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PII: S0014-2999(16)30728-2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.11.025
Reference: EJP70930
To appear in: European Journal of Pharmacology
Received date: 13 June 2016
Revised date: 29 October 2016
Accepted date: 17 November 2016
Cite this article as: Zahra Ghasemzadeh and Ameneh Rezayof, Neuromodulatory
effects of the dorsal hippocampal endocannabinoid system in
dextromethorphan/morphine-induced amnesia, European Journal of
Pharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.11.025
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Neuromodulatory effects of the dorsal hippocampal endocannabinoid system in
dextromethorphan/morphine-induced amnesia
Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran,
Iran
*
Correspondence to. Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology, College of Science,
University of Tehran, P. O. Box 4155-6455, Tehran, Iran Fax: (+9821)-66405141 Tel: (+9821)-
61112483 rezayof@khayam.ut.ac.ir
Abstract
previously shown to potentiate amnesic effect of morphine in rats. However, the effect of
antagonist, in combination with morphine on hippocampus-based long term memory has not
been well characterized. The aim of the present study was to assess the possible role of
amnesia. Our results showed that intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of morphine (5 mg/kg) or
dextromethorphan (5-15 mg/kg) before testing the passive avoidance learning induced amnesia.
Combination of ineffective doses of dextromethorphan (7.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and morphine (2 mg/kg,
i.p.) also produced amnesia, suggesting the enhancing effects of the drugs. To assess the effect of
the activation or inhibition of the dorsal hippocampal cannabinoid CB1 receptors on this amnesia,
ACPA or AM251 as selective receptor agonists or antagonists were respectively injected into the
CA1 regions before systemic injection of dextromethorphan and morphine. Interestingly, intra-
CA1 microinjection of ACPA (0.5-1 ng/rat) improved the amnesic effect of dextromethorphan
1
/morphine combination. The microinjection of AM251 into the CA1 region enhanced the
microinjection of the same doses of the agonist or antagonist by itself had no effects on memory
formation. Thus, it can be concluded that the dorsal hippocampal endocannabinoid system, via
amnesia.
1. Introduction
processes (Katona and Freund, 2012). Endocannabinoids exert their effects through two types of
receptors, namely CB1 and CB2 receptors which belong to Gi/o-protein-coupled receptors
(Svíženská et al., 2008). CB1 receptors are widely expressed in the major brain regions including
the hippocampus (Liu et al., 2003) which is involved in learning and memory processes (Morris,
2006). Activation of CB1 receptors in the dorsal hippocampal CA1 regions also inhibited long-
glutamate transmission (Sullivan, 2000). In view of the fact that there is an overlapping
distribution of CB1 and mu-opioid receptors in the hippocampus (Robledo et al., 2008), it has
been suggested that a functional correlation between the endocannabinoid and opioid systems
2
hippocampal function is necessary for normal cognitive processes (Deng et al., 2010), the
different animal learning models (Farahmandfar et al., 2010; Tirgar et al., 2014). It should also
be considered that the neuromodulatory role of opioids within hippocampal formation circuits
may be directly or indirectly associated with the high expression of mu opioid receptors in this
suppressant drug is frequently co-abused with other drugs (Wilson et al., 2011). Strong
motivations for the co-abuse of dextromethorphan with morphine are assumed to lie in the high
euphoric effect or the reduced side effects of the opiate (Mao et al., 1996). Although
dextromethorphan has been shown to be effective in reducing the rewarding properties, the abuse
liability of dextromethorphan is also reported among adolescents (Bryner et al., 2006). Drug
abuse seems to reduce the populations of hippocampal neurons via attenuating neurogenesis
(Eisch and Harburg, 2006) which is an important mechanism underlying memory formation
(Aimone et al., 2006). It is well known that morphine plays a critical role in the modulation of
hippocampal structure, physiology, and biochemistry (Simmons and Chavkin, 1996, Chavkin,
2000). Despite dextromethorphan’s long clinical success, our recent study showed that the use of
the drug alone or in combination with morphine induced amnesia via attenuating hippocampal
gnorndisnoC that the effect of multi-drug abuse on learning and memory processes are not fully
understood and that the dorsal hippocampal endocannabinoid system affects memory formation
(de Oliveira Alvares et al., 2008), our aim was to investigate whether the CA1 endocannabinoid
3
system via CB1 receptors is involved in the effect of systemic co-administration of
2.1. Animals
The experiments were carried out on male Wistar rats (weighing approximately 200–220
g) obtained from the animal house of the School of Biology, University of Tehran. The animals
were housed in groups of four per cage; they were maintained in a controlled temperature (22±2
°C), and a 12:12-h light–dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 h am) with ad libitum
access to food and water except during the test. All animals were allowed a week to adapt to the
laboratory conditions prior to the experiments and were handled daily. All procedures for the
treatment of animals were approved by the Research and Ethics Committee of the School of
Biology, University of Tehran and were done in accordance with the National Institute of Health
Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Moreover, all efforts were made to minimize the
hydrochloride (50 mg/kg) plus xylazine (5 mg/kg). Using standard stereotaxic equipment, the
CA1 regions of the dorsal hippocampi were bilaterally implanted with guide cannulas (22
gauges) according to the atlas of Paxions and Watson (antero-posterior: -3 to -3.5 mm posterior
to the bregma, lateral: ±1.8–2 mm from midline, ventral: -2.8 to -3 mm relative to the dura;
Paxions and Watson, 2007). The guide cannulas were fixed to the skull with dental cement (1
4
mm above the CA1 region). During the 1-week recovery period, the animals were habituated to
the experimental room by being transferred to the experimental room and handled every day.
The microinjections into the CA1 regions were bilaterally performed with 2-µl Hamilton
microsyringe attached to the injection cannula via polyethylene tubing in a total volume of
1µl/rat (0.5 µl/each side). The solution was injected slowly (over 1 min) and the cannula was left
2.3. Drugs
The compounds used in this study were morphine sulfate (Temad, Tehran, Iran),
were dissolved in sterile 0.9% saline before use. ACPA was dissolved in Tocrisolve™ (a soya oil
and water emulsion) and was diluted with sterile 0.9% saline. In experiments where ACPA was
applied, the control solution contained Tocrisolve™ with the same concentration as in the
10% v/v) and sterile 0.9% saline and a drop of Tween 80, which also was used as DMSO
5
2.4. Passive avoidance apparatus
A step-through passive avoidance apparatus (Borj Sanat, Tehran, Iran) was used for the
evaluation of memory performance. The apparatus consisted of two chambers (illuminated and
dark) separated by a guillotine door (20 × 20 × 30 cm high). The floor of the dark chamber
contained stainless steel rods (2.5 mm in diameter, 1 cm apart) that could deliver foot shocks.
2.5.1. Training
Animals were transported to the experimental room and allowed to habituate to the
experimental room for 60 min prior to the experiments. During the training trial, each animal
was placed in the illuminated compartment; After 5s, the guillotine door separating the chambers
was open. When the rat crossed into the black chamber, its latency to enter the black chamber
was measured. If any animal stayed on the illuminated chamber for over 120 s, it was excluded
from the experiments. After 30 min, the animal was placed in the illuminated compartment again
and after 5s, the guillotine door was opened. As soon as it entered the dark compartment, the
door was closed and the rat received an inescapable shock. After 2 min, the rat was transferred to
the illuminated compartment and the latency times for entering the dark compartment were
measured. An identical shock was delivered to animals entering the dark compartment before
120 s. If the animal did not enter the dark compartment during 120 s, successful acquisition of
6
One day after the training trial, testing trial was done by placing the animal back in the
illuminated compartment and measuring its latency to enter the shock compartment. Foot shock
was not delivered on the testing trial, and the cut-off time limit was 300 s (Douma et al., 2011;
dextromethorphan/morphine
In this experiment, six groups of animals were used for evaluating the effect of
dextromethorphan injection with or without morphine on memory recall. On the training day,
each animal was trained in a passive avoidance task. On the test day, six groups of animals
received morphine (0, 2 and 5 mg/kg) or dextromethorphan (5, 7.5 and 15 mg/kg). The other
three groups received the same doses of dextromethorphan plus an ineffective dose of morphine
(2 mg/kg) with 60 min interval. In all groups, the step-through latency was measured 30 min
2.6.2. Experiment 2. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of ACPA (before the testing phase)
In this experiment, eight groups of animals were successfully trained. On the test day, the
animals received intra-CA1 microinjections of the different doses of a CB1 receptor agonist,
ACPA (0, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 ng/rat) and after 5 min they were intraperitoneally injected with an
7
saline (1 ml/kg)/saline (1 ml/kg; Left panel of Fig. 2). The animals were tested 30 min after the
last injection.
2.6.3. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 (before the testing phase) with or without
avoidance task. On the test day, the animals received intra-CA1 microinjections of different
doses of a CB1 receptor antagonist, AM251 (0, 30, 40 and 50 ng/rat) and after 5 min they were
mg/kg)/morphine (2 mg/kg; Right panel of Fig. 3) or saline (1 ml/kg)/saline (1 ml/kg; Left panel
of Fig. 3). The animals were tested 30 min after the last injection.
2.6.4. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 on ACPA improvement of the amnesia
avoidance task. On the test day, five group received intra-CA1 microinjection of different doses of
AM251 (0, 10, 15, and 20 ng/rat) followed by vehicle (1 µl/rat) or ACPA (1 ng/rat) with 5 min
interval. After 5 min, they received dextromethorphan (7.5 mg/kg; i.p.) plus morphine (2 mg/kg;
i.p.). Two control groups were used in this experiment. One group received intra-CA1
microinjections of DMSO and vehicle (1 µl/rat) with 5 min interval, and after 5 min they
received interaperitoneal injection of saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) plus saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) with 60 min
interval. Another group received intra-CA1 microinjections of DMSO and vehicle (1 μl/rat) with
8
5 min interval, and after 5 min they were injected with saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) plus morphine (2
mg/kg, i.p.). The latency times were measured 30 min after the last injection in each animal.
2.7. Histology
At the end of the experiments, the animals were deeply anesthetized with carbon dioxide,
and 1% methylene-blue solution was bilaterally injected into the CA1 regions of the dorsal
hippocampi (0.5 µl /side). The rats were decapitated and the brains were removed and fixed in
formaldehyde (10%). After several days, sectioning was done using a vibratome and the sections
were examined under a stereomicroscope according to the rat brain atlas of Paxinos and Watson
(2007). Only the data from animals with correct cannula implants were included in the statistical
analysis.
The effects of the drug treatments on memory during the test were analyzed by one-way
ANOVA, using SPSS software. Significance was set as P<0.05. All data values are expressed as
mean ± S.E.M. Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the interaction between the drugs.
3. Result
latency time. Two-way ANOVA showed a significant difference between the effects of
Treatment, F (1, 48) = 4.08, P < 0.05; Dose, F (3, 48) = 18.18, P < 0.001; and Treatment×Dose
9
interaction, F (3,48)=5.4, P < 0.01]. One-way ANOVA [F (8, 54) = 10.24, P < 0.001] revealed
that injection of dextromethorphan (15 mg/kg, i.p.) or morphine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) before the testing
phase disrupted memory recall. The analysis also indicated that the combination of 7.5 and 15
avoidance learning.
3.2. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of ACPA (before the testing phase) with or without
Fig. 2 (left panel) shows the effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of ACPA (before the testing
phase) on memory recall. Two-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the
effects of ACPA alone and ACPA plus dextromethorphan (5 mg/kg) plus morphine (2 mg/kg)
on memory recall [for treatment, F (1, 48)= 57.09, P < 0.001; Dose, F (3,48)= 2.89, P < 0.01;
and treatment×dose interaction, F (3, 48)= 4.42, P < 0.01]. As can be seen in Fig. 2 (left
panel), one-way ANOVA showed no significant change in the recall latencies of the animals that
were tested following the microinjection of different doses of ACPA (0.5, 0.75 and 1 ng/rat,
intra-CA1), compared to the vehicle control group [F (3, 24) = 0.25, P> 0.05]. However, Fig. 2
(right panel) shows the effects of pre-test injection of the same doses of ACPA on
3.3. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 (before the testing phase) with or without
phase) on memory recall. Two-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the
effects of AM251 alone and AM251 plus dextromethorphan (5 mg/kg) plus morphine (2 mg/kg)
on memory recall [for treatment, F (1, 48)= 15.07, P < 0.001; Dose, F (3,48)= 4.83, P < 0.01;
and treatment×dose interaction, F (3, 48)= 4.32, P < 0.01]. One-way ANOVA showed that
pre-test AM251 (30, 40, and 50 ng/rat) had no effect on memory recall of a passive avoidance
task by itself [F (3, 24) = 1.73, P> 0.05]. As can be seen in fig. 3 (right panel), one-way ANOVA
revealed that the microinjection of same doses of AM251 along with ineffective doses of
effect on memory disrupting effect induced by morphine [F (3, 24)= 7.95, P<0.01].
3.4. The effect of intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 on ACPA improvement of the amnesia
Fig. 4 shows the effect of the blockade of CB1 receptors via intra-CA1 microinjection of
of different doses of AM251 (10, 15 and 20 ng/rat) before the testing phase altered the inhibitory
enhancement of morphine amnesia [F (6, 42)= 13.34, P<0.001]. Post-hoc analysis showed that
4. Discussion
11
Dextrometorphan and morphine are often co-abused in humans. Considering that a
functional relationship between the NMDA receptors and mu opioid receptors has previously
been reported in cognitive processes (see the introduction), different doses of dextromethorphan
(a NMDA receptors antagonist) were intraperitoneally injected with or without morphine. Since
there is a potentiative effect between dextromethorphan and morphine which can affect passive
avoidance memory (Ghasemzadeh and Rezayof, 2016), studying the possible role of the CA1
formation may further our understanding of the drugs’ mechanisms of action. The obtained data
from experiment 1 showed that amnesia can be produced by systemic injection of morphine or
evidence arising from studies on humans and rodents that indicate that morphine or
2015; Carter et al., 2013; Zarrindast et al., 2014). To investigate the existence of a relevant
interaction between the drugs, we used an ineffective dose of morphine (2 mg/kg) with different
doses of dextromethorphan. Interestingly, our results showed that systemic co-injection of the
The results of experiment 2 revealed that the activation of the dorsal hippocampal CB1
receptors via the microinjection of ACPA significantly decreased the enhancing effect of
dextromethorphan on morphine response. In view of the fact that the stimulation of CB1
receptors reduced glutamate release in cultured hippocampal neurons (Shen and Thayer 1999), it
has been suggested that there is a functional interaction between endocannabinoid system and
glutamatergic neurotransmission (see for review Szabo and Schlicker, 2005). In contrast, Ferraro
et al. (2001) reported that glutamate level in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) increased following the
12
injection of cannabinoid receptor agonist. Thus, it seems that the activity of endocannabinoid
system may have various effects on the neurotransmission in different brain regions. It has
previously been reported that there is a cross-talk between opioidergic and endocannabinoid
systemr. Cannabinoid CB1 receptors as well as mu opioid receptors are both presented in high
density in the dorsal hippocampus (Herkenham et al., 1991; Mansour et al., 1994). Rewarding
effect of opioids has been shown to be related to CB1 cannabinoid receptors (see for review
Maldonado et al., 2006). For example, morphine injection could not produce conditioned place
preference in CB1 receptors knockout mice (Rice et al., 2002) and the injection of Δ9-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) did not produce the rewarding effect in mu receptors knockout mice
(Ghozland et al., 2002). Huang et al. (2003) showed that the co-administration of
dextromethorphan with morphine induced attenuation in morphine rewarding effect. Since THC
injection increased dopamine release (Ferraro et al., 2001), one may suggest that the improving
be directly or indirectly associated with the dopaminergic mechanism of the CB1 cannabinoid
receptor agonist which can affect memory formation. Further studies with more focus on this
hypothesis are therefore suggested. In addition, our results also showed that intra CA1
microinjection of the same doses of ACPA before the testing phase had no effect on memory
recall. In support of the present results, it has been reported that intra-CA1 microinjection of
ACPA before the testing phase could not induce any significant changes in memory formation
(Alijanpour et al., 2013). Although these results are consistent with some published studies, they
differ from those which suggested that endocannabinoid agonists disrupted memory formation
(Nasehi et al., 2009; Zarrindast et al., 2010). For example, Ghiasvand et al. (2011) reported that
microinjection of ACPA after the training phase into the central amygdala disrupted memory
13
consolidation. The modulatory role of cannabinoids on memory formation may be dependent on
the brain site and the neuronal circuit (Marsicano and Lutz, 2006). Moreover, the dose size, the
animals’ strain and the route of injection are among the most important factors which may
The current findings also showed that intra-CA1 microinjection of a selective CB1
receptor antagonist, AM251, before the testing phase had no effect on memory recall while the
microinjection of the same doses of the antagonist reinforced the enhancing effect of
task. Using single-cell and network-level recordings, Ma et al. (2008) reported that CB1 receptor
results may be related to the enhancing effect of AM251 on GABAergic transmission which is
effect of dextromethorphan on morphine-induced amnesia, AM251 was injected into the CA1
regions before the microinjection of ACPA. The results obtained from the last experiment
showed that bilateral intra CA1 microinjection of AM251 significantly reversed the effect of
Taken together, our observations may support the idea that the CA1 region of the
hippocampus is a target site for dextromethorphan effects on memory recall. Moreover, the
14
cannabinoid system of the CA1 regions of the dorsal hippocampus may be effectively involved
Statement of Interest
None.
Acknowledgment
None.
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Fig. 1. The effects of the injection of dextromethorphan before the testing phase with or
without morphine on memory recall. Nine groups of animals were trained in a passive avoidance
task. On the test day, two groups received morphine (2 and 5 mg/kg) and were tested after 30
min (left panel). Three groups received dextromethorphan (5, 7.5 and 15 mg/kg) and after 90
min, they were tested (middle panel). The other three groups were administrated with the same
doses of dextromethorphan plus an ineffective dose of morphine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) and were tested
after 30 min (right panel). Each value represents mean± S.E.M. **P<0.01, ***P<0.001
compared with the control saline group. ++ P <0.01, +++P<0.001 compared with the morphine
(2 mg/kg) group.
Fig. 2. The effects of intra-CA1 microinjection of ACPA before the testing phase with or
without systemic injection of dextromethorphan plus morphine on memory recall. Animals were
21
trained and on the test day, they received intra-CA1 microinjection of ACPA (0, 0.5, 0.75 and 1
ng/rat; left panel). The other four groups received intra-CA1 microinjection of the same doses of
ACPA and after 5 min they received ineffective doses of dextromethorphan (7.5 mg/kg; i.p.) plus
morphine (2 mg/kg; i.p.). After 30 min, they were tested for evaluating latency times. Test
session latency times are expressed as mean ± S.E.M. *** P <0.001 compared with the control
Fig. 3. The effects of intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251 before the testing phase with
or without systemic injection of dextromethorphan plus morphine on memory recall. Four groups
of animals were trained and on the test day, they received intra-CA1 microinjection of AM251
(0, 30, 40 and 50 ng/rat; left panel). The other four groups received intra-CA1 microinjection of
the same doses of AM251 and after 5 min they received ineffective doses of dextromethorphan
(5 mg/kg; i.p.) and morphine (2 mg/kg; i.p.). After 30 min, they were tested for evaluating
latency times. Test session latency times are expressed as mean ± S.E.M. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01
Fig. 4. The effect of blockade of CB1 receptors via intra-CA1 microinjection of different
response. Animals were trained and after 24h, they received intra-CA1 microinjection of
different doses of AM251 (0, 10, 15, and 20 ng/rat) followed by vehicle (1 µl/rat) or ACPA (1
ng/rat) with 5 min interval. After 5 min, they received dextromethorphan (7.5 mg/kg; i.p.) plus
morphine (2 mg/kg; i.p.). Two control groups were used in this experiment. One group received
intra-CA1 microinjections of DMSO and vehicle (1 µl/rat) with 5 min interval, and after 5 min
they received interaperitoneal injection of saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) plus saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) with 60
22
min interval. Another group received intra-CA1 microinjections of DMSO and vehicle (1 μl/rat)
with 5 min interval, and after 5 min they were injected with saline (1 ml/kg; i.p.) plus morphine
(2 mg/kg, i.p.). Data are expressed as mean±S.E.M. of seven animals per group. *** P < 0.001
compared to DMSO/ vehicle/ saline/ morphine group. + P <0.05 compared with DMSO/ vehicle/
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