Tribology 101 – Introduction to

the Basics of Tribology

SJ Shaffer, Ph.D. – Bruker-TMT

Steven.shaffer@bruker-nano.com
 Outline

• Origin/Definition of “Tribology” (Term and Field)

• Encompassing Fields
• Fundamentals of Tribology:
• Surfaces in Contact
• Friction
• Lubrication
• Wear
• Concluding Words
• Upcoming Topics in Series

1/29/2013 2
 What is Tribology ?

• Tribology comes from the Greek word, “tribos”,

meaning “rubbing” or “to rub”

• And from the suffix, “ology” means “the study of”

• Therefore, Tribology is the study of rubbing,

or… “the study of things that rub”.

• This includes the fields of:

• Friction,
• Lubrication, and
• Wear.
1/29/2013 3
 “Tribology” is a new word…

• Coined by Dr. H. Peter Jost in England in

1966
• “The Jost Report”, provided to the British Parliament –
Ministry for Education and Science, indicated… “Potential
savings of over £515 million per year ($800 million) for
industry by better application of tribological principles and
practices.”

But…
Tribology is not a new field!
1/29/2013 4
The First Recorded Tribologist – 2400 B.C.

Transporting the statue of Ti – from a tomb at Saqqara, Egypt

Figure taken from

“History of Tribology”,
by Duncan Dowson.
1/29/2013 5
The First Recorded Tribologist – 2400 B.C.

Transporting the statue of Ti – from a tomb at Saqqara, Egypt

1/29/2013 6
The First Recorded Tribologist – 2400 B.C.

The first recorded tribologist – pouring lubricant (water?)

in front of the sledge in the transport of the statue of Ti.
1/29/2013
7
 A more famous Tribologist – 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test 4-Ball Test Geometry

Geometry

Leonardo Da Vinci

Ball Bearing
1/29/2013 8
 A more famous Tribologist – 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test 4-Ball Test Geometry

Geometry

ASTM D1894 – Static

Leonardo Da Vinci and Kinetic COFs of
Plastic Film & Sheeting

ASTM D5183 - COF

ASTM D2266, D2596 – EP
ASTM D4172, D2783 - Wear
Ball Bearing
1/29/2013 9
 A more famous Tribologist – 500 years ago

Sled Friction Test 4-Ball Test Geometry

Geometry

ASTM D1894 – Static

Leonardo Da Vinci and Kinetic COFs of
Plastic Film & Sheeting

Two Observations:
1. The areas in contact have no effect on
friction.
2. If the load of an object is doubled, its ASTM D5183 - COF
ASTM D2266, D2596 – EP
friction will also be doubled. ASTM D4172, D2783 - Wear
Ball Bearing
1/29/2013 10
Tribology 101 - Basics

Applications and Fields which

Encompass Modern Tribology

1/29/2013 11
Tribology is All Around Us,
In Applications from Simple to Complex
and Scales from Small to Large

• Individual Components

• Assemblies or Products

• Manufacturing Processes

• Construction/Exploration

• Natural Phenomena
1/29/2013 12
Individual Components

Gears

Brake & Clutch Pads

Bearings

1/29/2013 13
Assemblies or Products

Rock Climbing
Shoes

Pocket Watch

Engines

Curling Stones
1/29/2013 14
Manufacturing Processes

Turning

Rolling

Stamping Grinding/Polishing
1/29/2013 15
Construction/Exploration

Mine Slurry Pumps

Oil Drilling Rig

Excavator

Chunnel Digging Drill Space Shuttle

1/29/2013 16
 Natural Phenomena

Wear Friction
Water Erosion Wind Erosion

On/Off Stiction: Super-

Gecko Feet hydrophobicity:
Lotus Leaf

Plate Tectonics
1/29/2013 17
Tribology 101 - Basics

In Parallel to these different Scales,

There are Many Areas of

Engineering and Industry which

have a Need to Use/Understand Tribology

1/29/2013 18
 Tribology is also in Virtually every Area of
Engineering and Industry
• Aerospace • Fabric/Clothing
• Agriculture • Flooring
• Automotive • Food Processing
• Engine: Piston ring/cylinder, • Highway/Transportation
Bearings, valve seats, injectors
Depts.
• Brakes/clutch
• Tooling/Machining/Sheet metal • Lubricant Manufacturers
forming
• Medical Diagnostics
• Coatings Providers
• Medical Implants
• Low Friction
• Wear Resistant • Military
• Thin Films or Hardfacings • Pharmaceutical
• Cosmetics/Personal Care • Shoe Manufacturers
• Dental Implants • Sports Equipment Companies
• Energy • Universities/Educators
• Nuclear • Mechanical Engineering
• Wind • Materials Science Engineering
• Fossil • Physics
• Solar • Chemistry
1/29/2013 19
Commonality in Tribology

What do All These Diverse Fields

and Applications have in Common?

What do we need to think about as

engineers and scientists when we
design products or friction/wear
experiments?

1/29/2013 20
Commonality…

Every Application has:

Surfaces in Contact, and
in Relative Motion
(e.g. sliding, rolling, impacting)

1/29/2013 21
Tribology Basics - Surfaces in Contact

So let’s begin by looking

closely at a surface…

1/29/2013 22
The Surface is not Simple…

Lubricant
Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide

Surface Properties
“Disturbed Material”

Bulk Material
Properties –
“Handbook
values”

1/29/2013 23
 The Surface is not Simple…

Lubricant
Adsorbed
Contaminants
nms - µms
Oxide

Surface Properties
≈ “Disturbed Material”

Bulk Material
mms - cms Properties –
“Handbook
values”

1/29/2013 24
Nor is it Flat!

Lubricant

Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material

Bulk Material
Properties

All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this

roughness plays an important role in tribology.

1/29/2013 25
Nor is it Flat!

Lubricant

Adsorbed
Contaminants
Oxide
Surface Properties
Disturbed Material

Bulk Material
Properties

All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this

roughness plays an important role in tribology.

Surface Roughness comes from all prior history of the

part: Manufacturing, handling and prior use in application.
1/29/2013 26
 We need to think about…

2 Aspects of a Surface:
• Physical - Surface Roughness
• Dictates Contact Area
• Dictates Contact Stresses
• Lubricant Paths or Reservoirs
• Chemical - Intervening Layers
• Chemical Compatibility
• Shear Strength
• Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity
1/29/2013 27
 We need to think about…

2 Aspects of a Surface: Ground

• Physical - Surface Roughness

• Dictates Contact Area
• Dictates Contact Stresses
• Paths or Reservoirs for Bead Blasted
Lubricants/debris
• Chemical - Intervening Layers
• Chemical Compatibility
• Shear Strength
• Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity
1/29/2013 28
 We need to think about…

2 Aspects of a Surface:

• Physical - Surface Roughness

• Dictates Contact Area
• Dictates Contact Stresses
• Lubricant Paths or Reservoirs

• Chemical - Intervening Layers

• Chemical Compatibility
• Shear Strength
• Lubricant Properties, e.g. Viscosity,
EP or boundary-forming
1/29/2013 29
 Surface Characterization

Variety of Methods available, if needed

• Physical Characterization
• Roughness
• Macro – Waviness and Form (CMM)
• Micro – Surface Roughness
– Stylus Profilometers (contact)
– Optical Profilometers (non-contact)
– AFM (sub-micron)
• Hardness
• Indent, Scratch

• Chemical Characterization
• Infrared, XPS, Raman, Auger
• Lubricant Shear properties→Viscometry

1/29/2013 30
Tribology 101-Basics

Summary of Surfaces in Contact

• Tribo-Forces are Dictated by Interaction of

Asperities
• Asperities have Mechanical and Chemical
Properties
• Methods Exist to Characterize these
Properties
• Asperity Geometry and Distribution result
from Manufacturing Method, Handling and
Prior Rubbing History

1/29/2013 31
 Friction
Fundamentals

1/29/2013 32
 Friction Fundamentals
Conceptual Definition of Friction

Friction is the resistance to

relative motion between two
bodies in contact.

1/29/2013 33
 Where does the resistance come
from?

When objects touch – there are forces between them.

Microscopic Microscopic
forces of forces of
molecular mechanical
Adhesion. Abrasion.
(includes electrostatic, (includes elastic and
Van der Waals, metallic plastic deformation)
bonds)

1/29/2013 34
 Where does friction come from?

Remember, there are also “contaminants” at the interface

Oxides,
Adsorbed films,
Adsorbed gases,
Foreign or
“domestic” particles

1/29/2013 35
Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

• The Coefficient of Friction: A simple

constant of proportionality.

1/29/2013 36
Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

• The Coefficient of Friction: A simple

constant of proportionality.

• Or is it?

1/29/2013 37
 Friction Fundamentals
Measuring Friction:
The Coefficient of Friction

Very Simple Relation:

F=µN
N

µ = F/N = “COF”
1/29/2013 38
Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

• Suppose a colleague wants to know:

“What is the
COF of steel?”

1/29/2013 39
 Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

• A: “Well, dear colleague, you can use from

0.1 to 0.6. Take your pick.
“What is the
COF of steel?”

• Is that close enough for your needs?”

1/29/2013 40
Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

Well not really.

1/29/2013 41
Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

Well not really.

• “Then I guess we’ll need a bit more

information.”
1/29/2013 42
 Friction Fundamentals – “The COF”

What we need to know…

• “What steel?
• Stainless steel: 304, 316 , a 400-series or hardened 17-4PH or the like?
• Carbon steel: if so is it pearlitic or martensitic?
• Tool Steel?
• “Well I need to use it in water, so stainless steel, I guess.”
• “What is the function? “What is the mechanism?”
• “I’m designing a gear-driven mechanism, and I need to size the motor, assuming some
frictional loss in the gears, so I need the COF.”
• “Gears… Then, it needs to be hardened. How about the driven gear, what’s its material?”
• “The same, I suppose.”
• “I’m not sure that’s a good idea, depending on the contact stress, sliding velocity and
surface finish. Do you know these parameters yet?”
• “Not yet, I’ll probably use standard values from my gear design handbook.”
• “OK, I gather you need low friction, how about lubricant or use of a lubricious coating, are
these permitted in the design?”
• ”A coating is OK, but I don’t think a liquid lubricant is permitted in this application.”
• “OK, a coating then. How long will it need to last?”
• “For the life of the mechanism. Can’t you just tell me the COF?”
• Really, I need more information, because I’ll likely need to run a test, depending on how
precisely you need the COF.”…
1/29/2013 43
All things considered,

The COF is Somewhat Complicated

• Surface roughness plays a role

• Lubricant plays a role
• Surface chemistry plays a role
• Contact Stress plays a role
• Contact geometry plays a role
• Environment plays a role
• Temperature plays a role
• Sliding speed plays a role
• …

1/29/2013 44
All things considered

It’s not so bad after all

Fortunately, while it appears complicated,

friction is relatively easy to measure,

(Only two things: Normal Load and Friction Force)

But, we have to measure it under the right

conditions.

1/29/2013 45
Summary of Friction Fundamentals
The equation is simple, but measuring it correctly
requires care:

When assessing a system’s tribology need, we must consider:

Materials, Coating, Lubricant
Contact Area, Geometry, Stress
Surface Roughnesses
Sliding Speed
Sliding Mode (unidirectional, reciprocating, multidirectional)
Duty Cycle (continuous contact, intermittent contact)
Environment
Temperature, Humidity,
Atmosphere (air, exhaust gases, vacuum)

Friction is NOT a Material Property

Friction is a “System” Property
No such thing as the COF of “steel”, or the COF of “rubber”
1/29/2013 46
 Lubrication
Fundamentals

1/29/2013 47
Lubrication Fundamentals

• The role of a lubricant is to:

• Reduce Friction
• Prevent / Minimize Wear
• Transport Debris away from Interface
• Provide Cooling

1/29/2013 48
Lubrication Fundamentals:
Lubrication Regimes, with liquid present

• In Liquid Lubrication, Regimes can be based

on: Fluid Film Thickness
• The Lambda Ratio is defined as the ratio of the
fluid film thickness to the composite surface
roughness*
• λ > 3 → full film (thick film) lubrication,
hydrodynamics
• 1.2 > λ > 3 → mixed or thin film lubrication
• λ < 1.2 → boundary lubrication
* - composite surface roughness = (rq12 + rq22)1/2
1/29/2013 49
Lubrication Regimes:
The Stribeck Curve

Thin Film,
Mixed
Journal Bearing
Boundary

Thick Film

Speed*Viscosity
Load
1/29/2013 50
Lubrication Regimes:

Boundary Lubrication – Solid Lubricants

• Solid Lubricants
• Compounds with Low Shear Stress
• MoS2, Graphite, WS2, HBN
• Behave like a “deck of cards”
• Bonded Films
• DLC
• Resin-bonded PTFE
• Impregnated porous anodizing

1/29/2013 51
Summary of Lubrication
Fundamentals:

• Key Factors in Lubricant Effectiveness

• Fluid Shear Properties
• Viscosity, Viscosity Index
• Pressure-Viscosity Index
• Chemistry
• Reactivity with the Surface
• Boundary Film-Forming Properties
• Extreme Pressure Constituents
• Shear strength of solid lubricant or coating
• Thermal Conductivity/Heat Capacity
1/29/2013 52
 Wear
Fundamentals

1/29/2013 53
Wear Fundamentals
Conceptual Definition of Wear

Removal (or displacement) of material

from one body when subjected to contact
and relative motion with another body.

1/29/2013 54
Wear Fundamentals - Wear Modes
6 Primary Wear Modes:

1. Abrasive Wear, Scratching

2. Adhesive Wear, Galling, Scuffing
3. Fretting/Fretting Corrosion
4. Erosive Wear, Cavitation, Impact, Electro-arcing
5. Rolling Contact Fatigue, Spalling, Delamination
6. Tribo-Corrosion

1/29/2013 55
 Wear Fundamentals

• Abrasive Wear, Scratching

“The harder material

scratches the softer
material.”

1/29/2013 56
 Wear Fundamentals

• Adhesive Wear, Galling, Scuffing

Begins as “local welding”

10 mm
Material “compatibility” is
important for adhesive
wear.
Galling of Stainless Steel Samples

Stacking fault energy,

crystal structure, natural
oxide formation all
influence adhesive wear.
1/29/2013 57
 Wear Fundamentals

• Fretting/Fretting Corrosion
Small
amplitude
displacement
(< 50 µm).

• Experiments generally have zones of no-slip,

and slip.
• Small adhesive pull-outs occur at the boundary.
• Often these oxidize, so sometimes called
“fretting corrosion”.
1/29/2013 58
 Wear Fundamentals

• Erosive Wear, Cavitation, Impact, Electro-arcing

Dependency on
particle size, shape,
composition, angle of
impingement, as well
as ductility of “target”

Particle Classification

1 cm

“Fluting” Damage
Steam Control Valve Cavitation Damage
1/29/2013 59
 Wear Fundamentals

• Rolling Contact Fatigue, Spalling, Delamination

• Reversing sub-surface shear each
time the roller or ball passes over
the surface.
• Accumulation of these stresses
Propagation to surface of
sub-surface-initiated cracks leads to subsurface crack
formation, usually at a
microstructural inhomogeneity.
• Cracks grow toward surface and
particle spalls off.
• Debris typically gets rolled over,
Spalled Bearing Inner Race
creating additional damage.
1/29/2013 60
 Wear Fundamentals

• Tribo-Corrosion
• Wear in the presence of corrosion
can have synergistic effect.
• Can happen with erosion or
sliding wear.
• Bio-tribo-corrosion is major area
Erosion-Corrosion
• Down-hole drilling environment is
another
• ASTM Method G119 – Standard
Guide for Determining Synergism
between Wear and Corrosion

1/29/2013 61
 Wear Assessment

• The Wear Coefficient, k

• k → volume of material removed per unit load and sliding
distance
• Units of k are:
• mm3/N⋅m
• Please do NOT reduce the units of k to mm2/N or 1/kPa
• This has no physical meaning

• k can be used to predict component lifetimes, providing the

tribosystem does not change wear modes
• Duty cycle and directionality can influence wear
• Start-stop can be much more damaging than continuous
motion
• Unidirectional sliding is very different from reciprocating
sliding
1/29/2013 62
Summary of Wear Fundamentals

• Like Friction, Wear is a System Property, NOT a

Materials Property
• There are several distinct wear regimes, though
some can operate simultaneously, or sequentially
• Observed abrasive wear can results from initial
adhesive wear

• If you properly simulated the system and wear

mode, the wear coefficient, k, can be used to
predict lifetimes

1/29/2013 63
 Some
Final Words for
Today’s Webinar

1/29/2013 64
 Tribology Fundamentals
Key Concepts

1. COF is not a material property, it is a system

property.

2. Wear Rate or wear resistance depends on the wear

mode, which is a function of the Tribosystem.

3. If we properly characterize and understand the

Tribosytem, the odds are better that we will
succeed, because we can make the right choice for
materials, contact geometry and chemistry, and
make the appropriate measurements to give us
the answer we seek for our design.
1/29/2013 65
Means to Assess
Tribo-systems
Tribology & Mechanical Testing (TMT)

• Universal platform for Tribology studies: Wear, Friction,.. when 2

surfaces meet.

• Large load range

• Wide variety of environments (corrosion, HT, liquid)
• Wide variety of configurations (rotating & translating motions)
Many different Tribology tests

Linear Stage Block-on-Ring Drive

Reciprocating Drive Rotary Drive

Indentation & Scratch Testing

• Indentation & Scratch Tester

Scratch test example

• Large load range: nano & micro Indentation example

• Wide variety of imaging options

• (AFM, profiler, optical)
 www.bruker.com

© Copyright Bruker Corporation. All rights reserved.