Keynote Lecture

CIB2004 World Building Congress

Toronto, Ontario CANADA
May 2-7, 2004

High-Rise Buildings:
Evolution and Innovations
Dr. Oral Buyukozturk
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Oguz Gunes
Ph.D. Candidate

© 2004 IST Group. All rights reserved

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, MA, USA
 OUTLINE

• INTRODUCTION

• LOADS

• EVOLUTION

• INNOVATIONS

• CONCLUSION

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Introduction

What is a high-rise building?

“A building whose height creates different

conditions in the design, construction, and use
than those that exist in common buildings of a
certain region and period.”

The Council of Tall Buildings

and Urban Habitat

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Demand for High-Rise Buildings

• Scarcity of land in urban areas

• Increasing demand for business and residential
space
• Economic growth
• Technological advancements
• Innovations in Structural Systems
• Desire for aesthetics in urban settings
• Concept of city skyline
• Cultural significance and prestige
• Human aspiration to build higher

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
Geographical Distribution of High-Rise Buildings

(Tables source: Emporis Corporation April 2004)

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
Economy vs. Demand for High-Rise Buildings
Economic growth and resulting demand for office space is a good
indication of demand for high-rise buildings
U.S. Asking Office Rents, Class A
U.S. Gross Domestic Product $ Per Sq. Ft. Per Year Full Service
10% CBD Suburban
8% $50
6%
$40
4%
2% $30
0%
$20
-2% 2001 2002 2003 2004
Jan-98Jan-99Jan-00Jan-01Jan-02Jan-03Jan-04

U.S. Office Supply vs. Demand

Sq. Ft. in Millions
U.S. Office Vacancy Rates Completed Absorbed
19.0% 150
17.0% 100
15.0%
13.0% 50
11.0% 0
9.0%
-50
7.0%
5.0% -100
86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
(Grubb & Ellis Company, 2004)
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Structural Loads

• Gravity loads Snow Load

– Dead loads
Impact
– Live loads Load
– Snow loads
• Lateral loads Dead Loads

– Wind loads Wind Load

– Seismic loads Live Loads

• Special load cases

– Impact loads
– Blast loads Blast
Load

Earthquake Load

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Gravity Loads
• Floor systems account for a major portion of the gravity loads
• Selection of the floor system may influence structural behavior
and resistance
• Structural use plays a major role in selection of the floor system
– Office buildings
• large simply supported spans
– Residential and hotel buildings
• short continuous spans

Types of floor systems

• Concrete
• Prestressed concrete
• Steel
• Composite

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Wind Loads
Qh Qh Qh
Qz Qz
Plan view
H
z
Qh
Wind
7)
197
r,
elle
u
ch
(S

Qz = KV I 2

Qh = Qz z=H

(Taranath, 1998)
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Seismic Loads
Response with

Spectral response
acceleration (g)
increasing damping

W Period
(sec)
0 2 4 6 8
V

V = Cs × W

Decreasing V/W
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Design for Increased Height
• Building weight and cost increase nonlinearly with increasing
height due to lateral loads
• Efficient structural and material systems are needed to reduce
weight and cost
• Wind loads generally govern design for lateral loads for heights
• > 150 m for steel buildings
• > 250 m for concrete buildings
(Ali, M., 2001)

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads
Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Evolution of Structural Systems
A clear classification of high-rise buildings with respect to their
structural system is difficult

A rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness

in resisting lateral loads

Structural Systems
• Moment resisting frame systems
• Braced frame, shear wall systems
• Core and outrigger systems
• Tubular systems
– Framed tubes
– Trussed tubes
– Bundled tubes
• Hybrid systems
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Evolution of Structural Systems
# of Floors
110
100 Type I Shear Frames
Type II Interacting Systems
90
Type III Partial Tubular Systems
80 Type IV Tubular Systems

End Channel Framed Tube with

70 (CTBUH, 1980)

Frame with Shear band and

Exterior Diagonalized Tube

60

End Channel and Middle I

50 Frame with Shear Truss

Interior Shear Trusses

Bundled Framed Tube

Exterior Framed Tube
Outrigger Trusses
40

Framed Tubes
30
Rigid Frame
Semi-Rigid

20
Frame

10

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Type I Type II Type III Type IV

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Shear Frame System

• Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation

• Requires high bending stiffness of columns and beams
• Rigid joints are essential for stability
• Not effective for heights over 30 stories

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Braced Frame System

• Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of bracing and

columns
• Steel bracing members or filled-in bays
• More efficient than a rigid frame

Cantilever Shear Combined

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Core Structure System

• Lateral and gravity

loads supported by
central core
• Eliminates columns Individually
cantilevered
and bracing elements floors
• Core is inefficient
Cantilever
because it is not deep supports
in respect to bending
• Moment supported
floors are inefficient Group
cantilevered
floors

Core

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Outrigger Braced Structure System

• 1- or 2-story deep
truss connects core
to perimeter
columns
Outriggers Braced
• Increases the core
bending rigidity
• Dependent of rigid
core for shear
resistance
Tension

Compression

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Tubular System

• Majority of structural elements around the perimeter

• Sides normal to lateral load resist bending
• Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear
• Minimize number of interior columns
• Closely spaced exterior columns

Increased stress at corners

Closely spaced columns created by shear lag effect

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Hybrid Systems

• Combine advantages of different structural and material systems

• Composite material system
• Concrete super columns
• Steel encased concrete columns
• Composite floor system
• Steel truss and outrigger systems
• High strength concrete super columns reduce deflections and weight
• Steel encased HS concrete combines
• easy erectability of steel,
• axial load capacity of HS concrete,
• efficient confinement and reinforcement.

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
High-Efficiency Mega-Braced Frame System
Mega braces

• Very large columns and

bracing
• Small number of
columns
• Bracing extends over Transfer zones
multiple floors
• Stiff transfer floors allow
for internal flexiblity

Mega columns

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Evolution of Materials

• High performance concrete (HPC)

• High performance steel (HPS)
• Composite construction

Material systems of the tallest 200 Buildings

Number of Buildings
20
Composite Steel 18
33% 42% 16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Concrete 0
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000*
25%
Decade
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Innovations

• Vulnerability and risk assessment

• Performance based design

• Materials

• Structural control

• Egress strategies

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

• Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) and decision making have

been effectively used in
• nuclear engineering,
• manufacturing,
• seismic loss estimation etc.
• Probabilistic, nonlinear, and coupled evaluation of building
vulnerability is needed for identified hazards.

Hazard
identification, Risk assessment & Decision &
prioritization and Loss estimation Implementation
evaluation

Vulnerability Optimum mitigation

analysis strategy

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
Risk Assessment and Performance Based Design
Hazard Analysis

Amplification
Seismic
ation
source Attenu

Vulnerability Analysis

SPECTRAL ACCELERATION
STRONGER CONSTRUCTION

WEAKER CONSTRUCTION

MINOR MODERATE MAJOR

SHAKING SHAKING SHAKING
SPECTRAL DISPLACEMENT

Structural model
NONE SLIGHT MODERATE EXTENSIVE COLLAPSE
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Design for Fire

• Old: Prescriptive-Based Design

– Design based on fire rating of
materials used
– Fire rating of material from tables
– Compliance with a code specified
value

• New: Performance-Based Design

– Evaluate the strength and stiffness for a particular
design fire
– Coupled stress-thermal analysis
– Specialized design for fire effects
– Use of fire retardant materials, advanced coatings
and ceramics
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Performance Evaluation Under Fire
Coupled structural/fire analysis Onset of fire

Structural Model Geometry

Elastic/strength Thermal
properties properties
Time: 20 min
Demand
Structural loads Fire modeling Time: 35 min

Thermal analysis Stress analysis Time: 45 min

Weakest link

Deformations, damage, collapse

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Design for Impact Loading
Engineering problems related to impact loads:
• Modeling of impact
• Assessment of impact damage
• Evaluation of structural safety after impact
• Modeling of potential fire after impact
• Coupled evaluation of structural integrity and collapse
potential
(FEMA 403)

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Impact Modeling

Floor
Core area
V
V
Boeing 767-200 Floor
Boeing 767-200

Exterior Core
columns columns
Boeing 767-200
Max. takeoff weight: 395,000 lb (180 ton) Velocity
V ≈ 220 m/s
Max. fuel capacity: 24,000 gal (91,000 liter)
Cruise speed: 530 mph (237 m/s)

Total kinetic energy Fuselage cutting force

Ek = 12 MV 2 = 3460 MJ Pcutting ≈ 3.0 MN

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Energy Dissipation During Impact
The initial kinetic energy of the plane is dissipated
through
• Permanent plastic deformation (crushing)
Estimated distribution of
• Generated Heat energy dissipation
• Fracture and fragmentation Core
(creating new surfaces) columns
28%
• Friction
Floor
• Residual velocity structure
53%
• Elastic vibrations
Aircraft
May be used as Exterior columns
25%
a design tool 3%
MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Design for Blast Loading
Sequence of damage due to a Incident pressure waveform
blast outside the building

(FEMA 427)
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Redundancy and Progressive Failure
REDUNDANCY: Presence of alternate load paths
PROGRESSIVE FAILURE: Successive failure of critical elements
• Redundancy is essential for structural safety and protection
• Ductile structural elements and details
• Design for load reversals
• Avoid shear failures

Structural behavior Low redundancy High redundancy

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Redundancy and Progressive Failure
Redundancy in column system
System FEMA
403
Redundancy
(Global frame)
Local Redundancy
(Local joints)

Redundancy in floor system

Improved
local
redundancy

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Design Against Progressive Failure
Catenary action of cables High-capacity column-beam
Cables in the floor connections

Catenary action

Before removal After removal

of the column of the column
(Astaneh-Asl, 2003)

Other possible design actions

• Transfer trusses at upper floors allowing
columns to hang
• Strong moment connections for cantilever
action of floor frames
• Perimeter frames with sufficient capacity
to span multi-bays
• Mega-brace systems capable of resisting
(Houghton and Karns)
partial collapse
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Materials Development

• High performance concrete and steel enable efficient and

innovative design
• FRP composites may be effective in combination with
conventional materials
• Fiber reinforced concrete shows promise in fire protection

Effect of Heat on Reinforced Concrete

Relative MOE or Comp. Strength

(2 hours of exposure to 1000 C fire)

1
Compressive
0.8 Strength

0.6

0.4

Modulus of
0.2
Elasticity
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (C) Ordinary RC Riber RC
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Structural Control

• Lateral motion problems can be resolved through various

types of damping systems
• Controls systems can be implemented in initial design or as a
retrofit

Passive dampers are commonly used in new tall buildings

• Viscous Dampers
– Piston forcing fluid through an orifice
– Compact and easily installed
• Hysteretic Dampers
– Dissipates energy by cyclic yielding in
tensions and compression
– Easy to install, but may need to be
replaced after major event
• Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)
– Translation TMD
– Pendulum TMD

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Structural Control Systems

Diagonal brace with viscous Chevron brace with Chevron brace with
or viscoelastic damper viscous dampers viscoelastic damper

Pall friction damper Tuned liquid column damper Tuned liquid damper

damper spring actuator

Tuned mass damper Active mass damper Hybrid mass damper

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Passive Structural Control
John Hancock Building, Boston
Tuned Mass Dampers
cd kd u + ud
p md
u
m
c
k

Governing equations of motion:

Building ki
p md ω =
(1+ m)u + 2ξωu + ω u = − mud m=
2
  2
i
m m mi
Damper
ud + 2ξdωd ud + ωd2ud = −u ci = 2ξiωi mi
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Active Structural Control
Hybrid Mass Dampers Nishikicho Building, Tokyo
(Connor, 2003)

cd u + ud
kd u +ud + ua
p
u
m
c
k

Governing equation of motion for the AMD

ka u +ud + ua
F
ma ua + ωa2ua = −(u + ud ) +
F ma
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Health Monitoring

Vibration techniques can be used to determine the vibration

characteristics of high-rise buildings

Advantages
• Rapid
Accelerometer(s)
• Can be used for periodic or
continuous monitoring Data acquisition
unit
• Economically feasible
• Provides a preliminary
assessment of the building
stiffness
• Leads to more accurate seismic
demand prediction
Ambient vibrations

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Emergency Egress Strategies

• Elevated passages to neighboring buildings

• Refuge floors/rooms with fire escape elevators

• Perimeter wall rescue vehicles

• Fire resistant escape chutes

• Flying rescue platforms

• Individual fire resistant parachutes

© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations
Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
 Conclusions
• Highrise buildings enjoy rapid evolution and new
innovations

• Efficient composite hybrid structural systems for

super-tall buildings

• Use of composite material systems

• Improved analysis and design tools for better

fire, impact, blast resistance

• Redundancy against progressive failure

• Effective egress strategies

• Use of passive and active control systems

• Implementation of health and long-term

performance monitoring
© 2004 IST Group

Introduction
Introduction Loads
Loads Evolution
Evolution Innovations
Innovations Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion