CHAPTER 1 The Particulate Nature of Matter 3 4 5 l § CHAPTER 6 9 | Chemical Energetics CHAPTER 2 Experimental Techniques CHAPTER 3 Atoms, Elements and Compounds CHAPTER 4 Stoichiometry CHAPTER 5 Electricity and Chemistry (0 | Chemical Reactions fl (4 | The Periodic Table HAPTER 8 Acids, Bases and Salts 1 stctatsCHAPTER 11 Air and Water 16 8 8 1) CHAPTER 12 Sulfur CHAPTER 13 Carbonates CHAPTER 14 Organic ChemistryWE SG3 1. Tue ParTicuLate NATURE OF MATTER C0000 |OSG > ‘* When a solid is heated, particles vibrate faster about 3 fixed point causing particles to move further apart and so solid expands ‘* When particles gain sufficient energy to overcome strong forces of attraction, they move out of thelr fixed Position and can slide over each other in a continuous random motion = solid has melted. ‘Particles in liquid have energy to move around but are still lose to each other and do not have enough energy to overcome the forces that hold them clase to each other. ‘if more heat's supplied, particles move faster until they have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction. Particles escape the liquids surface and move ‘around in continuous rapid motion ~ the liquid has. boiled ‘In the vapor, the particles move in rapid random motion. This movernent is due to collision of vapor particles with air particles. L2 States of Matter souD guid GAS ‘Strong forces Weaker ‘Almost no of attraction _—_ attractive intermolecular between forces than forces articles solids ‘Particles far ‘Fixed pattern ¢No fixed apart, and lattice) pattern, liquids move quickly *Atomsvibrate take upthe Collide with but can't shape of their each other and change container bounce in all position ‘Particles slide directions fixed volume past each and shape other. PROCESS _HEATENERGY EXO/ENDOTHERMIC Melting Gained Endothermic oiling Gained Endothermic Condensing Lost Exothermic Freezing Lost Exothermic Sublimation Gained Endothermic Reverse Lost Exothermic sublimation ‘Diffusion isthe spreading of one substance through ‘another from a region of high concentration to a region ‘flow concentration due to the continuous random motion of particles. ‘= Evidence for diffusion: j = ‘In gases: a gas ar of air and a gas jar of bromine connected «Factors that affect the rate of diffusion: In liquids: potassium manganate {Vil ina beaker of water ‘Temperature increases ~ rate of diffusion increases ‘Lower density gas > rate of diffusion is higher Page 3 oF 22ig 2. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES RATUS Stopwatch or Clock ‘© Thermomemeter (liquid in glass, thermistor or thermocouple) ‘Balance Temperature Mass ‘Measuring Volume: le ‘Measuring Booker finder ‘Paper chromatography: © Drop substance to center of filter paper and allow it todry © Drop water on substance, one drop at atime © Paper + rings = chromatogram © Principle: Difference in solubility separates different pigments © Substances travel across papef at different rates, whichis why they separate into rings © Method works because different substances travel at different levels of attraction to « Stationary phase is material on which separation takes place ‘Mobile phase consists ofthe mixture you want to separate, dissolved in a solvent * Interpreting simple chromatograms: ‘© Number of rings/dots = number of substances 6 tf two dots travel the same cstance up the paper they ace the same substance ‘0 You can calculate the Rf value to identify a substance, ‘ven by the formula Distance moved by sotute Distance moved by solvent + To make colourless substances visible, use a locating agent ‘Dry paper in oven © Spray it with locating agent © Heat it for 10 minutes in oven + Aasesing purty from m. 9. ‘0 Pure substances have a definite, sharp m.p./b.p. jlSubstancesimpurityhaslower m.p. and higher bp. ‘© More impurity means bigger change 22.Filtration ‘Mixture goes in a funnel with fit paper, into a flask. ‘Residue is insoluble and stays at top. ‘*Filtrate goes through =? RF Valu O ww = ON ‘Some water in the solution is ‘evaporated so solution becomes more concentrated. ‘*A,drop is placed on a slide to check if erystals are forming ‘Solution is left to cool and crystals, ‘= Crystals. are filtered to remove. solvent. Page 4 oF 22ss 2.5 Simple Distillation ‘Impure liquidis heated ‘It boils, and steam rises into the condenser ‘impurities are left behing ‘Condenser is cold so steam condenses to the pure liquid ‘and it drops into the beaker ; TRS: ‘© Removes a liquid from a mixture of liquids, because liquids have different b.p.s ‘Mixture is heated to evaporate substance with lowest be. ‘some of the other liquid(s) will evaporate too. ‘© A mixture of gases condense on the beads in the ‘fractional column, +#'So the beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest substance, so:that substance being removed ‘cannot condense on the beads. ‘The other substances continue to condenge and will dip back into the flask “The beaker can be changed after every fraction ‘(Can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent ‘Then filter one and extract other from solution by ‘evaporation fone sold is magnetic, can use a magnet eg. sand and iron filings SOLVENT _ IT DISSOLVE! Water ‘Some salts, sugar White sprit Gloss paint Propanone Grease, nail polish Ethanol Glues, printing inks, scented substances 28 Choosing a Suitable Method METHOD OF SEPARATION USED TO SEPARATE Filtration ‘Assolid from liquid Evaporetion AAsolid from a solution {Crystallization ‘Asolid from a solution ‘Simple Distilation Fractional Distillation ‘Chromatography ‘Assolvent from a solution Liquids from each other Different substances from a solution 3. ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS sture and the Periodic Table MASS PARTICLE RELATIVE CHARGE aronnic MASS ) Proton 4 1 Neutron ° 1 Electron 4 1/1837 # Proton number: number of protons in an atom (and number of electrons in an atom) ‘Nucleon number: number of protons + neutrons in an atom’ ‘Inthe periocictable (¢ The protoninumber increases by 1 when you go to the right, ‘6 When you g one element down, you increase proton number by 8 in the first 3 periods (transition elements not included) ‘Isotopes: atoms of same element with different no. of neutrons (© Eg, Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. ‘© Two types: non-radioactive isotopes and radioactive isotopes which are unstable atoms that break down ‘giving radiations © Metical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) - rays kill cancer cells using cobalt-60 6 Industrial use: to check for leaks — radioisotopes (tracers) added to ol/gas. At leaks radiation is detected using a Geiger counter. PAGES OF 22CENGGE ‘Electrons are arranged in electron shells. ‘atoms want to have full outer shells (full set of valency ‘electrons, thisis why they react “Noble gases have fll outer shells so they have no need toreact ‘Electron shell structure: 2 8, 8, 18. ‘More reactive elements have a greater desire tohave a full outer shell, so also form more stable compounds. ‘2.2 Bonding: the Structure of Matter ‘Element: substance that cannot be split into anything simpler, ina chemical reaction. Each element has @ unique proton number. ‘Mixture: two oF more elements mixed together but not chemically combined + Compound: substance in which two oc more different. clements are chemically combined METALS NON-METALS ‘Stang Brittle Good conductors ofheat POF conductors of heat & ecco electricity (except graphite) Pears Lower m.p. and b.p. than metals High density Low density Forms basic oxides Forms acidic oxides Forms cations in reactions Malleable and ductile Senorous Some are magnetic Forms anions in reactions ‘Alloy: Misture of two or more metals OF misture of one ‘oF more metal with a non-metal, to improve its Properties 2.3.Jons and Jonic Bonds ‘* Chemical bond formed by transfer of @s from one atom to another ‘© Metals lose @s to form cations, non-metals gain €s to form anions ‘Positive cations & negative anions attract to each other ‘Strong electrostatic force of attraction between positive ‘ations and negative anions is called ionic bonding “| (FY ) « yy SZ PROPERTY REASON Form giant lattice Cations and anions attract High m.p. and b.p. Strong bonds between ions Don't conduct electricity tons can't move when solid Conductelecricty when tons can move molten/aqueous Usually soluble in water Not required 3.4.Molecules and Covalent Bonds ‘When atoms share 2s to obtain a noble gas electron structure «Covalent bonding takes place between non-metals only pouste BOND o=0 2s shared 48s shared 68s shared (1from each (2fromeach (3 from each atom) atom) ‘atorn) PROPERTY REASON Low mp. and b.p. Usually liquid, gas or low Weak intermolecular forces of attraction between mpsoid molecules Don't conduc eletcty No mobile ons/eectrons Usually noble in water Not required + trample f ity \ reve): TET OU 238 ‘35 Macromolecules DIAMOND GRAPHITE __SICON o1oNDe ry ge etyrtse ‘Makes up sand * Fach Siis bonded t04 oxygen atoms, and each oxygen is '*Four bonds ‘igh mp. # Three bonds * Made of flat ‘*Doesn’t conduct sheets ‘Used for cutting # Held together by asissrongest weak forces sois bonded to? silicon known soft v-used asa__atoms substance lubricant uithas a high mp, and is hard, lke diamond *# Conducts electricity asithas one freee Pace G oF 22OTE ‘Melting point: high - structure made up of strong covalent bond: ‘Electrical: don't conduct electricity - have no mobile ions or electrons, except for graphite ‘Strength: hard- existsin tetrahedral structure but. graphite Issoft Dictate tte eeonent tit coerentemnemry erg tone ‘tk we contcor seri Se Oe OD Sse OOOO) Sacwanten Positive ions held together by electrons = actslike glue 4. STOICHIOMETRY ‘Balancing equations: « chemical equation is balanced when there are equal number of atoms and charges on! both sidesof the equation ‘State symbols NAME FORMULA ‘VALENCY Nitrate Noy i Hydroxide oH 1 Acetate/ cHsc00 1 ethanoate Carbonate coe 2 Sulphate soe 2 Silicate sio? 2 Phosphate Poe 3 42 Ending of Names ‘Compound ending with -ide only contain two different elements ‘*Compound ending with -ate contain oxygen 44. Masses ‘ Relative atomic mass (A,): mass of one atom of an element relative to one twelfth of the mass of one atom (of Carbon-12 ‘* Relative molecular mass (M.): sum of relative atomic masses of al the atomsin one molecule of the ‘compound 4.5 The Mole Concept ‘© Amole of a substance isthe amount that contains the same number of unts as the number of carbon atomsin 12 grams of carbon-a2 1 Amole isthe Aor M, expressedin grams eg. 1 mole of CCarbon-12 is equal to 12 grams. ‘itis equal to 6.02 x 10 atoms, this number is called Avogadio’s constant. 4.6 Number of Males Mumber of Moles 4.7 Moles in Gases Volume = No.of Moles x 244m? 42 Concentration Concentration = molar mass no.of moles volume ‘Moles per dim? Amol/ém3 = 1M + Grams per dm3, e/ém3 4.9 Molecular ‘The formula using the actual number of atomsin 2 ‘molecule 4.10 Empirical Formulae ‘Ths is the simplest ratio ofthe atoms in a compound + For example © Molecular formula of ethanol = C3HsOH © Empirical formula of ethanol = GeO ‘To find out the empirical formula you © Make the percent ratio into the simplest whole ‘number ratio (NOTE: if given s, use them as grams) © Dvide the coefficients of each element symbol by the lowest coefficient 4.11 Percentages Percentage purit mass of product (pure) imate of compound Compara) * 100 sctuat mass obtained 199 Percentage vield5. ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY * Decomposition of an electrolyte with the help of electric current + Biectrolyte: © Aq. Solution of ionic substance or molten tonic salt © Conducts electricity due to the presence of mobile fons + Electrodes: ‘© Rods which help current enter the electrolyte © Inert electrodes: do not take part in the reaction © Reactive electrodes: take part in the reaction 22 Examples ELECTROLYTE ar ar CATHODE ANODE ‘Molten lead] bromide Lead Bromine Concentrated hydrochloric acid Hydrogen Chlorine Concentrated aqueous sodium Hydrogen Chlorine chloride 2.3 Electroplating Coating one metallic object with another metal using electrolysis ‘For electroplating, you need: © Anode made of metal you want to electropiate object, with 6 ons of same metal as anode in olution © Object to be plated at cathode Used to: Make things look better © Prevent corrosion 5.4 Uses PLASTIC. ‘ALUMINUM. ‘COPPER ceramics Used for ‘*Usedin ‘Used as electricity cables electrical wires insulators, because: asitis: because they: Light eAvery good 0 Don'tconduet © Non- conductor electricity corrosive (not best) > Conduct heat © Good © Ductile poorly ‘conductor + Plastic used for © Cheaper than casing in plugs ‘copper ‘© Coramics used to ‘= Cables have ‘support cables in steel core, for electricity pylons strength 5.6 Refining Metals ‘This ispurifving impure metals Rules: © Cathode: thin strip of pure metal © Anode: impure metal 0 Electrolyte: Aqueous Salt Solution of metal + Example: on.Ts ‘© Reaction at Anode: Cu ~2e > Cu* (mass decreases) ‘© Reaction at Cathode: Cu® +e > Cu (mass increases) SZ Basics '# Electrolysis is 2 way to decompose compounds, using electricity ‘© Reduction of positive cations happens at the cathode ‘© Oxidation of negative anions happensat the anode ‘For example: © Atthe anode: 2CI'-> Cl; + 2e © Atthe cathode: 2H" +2e Hy 2.8 bxcraction of Aluminium ‘The main ove of aluminium is bauxite — high m.p. + A.uminium (tt) oxide (alumina) is dissolved in motteh ayolite(NesAlFe ~ this mixture has @ lower m.py (industrially preferred) carton ‘oe Ioten Nae * During electrolysis aluminium is produced at the carbon cathode and oxygen at the carbon anode: + Due to the high temp. the oxygen reacts withthe Braphite anode to form CO: and so anode had to be periodically replaced 5.9 Electrolysis of Brine ‘© Brine is concentrated NaCI solution ‘ons present: Na*,H”, CI'and OH [AT THE ANODE [AT THE CATHODE “= Made of titanium “> Made of steel ‘*Chlosine gar evolved + Hydrogen cations ‘© Unreacted ions (Nat, HY ‘and OH) move through porous membrane due to difference in liquid pressure ‘¢Net flow tothe right reduced to H; molecules ‘Left Na* and OH which is aqueous sodium hydroxide 6. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS 6.1 Energetics of a Reaction ‘© Exothermic reaction: one that releases heat energy Into the surrounding ‘+Endotiermic reaction: one which absorbs heat energy from the surroundings ‘*Bond breaking is endothermic ‘© Bond making is exothermic EXOTHERMIC REACTION _ ENDOTHERMIC REACTION ‘© Energy given out tothe « Energy is taken in from surroundings ‘the surroundings ‘© Surroundings become Surroundings become hot cold ‘= Bond making ~ ‘*Bond breaking ~ ‘exothermic endothermic 2 BI | Diagram: ERGY =e someoteacton ERP 6.3 Bond Energy This is the amount of energy consumed or liberated when a bond is broken or formed in k/mol 4H = Bond Breaking + Bond Forming «if overall het energy is negative, reaction is exothermic ‘if overall het energy is postive, reaction is endothermic 4. Production of Energy ‘A fuelis a substance which can be conveniently used asa source of energy ‘Burning fuels (like oll 10 form oxides isan exothermic reaction. 1e heat from burning fuels is used in power plants to ‘create steam from water and tum turbines. Paces oF 22‘order for any material to combust three things must be present: © Fuol o Heat © Oxygen + A good fuel woul: © Be cheap © Be available in large quantities © Baaliquid at room temperature © Produce a large amount of energy when combusted © Not produce polluting gases &5 Hydrogen ‘Bums explosively with oxygen, soit is used in rockets. ‘1m fuel cal it combines with oxygen without burning, «Produced by reacting methane gas with steam, ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Produces @ lotof energy _« Difficult to transport as it ‘*Abundant on earth (sea) is 2 gasat room Less pollutant temperature ‘* Renewable fuel + Forms explosive mixture with air very dangerous {imple Cell ‘A cellisa device which converts chemical energy ito electrical energy and is composed of two metals of Afferent reactivity connected by an extemalereultand. an electrolyte ‘The pracess works due to the different reactivity of. metals * Consists of a negative pole (the mofe reactive metal) and a positive pole (less reactive metal] and an electrolyte. ‘The greater the difference in eactivity ofthe two, ‘metals, the greater the voltage will be, «The elections flow because one metal i more reactive, 0 ithas@ stronger drive to give upits electrons. ‘The atoms give up electrons and enter the solution as = GZ Radioactive Isotopes ‘© Uranium-235 can be used in nuclear power stations to produce electricity ‘The radioactive isotope is bombarded by neutrons resulting in 2 lot of heat being produced ‘Small amount of radioactive fuel produces large amount of heat ‘Advantages: lots of energy is from a small amount and no CO; ‘ Disadvantage: radioactive waste produced and ron- renewable 7. CHEMICAL REACTIONS Z.1LCollision Theorey * Colisions are needed fora chemical reaction to take place 1 Successful collisions have enough activation energy at ‘moment of impact to break preexsting bonds and form new bonds 2.2 Rates of Reaction ‘Rate ofa cherica reactions the concentration of Teactantused up or product made ina given time. Unit =(mol/ém'/5, Z2 Concentration # increasing concentration of reactants increases rate of reaction * Thisis because there are more particles per unit volume, sotthe collision ate between reacting partces increases, therefore'the successful colision rate increases, which results in an increased rate of reaction. ‘increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction 1 Thisisbecause average kinetic energy of particles increase which means they are moving faster & also ‘more particles have an energy greater/equal to activation energy, therefore successful colision rate Increases, resulting n increased rate of reactionES 2.5 Particle Size ‘Decreasing the particle size (increasing surface area) increases the rate of reaction ‘This is because there are more reactant particles exposed to collide, sothe colision rate increases, therefore the successful collision rate increases, resulting in an inereasod rato of reaction Haat “in «Large surface area can mean danger. For example, flour dust and wood dust have large surface areas, and are combustible. A spark from a machine, ora it match, caf cause an explosion. This also applies to gases from, 26. rein ‘Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the rate of reaction ‘©The distance between particles is recucee under pressure ‘Thre are more particles pert Unt volume, so the collision rate increases, therefore the successful collision rate increases, resultingin an increased rate of reaction, ZZCatalyst A catalyst isa substance (usually a transition metal) which speeds upa chemical reaction, but remains Unchanged at the end 1 Adding a catalyst increases the rate of reaction 4 catalyst allows the reaction to go by an alternative pathway with lower activation energy ‘© More particles will have an energy greater than or equal tothe activation energy therefore successful collision rate increases resulting n increased rate of reaction sous, ‘For gaseous reactants, if catalyst is solid metal, the ‘catalyst provides a surface for reaction to take place on ‘The larger the surface are of the metal catalyst, the larger the area for reaction to take place therefore higher rate of reaction ‘Enzymes are protein molecules. They are biological catalysts which spoed up reactions but remain chemically unchanged at the end ‘Enzymes function bestatjoptimum temperature and pH level otherwise they may denature and completely stop funetioning. z ‘Reaction Experimentally GASEVOLVED —_ MASSLOSS cotour Frode went) (CHANGE . aun fagas evolves, lfagas evolves, fa colorchange measure ‘measure lossin occurs we can Volume of gas mass per unit measrethe time produced per time by placing taken togo Unit time using ona balance cloudy agassyringe then putting a cotton woo! on toptoaliow gas to pass but not toenter 9 Light Causing a Chemical Reaction ‘Bhotochemical reaction is one where light causes a reaction to occur. The higher the light intensity the higher the rate of the reaction, ‘Photosynthesis: light provides energy for the reaction {and chlorophyll isa dye that absorbs light ccorbon dioxide + water > (light + chlorophyll) > glucose + axygen {6C0> + 6H30 > (light + chlorophyll) > C:H.s0e + 60>iy «Silver saitsin photographic film: Siver bromide breaks down, where light strikes the fm, so silver is reduced, Silver ions are reduced to silver 2AGBL FAG B29 24 i ‘A reversible reaction isa reaction in which reactants form products and the product(s) can then react or decompose to formthe reactants ‘Example: CuSO..SH20 (blue) = CuSO white] + HO ‘(to get anhydrous, heat it, & to.get hydrated form, add water) There are two types of equilirium:static and dynam. ‘At dynamic equilibrium: © Rate of forward reactio: © Concentrations ofall reaciants.and products remain, constant © Systems closed, and on large seale everything is constant ZALLEQquilibrium ‘Le Chitelier’s Principle: if conditiors of an equlibrium are changed, the postion of equllixium moves to ‘oppose change ‘Temperature: Temperature lowered; equilcium moves In exothermic cirection. Temperature raised; equilibrium ‘moves in endothermic direction. ‘Pressure: Pressure raised; equilibrium movet to side with fewest gas molecules, Pressure lowered; equilibrium moves to side with most gas molecules. ‘Concentration: Decreasing reactant Concentration oF Increasing product concentration, equilibrium moves to reactant side. Increasing reactant concentration or decreasing product concentration: equilbrium moves to product side. ‘Liz Redox ‘= Aredox reaction is one in which one species has been ‘oxicized and another species has been reduced rate of reverse reaction OXIDATION MEANS: REDUCTION MEANS: loss ofelectrons = Gain of electrons ‘Gain of oxygen *# Loss of oxygen Loss of hydrogen «Gain of hydrogen on Ric ‘Reducing agents are oxidized and oricizing agents ere reduced ‘Potassium iodideis a reducing agent & wil go from colorless to red-brown, so is oxdized to procuce ls HO: + 2K1+ HS. #K:S04 + 21,0. ‘© Potassium manganate is an ondising agent and will go from purple to colourless ‘To test for an oxidising agent, add a reducing agent (Kl) ‘and to test for a reducing agent, add an oxidising agent tkin0.) 8. Acips, BASES AND SALTS 2.1 Properties of Acids '* Anacid isa compound which when dissolved in water, produces hydrogen ions (H") and are described as proton donors (H") ‘© Acids turn blue Itmus indicator paper (or solution) red. Have pH 1106 ‘Acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen gas ‘Acid + base salt + water ‘© Acid + metal carbonate 3 salt + carbon dioxide + water ‘= Strong acids completely ionize in water producing lots of ions. ‘= Weak acids partially lorize In water preeducing few H" ions 8.2 Properties of Bases ‘Bases are insoluble substances which neutralie acids to form a sat and water only an¢ are proton acceptors ‘Alkalis tur res itm incicator paper (or solution) to tue Hove pits to 14 base + acd salt + water (+ CO, when base sa metal carbonate) + Base + aernonium salt -> salt + ammonia gas + water ‘Strong alals completey ionize n water producing lots of OF ions ‘Weak alls partially ionize in water producing OH fons ‘&.3Neutrar ‘* Neutral substances are pH 7. ' Acidity in sil: © Plants grow at 2 pH near7. © Ifitis too acigic or alkaline they will not grow. © Adidic sols fixed by adding lime. womenay Termenoy ‘aoe ‘saine ‘© pHis the concentration of H* ions per dm’ of solutiontg 84 Indicators COLOR IN INDICATOR — COLOR INACID. FOR Phenoiphthalen Colorless. Pink Methy! orange ink Yellow Methyl red Red Yellow Red litmus Red Blue Blue litmus Red Blue ‘© Metal oxides are basic eg. iron oxide and magnesium oxide ‘*Noo-metal oxides are acidic eg. sulphur oxide and carbon dioxide ‘Aluminum, zinc and lead form amphoteric oxides e.g. zine oxide ‘© Oxides which are neither acidic or basic are neutral eg. water and carbon monoxide 8.6 Preparation of Salts ‘salts a substance formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metal ions or the ammonium ion 6 Salts can either be soluble or insoluble SOLUBLE SALTS INSOLUBLE SALTS, “Ailsocium, potassiumand ammonium salts All nitrates Chlorides Except silver and lead sulphates Except barium, lead and, alum Potassium, sodium and All cther carbonates ‘ammonium carbonates BZ Type of Salts ‘TYPE OF SALT REQUIRED ‘AciD USED Sulphate Sulphuricacd Nitrate Nitric acid Chloride Hydrochloric acia Ethanoate Ethanoic acid 88 Starting with a Metal + Add excess metal to an acid ‘© When bubbiing (hydrogen) stops the reaction is done ‘Filter off excess metal 8.9 Starting with r ‘* Add insoluble base to acid and heat gently, it will dissolve ‘Keep adding until no more dissolves (reaction is done) ‘Filter out the insoluble (excess) base 2.10 St Titration): ‘*Puta certain amount alkali in a flask ‘*Add phenolphthalein ‘© Add acid from a burette, stirring, until it goes colorless ‘¢Find out how much acid you used ‘* Repeat, to be more accurate ‘*Eveporate water from neutral solution 8.11 Precipitation ‘© Mixithe twossoluble saltsyso they react together ‘Filter the mixture to separate the products produced {soluble and insoluble salt produced) ‘* Wash the insoluble salt on the filter paper ‘© Dry the insoluble salt in a warm oven EFFECT OF AQ. NAOH EFFECT OF AQ. AMMONIA ‘damp fed litmus blue CALCIUM White precipitate No precipitate/ slight (car) {formed white precipitate Light blue soluble COPPER —_Light blue precipitate precipitate formed (cu) formed aiving dark blue solution IRON(I) Green precipitate Green precipitate (re) formed formed MRON(IN) —_Red-brown Red-brown rey iprecipitateformed precipitate formed [White soluble White soluble precipitate formed slving a colorless solution precipitate formed en igiving a colorless seluton Pact 13.0622,sg 8.13 Test for Anions ANION TEST TEST RESULT ‘CARBONATE Add dilute ritrc acid Bubble gasthrough (€0.%) limewater-from colorless te cloudy CHLORIDE Adc nitric acid, then White precipitated (cu) ‘aqueous siler nitrate formed BROMIDE Add nitric acid, then Cream precipitate (eR) ‘aq.silvernitrate formed HODIDE (1) Adé nitric acid, then Bright yellow ‘aqueous siner nitrate precipitate formed /Add aqueous sodium Gas produced turns hydroxide then add dampred Itmus ‘aluminum paper blue ‘Adé dilute vitric ace, White precipitate then add ag, barium formed ritrate 4.14 Test for Gases GAs ‘Ammonia (NHS) Corbon dioxide (oy Clorine (ct) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (0,) NITRATE (NOs) SULPHATE (804) ‘TEST AND TEST RESULT Dam red litmus paper turns blue Bubble gas through-from colorless tocloucy Bleaches red/blue litmus paper Place lighted splint, squeaky pOp) Place glowing splint splint relight 9. THE PERIODIC TABLE ‘The Periocic tables a method of classifying elements. «They are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. «Made up of rows called periods and columns called groups ‘+ Metalsare to the left and #on-metalsare to the ight. ‘Elements in the same group have similar properties. ‘Group number tells us the number of valency electrons. {and the period number tes us about the number of electron shells 2.1 Periodic Trends ‘ Non-metals are onthe right side of the periodic table, ‘and metals ce on the left. + Down 2 period of metals they become more reactive + With non-metals, going down a period, the non-metal becomes less reactive 2.2 Alkali Metals ‘Lithium, sodium ané potassium CHEMICAL PROPERTIES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES * Good conductors of ‘React violently with heat and electricity. chlorine * Are soft, compared to ‘*Burstintoflames when | other metals heated with oxygen: | # They have low densities (© Ared flame for for metals. entum © They have low melting Ayellow fame for | andbiling points sodium compared to most © Alilac flame for metals. potassium. ‘*Produce soluble white compounds. ‘* React with cold water. Patterns ‘+ReactWvity, density & softness increases down the group ‘© Melting ané boiling points decreases down the group. ‘© Roactivity increases as more electron shells means there Js weaker attraction between nucleus & valency electron S015 last more easily. 2.3 Halogens ‘PROPERTIES PATTERNS Form colored gases. at « Down the group; ze, ATP. mass and density © Fluorine is a yellow gas increases © Chlorineis a green gas «Down the group, color © Bromine i¢a redliquié darkens © lodine isa black sold « Reactivity decreases down, ‘are poisonous the group, because tas ‘Brittle and crumbly when to gain anelectron, so the solid loser the electrons to ‘*Donot conduct electricity the positive nucleus the ‘Form diatomic molecules _ more easiyit will be gained, so.atoms with fewer sholls + Will react more easily. 24 Transition Metals ‘ High metting points (except mercury) ‘© Malleable and ductie Good conductors of heat & electricity (silver isthe best) ‘eHigh density ‘¢Have no trend in reactivityhs Can be used as catalysts ‘© Form colored compounds + Can form complex ions as they have variable valences Uses. ‘= Helium: fling balloons ‘and aircrafts because it islighter than air and will not catch fre. + Argon ~ filling (tungsten) light bulbs to stop the filament reacting with ‘*Mp.and bp. increases down the group ‘*Don’t concuct, electricity ‘*Don’t take part in chemical reactions ‘oxygen. * Neon -isusedin advertising signs because it glows re. 10. MeTais 10.1 Properties of Metals PHYSICAL CHEMICAL ‘High density ‘Form basc oxides ‘*Shiny when polished | « Form posttve ions ‘*Malleable ‘Ductile ‘High m.p. And bp. ‘*Conductor of heat & electricity 10.2 Alloys ‘An alloy is two or more metals, of 3 metal and noremetal which have been made molten and then mixed together ‘Alloys are used because they have improved qualities for @ particular job over the pure metals ALLOY MADE FROM SPECIAL USES PROPERTIES. Bras Copperand Stronger and Electrical inc ‘more fietngs, car resistant to radiators corrosion Bronze Copperand Harder, _—Statues, tin stronger and_ springs, coins Stainless Iron, Does not rust Kitchen sinks, steel chromium cutlery, and nickel chemical plant ‘Metals are often usec as alloys because they have an increased range of uses and mixture of atoms gives an irregular structure which stops layers sliding over each. other easily; they are stronger ‘This is what the structure of an alloy (a) looks lke, ‘compared toa pure metal |b) toe K-Potassium «This places metals inorder oftheir Na-Sodium readiness ta take parti chemical CoCaldum reactions a se Everhirg above hydrogen can Magiesiam space hydrogen from its ci, Al=Aluminum _endhydrogen cannot reduce ther ai orien Corton metals above carbon, tet oxlces ae ‘cannot be reduced by carbon. Ferret, More reactive metas wil react with cold water, endless reactive Pigewaagecn will react slowly or not react with ‘Cu-Copper steam. AgSiver «aluminum seems unreactive Au-Goud because it forms an oxide aver hich oroteetsit 10.4 Displacement Reactions ‘These are rasctions in which metals compete for oxygen orarions, ‘The move reactive metal will displace the less reactive metal from oxygenor an anion. ‘sf more reactive metal has oxygen or an anion, no reaction occurs ‘The bigger the cifference in reactivity between the two metals, the faster the reaction (10.5 Thermal Decomposition METAL METAL METALNITRATE _GROUP CARBONATE _HYORONIDE Greve! ponat Donat Melanie nd (ower! gecompose decompose owen Group, Metal exc meralonide Hehium & —andcarbon Metal Ovid ierogen dioxide transion 353180 Sed yater "oven don metals ve Pact 15 oF 22i 10.6 Extraction of Metals METAL EXTRACTION METHOD K-Potassium Na -Sodium Ga-calium | Reduction via Mg- electrolysis Magnesum A= Aluminum canon | an=zine | Reducing via eating Fe-iron | with Carbon or Carbon Po-tead Monoxide HYDROGEN cu~Copper ag-Siver Cccur naturally Au-Gold 10.Zéxtracting bron ‘Ore = hematite (Fe:0s) 2 Uses of lag To make roads © To makecement oe ‘© Coke burns with air + Carbon dioxide reacts with coke ay omg + Carbon monoxide reduces tran(tl) oxide t0 iron. ‘©The limestone reacts with impurtiesto form slag 1081ron to Steel ‘ Molten ron from bast furiace is poured into'an on/gen furnace *# Calcium oxide is added, and ajet of oxygen i turned on. ‘The caloum oxde neutralizes acidic impurites, forming slag that i skimmed off and oxygen burns the other impuritos away. ‘The carbon content is checked continually until right then the oxygen s turned of © Mild Steel (0.25% carbon) ~ Used in machinery and car bodies © Medium carbon ste! (0.5%) ~ Used in raway lines © High carbon steel (1.5% carbon) ~ Used in knives and blades Isjust 10,9 Extracting Zinc ‘Ore = Zinc Blende = Zine Sulphide (205) ‘Zinc blende is roasted in air to convert it tozinc oxide Zinc oxide is reduced using coke to incand carbon monoxidein the furnace ‘As zincis volatile, the gaseous metals dstiles leaving less-volatile impurities behind. Zine is condensed and liquids run into mould. 10.10 Uses of Metal ‘Aluminum © Airplane/Cars (Strong/Low density/resistant to corrosion) © Cans/Feil (Resistant to corrosion/malleable) «© Overhead cable (Good conductor of electricty/ductie) ine {9 Galvanives iron = coats it o stopit rusting ‘© Alloys ~Drass/oronze 9 Batteries 0 Sacrificial Protection Copper © Electrical Wiring (Good conductor of electricty/Ouctie) ‘9 Cooking utensis (Malleable/good conductor of het) {© Roofs (hare wearing against weather 11. Aim anp Ware 11.1 Tests for Water TEST ‘TYPEOFTEST POSITIVE RESULT Blue Cobalt(l) Chemical Paper turns from Chloride Paper blue to pink JAnnyarous Chemical From white Copper powder to blue Sulphate powder crystals Testmp.andb.p. Physical ~— mp. at O"C and bp. at 200°C 11.2 Purification of Water ‘Water's pumped inte screers, which remove solid floating debris. ‘*Aluminum sultateis added to coagulate (stick together) small pieces of clay so that they are easily removed. ‘*The waters then filtered through coarse sand to remove larger, insoluble debris. ‘The water encounters more flocculants (chemicals that make particles move down to bottom of tank) andis. filtered again through fine send. Pace 16 0F 22WE '* Chlorine gas is bubbled through the water to kill bacteria. This makes the water slightly acidic, so to reverse this appropriate amounts of sodium hydroxide (analkaliisadded, ‘© Some countries also add fluorine IN INDUSTRY solve ‘Cooking ‘© wash and coo! things ‘Washing ‘In power stations where ‘*On farms foranimals& —_steamisused to turn crops turbines u44ir ‘+ ean airis composed of approximately 2 79% nitrogen 0 20% oxygen © Remainder: noble gases, water vapor & carbon dioxide 11.5 Pollutants in Air POLLUTANT SOURCE _PROBLEM'S CAUSED Reacts with Incomplete haemoglobin, Carbon combustionof __preventingit from Monoxide Te carbon-containing carrying oxygen; substances death due to oxygen starvation Vesitates eyes and uur From combustion of suiphe bustionof nee eonee Dioxide fos fuele which ff A mg 50: contain sulfur Se ‘and causes acid rain Oxides of Causes respiratory Nitrogen From careshausts problems and forms NO. acié rain From burning of Causes damage to tead —_petrolas lead is " brain and nerve cells compounds added to ifr better "AO performance 1.6 Fractional Distillation of air ‘Air's filtered to remove dust '* Water vapor and carbon dioxide removed, (because they would freeze and block the pipes: arc cooled until water vapor condenses » then passes over absorbent beads to trap carbon dioride ‘Its compressed, causing it to heat up. Cooled by recycling cold air ‘©The cold compressed airs passed through a jet, into a larger space. It expands rapidly, making it very col, ‘This is repeated, cooling the air more. By -200°C itis liquid except for neon and helium. These gases are removed. They can be separated fram eachother by absorption on charcoal ‘The liquid air is pumped into the fractioning column, ‘There its sowly warmed up. The gases boil off one by ‘one, and are collected in tanks or cylinders. «Sources of methane: ol and natural gas, decomposition of vegetation, and waste gases from digestion in animals 11.7 Catalytic Convertor ‘In the combustion engine, insufficient amounts of ‘oxygen leaé to incomplete combustion of the carbon containing fuel + Gases produced: nitrogen ‘*A.atalytic convertor catalyzes the reduction of NO:to nitrogen gas Nz and catalyzes the oxidation of COto COs 11.8 Rust Preventition ‘Coating with something to prevent contact with air and moisture © Plastic, paint and grease 6 Electropiating wath tin or chromium © Galvanising: dipping in molten zinc ‘# Sacifcal protection: attaching apiece of metal that is ‘more reactive that ron to object. commonly magnesium ‘or inc This wl corrode inthe place of iron 112 fertilizer ‘© NPK used infertiliers because: © Nitrogen is needed for chlorophyll ané other proteins. ‘0 Phosphorus helps roots grow and crops ripen. © Potassium helps make proteins and resis diseases. ‘©All alkalis except ammonia] will react with ammonium ‘compounds, removing ammonia, for example: 3) carbon monoxide (b) oxldes of 11.10 Greenhouse Gases ‘©The greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide and methane. ‘They stop heat escaping into space. ‘*Too much greenhouse gases leads to climate change. ‘This will cause the ice poles to melt, rising sea levels, more droughts, storms, floods and famine; global warming Pace 170622Crag E ‘on of C Dioxi '* Carbon dioxide is produced whenever carbon or any of {ts compound are completely burnedin excess oxygen, ‘It is also formed as @ product of respiration ‘*1t1s produced as product of reaction between an acid ‘and carbon ‘+ From the thermal decomposition of a carbonate 11.12 Haber Process ‘Industrial manufacture of ammonia NH Ns (@) + 34 (g) ‘* Raw materials: © Nitrogen: from the air © Hydrogen: methane + steam -> carbon dioxide + hhydrogen. ‘Essential conditions: Temperature: 450°C Pressure: 200atm © Catalyst: ron NHs (8) Foul Fal adeno 12. SULFUR 12.1 Sources '* Found as an element, in large underground beds ‘© Found around the rims of volcanoes. ‘Itoccurs in metal ores eg. lead sulphide ‘Sulphur compounds also occur naturally in the fossil fuels eg. coal 12.2 Uses SULFUR ‘SULFUR DIOXIDE ‘2 food preserver; kis * Manufacture of bacteria sulphuric acid ‘#Asa bleach inthe To bleach wool, silk and manufacture of wood wood pulp for making pulp for paper aper ‘sin car batteries as Asa sterilising agent in electrolyte ‘making soft drinks and ‘ein manufacture of jiam, and in drying fruit; sulphuric acid (through _stops growth of bacteria ‘Contact process) and moulds. 12.3.Contact Process ‘ Sulphur is first burned in air producing sulphur dioxide tisthen mixed with more airand passed over four separate beds of catalyst, Vanadium (V) oxide, at 450°C 10 form sulphur trioxide ‘It isthen dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid forming a thick fuming liquid called oleum ‘sItisthen mixed carefully with water to form Concentrated sulphuric acid. ‘Essential conditions: 6 Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide 6 Temperature: 850°C 9 Pressure: 2atm 12.4 Properties of Sulfuric Acid ‘Forms sas called sulphates ‘When concentrated, it's a dehydrating agent, and a thick ily tiquie f1cturms bie litmus red ‘It isa trongacid and has the properties ofa typical strongacd: reacts with bases, low pH, high conductivity 13. CARBONATES hee ies, €C. = @ ee. ‘© Ue is manufactured by limestone by heating p+co; ieHNGGE 1 Uses of quick lime: ‘© Making steel from iron © Toneutratse aciity in soil © Drying agent in industry += Uses of slaked lime and lime: © Neutralize acidtyin sol, and in lakes affected by acid rain, © Neutrallsing acidic industrial waste products, e.. flue eas desulphurisation += Uses of limestone: (© Making cement: made by mixing limestone with clay, heating muture strongly in 2 kiln, adding gypsum (calcium sulphate), and grinding up the final solid to ve a powder © Making ron fromicon ore: limestone reacts with sand) forming sia (calcium silicate), which s then Used for road building. 14. Oncanic CHEMISTRY 14.1 Homologous Series ‘* Homologous series: family of similar compounds with simile propertios due tothe presence of the same functional group. + Characteristics ofa homologous sere: © allthe compounds fit the same general formula 6 the chain length increases by 1 each time © as the chain gets longer, the compounds show 3 radual change in properties ‘ structural isomers: have the seme chemical formula, but different structures, they can be straight or branched 14.2 Fuels ‘Fuels toknow: ral gas: main constituent is methane © Petroleum: 3 mixture of hydrocarbons which can be separated into fractions 14.3 Uses of Petroleum Fractions ‘Refinery gas: bottied gas for heating and cooking + Gasoline fraction: fuel (petro) in care ‘= Naphtha fraction: making chemicals ‘ Kerosene/paratfin fraction: jt fuel, amps ‘Diesel ol/gas ol fraction: fuelin diesel engines «Fuel oil fraction: fuel in ships and home heating systems + Lubricating fraction: lubricants, waxes and polishes ‘Bitumen: making roads 14.4 .Name of Compounds ‘Name ending -> compound-type name # "ane" > alkane + "ene" > alkene "01" alcohol “vic acid” > carboxylic acid oy", “oate” 3 ester 14.5.Alkanes General formula =CaHans [METHANE (N=1) ETHANE (N=2) " whl HH [BUTANE (N=4) ‘+ ach carbon atoms in an alkene has four covalent single bbonds—this makes thom quite unreactive. Combustion: + Complete combustion: enough oxygen supply so water ‘and cérbon dioxide form. eR CH. + 20: + CO2+ 24,0 ‘Incomplete: is not enough oxygen to burn them cleanly 59 either carbon monoxide and water or carbon and water form e.g. 20H, +30, =» 200 + 44,0 or eg CHs+ 3» +220 CChiorine substitution: Sunlight orlightispecessary +A chlorine atom replaces @ hydrogen atom ‘Tis can happen to all hydrogen atomsif there is enough chlorine. e.g: CHe+ Cl (light) —+ HCI + CHSCI / CH:Cl: / CHCl: / cc. Compounds = chloromethane / di/tr/tetrachloromethaneCracking: + Cracking alweys produces short chain compound with 2 c=C bond eg. Cracking of ethane willgive ethene and hydrogen Fyocabon este i porous pt Se de ‘Butane > Ethane » Ethene ; Cito —> GH: + Cotte SATURATED. UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS HYDROCARBONS ‘*Have NO double bonds Have double bonds ‘© Do not react with ‘aqueous bromine, so the mixture stays orange, 14.2 Addition Polymerisation ‘A polymers a compound with very long carbon chains ‘made up of monomer units. + Polythene) / Polythene: isa polymer produced from ethene by adtition polymerization ‘*React with aqueous bromine, turning the minture from orange to colourless. PST See wo Ba tl A monomer unit Double bond splits and polymer is formed 14fAlkenes’ Addition Reactions ‘With bromine: the test for saturation) eg. ethene (g) + bromine (aq) > 1,2-dbromomethane ” ‘With steam: forms alcohols with heat, pressure and a catalyst ‘eg. ethene (g) + steam (g) r* ethanol () + With hydrogen: double bond breaks down to for an alkane with heat, pressure and a catalyst eg. ethene (g) + hydrogen |g) > ethane (g) FERMENTATION CATALYTIC ADDITION OF STEAM TO ETHENE ‘© Enzymesin yeastbreak Ethene is obtained by ‘down glucose to ethanol cracking long:chain ‘and carbon dioxide, alkenes from oil Aiving out heat ‘°The ethene reacts with ‘ean be done with steam (reversibly) in the substances that contain following conditions: cellulose, starch or e570" slucose © 60-70atm ‘*Done by grinding source 0 Catalyst = phosphoric (eg. grapes) and adding = acid ‘enzymes to breakdown Low temperature gives a cellulose and starch into better yield, but high slucose. temperature i used to ‘Leave it to ferment. give a better rate of ‘Fractional distillation is reaction. used to get ethanol from the mixture Pact 20 oF 22Teg ADVANTAGES DSADVANATGES eae eal eal Bl-cocduse ofwaste _sobi tars needed | organic material ‘* Fractional distillation is 5 ooerie 2 ‘Slow process z recarrecee erst st isanonrenewable wy |teonmivus process “teoure B l-rvreetraon Loco energy tome Eltsmslerconsiers —”seamand getrare : conations 3 store ethenets ur reacted, (and then recycled) ‘Ethanol burns well in oxygen, giving out plenty of heat, ‘as well as carbon dioxide and water. Ethanol ie used as a © Solvent: to dissolve things than watercannot. Evaporates easily, so used as solvent in glues, printing inks & perfumes © Fuel: added to or instead of petrol, because it burns cleanly 14.10 Carboxylic Acids General formula = CaMonsCOOH Functional group: COOH METHANOIC ACID (N=1) ETHANOIC ACID (N=2) PROPANOIC ACD IN=3)_ | BUTANOIC ACID (N=) nt 9 HHH 9 Hee He-G-6-6 HH OH HHH OH Properties of thanok ci: * weakacié with igh pt and ow dssodaten ‘Formedby © Oxidation of ethanol © With acidified potassium mangerate (Vi) «Carboxylic acids react with alcoho's to give esters, ina condensation reaction, for example: + Ethanoic acid + ethenol = ethyl ethenoate + water (alcohol = -y1 & carboxylic acid = -oate) 14.11 Macromolecules ‘Large molecules buitt up from small units (monamers) Ho «Different macromolecules have different units and/or different linkages tromple SMAILUNITS LINKAGES MACROMOLECULES (MONOMERS) eee Se Saminacés Sesier|—ssrch Stayed star EiGeeat us sreucrune oPasicbags nd a § [oves cratimow «Eft TL | cencn) ngs tos, ro. 3 | chats, dustbis high a en density) — BF waterpves, u 8 E wetingrons, tose, teth 8 # Cowrnctreicy Mo gE canes nome 7 & 2 ects rone z ig *Used exandes 3 | polystyrene in fast- © | food cartons, & | packaging, and 2 insulation for roofs ordwals '* Coated on frying pans Z | tomate them non- B | stick fabric protector, B | windscreen wipers, flooringTRC ‘Making nylo ‘Uses: ropes, fishing nets and lines, tents, curtains ‘© Monomers are: THHEHEES Q BUYS mates Sete ‘# No double bonds break, instead single bonds break. and ‘new single bonds form ‘= The monomers are able to join to each other by climinating 2 small molecule: hydrogen chloride. ‘This reaction continues at Wath the two RionomeNs ‘Thousands of molecules join together, giving @ ‘macromolecule: trlnk gour of ter _/ sien eatin / Ay Ey Ce ‘Making terylene ‘Uses: clothing (especially mixed with cotton), thread. ‘* Monomers are: wo Me it eed yd no-¢-¢-on eS IS rt wl mc’ ou ha ‘The monomers oin by eliminating 2 water molecule. Thousands of molecules join up, giving a macromolecule ths group's cates 7 otek ¢-o-fmPo: 14.12 Pollution from Plastics ‘© Choke birds fish and other animals that try to eat them. (Or they fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t, eat proper food, and starve to death. ‘They ciog up drains and sewers and: ‘They collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish. Some river beds now contain athick layer of plastic ‘They blow into trees and onto beaches. So the place looks a mess. Tourists become put off. 14.13 Natural Macromolecules ‘+ Food's main constituents are proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Proteins: + Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon, but with diferent units. Their structure is Lit ti ‘Indigestion proteins are broken down into amino acids (hydrolysis) ats: ‘Fats are esters possessing the same linkage as Terylene {ester links) but with cifferent units ‘Soaps a product of the hydrolysis of ft. It is done using sodium hydraxide (2s opposed to acid, in digestion). The hydrolysis gives glycerol and the sodium salts of fatty acids. The salts are used as soaps. Carbohyérates: # Complex carbohydrates: are a large numberof joined sugar units (morossecharide like glucose). The sugar Units are represented lke this woo ‘They join together in a condensation polymerization Hoo} HLF OFy seo meee Se ‘In digestion, the hydrolysis (Decomposition of a chemical ‘compoundiby reaction with water) of starch happens in ‘the mouth by the enzyme amylase to make glucose + Hydrolysis: © Starch > glucose © Proteins amino acids © Fats > fatty acids and glycerol ‘But if hydrolysisis not complete, macromolecules are ‘not completely broken dawn so you get a mixture of molecules of different sizes Identification: © Chromatogranhy can be used to identify products & substances ¢ However, amino acids and sugars are colourless when dissolved in water, s0 a locating agent is used © Substances can be identified using RF values or by ‘matching them with spots which are horizontal