All Beawtfl asest? ‘axis Fil Culture in Imperial Japan unisve avn nt ison en mi yeaa engine crranatrwsetanee cc tense oars rinoeeaae ‘2 Mico Tomo, «former igk-anking Japanese eri servant in the Manchulo government, was pt ofthe economie delegation inate >y Anak Masai, future (dance athe meeting a Re in 1936 bewee bea fh Maer xin Pitre Company Sai, ane feb Telian dictator Bento Moston, Weiten exactly twenty yeas ater ‘ene utr nusngs on what the two men may ave bee inking ass pore questions than it asawers regarding the moiations for nection timong Asis member nations Kai solidarity was based, as historians ‘Saget manly on poli, economic, or military seeds, hen what 7 oom evned for possible cultural exchange and interaction that was not Simp soe or eile” What bmmon ieclogis ol be em- pope olegtimize aba fo cltral exchange? Fundamental ethnic dif Fevenes wid oteight aim, cleanly eesent inthe preceding qbte, ues ‘on the very pouty For meaagfl ela exchange between Imperial Ingman ts ais a hey spp asus hat sch ons mae ler ime embed y is lance with be fh ‘nts andl the Japanese to either ignore or express contempt forte ‘German a alia allies”* ‘Although intacions among the Ais nations might have Been, they ere far moze tha jst empty ceremonies, They underscored 2 common eed among allies to recognize on anothers ational rovetigy,therehy lepcmiaiag tel prestige ax bok regimes i empires, Increasingly fom the oso onward, Ass nations showed a alinostabeoaefath inthe ideo logical power of fm tat, like stockpiled wespons, bd no oter reason for existence tan to be brandshed and quantied in pubis ete le ment of ideological conquest.” Als lin clars had idelogal goals in common, including an obsession with the dtcours of racial poy and Imperialist expansionism, a ella bel inthe ability of theme of fim orator deseo) atonal prestige ona ms eel* The interactions among Au fl caltres were imperfect and somtimes file, but they ‘lp us understand che impulses to atmpe to create sn Ass la ele, ‘This esay examines the role of Imperial Japan in Ae fm intercon ‘on government, indstal, and commercial levels to understand the cm sdeablycompreensve cultura intersetion among Axis owes across a vari of sociopolitical spheres. Imperial pan proactively cooperited with fascist ay and Nazi Germany 2 an active member ofthe As, with widespread oficial and unofficial intesction on aly every lee. While sch interctons id nt ead othe succes xeston of caletive “is: ‘ist iden, exaning ultra cooperation anong these regimes broad 1s our understanding of the pls of elute at the ine, discenile in the inteaction berween mand government, ideology and etetanment, {nd nation and empire Tis essay investigate eis neracton though Am eislton and censorship, dstsbation and exibition practices, and production and ert reepion, Interaction on the gorermentlevl wa evden nthe mpsisl apuneee _porerament' study of Gezman and ein fl legion, which formed ‘the basis of fpans fist compreensive Fl La in 193, Fal tempts ‘anu collective a ident were manifest in the eration of ant Anglo-American “fl blocs" that censored or banned fms offensive wo Axis mations in response to economic and ideological thst om the United Stes and Great Britain, ‘Secondly the distribution and marketing of Ai filme fostered ints action in whic the programming 2nd exhibiting of Axi fms at such spe cllaed venues 28 the Venice International Fil esi attempted wo te- ate new disribtion routes and markets to compenste for thou o which Hollywood denied the i industries ofthe Ai aces. Ai sng anti ‘lesten and PenAsianrhetoricof the interwarers, distributors in periition and “dangers” Western nations such a Bain and the United Sates Paradoxical theychose to emphasize laps shared enol idea ity with is As as. inal interaction canbe sen trough he short and woubled history of the production nd reception of he apaness-Germanco-poduction Ate {hk The Ne Ea 2936), which evaled the om ideologies and basic irsures Benen Japan and Germany and se backlash by Japanese film urease agunst German mistepresenations of thee clare The cra file ofthe film brought to dhe surface cull exclusiva des, with each ein che other side: However, these attudes were not the seul of ay East-West split, a exis shen argued. Rathe, chy Indicated the Broader impossibly of mediating ideological diferences thin the A owhich the fled alin-German co-production Cnt Inthe Servic ofthe State: Legion, Fm Bloc, Cooperative Censorship Japan's 39 Film Law paced nary ever srpect film production under the sraiy ofthe Japanese goverment. The law was pari inspired by Nai egstion,buthe pers can be raced back to years before the Sapan-Gerany Cultural Pot (2938) and even the Tripartite Pact (9401+ "Factions within he fpanese goverment and the Japanese im industry tied fii film polices from Gres iain, France, scat aly, and parla Nasi Germany for was to consolidate and modernize Japan's ‘lm industry ino an expore-driven international enterprise? The eiest sis of national ln leieltion in Japan reveal that Japanese polcy- makers were chief concerned with wo issues: the possbleadvers effects tha representations offteign costome may have had om the Japanese populice (especialy women and eilden), andthe possibly of “incor- ‘tc intepetaton of Japan in freign ls that might damage the mt- tional dignity ofthe apanese empire" In 933, the Proposal Concerning a National Polly fr Films was pee- seta atthe Siy-Fourth House Assembly to enable greater overarnent ‘onto ofthe Japanese fl industry and remove “various obstates that Incr wit ts development" assed within one wek aferlts inode Yio, this proposal beeame the impetus fe the creation the following yar ofthe Cabinet Fim Regulatory Counl, chaleed by Minister of Home Af fairs Yamamoto Tatsw. The council was forme ur cwa wees afer Nar ‘German implemented the ichigo Film Lavy, nits sion was to “regulate fm and legislate other important inves reltiog ofl" ‘Concerned that Japan would be lft behind ater instal ations sach Germany, council members and plicians intently scrutinised German fm legislation to enact svies of felted as that evenly woul become incorporated into pans fst compeheasine cultural law the Fm tne Much broader in seope than is German countrpat, the Japanese Hm Law was erated with an international perspective, The implementation of sit rls for the impor and expr of fms, asus for pre-and post-production censorship and the compulsory registration of li Industry personel reveals the extent to which the goverament wt ware ofits power to arcuate 2 domestic mtiona ident well she need 10 official zegulate representations of ther nations in apan The ape ese Fin Law was ditety espenible for motivating he stilton that al film personnel were subjec to mandatory examinations to qualify for lenses to work inthe industry. Some examination questions ha litle or othng to do with the applicants technical expects they were designed to gauge the individuals ideological leanings. Applicants were eve Inte fllowing five areas: nowledge of standatd japanese, knowledge of| ational history, evel of ational ommon sense (lokam ti” gee -noledige of film, and personaly Aayone who fled to anew ofthe ‘questions satisictory was dened cense and effectively shit out ofthe indosey® Japan's Fl Law imponed the German Fim Law's anti-Semitic hetoie andthe notion of "Jewish Problem" Itmay seem old tofnd a discussion ‘of Tesh Problem” ina nation with neg ewish population, bat ‘his hetor, in combination with he cxaminatin stem eomponent of ‘he Japanese Film Law, clear ancioned a uefa mechanism by whlch the government could—and dd—ffciely exclude undesirable cements fom the film industry. Postar Japanese critics have argued that go tment and filn-industry leaders had to adap the notion of “evs Problem zoappytowhat were called “delegsalJews" within the cule industry. These Jews” were sid to poses thea tothe nation and thus needed eo he erteted ou fr ether education aed ‘The apanes Film aw wasalsoinducnced by lian eilton he tale fanlewwasestabishedin 93, the same year tha Germany's Laker ‘was passed and Japan Caine Fi Regulatory Cousens formed l'slaw was compbensive cull lw that regulated every form of alan ‘med, including pblishing, thet, and im. The fm cee Yamada Ek hirote ino, "The alin Fascists eat im a vl organ by which rational poi is achieved and tere is much that we can lara from the solid results tha they have been accumulating.” Pauly appealing to ‘Yamada wae the model of state-un fin industry sch says PUnione Clsematogrfcs Edsstiva (LUC), which he Mentiied aa vvable ‘mode of sicesfel symbiosis between the needs ofthe state and private Indus. 10cr's structure resembled a combination of Hollywood: ‘verti neration wit apanse “national policy corporations such ak the Japenese rn Manchurian Motion Picture Studios (ane. ‘Allo the fm ws discussed here sized the strong dese to egiate the rght ofthe government tn censor ot ban ay fms dered to be offen veto the atom dignity. This could be, and was, extended ro inte the rection ofthe national dignity of one's own ideological ales and hee ‘enitres.Censoeship plies prolife ater the advent of sound li, ‘buttisiznporane to eal ha len fim alsowasa source of eres mal lateral concer forthe wou’ fim-producing nations and often incurred lplomatc protests dha sulted in theseringo shelving of problematic fis (One example was Cc. DeMle's Rech) protagonist wae 2 Japanese exporter who was represented asa misanthropic sls, ter ‘the Japanese goverment lodged a formal complaint withthe U.S. orera- ‘meat agaastbe negate representation ofthe lapanes, chem as wth Aran. By theme wa eisuedin 6, pan had become Americal Inthe Frst Wo War, and polities pressure convinced Paramount Stucoe to change bth the name an nationality ofthe protagonist avoid 2ny possible politcal ison hus, she apanese character Toi became au mes ated Arskau, ands precedent wax enblshed: governments would not ae national images opiate enerpise* Buchanges sul a his were aot slated, and nations rely used wines politcal clout they possessed to anemprta contol the reception oftheir atonal image abroad. After the Frat World War Van film eee nd throughout the 1930s, the plital mication of being nation “out of fivr* with any or most of the majoe Sl peoducing ations had sei= ous consequences Hollywood, a he largest poder and ditbatr of films international wielded great influence over which races woud be oresyed a lis” 1 ts lob audience. America's avery nations formed lose alisnces film blocs partly in response to this tne of ‘being negatively represeoed ax "ad guys in American lms (and to keep fiom being shut oot of craive makers). liances ike thes atclated a practice that el cooperate lin censoesip, developed to counteract the totalizing infvene of Hollywood by seking a wy to exist outset ‘US. eosulae and trade reports ofthe time reveal that Japan actively ‘offered supporto and received support fom, other Axis ations to censor amaging fim representations oft national images. At atime thatthe ‘ational border ofthe Asis nations were rapa expanding, politica all nee shifted with staling Bi andsometines resulted in diplomat- ‘ally tik situations, One sch expe occured one ear before the Nar occupation of France in eat 939, when the French Embassy in apen re {ues hat the Japanese goverament bana Gecman lm ied The Ase Ship. Japan replied hat t woud exercise grea caution” in censoring the fm but stoped shor ofan allo ban to avoid ofending it Nai ales. “Telopanee goverment only granted therequest out of consideration for the French action in cting sn Jpanese propaganda ou of Chinese fis show in France." ‘Offi! promation of nta-As clturl tis wa established in 937, ith the Ipan-German Cultural Film Exchange Agreement. Thereafter, Japanese oficial found even more eason toon requests from thc ais sles to censor or ban negative eprevenations"Astringof such requests teas indeed aubmied bythe Nai to che panes porernment leading {hebanning of La Gandhi (937, France, Cnesos fa NaS 939 US), and The Greet Dir (940, U.S) Noe were Fearare lis the only target cooperative censorship requests, Newsteels were primary target. ‘lla Randolph Heat's Ma of Tin ees appears withthe highest fequeny in Sapanese film censorship records. The allowing isa pata, isco offical ations aken by Japanese censors wit regard roars Snallmensof March of Tin from 936102957 Ma Tew, No. 6 xo-Radi), Total rection. Pat deals with a5- ‘assination of Japanese minister, and Japanese censor objets to ‘thing dstng with potcalassssnstion or murder. Mar of Tine, No. 21 (RKO-Radla. Relating to sadents at Princeton ‘ming bona (a Veterans of itereWar]- Delete subtle "Cannon Fodder" delete woré*nuts"—Reiten set read *AcPineton University thee undergraduates generate ania” arch fT, No, a (8K0-Radlo) Al scenes of Mussolini snd Ramsty ‘MacDonald deletednr ee gua ARMREST Ot eR areas ‘As these records clsty indict, Japanese censors consciously eesed scenes or entirely banned problematereresentaons of Inet Japan {asl as hots of fii ay The apanese lio made request of ther rion such a Lithuania and the Philipines for similar consideration, Lithia appeared anxious to ablige lp by romp banning the Sovir- produced he Desf Wosaye(1939) which epresened the Japanese pres ence in Ai a “agresion." Apparently mos offensive to the Japanese ‘vere unauthorized representations of apa’ arin China. Perhaps ou of {ference to the substantial lel Japanese population, lm censor in the Dhilprines aggressively removed scenes ofpanes solders rel shoot- Ing Chinese cians inthe bac from the eae fils Taner he Ores lays) and Pg for Pace (939, UK) Ste ears before te Japanese military occupation of che islands» Japan's equasts were respected by industrialized and developing nations alge, and ts powers nfloence the prodstion and dissemination of cul ‘url products worldwide cannot be underestimated. As bth leading in sliced fil producing nation and an Axis member ato, Japan could ote enily ignored even by Hollywood, which was knows for is a fai repesentatons of other clares, Produces in Holywood were aig ot ony of plate pressure, but also ofthe possible loss af leave foreign markets. In September 1937, thee worst nightmares were realized when apa placed comprehensive ermbargo onthe ipottion of aU. feature ms and fae al of US ass throughowt trp expanding ‘empire Tis vasa serious blow 1 Hollywood's hegemony in Asi, 2nd ootemporary American film journalists were sift 0 place apa’ action ita dhe larger coatest ofthe is alince ‘pt the outbreak ofthe Sino Japanese War, some 35% ofthe lms shown in Japan wer from Holywood. However, Hliyweed began 19 lose ground with the endciment of the Geeman-talian-Ispanese “al tural” and economic pac, and eventually ll Hollywood imports were arte, Cntol of the modon pice in Japan now completes coc byand in he rcoenered German-Ielin Japanese Alliance The Nazis fected control several years ago, and tly established a Government lm monopoly on January 2° But ating Holywood out of Ala ld noes inthe complete disappear: ance of Western faces on Asan sree. Buropean fs would beg replace American ones as Imperial apa turned ois Axial to supple: ‘mnt domes ln production and possible source of new makes. Marketing Axis Solidarity Fl Festivals nd Exhibition Practices Finding themselves shutout of any ofthe largest film markets, gover ‘ment and filn-industy leaders inthe Axl nations prosetivly searched fornew markets and new venues in which to musket theif While po: ‘motngtbeiv ideologies The ea ofepltingnatent colonia ln markets appealed in principle to goreramentdeolgues bain ely these markets offen lacked infasratures and offered the promis of only mininal fan tl return. Ai-spoasozed im esta, which included the Vee Inter- ational Film Festival fom 936 1944, promised gretr visibly for igh poi ms and possible new film mates Japanese filmmakers were enamored withthe ides of Japan becoming am export film nation om atleast the gos; may bleed tis wa nee ‘sary torus che level ofthe Japanese ln indy, s well that of the nation, to an international standard. Kawakita Nagamas, president ‘Towa Studios anda major dsributr of European ims ia fpan, wa fone ofthe most oeal exponents of such “ntetonlization policies. Kavala was on of ey few lapanese with practical working knowledge of the European fla indent. The Ae lance felted epportniis to se his extensive connections athe German ts ndasty tel apa ‘ak into the iteration make, “Kavala proceded to make is mark in production through a setes of co-productions based on several sccesefl European "multilanguage ‘econ ims inthe ery 1930 in Europe. Kewakita vs encourage by ‘heintemational sucesso the German producer Eich Pommer and made bis ist projec the apanese-Germa co-podnction The New Earth" The fim was meanto publicize Japan's "New Asa tothe word atime when fe outside the Aus formally eeogined it Ultimately the fils iare to poneeraninteraaionl mate or sist anew gent of lapanes export fms ted Kawahito sarc for oher sates, euch a the exploitation ofTapanese lms on the nascent international etal ieuit2= ‘he Venice International Fl exw exalted in 932 by Genera- Secretary Lciano De Fo of the Edvstionl Cinema Insite ointodce ‘the alin peopl to flms ftom around the wold, publicie Italian fms abroad, and spur coum ia aly, From he fests inception, ts ong nizers wanted tc remain policy nd artistic independent an on ‘cious programmed artista porn fms eles thei country of prodection. Just wo years ter, in 934, th the npementaton of hee Ts el Laon fst, Hal's Bl Lam, state covtnolverthe festival required thatconsideston of fli’ polaliesogy take precedence ovr rise merit in th sleston proces, which nat railed the peferenia tretment of hoe ns produce in Ass naons (especial Hike’ Germany and Franco's Spin) Yer preferential weatment i noe asesary translate ito wianlag the Fesial highest honors. Kawa eoteced wo Japanese este Sim in the eommpettion o 157 Razno Kania (Chien in te Wind; 937 an Ki oat (Moor overt ins 937. aleough the apanse eis recive unprecedented | atrmtina eal acl, Japn's status 2s an Axis ation alone was not enough ensure vcy; both ims lost lien Duivier's Ur cn dbl igs, France), Undsonted, Kavita etrned the net yea 1938 and evered Gon mo Sal (Fe Sous), awa fn ein China that lcd thelapanese military presence thee, Contrary oalexpectations, Fe Suus ‘won the Poplar Culture rie, becoming the fs apanese im twin a rmsjorawaed a prestigious intestinal nfl afl hiteen years efor jaunts would make the very sme lim for Kuosiva Akia's Redon Recogiton a Venice, however, did not necessarily lead wo greater Asis ‘ula iteration. Despite the fact that ll ofthe Japanese film entries ‘ree feorably reviewed inthe Hallan fn press, thee is no record of whether they were eve istbuted or shown outside the main urban cen ters nay” However, that same yea, che German fm Omi (1938) andthe Kain lim Lae Sere Plt (6938), aarded te Mus lin ize, were widely released in Japan to great commercial and cxtel sacs. npaese Fm eves patel praled Olga fo its outstand- ingeamerawork and ehythmic eng. The in's enthusiastic eepton in Japan canbe crane in par yt being eed a Venice aswell by its ‘sag been produced by Leni Refenstah, whose Trump of Wl (934) was aio well ecsved napa, “hat Benito Mussolini's son Vitorlo was also decor of tana Seva Ploy dee Japanese audiences, but equally appealing was the mamas machine imager associated withthe Sl, a wells connection tothe tuallan Fucus Movement. Mechanical and technological themes appear’ ave more general esonated wih an obsession over sim representa- ‘ons of Impetil apan's on empire-uiding activites in Asi. Moreover, aly Ealopia was an exe colonial sting that represented a worldview vith which many Impers apsnet subjects could ela" allan ipeeal pcs were familiar to older Japanese filmgoers, who remembered exiy pcs suc as Quo Vd (9:2) and Cables (gi), Both of which also powsed expansionist hetorc nd idealized the Roman Epic those ls lad the foundation forthe box-office suces of lian colonial epics of the gaostie Gondor (936, taly-Germany), Seon fan (938), and ‘Ahuno Mesias (2930), which relied the myth of empire a the ame tne that contemporary ims ike Lara Sera Plots reartclated the notion of impuo, ora hereditary big o imperial expansionist, in a mod en conten. Within thi conten, Kays clonal films dd oe represent rand imperil arentures, as Alexander Kordss Bs colonial epic did. ater, they revealed what one historian has called the nar expresion otal’ “imperialistic nature” grounded in its waditons neoral linked tothe Roman Empire*" ‘the colonia im asa shared gene Unked Axis Sl clare i the ‘omen assumption that inthe New Order, ertsn nations were rulers by birhigh and oibers were to be red, lapenese distur chose to ‘market talian colonia films inthe apanse Ses marke because they were ‘orare of 2 pe-eisting tate among the auence fo uch popuis genre ‘lms with exotic sengs and characters, which ad oes in reat demand rte since the sient era Colonial lms produced in As ation lo shared naraive and stylistic inks with the Foreign Legon fn (or desert ‘lm gene tha similrly presented worldview fom the pin of vew of the colonize Japanese fn eis ofthe 330s wee keenly aware of the Aieences among colonia regimes, often comparing and contrasting te colonial worldviews represented in such Sim as Bau Gate (936, US), Mazo 930, US), of Lege je 0933, France) with those of mpc Japan." Such comparisons led film eles such a Shibata Yoshi to he uncomfortable conclusion that, despite ts mora upeiaiy the Japanese temple had not seduced the imaginations of apaneve youth sete or completely as oti colo rs Japanese ofen debate whether or not Forsign Legion fs, mated by eyes human experiments or Duivier'sexesive atmosphere, are dreams or reality. When you think of, uban Japanese kow snore out the Foreign Legion in Moroeo than hey do about thee on bor ex patrol gards in Manchuria, Japanese urbanites ae asad le n= eras capt expansions may sof t Manchu’ Kingly way, Durhow do those nation justify thee Foreign Legions erring loa People at gunpoint? ‘he proces of aaturalicng the expansion nc and seizure of fregn lands as essential to the imperial pret. Japanese le dsribtors marketedthe common experience of emplte building as trope of modernity 0 whch most urban Japanese ould relate 1emay ome sno surprise, then, ‘hat athe wake of the embargo of Holywood fms and witha the context of mull exclave Aut dactrne fra andcaltural purty, Japenese ‘itcbutors were wth itl cet exploit other than the shard expe ‘cove of ostestingempire "panes lm distbutors manufactured resonance betwen Japanese audiences nd imported Axi fims through the ereaton ofl es that ‘ould univesalize, naturale, and ultimately popalacz the concept of ex Panslon he Janes release itl for Lao Sera Plots was Soa Yue, tr 'Should We Go to the Skies" dec reference to the pope ex twentieth cenury war song Ui Yukba,”o “sould We Go to Sea." Japanese distbutrs marketed this film aboot fait lian plots ih ing colonial warn Aftic by sete inking lian fsa andthe Japanese martial spit his provided domentc audiences with 2 zeadly ‘understandable metaphor tht did not destabilize Japanese ideology. The ‘afi slection fim ites was ot just an ideological ply Iemade good busines sense aswell Ben in the ea sogo when Japanese PanAsanst etre was atts enopob eight in denouncing Wester colonialist, the lie of eae ‘mate colonial modernity in foreign colonial films remained firmly en teenchad— neither audiences no diatebatrs turned aay fom the genre. “The enduring appl of the colonial fim gente with adiences might ein ‘he ambivalence inherent in its nareatves, which could be reapproprited acros cultures and politcal regimes forentil dierent purposes * Torevample, the genre fanctoned to inert Japanese fl aiences about heir Ass ale. The apaese film cri Teumura Hideo found the film style and narrative of Kalan clonal lms inferior to those of Ger- many, France, o even Ameria. Nevetelss, he argue, “Ibe let those ‘of as in a comer of East Asia, fr fom Southern rope, imagine what the conditions inthe Bes culture of on Aus Alles were ike” and they provided viewers wit insights into Italian politics and soil condos “Toumara thought tht in these fms one could measure the pls of 2 mar on even f they weve not secure refetons ofthat mation Taumura| tls found even in thet imperfect fms a model that domestic production of atone laste) documentary ns could productivelyadapt fa the representation of Japan's “development” of he neo-olnial space of Manchin” ‘Nui colonia os such La Haden 2037, Oe ge Ue igs 194) andr ees 19g) were imped ito Japan but maker ina sig lean diferent mannes fom Malan fms each a Lain Sera Pate." ‘he Jepanere marketing ofthe fim Ue Krg san ustetve example covsripted by Nazi Propaginda Minster Joeph Goebel, Une ule was toharebeea the deft Geman expos of "rites imperaim”| in South Aca. The im sis eels the hisiorof the Ber War through mature ofhswia ace, Hcion, and highly an-ih caveat. The ‘reteran film and sage ato El annngs played an idealized version of| Krdger asa solitary hero who stands up to the Bish and dhe Jews ‘opposition tothe iin’s representation of Cecil Rhodes 3 “Golden Calf offic” Krag is portrayed asthe ideal melding of “Boe, ize, and pate,” By emphasising ides rusian ancestry i, Mark Bender bur) is seins model for wrtime Nai Germans Becomes even more poten, and the Afrikaner State under Krier appear as presuroe tothe order and ficiency of the Nai regime. Kriger's los of power highliphedin them representing him asanncreasingly pss gave ‘whose vigor dwindles away before viewers’ ees a spn, eatrbutrs advertised he Bis sa warming ofthe oerrs of Bish imperalism in an advertising tagline ha eau ave been writen forthe Grester East Asian Co-Prosperiy Sphere ‘Tits is the real Beis Hmpce chat ides behind a mask of eh Jag for yourselves this page in he history of Brith imperial gare Son painted ved withthe Blood of women and eden slaughtered in the name of Quen Viera ina corner of South Ac! Stil fom the fm accompanying this advertisement show prisoncampsen- iced wit barbed wie, Sled with Boar refapes. The amps looked erly similar to Noi concentration camps. The ln’ themes of an-apitalim and anti-Semitism are diven home by projecting onto the Bish enemy precsly the same sor of ethnic prejudices behind the Nis voence rc ‘ied agunsche Jews in Geemany?? | ith Lane Sr lta, Japanese film cis dscosed Une Kiger les for its intnsc vale as eoterainment than fr idologleal mer. (le Koichi sugested that apanese maker and, byestension, laps exe aience shuld watch the fit leur valuable Iestone fom he Nazis. nan ave published in 944 nthe leading Japanese fm ourmal ig Huron, ted What Expect fom Fs That Encourage Hate forthe Enemy” Oruka prised Ue Kiger as seting the standard forthe faze of al Westera Japanese nsUnde Rig’ crue tone and exremey obvious mode of expression has certain Kind of appeal, 2 Simi besuty at German an-enensy le, ‘which believe sone of tengbs. Thee moe tot fine expres siveness than simpy the rchnes ofthe actors. While dono afvocte hat eer lapanese ln encourage hated forte eneny in tht way, oes Ser oly natural that explicit ant-enemy fms should overtow wit a energy ‘Toisas estan eve, Many ofthe same ets wh only ew years cater ad lavished praise onFanngs’s perfomance in Vt, Fst, De ‘ue gl, The Lt Coma ere now coo ois wot in Om rig some even cling is acting “velo. What becomes sea om the ‘receding example ie tesiation tha simply ailing forign fms to sit the tare of Japanese audlnces was nt enough, Producers auch at aka Nagamasa and Nogats Massichi concluded that trae multtera understanding and cooperation had tobe crested through international co-productions, Kaas was the Sex to move int thi area with a bie ‘nage, high pro German-Japaese co-production on Japanese agricul ‘url oli in aneurin Empires of a Kind? The Keoogica Limits of Co-rodueions Wal before the anc Cmintrn Pace ws xtifed in 1936 Imperial pan, [Navi Germny apd facet tly were zious io prove that thee inpendig allance was based on eal soliareyandmotiated by more than mere tary, poital, and econorseexpedieny The Bary of high-prole ofl nd unoficil clr exchanges resulted in some pariolly inciguing lm projets. i Germany, Leni Refenstabl directed and edited the es overage of he 1936 Oleic, whi prominent Featured the pric tin ofthe German, ln, an Japanese ache teams and would become ‘highly aclaimed Internstionl sucess when it was released two years ater In ly in1936, them dietor Giacomo Gentlomoand the Geeman ‘lm director Ls Trenker gathered togehera German and lan cee 0 shoot the supe-produton Cone on location withacast of thousands. Cant cold the story ofthe rebellion of Giovani di Mele’ knights ston Cease Borgia during bid to unify Remisance-r aly. The prob Jems surrounding the production of Conor and disagreements between ‘he fins recor led to separate releases ofthe tan and German ve sons ofthe fim and foreshadowed he fit of sir c- protons. a er was pulled from German theaters only one week afer its reese, ‘when censors lodged formal complains regarding the lms represent ton frligion. In apa, this was the same year thatthe producer Kavakta Nagamass Invited che German Sinmaker Arnold Fanck and hs camecsman Richard ‘Angst to Tokyo to begin production on The New Eat. Fane, who had achieved international ume fr diving ase oerlalacaned ba, ‘er mounai, fms and fr his iscorery of a young actress tured-irector ‘med Len Rifenstal, began wing the sri fr what he cuimed would ‘ethers to “apture the true essence” of apn. Kawakitaexptned in an inerview with Japan’ largest fm journal thc the ie ofthe fm refered to more than Mansi. "We have aed eh li The New Ea, nd rca is new earth eth for ourselves and for the Japanese film industry he sad. "We ray tht chi ew arth wl be er sl tat gies eto many diferent forms of plans and wil eventually bear magnificent fut." Fanck said that he wanted ro make alm tar woud sai the expectations of Western audlenees, an approach that seemed eazy eon sistent with Kawakis deste to ceate anew ype of panes export film forinrerntinal dtbution ‘In ReNew at, young Japanese unnersity siden, ero, who rears to Japan after several ears studying moder agreuure in Germany sup ore his wealthy panes stepther. Whi in Germany, Teruo ills love with Geld, wit whom he verurns ro Japan. Gelds hopes oconince ‘Teruo’ stepfather (layed by the seen legend Hayakawa Sete) tot lease Tero from his betothal wo his stepsister Misako. Aboard a steam- thip headed home, claustophobially decorated with Nazi and Japanese age, cheery blossom branches, and Japanese lanterns, Teruo seems rela tant to mary his stepister Ate, Teruo’ apprehension e never rep seated as being mich morethan a ination wiehhe Wet gradual be ds covers himself ough is conversations with Geld and comes to believe inthe port of farming his own land in Manchuria. In the Following sequence, Teruo and Geld are physically positioned at opposite sides of de map asthe disuse he ceaton ofthis new emi. Ter say fm panes and want t Ie apa. Manchuria sce the sae of ‘Germany and Japan with an abundance of land more than enough to ‘suppor a age population thats ies propery clinaed. But iste must ring orc and peace tothe land. Thats Jpan'sntenton Japan must consacta nation on this land. Andwe belive thatthe con-stevtion ofa nation nt only equizes el men, uta eal women. We ont eed any who have been ried a poled dlls Jepan’s new eath of Manchuria woud be sted bya new bred of in poral aubject—one thats abd ofboth rural and urban, epitomized by "ero. Tea's turn t pan is presented 2 dilemma a expressed by tis teeming reluctance to make a decsve choice beeen the traditional tnd ehe moder. tially, hs temptation comes les from a ifstuation nth che West, shi aebiguoos fangs for Gelda might indicate, than From a general desie fr bao, modern life se. Tero’ confusion is tisalied most dramatic ina sequence set ina modern Tokyo nigheiub Sree, anked bya loud jazz band he i served sak by a apanese hostess Tn red wine by a Caucasian He fist disk the wine, but when he dinks ‘hee, the Daring jazz soundtracks instant replaced by pastor = ‘ony and Teruo nods approvingly to te Tapanese hostess, When Teruo Took she Cavesian, ewer see a montage of images of dancing 2nd aking set oa inreasingl fan jazz melody. Unable to ind his 08 Inthe urban decadence of either edn of Tyo, Teruo returns tis pa cats farm, where be expeviences an epiphany. He plunges his hands deep ftv thee paddies and intent sells he hand of ert bis ater smiles approvingly and says, t's good eat but. isbecome very ol ‘er deciles ovemain nape and mary irsuko, and Geld ea rman inthe final see, Tero and Misuko and thee Baby son have ttumigratedto Manet wher Terao happily farms the "aw cath with new actor under the poesie ge ofan peril Japanese sole. “Aino nmeditel ater hs teal Japan, Fanck personaly selected ta Mansy, ther ofthe ate im actor aml uz, t o-scrp the fm and sere asa eoasutant based onthe strength of his work is the pels peroneal ami’ Sis unt then had hurnooosi ei ‘oe prety thse sors of goreramentdeoogies that Fanck wanted to propagate, and he was determined to prevent the lm rom becoming ‘eran Orientals travelogue or tight Naz propaganda am’ eas (proved tobe well founded, as it soon Beare ea that Fanck' vision of the tue" Japan bre ery lite eserblance tothe one in which most Tap eee Fan's obsession with exter shos of the natural beast of Japan's counts contested with is slipshod and uneven representa ‘on ofthe urban metropolis of Tokyo an Osaka. ima, Fack'streat tent of his actors~in particu, haf siten-year-old Hara Setsuko in the rule of Misko—isindcatv of maerof fact racism which Fanck oul tere zoned In eee othe apan Matin Pre Found __ tion, Fanck stated that he had Hara speak bee lines in Getman *in her : ae ese eee __ impression than if she had spoken German flenty.** o eer eee rin enema set poten coe re peace er ica eee the panes sls anos dine seme an apenas paired crushing poverty. This was a familiar topic in Japanese left-wir e tendeny fn faker ofthe ate gn andgsn Within yeas, Teyods Sho would produce Okina, film about the mass immiges. tion of fpaesralcolon to anche sven nese aesthetics profoundly disturbed the Japanese press: a Desene tppereon sate pn ey shown was Weer uh xhbions nd gut Hang pa oddhise neo sees Ne onstage 2ftey meres pao of hep ct ios Dt tus wee etd they wil an abate pve He apt thet opt selina othe angie (thle liming to praise the Samurai spit he was really pesiing the‘German spit He openly recognised Manchuria, but itis Gemmany hat le regicing this New Order® ‘New Buh looked like a Gera la om its opening sequence, which recalled the opening of Tramp f he Wl with ts eamers moving enough the mists fags, gradually eeaing the mythic islands of Japan rou the clouds, Fane's vse of graphic matches between Naz swastika and Boddhis man, which ws oundlyctcized in he Fapanes ress, was.an _ttempe to app his vissl style to apanese mate in ode to atulte 2 fac aesthetis inking Nat and Japanese iconography. loncaly, i teas precisely the exterior shots ofthe countzyside of span for which pe ese cts esered their retest praise 2nd etiam. They praised her technical beauty but were dsappoated a anc’ inability to see Japan's “aus esence” as being anything moce than peearesque representations of cerry Bosse and Mount Ft, Crain, ritalin represents ton of opan were nothing ne. Japanese audiences had endured similis roti ages produced by filmmakers in Hollywood and Germany for ‘ades* Buta his lm was meant to fester Japanes-German goodwl nse orate the question ofthe vey possi of nding any mutual undetanding mong Ads ations Iwasaki akira, lending lpanese film ri, suggested that he au may ot entitle with eter Fanck or his crew “Iie almost an impossible tusk fr anybody to describe proportionally an prope & complex coun tr ike Jaan, which contain al ofthe complications and cotadetons ‘threo fom the juxtaposition and harmony ofthe pst andthe eesene, East and West, natire and moder seience” Understood in this context, Fan's inbiy was smpromatic of univers problem alg ay for. igner however understanding and sympathetic” who sini atempted toepreset pan’ asakslngaage may bediplomatc, buthisetqne isclean the im wat flue not besuee of ny insurmountable ctrl Alsons between “ast and Wet” bt, cater, because the impossibility ‘of Germans understanding the Japanese experience of modernity The Same argument might have been mae about the production of Code, ‘which ws plagued with kay ftal intercultural misundertandings but inwich no Fas-West vision coud be blamed forthe breakdown among sales Such excusvistatades must be undertod within the content of stony of indignty ver what many panes fle were repeatedly patron” ining sepresentations of Japan by the Wet ronal, however, i was liso a this tine that he Japanese lm industry was sat Oriental {ng other sian races under the auspices of ulin a new ode in East ‘Asia tobe led bythe Fapanese and ale with mutual derstanding ad *goodwl” Japanese representations af itera good toward apis "asian brothers” were no moze legitimate thin anc’ vison of pure” Jepan Despite debate in the apanese fl press orer German misrepresents ios of contemporary Japan in Te New Ea, the ubplc of ani at Japan's “ewe was almost ignored, Clic were far mote pect ye ‘akes in continuity, such a Fan’ inerpicablyeting shots of Oak's bank Department Store with shots of downtown Tokyo, then they were by the there of Japanese reeun to nav ast not in the Japanese ‘ountryie ut, instead inte semi-colon pace of Manhusia™ Only the ete and sreeniteeSawamuraTautoma speculated on the posie pole eects of setting the story in Manchurionthefiln'smasketbity Atthe end ofthe film Tero and Mieuko leave the nateow tc lds of Japan to goto Manchuria whet, under the protection and peace gat aniced by te Japanese ae, hey joyously plough the eth of a new ‘omtnent with tractor, This sone ofthe most important themes of the film. But won't showing this be a problem in counties that do not ficial ecognize Manchuria? timate, the fim never crested any ofthe poicl problems anticipated by Sawamurs, bu itd spark boom of intrest in Nazi ull policy and filmmaking in Japan. I also led to numerous translations of eis and monographs, suchas che decor Kat Rite's "Theory of Nee Fim estes," and tothe publication of orginal say by influential fin ee ics fering dete discussions of how the German system might best be dated for se napa. The Nev Earhovae nota bor-ofe falar in apan or Germany, but after lng to lve upto expectations, it international ‘keting campaigns ie mostambious eve planned fre Japanese ma ‘nti then) ha tobe drastically ssid down. Given the large peodution budge, the high-profile cast, an fil backing by both governments, it ‘yould have been dificult, iF 4oe imposible, Te New Ea eer to have led upto the hype,i pilogue ‘ais co-productions produced no masterpieces of lasting value and e- eid seat eal acai eve their tme. But wo radintr-Aas im change as faite, ab empy symbol of 2 unity that neve existed, ito ‘isthe pola the signcance of inra-Ass collaboration lis tin its Sees, Bat in the ver fact ofthese nations having attempted 9 callabo rate and in her once for ow they were represented, Unlike the endur- ing images fan Axis ited in powerand purpose churned out by wartime Allied propagandist, Imperial apn, Nazi Germany, and fascist al were totale fom the same poll arclaral doth; nord any single entity ier eu dominate one another. fc, olyood may have had more respon or niting these nations ino aH bl than dd any singe iMcology. The US. goreroment's “fim follows the fap" policy endowed Hollywood with a eal toaaran power of which other n-produing ‘ation oul nly rer. The net respond wo that power through such ‘means as cooperative censorship and film embargosumatey created 3 ‘uid but usefl common bond that Axi etorc uit on but could never ave produced sel this context fla leiliton and government communiguscire- aed ike the fils chersees, aversng borders and infencing road ‘ange of peopl and insiutions on oficial and unofficial eves. Loklag St any one lee excel peesnts x skewed pierre ofthe partnership. Examining ls clare in ImpevatJapan from the elatvely conventional point of vew of ofc lm poy would suggest thatthe influence of Nat (Germany in Japan dwarfed that flay. However asthe example of the ‘ene International il Festival wou seem soggy sifing one's perspective to incude distlbution and exhibition venues, the opposite ap- pers tobe tre The shift in perspective isnot simply an nesta oa eit Much ofthe postwar scholarship om apanese fil histori grounded tne assumption hat thera apanes fim aa international industry fated atthe 95 Veni International Fm Festal and with Kross’ ‘Rashomon? Bu eve if the istry inking Japanese mt fascism and im prism is obscured, can neve tually be Forgotten, a director Kitano “Takeshi demonstrated in 3997 after wining the Gzand Pris fr Hana at ‘ence, He quipped tothe len media, Why doa’ we team up again and declae war on some county” Ktano's “joke” can only be understood ‘thin the contest of history that as been eracuated by mainstream film Seholship also makes the eer familie asumption that contempo rary mass audiences ae both ale and wing to make relent inks be ‘een lm, Ans solidarity and apans imperil pat. Notes ‘Spiga Meo Manaa deme naa Mahi ths Tg Rind 95, 50-5. 1 facepion lode Ger ez, nm an te Cp Sot ‘he ees nd of Pere Emp 9396 (New Yrs eho, 199 Aeris Sie, Ba us Cayo Mon Kia eon ‘Sh, 9 Dall Kenchi Keak, el, HQ 60nd shh a Tog Gen iki 3990). 2 en. Dore oy ao Tn hee ews ae 2, Pali ron rene Thetis pon Nenad London ew, aaa, 67 4 Nl cies, her of in Ppt ew ok asl, 99) 6 spp: ica To, Fim Poppe London 1 BT 98 9 Mane ikon and Sera rect Ca nd Sar lena Gres 137-K London: BF Palsig, 8519} Gl ids es a Pare ee, 1985 4°55, 5 Thee fr ely pps revo pnt lm sources with eco ipa ove oe, hae oes rents betwen Geran may Ni) dein fine oft cit), ass apes fis oti pel, End neal, pp eter oh pete ly Oe Sanh, ow ‘nt los Si Shino, 97, 19620 Yom ah hn ‘a co Tyo Shri Shino, 208) ll Ha Sto “esi ‘ee i hw ign 6 Grp Kare Te onda a op, 19-945 ee Uae of esa Pe 98,2 Usha obi ew nr (ya Miz at, 3579) 234-36 The Aa Comicter at atone ‘een Gems iin pen r ee n e 7 von Dotymets Show Sons Dam Sa 9 To Salsa Shots 989,220 1, Fin dati foley Deparment of ecaton 9372 6 a ki. tp Ibo: Asahi Senso. 175, 8 "1. fz gap dbo oo ge hos, “3 te on oi, 8. Se Sit Ys, Saat gS Toya Tae 1940, onthe "eis ren? andthe monopoizaton af Ena apa a [ener gedomintiy US) flv indatencs cs ad ei, ge sk mshi lye Koei, 190; Dal Nippon ie ol ed a ite Tye Dal Np is a 938) Wen in {ben thls amads ch etn hice a ms phelps ot othe eatin Fad These aon the Tapa mL, vin roalo, ind Ma of mee (ey Une fC ren go 3-4 Heh Ge Dole Anon Cu Bs ley ier of allforna res 994 12 odes Ho eta mee et (Eee Ueto es hes gn ah ie Wo Arig Het, -999 ado Un ao ary i frre eens gles: Unies of Souhe Cons Pram, 94035435: Chee er 3 oto: Kaka Bansko 98, 6. ay, the he Gms 36 ene ek fan 9 4 Tea ohio, ion ge esti v3 {tage chu ero 198016570. te eae Hele 3838.27. Fextmre on Pier aes bruset Hac, om as ak fois i Po if entre in Wr Ne ode Serhan B35 22 hed Si Tah, lm mt Tyo Lb ope, 85: hich veh ee: Cassa 198 “ow shoo Ten Sh gai sth lg To Sh, 48. ‘te tlan wines iad ln Mase Coe Asad 139 alas (Aap Gea, oo); nde Rae Ban i. Rabe oven ie Alana nen ilo vo 37 ome: Bote 1930 i ee les pei Mono soe Vier, emplased the ss cat formed ep atplanes he echnaoi bor i teint lpn We Bene of atonal ero eo Naa, nt Pl een ae sr hers mano ia pone pl se mor delat ets ot dh frame ee ete Os tf South Amn fier abdocng hi iy Reedy char wit is 08 ube bores Bp, alana nee ire tae his 0, paes “este en and ny ps ae ig 3p 18) 98 ig Sed Nein nie i, Abe Yo, 94 HBS es Tokyo: age Shot 577. Fh, Pp in ae na aly Slomingon dan Une es ss8p.stohy {Lo Spe Bao Cie Suns 196) war ape om the French ere ‘aon ay seh ee ee Gann Cat gigi arene 298) 2p Sirs, Sl as 4g 1: loa rece ths die free clon an the mn fo wich hie Intell the wet Koay Hid cate ene “lt one” and tht the cess of Mere tha they ae neers ae anil teyoan pees ta he as ih fret ee et in Sl pi ‘yp pee ese New Yo Colm Ui Pesy, 200), 34. Komi Nobo ea, Shinun Moss, oL.Tlyo Sha Sina, 9. 4. Glan ier Brae fina alo sgh Rane ano, 90h proces by whl apne i btn tered acl tie Aeon anencs esl previa amp rats ofthe wbowrteohi asm China antualing Chins ae names ren Ing her Japanese quent sch ae ot of ang ha Foe ‘eine nm pn Rl his ys Sf Ca Sted Uses Fras, 98 “A. este al-Cerman proton opened inant is dened under te puncte Apu ki he ae Ts ‘efrenetthe apa leeieote An clone nf es ame gr dened abe Tums hog at en i ie Las Ser Pl compe iyo “feos” ounce ne ein Cn ch Sta on (hao Shag ‘a les a Wht Oni 99), nS or Chi N94 Tomer io, Za ah l opentha 936-73 Sua 0D i Naren wwe teak Kai, | 939 and ina oe Feb Osan, 90) ‘Me German Klonin gee ep with be 96 soni tibiton Be in when the government ht ile cll pins | infin dca oon Code odeoo: don! iees imme 190, 3-75. Sdn ke, apping the Nate Rah ine pia gin, Sa Fechner Ana Abr Une of hc ress, 98,2678. Aveeno, agus, s04. 2. nak Ale, Tekin Hoyo lp nam” Fg hn (get ‘i Vr (BW. Dun, 95), a UW Maa), BeBe _ fag.) vo Sternberg, 9) and Thea Crmad ese Se = avai arko, “Aarti Tei ye Ton December 93667et m0 pi aT Bo 9, es rs a ne rant Se ea aspera aa tom TSEC tenes ene ce we come Sinedieespinoeacne SSSR etl mc aoe er SEEN Swng em nhs das cig polos ution intr uh ae nish onto rlanet Te a teagan ec wef me SSE licen ce an ghee creep comin ts Se eer eae Tena aso See Cryst Seer pt tena ol a ore ere Se ere ToT en cy ee en ion TINT ocean plang tte ‘Sistemas pes ete SEE SET comune empeine rbor Ape se ee cr rn a cee eee ee tec hehe Dee Praesearerer roe Se route a pom Som i dan ag Ks 8) Architectre for Mase-Mobilization ‘The Cheeta Memorial Construction ‘Moverent, 2939-1045 ‘= Sine antiquity, war memorials such 2 he ramp arches ofthe Roman Empire, hare celebrated empires, commemorated Veorous Iles, venerated heroes and gloved leader. In the modern er, espe ‘lly fom the ter half ofthe nineteenth century, eniocalehae peli ‘ated in Europe—uoder the French New Republic andthe Second German pire in paicular—to celebrate new regimes and eenfrc their new ‘tional idenis. Dating and immedi after the Fre Wrld Wa, the _ cominon European soldier came tobe recogzed in memorial tices, leading tothe construction of prominent monuments such 2 he tomb ‘of unlnown solders in London and Paris, wel es known sritree Jntown squares and on sreet corners. hes aed anew funtion to wat femoris: place to mieroriie and moun the death of indvdeals on a pectoral eve, Whecher built ocommemorste an indidul or r04p, thes trucures gare physical Form tothe colletiv or national memory that neaed tobe crested, maltsned or sometimes even reshaped fll ing mitarycontice! “naan, just ain most ober counties that experienced modern wars, sumerou ar memorials have been dedicated tomilsyeaers, common