” and the

mascot of the “Rebels” are deeply tied to the memory of the Confederate South. The term Ole

25
Miss was chosen as an alternate name for the University of Mississippi. The southern nickname

“suggested the institutions commitment to upholding the reigning racial status quo” by

maintaining segregation and black inferiority.50 In addition to the school’s name, the students

voted on a mascot that also became “intimately associated with the Confederacy” and Southern

heritage.51 The name of the Ole Miss “Rebels” was voted on in 1936, and was soon accompanied

by the field mascot of “Colonel Reb." The name of the university and its mascot were selected

because of its representation of white southerners during the Antebellum Period.

The students who attended Ole Miss were encouraged to conform to the rest of the

student body and carry on the traditions of the school, one of these traditions being Dixie Week.

The idea that students were expected to contribute to the “living traditions” of the university by

“connecting the past with the present” enabled the Confederacy legacy to remain intact at the

university.52 The history of the university had played a major role in shaping the culture of Ole

Miss as it stands in the present.

There are many historical figures and symbols deeply imbedded into the Ole Miss

campus that originated along with Southern pride in the 1940s and 1950s. The state of

Mississippi first incorporated the Confederate flag into its state flag in 1894. Many

Mississippians had identified themselves with the Confederacy and so the Confederate Flag was

representative of the state’s population. The University of Mississippi, however, did not adopt

the Confederate flag as a symbol of Ole Miss until almost 50 years later after the establishment

of the Dixiecrat Party. The seventy-five students from Ole Miss who attended the Dixiecrat

Convention in Birmingham, Alabama, were “decked out in black planter’s hats and carried the

50
Charles W. Eagles, “The Price of Defiance”, 18
51
Ibid, 19
52
Ibid, 19
26
Confederate Flag."53 The iconic image of these students when they arrived at the convention

stayed in the minds of all the Southerners who opposed the Democratic Party in the North. From

this point on, the university became associated with the Confederate Flag.

The Confederate flag was associated with the students at the University of Mississippi

after the Dixiecrat Convention in 1948. The Confederate Flag was seen throughout campus,

however, it only became popular in 1962, with the admittance of James Meredith into the

university. Ole Miss was forced by the federal government to admit James Meredith and

desegregate. White Mississippians were angered by this and wanted to keep it an all- white

institution. The Confederate Flag was adopted at this time, as a symbol of resistance to civil

rights and the civil rights movement. Ole Miss fans filled the stadium during home games and

waved the stars and bars as they cheered on their football team. The flag became an “exalted part

of the football ritual” at the school. The marching band “displayed a sixty-by-ninety-foot

version” of the Confederate Flag during their halftime performance and the cheerleaders waved

them on the sidelines of games.54

The Confederate Flag remained a symbol of Ole Miss until the 1980s. John Hawkins

became the first African American cheerleader at the University of Mississippi. Hawkins had a

significant impact on the university when he refused to wave the Confederate Flag while

cheering on the football team. Hawkins rejected the popular Confederate symbols that were

adopted by the university during Dixie Week. Within 15 years of John Hawkins refusing to cheer

with the Rebel flag, the university officially disassociated with the flag. In recalling the moment

in which he publicly declared his refusal to wave the Confederate Flag, Hawkins said that his

53
​Kari A. Frederickson​, ​The Dixiecrat Revolt, ​2.
54
Charles W. Eagles, “The Price of Defiance”, 20
27
actions “allowed the university to turn the pages and start moving towards the future” and away

from its Confederate past and thoughts.55

The university banned the flag at all football games and campus wide events. The

University of Mississippi saw the importance in removing the Confederate Flag off campus and

sought out to make the change. More recently, the campus had another debate concerning the

Confederate Flag. In 2015, the Associated Student Body of the university petitioned to have the

state of Mississippi’s flag removed from the campus as well. The flag, containing the image of

the Confederate Flag was considered to be offensive. Students rallied behind the movement and

were successful in removing the state flag from campus. These issues over the Confederate Flag

were caused by the actions of the students in the 1950 and 1960s who originally brought the flag

to campus and were responsible for incorporating it into the culture of the university.

Another symbol of white supremacy that was brought to the Ole Miss campus during the

Dixie Week celebrations was the song “Dixie." The song “Dixie” was incorporated, along with

the Confederate Flag, at Ole Miss football games. The Pride of the South band played the song

during halftime performances and the crowd sang along. The lyrics in “Dixie” were viewed as

racist and therefore served as a song promoting white supremacy. Although many argued that the

symbols mixed “Confederate history and the Civil Rights Movement to reflect the “complex,

tortured history by focusing on the two events that most shaped the South”, the strong

connections to the Confederacy made these symbols controversial.

55
MSNBC​. NBCUniversal News Group, Rachel Maddow, "One Student Led Rejection of Confederate Flag at Ole
Miss." 2015,
http://www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/watch/one-student-led-rejection-of-flag-at-ole-miss-47097862793
6​ (Assessed on December 1, 2016)
28
 Since 1948, after the Dixiecrat Convention, the University of Mississippi and its students

identified with both the Confederate Flag and “Dixie." These symbols were not only

representative of the school and the people of Mississippi, but were tied to the preservation of

white supremacy which once reigned supreme throughout the Antebellum South. Both symbols

became associated with school pride, however, the school’s history “has forever tainted the flag

and the song, making them inappropriate symbols for an institution."56 In 1995, the first effort to

reject the song was made by Tim Jones. Jones was an African American member of the band.

Similar to the efforts of John Hawkins, Jones refused to play “Dixie” at an Ole Miss Basketball

game due to its racist lyrics and meaning.

Up until 2009, the crowd at Ole Miss could be heard chanting “The South Will Rise

Again” to the song “Dixie." Although Jones did shed some light on the racist symbolism in the

lyrics in 1995, the song continued to be played. The university, since the days of Dixie Week,

had become associated with symbols that had racist meanings behind them. By banning the song

“From Dixie with Love” from being played, the university tried to disassociate themselves from

the racially divisive symbols that emerged during Dixie Week. The University of Mississippi

officially banned the song from being played at any campus event leading into the fall semester

of 2016. Many students and fans of Ole Miss voiced their opposition to the removal of the song

from campus. At the first football game of the 2016 season, a large majority of students in the

stands held sign saying “Let the Band play Dixie”, refusing to let go of the traditions that were

rooted in the 1950s.

56
Dr. Gerald Walton, University Small Manuscripts Box 3 Folder 21, 1993
29
 Other symbols that were adopted during Dixie Week that came under scrutiny for its

racists meaning were Colonel Reb, street names, and building names around the campus. These

symbols all were “at the heart of some of the university’s deepest divisions” and was determined

to do away with them.57 ​Recently, the university removed all street signs that mentioned anything

to do with the Confederate South. Streets were named after generals of the Confederate Army

and were changed to names that promoted diversity on the campus. A similar argument is being

made for the buildings on campus. Many of the buildings are names after Chancellors or high

ranking people in the Mississippi state government. These people were white supremacists and

there is now a discussion over whether or not to change the names of the buildings. This sparked

a lot of controversy around the campus. Many people felt that by removing the names of

significant people in the university's past would be an attempt to rewrite history.

The removal of the Ole Miss mascot sparked the biggest controversy. Colonel Reb made

his first appearance on the cover of a yearbook in 1948. Since then, the mascot would stand on

the sideline on football games and attend other events around campus. He quickly became the

face of Ole Miss. When Colonel Reb came under scrutiny for its ties to the Antebellum South

and its representation of a white plantation owner, the university quickly chose a new mascot for

the school. Colonel Reb was replaced with the “Rebel Black Bear”.

The Black Bear was chosen to represent the diversity of the university in the 21st century.

Although the purpose of the new mascot was to be representative of all students who attended

Ole Miss, many people were outraged by the attempt to change the Although Colonel Reb is no

longer the official mascot of Ole Miss, he still makes an appearance around campus. The school

57
Charles W. Eagles, “The Price of Defiance”, 55.
30
has tried to erase the Confederate symbols and the legacy of Dixie Week from the campus but

historically, the University of Mississippi has always been slow to accept new changes to better

the institution as well as the Ole Miss culture.

When studying Dixie Week, it is important to consider the impact it had on the

University of Mississippi for the generations. Those students who took place in the Dixie Week

celebration wanted it survive as a tradition of the University of Mississippi. Although the

week-long celebrations were brought to an end, the mindset of white supremacy surely remained

a part of the Ole Miss culture for many generations. Many of the issues that are faced today on

campus root back to the events that took place in the 1950s.

31
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33