Book 1 Module 4 SEMI CONDUCTORS DIODES Licence By Post ee Licence By Post © copyright B EASA 66 4.1.1 ISSUE374AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. — For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations / guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governme: NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 210A UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax. (+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: www.infodlicencebypost.com Website; wwwrlicencebypost.comCONTENTS Semi conductor materials ‘The P-N junction Rectifier action Diodes Application of P-N junction diodes The bridge rectifier Clipping or limiting Clamping Voltage doubler Flywheel diode Diode testing Zener diode Thyristors LEDs Schottky diode Varactor diode Varister Photoconductive diode The Gunn diodeHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written to level 2 (the higher level of the syllabus for module 4 for the B1/B2 person) For the B2 person the level of study is level 2, for the B1 person, most of the subjects should be studied to level 1 and some parts of the book are not required at all. There is no requirement for the A line mechanic to study this module. In general terms, the BI person should have a good knowledge of the following when studying these books: Book Subject/s 1 Semi conductor materials to three phase full wave rectification. Fly- wheel diodes to photo-diodes (not Triacs or Shottkys or Gunn diodes). Note - it is not necessary to know how the diodes work. 2 Transistors (as an amplifier ~ basic operation only), symbols and construction. Properties of amplifier circuits. Common emitter, common base, common collector, push-pull amplifier. Classes of amplifiers. Types and uses of multivibrators (not operation). FETs - basic appreciation. Appreciation of feedback in amplifiers. Transistors as a switch. Logic circuits (not TTL and CMOS or flip- flops. Integrated circuits. Basic appreciation of Op-Amps. PCBs © Servo mechanism principles up to Phase Advance Damping. Servo mechanisms. Components (servo motors ete - basic appreciation), For most people the subject matter will have to be read through more than once to get it to “sink in”. But given careful study and a little time the material can be learnt and understood.SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS The molecular structure and properties of insulators, conductors and semiconductors has been dealt with in JAR module 3, However, to revise the theory on semiconductors or for those that have yet to study module 3 some background is covered here Remember that conductors have free electrons and will conduct electricity easily; insulators have tightly bound electrons and will not conduct electricity easily, and semi conductors will conduct readily under certain conditions and will not conduct under others. Figure 1 shows the structure of the germanium and silicon atoms, two very important elements in the manufacture of diodes and transistors. The drawings show the orbiting electrons around the nucleus in two dimensions. In reality the orbits are three dimensional and not equally spaced as shown. ELECTRONS, INNER SHELL: GERMANIUM ATOM SILICON ATOM Fig. 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - EXAMPLES It can be seen that each atom has four electrons in its outer shell, these electrons are called VALENCE ELECTRONS, they are farthest from the nucleus and therefore are least tightly bound (less attractive force). It is the valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Silicon and germanium are crystalline substances and the valence electrons of the individual atom link up and arrange themselves with the valence electrons in adjacent atoms to form CO-VALENT BONDS. Every atom has a half-share in eight valence electrons, This gives a stable arrangement of a regularly repeating three dimensional structure calied a crystal lattice. Figure 2 shows the two dimensional effect of the covalent bonding. Pure silicon and germanium are therefore very good insulators. At room temperature the atoms are vibrating sufficiently in the lattice for a few bonds to break, setting free some valence electrons, leaving “hole” where the electron was. Free electrons are attracted to the hole as the atom, short of an electron is now positively charged. titeEach valence shell has effectively eight electrons - four of these come from the atom itself and four others come from four adjacent atoms _- 7 o Fig. 2 CO-VALENT BONDS Ifa battery is placed across a pure semiconductor, electrons are attracted to the positive terminal. These free electrons travel through the semiconductor ‘hopping’ from one hole to another, and it therefore appears that the positive holes are moving towards the negative terminal. This current-flow is very small and is called INTRINSIC CONDUCTION. : To understand the concept of electrons moving one way and holes moving the other is not easy but it can be likened to an empty seat at the end of a row ina cinema. Assume the vacant seat to be at the right hand end of the row. If the first person next to the seat moves into it, then he/she has moved to the right, but the vacant seat has moved one place to the left. If each person in the row does the same {i¢ moves to the empty seat to his/her right) as soon as it becomes empty, the vacancy (hole) appears to have moved along the row in one direction while the occupants (electrons) have move in the opposite direction. If the temperature is raised more bonds break down and conduction increases ie, resistance decreases, this means more heat is generated, and more conduction occurs, resistance decreases further, more heat is generated - and so on. This is called thermal runaway (a from of positive feedback) and will eventually destroy the crystal structure. Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. A basic insulator can be changed into a conductor by mixing (doping) a very small quantity of a selected impurity atom into the semiconductor material. (Typically 1 part in 10:4, The material now becomes an extrinsic semiconductor, -2-‘Phere are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: N-Type semi-conductor material and P-Type semi conductor material. N-Type Semi-conductor Material Doping impurities such as phosphorus or arsenic are used. These have five (pentavalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, four of the clectrons join up with the co-valent bonding, whilst one electron is left ‘free’. (The number of free electrons can be strictly controlled by this doping). The free electrons can migrate through the inter-atomic space and can therefore act as current carriers when a (very low) voltage is applied ‘Semiconductor material doped with Phosphorus or Arsenic. Fig. 3 N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR | Note: Although extra electrons have been inserted, it must bé ¥éifiembered that each impurity atom is itself neutral and so the whole of the N-type material is also neutral. In general: MAJORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE) [N = N-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER ~ HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction) P-Type Semi-conductor Material In this material, impurities such as Indium or Aluminium are used. These have three (trivalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, all three electrons link into the crystal structure but this leaves a ‘hole’ in the structure. This hole is looking for an electron to fill it and so it is a form of positive current carrier. If a (very small) voltage is applied, electrons will move to fill in the holes but this forms fresh holes and so there is a general drift of holes through the material from positive to negative (in the opposite sense to the electron flow in the N-type material). Again, the material is neutral.Donor impurity atom (phosphorus) etype semiconductor td lhe ee (gt ander) 2Oz Score PEEPS | lnenifenme hon 2020202 jee camer (hale) 2OTOZO> Spare eectron 2 ot sOz , > flow 2zOZOTO> 1 cmt eh 9 $ OF ryt Istice of neype silicon Fig. 4 ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR Semiconductor material doped with Indium or Alurninium. Fig. 5 P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR In general: MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE) [P = P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conduction) Aecer pay an +e 4h Large Minority charge +). cartier (letron) sums St + Becton Bite tae Coratent ‘bond Ccrymial late af p-type silicon Fig. 6 ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR, -4-THE P-N JUNCTION Imagine a piece of N-type material being brought into contact with a piece of P- type material. Both pieces are, up to the instant of contact, neutral. Remembering that the holes are looking for electrons to complete the lattice network, it can be seen that electrons will migrate across the junction to fill in the holes as soon as the two materials are brought together, ahole - = a free electron _ Fig. 7 P-N JUNCTION BEFORE CONTACT As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. As electrons fill holes in the P-type material, it will become negatively charged A BARRIER POTENTIAL is built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the Depletion Layer (figure 8). This build-up in potential will eventually be strong enough to stop further migration of electrons across the junction. The Barrier Potential is approximately 0.2V for Germanium and 0.6V for Silicon. It must be remembered that the barrier potential is always present at a P-N junction - even if it is sitting in a storage bag on a shelf, DEPLETIONLAYER Fig. 8 P-N JUNCTION If an external supply is connected +ve to the P-type material and ~ve to the N- type, it will oppose the barrier potential. If it is bigger than the barrier potential, the barrier potential will be overcome and current will flow, electrons moving from supply negative to positive and holes moving in the opposite direction, as shown in figure 9. This is known as FORWARD BIASING the junction. ocrFig. 9 FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature) produces minority carriers and thus small current flows in the same direction as the majority carriers ie, it adds to it. EMARGED DEPLETION LAYER Fig. 10 REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION | oy j If the external supply is connected in the other sense, +ve to the N-type and —ve to the P-type, it will reinforce and increase the barrier potential and therefore no current will flow, except for any slight leakage current (see below). The depletion layer will be enlarged as shown in figure 10. This is known as REVERSE BIASING the junction. At first sight it might appear that there is no current flow. However, due to intrinsic conduction, which produces minority carriers, there is a tiny current flow across the junction which is known as the LEAKAGE CURRENT. Raising the temperature of the P-N junction causes a rapid increase in the generation of minority carriers, and therefore leakage current increases. At room temperature each 10°C rise in temperature approximately doubles the rate of generation for germanium. For silicon the doubling rate is every 5°C. It might appear from this that germanium would be used for higher temperature conditions, however, although the rate of increase is greater for silicon, its actual value is considerably less than that of germanium, so silicon is used where high temperatures are encountered.RECTIFIER ACTION A rectifier changes ac into de and diodes can be used to perform this function. If an ac supply is applied to a P-N junction then when ‘P’ is made positive to ‘N’ the positive half cycle will flow through the junction as it is forward biased. On the negative half cycle of the ac ‘P’ is negative to ‘N’ ‘This is the reversed bias mode and the junction will not conduct on this half of the cycle. The junction passes current through R (figure 11) only when the P material is positive. Therefore an output voltage is produced only on the positive input half cycle. v f\ - : AA ) AAS v — o——_________1__ow Fig. 11 ACTION OF A DIODE eee CONVENTIONAL FLOW Fig. 12 DIODE SYMBOL oe ea i —] (a) (b) fe) Fig. 13 DIODES -7-The P-N junction is acting as a rectifier and is known as a SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE. The symbol is as shown in figure 12 It is important to note that the arrow points in the direction of CONVENTIONAL current flow and the two connections are known as the ANODE (A) and CATHODE (K). The cathode (negative end) is often marked with a band as shown in figure 13 Diode Characteristics Typical characteristic curves for silicon and germanium diodes at 25°C are shown in figure 14. When forward biased, a voltage is required to overcome the barrier voltage before the diode current increases; this is typically 0.2V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon. After this, current rises rapidly as the applied voltage increases. - — 41mA Fig. 1¢ DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES ‘The left-hand side of the origin of the characteristic curve is where the voltage is reversed, ie reverse biased. As can be seen from figure 14 the current is small and is the leakage current due to minority carriers. Note that the voltage scale is not linear, with the larger divisions on the negative axes of the graph As the voltage is increased, at a certain point the current increases rapidly to a high value. This is known as AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN and will cause permanent damage to the diode if it is allowed to occur.It occurs because as the reverse voltage becomes too great, the minority carriers are accelerated to a point where they heat up the diode and collide with atoms in the depletion layer. This will dislodge further electrons, thus creating more minority carriers and this effect ‘avalanches’ to cause a rapid rise in current. ‘The breakdown voltage can have any value from a few volts up to 1000V for silicon and 100V for germanium depending on the construction of the diode and the level of doping. Diode Parameters Diodes are manufactured in a wide range of voltage and current ratings, These must be taken into account when designers choose a diode for a particular circuit. Typical parameters considered are: * Maximum forward current. Cc . Peak inverse voltage. : * Maximum operating temperature. The diode has a small forward resistance when it is conducting, so power must be dissipated as it conducts, This power dissipation causes heat at the Junction, this local heating must be kept low, as excessive leakage current will occur. There is therefore a MAXIMUM FORWARD CURRENT 60 that the temperature is not reached which will cause deterioration of the structure of the diode. y eae v ‘The PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV) is the maximum operating voltage appearing across the terminals of the diode acting in the reverse direction, and therefore represents the maximum reverse voltage that may be applied to the diode without reverse breakdown occurring, This may be written as Maximum Reverse Voltage instead of PIV. MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE is the maximum junction temperature above which the structure of the diode deteriorates. The maximum forward current is so chosen that this temperature is not exceeded in the worst combination of circumstances. However, it should be remembered that the maximum forward current will also depend on the temperature in which the diode is operating; and maximum forward current is usually quoted at two or more ambient temperatures. We know as the temperature rises the leakage current increases and doubles in value for each 10°C rise in temperature. Depending on its use, frequency is also a parameter to be considered, but generally these are special diodes and will be discussed later.APPLICATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODES In Series When diodes are connected in series to a known load then it must be remembered that the current will be the same for each diode and the maximum forward current must not be exceeded for each diode. Fig. 15 DIODES IN SERIES Because each diode has a small forward resistance there will be a volts drop, which will depend on each diode’s characteristics. These individual volts drops will subtract from the supply voltage to leave a certain voltage across the load (see later notes on rectifiers), Fig. 16 DIODES IN PARALLEL In Parallel Where current supplied by one rectifier would exceed its maximum forward current, or exceed its maximum operating temperature, it is possible to connect two or more diodes in parallel. The current, therefore, will be divided between the diodes. The voltage across each diode will be the same and the current distribution between the diodes will depend on the characteristics of the diodes (again, for further information on rectifiers see later notes in this series). Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier With reference to figure 17, when terminal A is positive with respect to B the diode conducts, this causes a current to flow around the circuit and a voltage will be developed across R.. When the input polarity reverses terminal A will be negative with respect to B and the diode will switch off. -10-ay ~— Peak voltage v =i The voltage developed across R, is therefore half-sine-waves and the unit is known as a half wave rectifier - the output being de, albeit variable. The average value being half that of the supply, ie peak x 0.318. (assuming no losses), The de output ‘ripples’ have a frequency equal to the input frequency of the ac supply, ie ripple frequency = supply frequency. Average voltage 031 Fig. 17 HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier As the name implies this uses both half cycles of the input wave form. Figure 18 shows diodes D; and D2 used with a transformer, which is centre tapped at C. The point C can be considered as neutral with terminals A and B swinging alternately positive and negative about it. - When A is positive to C, Diode D: conducts with De switched off. On the other half cycle of input, B is positive to C and D2 conducts with D; switched off. The output is therefore undirectional, with both diodes alternately conducting, giving @ full wave output across Ri. The average output voltage is.0.637 x peak (assuming no losses), ie average of the supply. —— ® a ‘current Now when. Ret i some oli wt ® D: 0.637 ¥ Current flow when © Kf Dyconduets Fig. 18 FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION The output de ‘ripple’ is therefore twice the input supply frequency. Having to use the double winding on the transformer makes this component more buliy in size and therefore more expensive. A point to note about this circuit is that when Di is conducting, the voltage across the load resistor R. is the peak voltage. With D2 cut off the voltage across C-B is in series with this voltage, so these two voltages combine to give a total of twice the peak voltage. -11-This will act as a reverse voltage across D2 so the peak inverse voltage for the diodes must be twice the peak voltage on either half of the secondary of the transformer. The Bridge Rectifier This is also a single phase full wave rectifier, and has advantages over the previous circuit in that the transformer does not need to produce twice the voltage required and the secondary is in use all the time. Unlike the previous circuit where only half the secondary winding was used at any one time. Figure 19 shows a bridge rectifier. Assume the top of the secondary winding of the transformer to be positive (positive half cycle), trace the current flow through the load using the arrows shown. You can see that with A positive current will flow to B and then through the load. A Fig. 20 BRIDGE RECTIFIER - SECOND HALF CYCLE On the next half cycle (figure 20) assume the bottom of the secondary is positive and trace the circuit through the load following the arrows. Note the direction of current through the load is the same during each half cycle, ie it is de. -12-Note that in this circuit the two non-conducting diodes have twice the supply voltage across them, (load/supply voltage + supply voltage = twice supply voltage). However, this voltage is shared between the two non-conducting diodes in series, therefore the peak inverse voltage per diode is the supply voltage. As before the ripple frequency is twice the supply frequency. Typically all four diodes are available in one package. Three Phase Half Wave Rectification In order to obtain three-phase half wave rectification a diode must be inserted into each of the supply lines to the load and the return from the load to the supply must be to the star point of the three-phase system. Therefore this form of rectification can only be used where there is a star connection using a neutral line. Assume this star connection is the secondary of a three phase (DELTA-STAR) transformer as shown in figure 21. Figure 22 shows the waveform of the three-phase supply and thé resultant supply voltage to the load. ag SUPPLY VOLTAGE VOLTAGE Fig. 22 WAVEFORMS - THREE PHASE RECTIFIER Note that the ripple frequency of this rectifier output is three times the supply frequency, with three de output voltage ‘blips’ for one sequence of the three- phase ac supply. So the ripple is getting “better”. -13-‘Three Phase Full Wave Rectification This form of connection does not require a neutral line, so can be used on either Star or Delta connected systems. Figure 23 shows the diode circuit diagram. Fig. 23 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT —-— ‘The arrows show the time in the three phase cycle when phase A is maximum and passing peak current to the load (say 10 amps). After passing through the load, the current splits into two, of five amps each, to return to the B and C lines back to the supply. Et The output ripple frequency has improved to six times the supply frequency. We shall now look at some other uses of diodes. RESULTANT WAVEFORM TO LOAD VOLTAGE Fig. 24 THREE PHASE FULL WAVE WAVEFORM. CLIPPING OR LIMITING As the name implies this is the ‘limiting’ or ‘clipping off of part of the voltage waveform that lies above or below a certain chosen level. This level is called the bias, or reference level. Some examples are shown in figure 25. -14-Vin Vout PROCESS mA J perc em ‘HOISE REMOVAL ‘PROVISION OF CONSTANT ANPUTUDE Purses REMOVAL OF EXCESSIVE EXCURSION REMOVALOF UNWANTED TRIGGER Pie Fig. 26 SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER In figure 26, assume the input is a sinewave of (say] +20V to ~20V. When the diode is conducting (assuming negligible resistance) the voltage across it is negligible and the output voltage (Vou) will be equal to Vin. When the diode is cut-off the output voltage is practically zero. The circuit therefore clips the portion of the waveform, which goes negative. +21 Fig. 27 WAVEFORM OF SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER -15-If the diode was to be turned round we then have a series positive limiter and the diode only conducts on the negative going cycles and so the positive going portion of the input waveform is clipped. ‘The resistance R must be some value intermediate between the two diode extremes of resistance. This means R is very large compared to the conducting resistance (almost zero ohms) and very small compared with the cut-off resistance (which is almost infinite). A typical value for R in practice will be between 10kQ and 100kQ. Figure 28 shows a shunt positive limiter with the diode in shunt (parallel) with the component (Vovr) and the resistor is in series. oH Vou vie R | ‘DIODE Fig. 28 SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER During the positive half cycles, with the diode conducting the voltage developed across it is practically zero, so output voltage is zero, When the diode is cut-off on the negative half-cycles, practically the whole of the input voltage is across the diode and therefore Vout = Viv. This circuit therefore clips the portion of the input waveform which goes positive. _ j Fig. 29 WA'EFORM OF POSITIVE LIMITER If we wish to remove the negative cycles of the waveform all that is required us to turn the diode around; the circuit now becomes a shunt negative limiter. The circuits so far discussed have all ‘clipped’ or limited the waveform above zero volts. In practice it is often necessary to clip the portion of the waveform above or below some reference voltage other than zero. This can be done using slightly modified versions of the basic limiting circuits already shown. Figure 30 shows a shunt negative limiter to -10V. es— via Fy ioe + i © Fig. 30 SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER, The waveform may be limited to any positive or negative value by holding the appropriate electrode of the diode at the required bias or reference level. On one half cycle of the input, the diode is cut-off and practically the whole of the input voltage appears as Vour. On the other half cycle the diode is cut-off until it reaches above the bias level, up to'this point Vin = Vour, when the diode conducts the Vour is equal to the bias level and clips the negative half cycle as shown in figure 31, If the polarity of the bias was turned around the other way then the output would be as shown in figure 32. ! Fig. 32 REVERSE POLARITY WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER -17-If the diodes are turned round then the reverse outputs will occur. The same principle can be applied to series limiters. Figure 33 shows a series positive limiter to -10V and figure 34 shows its waveform, If the (15V) battery at the bottom of the resistor was reversed then the output waveform would be as shown in figure 35, DIODE Vout 0 Eo Net Zo. Fig. 34 WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER Fig. 35 WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER WITH REVERSE POLARITY BATTERY Again if the diodes were turned around the reverse outputs will occur, -18-Figure 36 shows the circuit where the two are combined. This ‘combined limiter’ can be used to take a ‘slice’ out of an input waveform, as shown in figure 37. vie Vout 8 4 Fig. 36 COMBINED LIMITER Fig. 37 WAVEFORM OF COMBINED LIMITER Vi In practice, reference or bias levels are not provided by batteries, but by a potentiometer connected across a de supply line. au Clamping These circuits are widely used in radar and communications equipment to change the reference level of a waveform without reducing its amplitude, Circuits which move waveforms up or down in this way are known as Clamping Circuits because their effect is to fix or clamp the top or bottom level of the waveform. Figure 38 shows the difference between a limiter /clipping circuit and a clamping circuit. The limiter circuit simply ‘cuts off” a part of the waveform, whilst a clamping circuit moves the whole waveform up or down, blank -19-LIMITER CIRCUIT LIMITER CUTS OFF PART (OF THE INPUT WAVE FORM HOW A CLAMPING CIRCUIT DIFFERS FROM A LIMITER, dl CLAMPING CIRCUIT A CLAMPING CIRCUIT PUSHES THE WHOLE WAVEFORM UP OR DOWN Fig. 38 LIMITING/CLAMPING The simplest form of clamping circuit is a diode circuit that consists of a capacitor and resistor, forming a long CR circuit to the input waveform. The voltage to which the bottom ends of the resistor or diode are returned is again known as the bias or reference level. It may be of either polarity including ov. Fig. 39 CLAMPING CIRCUIT The circuit is clamped to this bias level. In figure 39 the output waveform is clamped to zero volts. The two types of clamping circuits are: 1. Positive clamping - the bottom of the output waveform is clamped to the bias voltage, so the output waveform is positive to the bias level. 2. Negative clamping - the top of the waveform is clamped to the bias voltage, so the output waveform is negative to the bias level. -20-Figure 40 shows a circuit with positive clamping to zero volts and figure 41 shows the waveforms, vin re R Fig. 40 POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT LeraCR stent cy (CLAMPING LEVEL et Fig. 41 WAVEFORM - POSITIVE CLAMPING With reference to figure 40, since R and the diode are in parallel the output voltage always equals the voltage developed across R. In any CR circuit the input voltage Viv = Ve+ Vp at all times. The description of the waveforms (figure 41) is as follows: AtoB The input rises to 100V from zero. The capacitor is initially uncharged and cannot charge immediately. Vr therefore rises instantly to 100V and since this voltage is applied to the cathode of the diode, the diode is cut-off. BtoC With the diode cut-off, C charges on a long time constant CR seconds and Ve (voltage across the capacitor) rises by a small amount. Thus Vp falls by the same amount. CtoD The input falls by 100V to zero and since Vc cannot change immediately Vr also falls to 100V to a small negative potential which causes the diode to conduct. -21-DtoE With the diode conducting, C discharges on a short time constant CR seconds. Rp is diode resistance. Both Vc and Ve quickly return to zero volts and the diode is cut-off. EtoF The input rises again by 100V and the cycle is repeated, Except for small negative ‘pips’ the output Vr is clamped to a base level of zero volts and is positive going from this level. A similar action takes place with a negative going square wave. Figure 42 shows a negative clamping circuit and figure 43 shows the waveforms, L TIE s 4] @ j_ Fig. 42 NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT - TO ZERO VOLTS s1o0v [eG] F Uk Vin ov__JA D 100 — No ow— s00v VR (Vout) 100v ee Le Fig. 43 WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS Assuming a square wave of OV and +100V (figure 43). Prior to A the capacitor is initially uncharged and since Vv equals zero volts, Vour equals zero volts. -22-AtoB Btoc CtoD DtoE EtoF After F The input voltage rises from zero, and since C cannot change its state of charge instantaneously, the rise appears in full across R (Vout). Since Vs is the same as the voltage across the diode the diode conducts. Capacitor C and the conducting diode form a short CR circuit and so the capacitor quickly charges to +100v. Vour falls to zero volts. Vin changes instantaneously from +100V to zero volts and this step appears in full across R. Thus Vr becomes immediately - 100V, the diode is non-conducting and Vc is unchanged. The circuit is now a long CR and C discharges slowly, Vr rises slowly towards zero volts. (In a very long CR circuit the change of D to Eis only a very small proportion of the input waveform amplitude). Vin instantly becomes 100V again, and this rise causes Ve to jump from (say) -98V to +2V, which causes the diode to conduct. C quickly charges back to +100V on the short CR circuit and the process repeats itself.-——~ ‘Thus after the initial spike is over, the waveform Vour is a very slightly distorted version of the input waveform, but negatively clamped to zero volts. In the examples shown the output waveform is clamped, either positively or negatively, to zero volts, If it was necessary, as in some radar circuits, to clamp to a level other than zero, then the bias voltage is placed in the resistor rectifier line as shown in figures 44, 46 and 48. The waveforms produced are shown in figures 45, 47 and 49 respectively. Fig. 44 NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS -23-~125v Fig. 45 WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS od Pay vin 4. et ! Veeco +50v Clamping level Fig. 47 WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS -24-(Clamping level =r Fig. 49 WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS VOLTAGE DOUBLER Another application of a diode is in a voltage doubler circuit, Which is typically used in @ High Energy Ignition Unit (HEIU). Figure 50 shows the basic principle of a double circuit. Fig. 50 VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 1On one half cycle of the supply capacitor C: will charge up to V volts, on the other half cycle C2 will charge up to V volts. As the two capacitors are in series then the output is approximately 2V volts. Vu Fig. 51 VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 2 With reference to figure 51 (another type of doubler circuit}, Cs is charged to V volts during the negative half cycle of the supply voltage. The potential between Cs now acts as a battery in series with the supply. In the positive half cycle of the supply, Cs is charged to a voltage equal to the sum of the peak supply voltage and the voltage across Cs, ie approximately 2V. By connecting the output of one multiplying circuit onto the input of the next (cascading) the de voltage output can be four times the ac input: — FLY WHEEL DIODE Sometimes a diode is connected across @ Telay coil to help préverit arcing. When the supply is switched off the collapse of current causes a self-induced emf in the coil which by Lenz’s Law tries to keep the current flowing and may cause arcing across the control switch contacts. The diode allows a path for the dissipation of this voltage and prevents this possible arcing. This may also be called a free-wheel diode. CONTROL, ‘SwiTCH x a RELAY SUPPLY PATH FOR INDUCTIVE, | CURRENT PROVIDED BY DIODE Fig. 52 FLY-WHEEL OR FREE-WHEEL DIODE -26-TESTING OF DIODES It is essential the diode is connected the correct way round in a circuit, so a coloured band or spot usually marks the cathode (k] end. If it is necessary to verify the connections in the absence of any marking then a test meter is used. Using the old AVO-meter it should be remembered, as with any ohmmeter, that the BLACK (NEGATIVE) terminal becomes the positive output and RED (POSITIVE) terminal is the negative. When a FLUKE’ is used it has a switch selection to test diodes. S = Si 8 oo Fig. 53 TESTING OF DIODES 7 The meter displays the forward voltagé drop (Vs) up to 2V and beeps briefly for one diode drop (Vr < 0.7v) for the forward bias test. For reverse bias or open circuit the meter displays OL, and if there is a short circuit the meter emits a continuous tone. THE ZENER DIODE You will remember that, with a P-N diode under reverse bias conditions, the only current flowing is due to the minority carriers passing across the depletion layer. ‘As can be seen from the graph (figure 54) if the reverse bias is increased, there is little effect on the flow at the minority carriers, if the reverse bias is continually increased the point of breakdown is reached and the current increases rapidly. In the rectifier diodes discussed so far the designers make sure that the system gets nowhere near this value of reverse voltage because the diode would be destroyed. However, the Zener diode makes use of this breakdown or avalanche condition. -27-a Fig. 54 GRAPH OF REVERSE BIAS Just to look at the breakdown mechanism in a little more detail. As the reverse bias increases the acceleration of the electrons increases and they dislodge other electrons as they collide with the atoms. More electrons are now created to cause more collisions and so on, anda situation is reached which is uncontrollable (avalanche) and the diode is destroyed. However, if a resistor of a suitable value is placed in series with the diode the current can be limited which ensures no overheating and does not cause damage to the diode. ' The Zener diode is always connected in REVERSE BIAS, ie cathode to positive, anode to negative. At the required breakdown voltage, determined by the doping levels the Zener will breakdown, but if the reverse voltage is reduced then the Zener will again become a blocking diode. Ifyou look at the graph again you can see that the voltage across the diode remains virtually constant at the breakdown voltage value even though the current through it can increase, The Zener is therefore a CONSTANT VOLTAGE, VARIABLE CURhENT device. They are made in a wide range of breakdown voltages 2 - 200V being a typical and also a wide range of power ratings from half a Watt to many Watts. The Zener diode symbol is shown in figure 55. ee Fig. 55 ZENER DIODE SYMBOL ~28-The Zener diode can be used as a voltage stabilizer, ie to keep the voltage constant across a circuit irrespective of load current or supply voltage variations. With reference to figure 56: (a) If the load current I increases, the Zener current decreases by the amount, if I, decreases then the Zener current increases by the same amount thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load at all times. (b) If the supply voltage should increase, then the current through the Zener increases while the increase in voltage appears across Rp not across the Zener. The Zener voltage remains at breakdown value irrespective of the increase in current through it. If the input voltage falls, Zener current decreases and the voltage across Rp falls, but again the voltage across the Zener and the load remains constant. Reactified Fig. 56 VOLTAGE STABILISER CIRCUIT — ‘The property of the Zener means it can also be used as a reverse voltage switch, ie it can be arranged to breakdown at a certain reverse voltage to activate a switch, as used in aircraft transistorized regulators and protection systems. SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (THYRISTOR) The SCR is a P-N-P-N semiconductor switching device, which has three terminals ANODE, CATHODE and GATE. An explanation of the operation of the SCR can be carried out using the two transistor analogy. For this you should refer to Book 2 in this series. You may wish to do that now and come back to this section. If the two centre regions of the SCR are regarded as being split diagonally as. shown in figure 58, it becomes two interconnected transistors TR1 and TR2. -29-ANODE (A) syitpou ANODE (A) consrrucrion . |= sunction 1 N a Junction 2 care) OTP | sanctions eee CATHODE (K) N © CATHODE (k) Fig. 57 SCR SYMBOL & CONSTRUCTION 4g A A P an 7R4 nl = pais a IB “4 RZ col p 6 6 Js N Kd « « Fig. 58 SCR OPERATION TR1 is a P-N-P transistor and TR2 is an N-P-N transistor. With the anode positive to the cathode, the base collector junctions’ (J2) are reverse biased and apart from a small leakage current no current flows. oo If a pulse of current is injected into the gate terminal this turns TR2 on, this base current produces a larger collector current in TR2 which also forms the conduction path for the base current of TRI, which increases its collector current and forms the base current of TR2. The SCR is now self-sustaining and the gate supply can be removed. Typically a few microseconds of a small current applied to the gate will turn the SCR ‘ON’. The device will remain in its conducting state until: 1 The device is reverse biased, ie positive to cathode, negative to anode. 2 The supply is removed. 3 The voltage across the device is reduced so that the current falls below its “holding value” (see Characteristic Graph). -30-PRINCIPAL Curent trom) rn) Fonwano conoverve econ remover woos wolmees Conner] ° WG eVERSE ———— pat ronnie wourace vole oRwAo) sevense SYmeAY ne) Skeacoown secon 1 REVERSE Fig. 59 GRAPH OF SCR CHARACTERISTICS Figure 59 shows a graph of the characteristics for an SCR for different values of gate voltage. The points a, b and c represent values at which the junction reverse bias is overcome and the SCR conducts, known as ‘breakover’. ‘a’ represents the highest voltage and ‘c’ the lowest gate voltage. Once the SCR is conducting the voltage across it is typically 1V. 5 ‘The SCR can be made to carry a wide range of currents from 1A to 1000A. Figure 60 shows different types of SCR. In aircraft systems, the SCR would be typically used in firewire control, windscreen heating control etc. In windscreen heat control, the SCR can be gated at the beginning or at any point through out the half cycle. The earlier it is gated then more current will flow to the windscreen, the later it is gated then less current will flow i HIGH CURRENT (408) MEDIUM CURRENT (254) LOW CURRENT (1A) Fig. 60 SCRs The basic SCR, when fed with ac, will switch off after one half cycle as the other half cycle will reverse bias the SCR. So it only allows half power through. -31-es AN nn " YVIUTV TIME Fe || NA Fig. 61 GRAPHS OF SCR INPUTS & OUTPUTS A TRIAC consists of two SCR's connected in parallel but in opposition and controlled by the same gate. It is triggered on both half cycles and therefore one conducts on one half cycle and the other one conducts on the other haif eyce. Figure 62 shows the symbol. M2 wrt Fig. 62 TRIAC SYMBOL The TRIAC is therefore used in windscreen heat control and domestically as a lamp dimmer or motor speed control for an electric drill. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) An LED consists of a junction diode made from the semiconductor compound gallium arsenide phosphide. It emits light when forward biased, the colour of the light emitted is in direct proportion to the current flow. Lens COLOURED TRANSLUCENT ANODE Me PLASTICCASE FLAT cATHODE CATHODE ANODE LEADS Fig. 63 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE & SYMBOL -32-Light emission in the red, orange, green and yellow regions of the spectrum is obtained depending on the composition and impurity content of the compound. When a P-N junction is forward biased electrons move across the junction from the N-type side to the P-type side where they recombine with holes near the Junction. The same occurs with holes going across the junction from the P- type side. Every recombination results in the release of a certain amount of energy, causing, in most semiconductors, a temperature rise. In gallium arsenide phosphide some of the energy is emitted as light that gets out of the LED because the junction is formed very close to the surface of the material. In applying this to aircraft displays either the 7 segment or dot matrix configurations may be used. LL _ Pu co ‘TYPICAL PIN CONNECTIONS COMMON (CATHODE 7 SEGMENT LED DISPLAY Fig. 64 SEVEN SEGMENT LED DISPLAY In the 7-segment display for numerical indication, as shown in figure 64, each segment is an LED mounted within a reflective cavity with a plastic overlay. When used with an ac supply the LED should be protected against reverse breakdown, this can be done with a conventional diode connected in shunt across the LED. On reverse voltage the diode will conduct at about 0.4V protecting the LED which would breakdown at about 3-11V reverse voltage The voltage drop across a conducting LED is approximately 1.7V and it will have an external resistor connected in series to limit the forward current (typically 10mA). -33-External Resistor When used on its own the LED must have an external resistor in series with it to limit the forward current, which typically could be 10mA (0.01A). If the voltage drop across a conducting LED is approximately 1.6v the value of the external resistor can be calculated, eg: External resistor (R) supply voltage ~ 1.6v 0.01A If supply voltage is 9v: R= 9=1L6v O.01A cs 7400 SCHOTTKY DIODE ~ mo This diode is a rectifying metal to semiconductor junction. Several metals may be used, including gold and aluminum, which are fused directly to a semiconductor material. 2 ; Since the mobility of electrons is greater than holes an N-type semi-conductor is used. Current flow in this diode differs from current flow in conventional P- N junction diodes in that the minority carriers do not take any part in the process. The diode has very low capacitance and high switching speeds, produces less noise and has a smaller forward conducting voltage (0.2 to 0.4V) then conventional P-N diodes. Fig. 65 SCHOTTKY DIODE SYMBOL The basic construction, as already mentioned, is a piece of aluminum fused to an N type semiconductor. Some of the aluminum atoms diffuse into the silicon because aluminum has a valency of 3. This makes a very small P region. The current carrier is almost 100% electrons due to free electrons in the N type semiconductor and the metal. ‘The Schottky diode is used in the making of logic gates as the switching time is high. -34-VARACTOR DIODE Under reverse bias conditions, a junction diode can be regarded as a parallel plate capacitor having two plates (the P and N regions) that are separated by a dielectric (depletion layer). The capacitance will vary according to the area and width of the depletion layer. The narrow depletion layer gives a higher capacitance than a wider depletion layer. w T. Fig. 66 SYMBOL - VARACTOR DIODE If this reverse bias can be varied then we have a variable capacitor typically between 2-10pf, These diodes are used to tune TV and VHF radio sets in special circuits, which allow the set to lock on to the desired-station automatically. Figure 66 shows the symbol for the varacter (varicap) diode. VARISTOR / The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) is a semiconductor resistor made of zinc oxide semiconductor crystals. When the voltage across this specialised resistor becomes two high, the resistor breaks down and becomes a conductor. The action of the varistor can be compared to a pair of Zener diodes wired back to back in series. - “oS Fig. 67 TYPICAL MOV VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH They are used for transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch contact protection. -35-Fig. 68 MOV SYMBOL Figure 68 shows the symbol used in drawings and figure 69 shows how a varistor reduces noise spikes in an ac voltage. The varistor is connected across the secondary of the transformer and at normal voltage has a very high resistance and takes a very small current. However when the voltage spikes exceed the breakdown voltage, it conducts and clips off the noise spikes. The varistor switches extremely fast, unlike Zener diodes that are slow switching. The principle described here could also be used for switch contact protection, ~~ . Me BREAKDOWN Pare Seu VOLTAGE a“ BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE ve ov’ Var 320 vous xc ‘TO RECTIFIER, Rus + FILTER AND NOISE. REGULATOR Fig. 69 VARISTOR NOISE SPIKE CLIPPING ACTION PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE The photodiode is a P-N junction that is reversed biased in normal operation. Its case has a transparent window through which light can enter. As it operates in reverse bias there will be leakage current (minority carriers) which increases in proportion to the amount of light falling on the junction. ‘The light energy breaks the bonding in the crystal lattice of the semiconductor and produces electrons and holes to increase the leakage current. Figure 70 shows the drawing symbol and figure 71 shows the characteristics of the photodiode. - 36-‘ef Fig. 70 SYMBOL ~ PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE ‘ANODE CURRENT (+) 2 FORWARD BIASED i carnage i vote boven : ERE Increasing llumination ANODE VOLTAGE (+) zip Wummnation ANODE VOLTAGE (+) Increasing ltumination PHOTODIODE QUADRANT —_| ANODE CURRENT (1) Fig. 71 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHOTODIODE ‘Typically silicon diodes are used, as their leakage current with no’light (dark current) is much lower than germanium. The sensitivity lies between 10mA/lm to about 50mA/Im (lm = lumen which is the amount of light emitted from a light source 1 candela strong) and the spectral response covers the visible to the infrared range. Photodiodes used with laser systems can operate at very high frequencies. They are very fast operating and are used in laser gyros and as an optical receiver for laser systems. THE GUNN DIODE These are used for generating microwave radio signals at very high frequencies up to 35,000 MHz eg microwave oscillators. Gunn diodes do not have a deliberate PN junction like other diodes and make very poor one-way valves. They are simply a piece of N-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor with two leads attached. -37-wrvPecate pack or GALLIUM ARSENE ‘SEMICONDUCTOR Fig. 72 GUNN DIODE CONSTRUCTION When very high voltages (500 volts per mm of semiconductor) is applied across the diode, electrons are transferred to a high energy state where they lose their mobility, ie they are no longer able to conduct through the material so the resistance of the semiconductor has increased as the voltage across it increases, The diode has a negative resistance region. - necarve REsisTaNce REGION Bc aMrenes 0 to. Heo hoa evours Fig. 73 VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS FOR A GUNN As can be seen from the graph, the diode is biased with hundreds of volts and large currents flow through it. It is usually pulsed intermittently to prevent it from burning up but still needs to be kept cool with a refrigeration process. - 38 -Book 2 Module 4 TRANSISTORS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS Licence By Post Licence By Post © copyright B EASA 66 4.1.2 to 4.2 ISSUE 393AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Transistor theory & construction Transistor testing The transistor as an amplifier Directly coupled amplifiers Classes of amplifiers Multivibrators Flip-flops JUGFETs MOSFETs The CMOS Feedback in amplifiers Oscillators The transistor as a switch Integrated circuits Operational amplifiers Logic circuits SR flip-flops Clocks JK flip-flops PCBs Page 15 17 21 24 26 28 30 30 33 34 35 38. 45, 56 57 58 60HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK The same applies to this book as applies to book 1. This means that it is written to the B2 level, and B1 people should check the How To Tackle This Book section in book 1 to see what subjects should be learnt and to what depth. None of the contents applies to the A Line Mechanic. For category B engineers the book will probably need to be read at least twice to get the information to sink in - in some cases it may need more. For Full Students ~ do get back to your tutor if you have any problems.TRANSISTORS These are small electronic semi-conductor devices having three or more terminals connected to electrodes within the device. Current flowing between two electrodes is controlled by voltage or current applied at one or more other electrodes. They work at very low voltages and can be used as switches and amplifiers. Construction and Theory of Operation ‘The bi-polar or junction transistor consists of two P-N junctions in the same crystal. If two P-N junctions were fused together so that the two ‘N’ regions form a very thin (0.1 to 1mm thick} lightly doped layer between the two more heavily doped P’ regions a P-N-P transistor is formed. Figure 1 shows the layout of the transistor and its symbol. Note the electrodes are called COLLECTOR, BASE and EMITTER (emitter - the one with the arrow in the symbol). The emitter is more heavily doped than the collector. « —-—— : [P| B Base 8 E Emitter Fig. 1 PNP TRANSISTOR Similarly if qwo heavily doped 'N’ regions are separated by a very thin lightly doped 'P’ region then an N-P-N transistor is formed. Figure 2 shows the layout and its symbol. The emitter is again more heavily doped than the collector, Note. For both the P-N-P and N-P-N transistors the arrows show the direction of conventional current flow. Action of N-P-N Transistor For transistor action to occur the BASE-EMITTER junction must be forward biased (POSITIVE to ‘P’, NEGATIVE to ‘N’) and the COLLECTOR-BASE junction must be reverse biased (POSITIVE to ‘N’, NEGATIVE to ‘P)It should be noted that the battery E, is much smaller than the battery Ee, it must also be of sufficient voltage to overcome the barrier potential of 0.6v for silicon. Ic Collector c n Pp B Base B n E Emitter E Fig. 2 NPN TRANSISTOR n pn : A Emitter [Collector ¥ Ty Y eectrons flow out eS Ee Ec NIK allie Forward bias Reverse bias ARROWS INDICATE ELECTRON FLOW oo CONVENTIONAL FLOW !S IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION Fig. 3 NPN OPERATION Under the influence of the electric field due to battery E. electrons cross the junction into the base. Only a small proportion (about 1 to 2%) of the electrons combine with holes in the base due to it being very thin and lightly doped. Most of the electrons (98 to 99%), under the very strong positive influence of the battery Ec, are swept through the base to the collector to Ez to form the collector current in the external circuit. Electrons are the majority carriers in the N-P-N transistor. The small amount of electron-hole combination in the base gives it a momentary negative charge, which is immediately corrected by battery Ee supply holes, or can be considered as electron flow. Remember, conventional current flow is in the opposite direction.So transistor action is the controlling of a large current in the high resistance (reverse biased) collector-base junction by a small current through the low resistance (forward biased) base-emitter junction, Collector Fig. 4 CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW NPN TRANSISTOR Action of P-N-P Transistor ere Again the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee, holes cross'the junction into the base. Only 1 to 2% of holes recombine with free electrons iri the base due to it being very thin and lightly doped. The majority of the holes 98 to 99% are accelerated towards the very strong negative influence of battery Ee. Holes are the majority carriers in the P-N-P transisto’ & Forward bias Reverse bias ARROWS INDICATE ELECTRON FLOW CONVENTIONAL FLOW IS IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION Fig. § PNP OPERATIONDue to recombination of holes and electrons in the base, the base loses free electrons and will therefore exhibit a positive charge. The electrons will be attracted by battery Ee into the base to ‘make-up’ for those lost by recombining with holes. Figure 6 shows the conventional current flow through the transistor. Fig. 6 CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW PNP TRANSISTOR Since the carriers in the N-P-N and P-N-P transistors originate at the emitter and distribute themselves between base and collector, the sum of the base and collector currents must always be equal to the emitter current, therefore: Ie = ko + ly Type BFI9¢ —- BCIOB.«—«2TX300-«2N370S——2NGOSS & BFYS1 } | Tag J / Bec CBE CBE BCE cBE MMI0B TOI. Bline SO} TOSZe ‘TOS (metal can (esti) (metal plants) (plastic) connected to C} Fig. 7 TYPICAL TRANSISTORS ‘The transistor can be used as an AMPLIFIER circuit and also as a SWITCH. The amplifier action is based on applying a low current to the base-emitter with a higher current flowing through the collector-emitter, ‘The switching action is the effect of applying a small current to the base for the unit (N-P-N) to ‘switch on’ allowing current to flow between the collector-emitter. Removing the base-emitter current will cause the unit to switch off. These switching times can be very fast (say 2ns or 2 x 10 seconds or 0.000 000 002 seconds) (ns = nano seconds). Fast switching times are needed in computing, -4-Testing Transistors Using an analogue multimeter switched to the ohms range, On most analogue multimeters on the ohms range the negative (-) terminal has a positive polarity and the positive terminal (+) has a negative polarity. This is an important point with regards to identifying N-P-N and P-N-P transistors, Ifa digital multimeter is used then check the polarities of the terminals on the ohms range. Figure 8 shows the readings you would expect using an analogue multimeter. LOW RESISTANCE HIGH RESISTANCE LOWRESISTANCE HIGH RESISTANCE MULTIMETER _- QP cae e\ /e_—¢ e\ fa NPN Fig. 8 TESTING TRANSISTORS USING A MULTIMETER - LINEAR circuits are amplifying-type circuits. They will have analogue inputs and the output will vary continuously and be more or less an exact but amplified copy of the input, ie the output is a linear representation of the input. Many class A transistor amplifiers, eg audio frequency and radio frequency amplifiers, are linear circuits. TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER First of all we need to look at how the bias is applied in a practical circuit. In our previous examples batteries were used for the bias.If de only is applied to the circuit shown figure 10 then Ri and Re will divide the supply voltage into the same ratio as that of the resistors. So if the resistor values were 80kQ and 20kQ then with a supply voltage of 10v the voltages across Ri and Ry would be 8v and 2v respectively. Fig. 10 AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT - 2 The voltage across must be 0.6V to overcome the barrier potential, This could be achieved by removing Re and making R2 of such a value so that 0.6V is dropped across it, however, the problem here would be Re would have to be quite low and the amplification would be restricted. _"~ ae The voltage across the base emitter junction (Vac) must be 0.6V and is the difference between the voltage across Ro and Rr. Vez = Vre - Vas. Fig. 11 AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT - 3 So Rr must be of a value that when the standing de current is flowing 1.4v will be dropped across Re leaving Var to be 0.6v. So in the static condition, ie de only applied, a standing current (quiescent current) flows through the circuit and TR1, Ri, Re and Re provide the bias necessary to operate TR1 and allow current to flow.+10v Fig. 12 AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT - 4 With current flow through Ri and TRI there will be a voltage drop across Ri, Let us assume this voltage drop is 5v so that the standing voltage is 10-5 = Sv. ‘This is the condition that when dc is applied to the amplifier, all bias voltages are applied and a standing voltage is at the collector of TR1. This transistor is said to be in its quiescent (quiet - no signal input) state. Now applying a signal to the amplifier. This will be a small ac signal (which may be superimposed on a dc level}, so only ac must be applied to the amplifier. Capacitor C; will block any de component, and also the output amplified ac value must only be passed onto the next stage if again C2 blocks a de component. These capacitors are known as COUPLING CAPACITORS, It is also essential that the voltage across Re remains constant, and therefore Vor remains constant so that the ac input signal adds to and subtracts from the steady Var bias. #10v IR G input signal Ss 2 R,| Fig. 13 AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT WITH COUPLING/ DECOUPLING CAPACITORS C, Output voltage ayeTo ensure this, a capacitor is connected across Re, This capacitor will have a capacitive reactance at the operating frequency very much lower than Re, This means that if the ac “by-passes” Re it will leave a steady dc across Re. This capacitor C3 is known as a DECOUPLING CAPACITOR. Please note the figures quoted are purely explanatory, and actual values will depend on the individual circuits. Also, the transistor used is an N-P-N but everything applies equally as well when using a P-N-P transistor except the positive rail would be at the bottom. Action With an ac Signal Assume that with de applied the voltage at the collector is Sv. If a 2.Smv signal is applied as the input then when the ac signal goes positive it will add to the de bias. The transistor will switch on more and the current through the transistor will increase and the voltage drop across R,,will increase, so the collector voltage will fall. Assume if falls to by 0,25v. Hoy Fig. 14 AMPLIFIER ACTION - 1 When the ac voltage goes negative, it opposes the bias and the transistor conducts less, the current through R, is less so the volts drop is less and the collector voltage rises. +0v 25mv Fig. 15 AMPLIFIER ACTION - 2So you can see with an input voltage of 2.5mv we get an output swing of 0.25v so therefore there is a gain (output) = 0.25 = 100 (mput} —-2.5mV Please note again the values used are for explanatory purposes only Also note the function of R, (load resistor) without it there would be no voltage changes at the collector and no amplification. Another purpose, (probably its more well known one) for Re, the resistor in the emitter lead, is as a temperature compensating resistor. If the temperature increases, the resistance of the transistor decreases, this causes greater current through the transistor and therefore a greater voltage drop across Rs. If you remember the voltage across the base-emitter junction is Vro-Vie and this will decrease thus reducing the forward bias, reducing the current, compensating for the original increase. NB. A limit on transistor performance is saturation voltage. When additional increases in base current no longer produce further increases in collector current, the transistor is said to be saturated, ie the transistor is turned “on” as much as it can be. , This amplifier configuration is known as a COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER. As you have seen it has a VOLTAGE GAIN Vou typically 100 - 600, Vie It also has a CURRENT GAIN Jay = Ie typically 50 - 300. Tin Ip So it is a current amplifier as well as a voltage amplifier. If there is a current gain and voltage gain then there must be a power gain - Power out typically in the thousands. Power In ‘The input impedance is (Zin = Vig) typically 600 - 2000 2 lin And the output impedance is (Zou = Vow) typically 10 - 50 kQ. Tout Also note the phase relationship between the input and the output is 180°, The COMMON EMITTER amplifier is used for the majority of amplifier applications.There are two other amplifier configurations, the COMMON BASE and the COMMON COLLECTOR. Common Base Amplifier With reference to figure 16. If the input goes positive then the emitter is positive to the base and this reduces the bias voltage and the current through the transistor falls. The volts drop across R, falls and the voltage at the collector rises. When the input goes negative the emitter is negative with respect to the base and the bias increases, the current increases and the volts drop across Ri will increase and the collector voltage falls. + + Fig. 16 COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER Other characteristics of the common base amplifier are: Current Gain (le/Ic) less than 1, typically 0.98 Voltage Gain typically 500 - 800 Power Gain medium compared to common emitter Input impedance low typically 502 to 2000 Output impedance high typically 100k to MQ Input and Output signals are in phase. Because of their very low input impedance and high output impedance they are used as impedance matching devices. Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower) When the input goes positive this will increase the bias, the transistor will conduct more and the volts drop across Re will increase and the top of Re will go more positive. When the signal goes negative the bias will decrease, the transistor will conduct less the voltage across Re will decrease and the top of Re goes more negative -10-Fig. 17 COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER Current Gain (Ie/Ib) Voltage Gain Power Gain Input Impedance Output Impedance typically 20 - 200 — less than 1 low compared to Cs and Cr high 20kQ to 100k low 202 to 5002 The input and output signals are in phase. Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance it again is used for impedance matching. Figure 18 shows the comparison between the three amplifiers Each amplifier has the word common in front. This means that the input and output signals are common to whichever electrode is stated. COMMON EMMITTER COMMON BASE COMMON COLLECTOR (EMITTER FOLLOWER} Ifyou have difficulty Identify SIGNAL IN INPUT BETWEEN BASE & EMITTER OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & EMITTER INPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & BASE OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & BASE INPUT BETWEEN BASE & COLLECTOR OUTPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & COLLECTOR identify SIGNAL OUT -1l-What is left is what it is all about: eg SIGNAL IN on base } What's left? - emitter SIGNAL OUT on collector Hence common emitter. a Ke | ae Vin fo Vout Vout Vw Vos Ru] Vour / COMMON COMMON COMMON EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR CURRENT <1 GAIN 20 to 200 (0.98 t0 0.995) 20 t0200 VOLTAGE Gain 100 to 600 500 to 800 <1 POWER GAIN High | Medium Low TNEEPANGE 500 to 20000 50 to 2000 20k to 100k PEDANCE: 10k2 to 50k2 100kQ to 1M 202 to 5000 180° out of phi In ph In phase RELATIONSHIP. Pee eee Peete 7 : Impedance Impedance Pine Normal amplifier matching matching (low to high) (high to low) Fig. 18 TABLE OF COMPARISONS In many cases the amplifications of a single stage amplifier is insufficient and several stages have to be used. If this is so the output of one stage is the input to the next, ie they are connected in cascade, -12-sv 22ka 4fp signal — 3.0Ka + Fig. 19 TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER Figure 19 shows a resistor (Ro) and a capacitor (C2) coupled two stage common emitter amplifier. Another method of coupling stages of an amplifier is by using transformers. Using the correct turns ratio the high output impedance of stage 1 carl be matched to the low input impedance of stage 2, thus giving a considerable increase in gain over RC coupled stages. However, due to the change in impedance with frequency, its frequency response is poor compared with the RC coupled amplifier. The uneven response, shown in figure 20, causes distortion. | ——” However, they are often used between the output stage and a loudspeaker load. (High to low impedance matching). ‘TRANSFORMER ~ ‘COUPLING 100 1,000 10,000 FREQUENCY (c/s) Fig. 20 TRANSFORMER & RC COUPLED RESPONSE CURVES -13-+o = cox 0K0 7 Fig. 21 TWO STAGE TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER If the gain of stage 1 is 5 and the gain of stage 2 is 20 then the overall gain is 100 (5 x 20). The overall gain is the product of the individual gains. DIRECTLY-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS Coupling amplifier stages to one another via capacitors or transformers makes it easy to couple together points with differing de voltage levels. However, this form of amplifier will only amplify an alternating signal, completely ignoring de voltages and will respond poorly to signals of very low frequencies, Many control systems found in aircraft produce signals that vary only infrequently and this makes it necessary to use directly-coupled amplifiers in order to amplify those variations. Careful matching of transistors and associated components is essential if these amplifiers are to perform correctly. They are particularly sensitive to voltage and temperature variations. Simple Direct Coupling of two Bi-polar Transistor Amplifiers With reference to figure 22. ‘The emitter bias resistor in TR2’s circuit (R) produces a series current negative feedback, reducing the overall gain of the amplifier to a minimum. -14-Fig. 22 DIRECT COUPLED BI-POLAR TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER Direct Coupling with Zener Diode Bias A Zener diode in the emitter circuit of TR2 (figure 23) maintains a constant voltage at the emitter and thus increases the overall gain of the amplifier. It also goes some way towards decreasing the effects of any variation in supply voltage. Fig. 23 DIRECT COUPLING WITH ZENER DIODE BIAS DIFFERENTIALLY CONNECTED AMPLIFIERS If two identical directly-coupled amplifiers have the same power source, then a change in supply voltage will not cause a change in the difference of their outputs ‘There is similarly no change in the difference of their outputs if the ambient temperature changes -15-‘The only thing that will produce a change in the difference at their output is a variation in their signal inputs. The ‘Long-Tailed Pair’ Differential Amplifier Figure 24 shows the arrangement of the ‘long tailed pair’, Note the output is. across the collectors of the two transistors, and that they have a common emitter via a resister (R). Fig. 25 THE DARLINGTON PAIR ‘The Darlington Pair This arrangement (figure 25) gives a high current gain. It can also be used in the Common Collector or Emitter Follower configuration with currents in the order of milliamps, in which case its main benefit is the increase in input impedance due to the reduction of current taken by the first transistor. -16-Classes of Amplification When a transistor is used as an amplifier the input circuit is normally biased to some particular working point. There are three basic classes of bias, named according to the working point chosen. Class A The amplitude of the input signal and bias are such that there is an output current for the full cycle of the input signal. This is the most commonly used class of bias in amplifier circuits. Class B The bias is such that current flows for only half of the cycle of input signal, for the other half of the input cycle the transistor is “cut off”, This is usually employed in power amplifiers Class C The bias and amplitude of input signal are such that current flows for less than half of each cycle. Used in oscillators and selective amplifiers. Efficiency This is defined by ac power output to load x 100% de power taken from supply : An amplifier which produces low power output has an efficiency which is no greater than 50%. This is because it is working under Class A conditions and the de standing (no input) current is large and produces wasted de power. To overcome this problem in power amplifiers the push-pull amplifier was introduced, blank -17-Fig. 26 GRAPHS OF INPUTS AND OUTPUTS. FOR CLASSES A, B, & C AMPLIFIERS Push-Pull Amplifier Figure 27 shows a simple push-pull power amplifier using an N-P-N type and P-N-P type transistors. The load is a loudspeaker and is connected to both emitters via a de blocking capacitor. Fig. 27 PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER -18-Operation When an input is applied, assuming at this moment in time that the input at Ais positive to B (positive half cycle, the base emitter junction of TR) is forward biased. There is therefore an output to the loudspeaker (positive half cycles). During this time TRa is reverse biased (base negative with respect to emitter) Negative half cycles of the input (B positive to A) will reverse bias TR: and it will cut off and forward bias TR, this time there is again an output; this time on the negative half cycles. As cach transistor conducts for one half of each complete input cycle, the amplifier is working in Class B conditions. When there is no input, neither transistor conducts, therefore no de power is wasted. The maximum efficiency of a Class B power amplifier is high (78%) when compared with a Class A amplifier (50%)... One disadvantage of the simple circuit is that each transistor does not turn on until the input is about 0.6V. As a result there is a dead zone producing ‘cross over" distortion (see figure 28). ‘TURN ON He i 3 VOLTAGE TRI TR EMITTER CURRENT tre ewer CURRENT ‘CROSSOVER lh oceey cry HE DISTORTION . {porabzonei} I H i t ‘OUTPUT, ° ‘ Ki i. Vourace Fig. 28 CROSSOVER DISTORTION -19-This is overcome by forward biasing the base-emitter junctions of both transistors. Figure 29 shows a push-pull amplifier with this biasing to the two transistors being provided by resistors Ri, Ra and Ry via the secondary winding of transformer T1. Operation Under static (no input signal) conditions, equal currents will flow through the two halves of T2's primary winding and through the two transistors and R3 to the -ve rail. There will therefore be no resultant flux in T2 from this de source. Therefore no de power is wasted and its efficiency is high (78%) i Transformer T1 is a phase-splitter, providing inputs to the trafisistérs which are equal but in anti-phase. When the top of Tl’s secondary winding is positive, TR1 will be switched ON (circuit via base-emitter ~ C1} and TR2 will be switched OFF. As the collector current of TRI increases, that of TR2 decreases, More current will flow from the ve rail through the top half of T2’s primary winding, collector ~ emitter TR1 and R83 to the -ve rail When the bottom of Tl’s secondary is positive, TR2 will be switched ON (circuit via base-emitter ~ C1) and TRI will be switched OFF. As the collector current of ‘TR2 increases, that of TR1 decreases. Current will flow from the +ve rail through the bottom half of T2’s primary winding, collector ~ emitter of TR2 and R3 to the -ve rail. -20-The changing currents in the primary of T2 results in an output which is an amplification of each half of the input signal. This is then operating in Class AB conditions, being a compromise between the low distortion, low efficiency Class A amplifier and the higher efficiency, higher distortion Class B amplifier, MULTIVIBRATORS ‘These are transistor switching circuits of two stages with the output of one stage being fed back to the input of the other by coupling resistors or capacitors. The output of one is ‘high’ the other is Tow’ and this occurs alternatively producing a square wave output. There are three basic types: 1, Astable or free running multivibrator 2. Bistable or flip-flop 3. Monostable or ‘one shot? Figure 30 shows the basic circuit of a Bistable Multivibrator. S outpute i i » Q output BISTABLE Fig. 30 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR Operation When the de supply is switched on then, because of the slight differences in manufacture, one transistor will conduct more than the other. This causes say, TR) to switch fully on while TRe switches off. At this point TR) collector voltage is low (high voltage drop across Rj), there is therefore insufficient voltage to drive current through Ri to the base of TR. TRe remains off and its collector voltage being high there is current flow through R2 to maintain TR, switched on. The output at Q is high (logic state1) and the output at Q is low (logic state 0}. -21-By applying a positive signal to the base of TR2 via Re (shown on the diagram as a switch but in a practical circuit would be a temporary input signal) TR; would conduct, causing its collector voltage to fall to a low value (lower than 0.6v). TR: base current ceases and TR: switches off, its collector voltage rises to a high value and this is fed through R; to the base of TR: keeping it switched on. Q is therefore low (logic 0) and Q is high and therefore at logic state 1. Each transistor can be made to ‘lip’ to a high collector voltage or ‘flop’ to a low collector voltage changing the outputs on Q and Q. The switching can also be achieved by applying a negative voltage to the base of the transistor that is conducting, The inputs R & S would be supplied by a trigger pulse and this circuit is the basis of the SR flip-flop Q= 0 Q = 1 = reset condition, Q= 1 Q = 0 = set condition. ‘These are used in memory circuits and binary counters in digital computers. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR 7 = When the supply is connected as before one transistor conducts faster than the other (due to slight manufacturing differences) and cuts the other one off. In this multivibrator each transistor then switches automatically to its other state and then back to its first state, producing an output of square wave pulses. Action With reference to figure 31. Assume TR: ON and TR: OFF. The base of TR: is negative at the moment, but is approaching cut on (base voltage going positive) on a time constant determined by C2 Ro. Doutput e oQ output ASTABLE Fig. 31 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR -22-When TR; conducts, its collector voltage falls to a low value and since capacitor C1 cannot change its charge instantaneously there is no change of capacitor voltage during the rise of conduction of TR: Therefore the fall of collector voltage at TR: causes TR: base to fall by the same amount causing TRe to cut off, causing TR: collector voltage to rise. This multivibrator produces a continuous stream of almost square wave pulses, ie it is a square wave oscillator. It requires no input trigger and is sometimes called a relaxation oscillator. It is extensively used for producing timing (clock) pulses for digital systems. Remember, everything in computing works in synchronisation with a (very fast) electronic clock, MONOSTABLE VIBRATOR With reference to figure 32. Again, when the supply is switched on the circuit settles into the state TR: OFF and TR: ON, therefore Q = O. A positive trigger pulse, represented by the switch in the diagram will switch TR: ON, Cy right hand plate falls rapidly switching off TR making the output Q go high. Now the capacitor charges up through R; making the right hand plate go low TRe is switched on again and the Q output goes low. Fig. 32. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR This multivibrator has one stable state and one unstable state. It can be switched into its unstable state for a certain time (determined by the values of C and R) and then returns to its stable state. It can be used to create a pulse of known timing to act as a delay circuit in digital systems. -23-The Multivibrators we have seen are using junction transistors, however, they can be constructed using Field Effect Transistors (FET’s) logic gates and operational amplifiers (to be discussed later) FLIP-FLOPS ‘The JK Flip-Flop Figure 32 shows the JK flip-flop. Study it for a few minutes and note the layout of the system including the inputs at J and K. SUPPLY: 6 Volts da Fig. 33 JK FLIP-FLOP Operation Suppose that TR4 is conducting and that TR3 is cut off. Q is at logic 0. If logic 1 is applied to J and logic 0 to K, there would be no effect because there would be no change to the diodes D1 and D2. A falling (1-0) signal at T will cause the transistors to change over in the usual way, so Q now goes to logic 1, However, a further falling pulse at T will have no effect on the circuit if J is still at logic 1. It follows, therefore, that a trigger pulse at T will only change the state if the logic levels at J and K are reversed. From this it can be seen that A TRIGGER PULSE AT ‘T’ WILL ONLY CHANGE THE STATE IF THE LOGIC LEVELS AT J’ AND ‘Q’ ARE DIFFERENT. it also follows that a Logic 0 or a Logic 1 can be stored at J until a trigger pulse arrives at T, when it will be released at Q. -24-THE R S FLIP FLOP Operation With reference to figure 34 (circuit and symbol). When power is applied, current- biasing will be applied to each transistor base-emitter by way of R2-R4 to Tl and RI-R3 to 72. Although the two ‘sides’ are identical, mis-matching will mean that one transistor will start to conduct before the other. If silicon transistors are being used, 0.6 volts is needed across the base-emitter for switching ON. ouspure Fig. 34 RS FLIP-FLOP CIRCUIT & SYMBOL ~~~“ Suppose that T2 reaches the point of switch-on before T1. When T2 conducts, the volts drop across R2 becomes almost 6 volts and the T2 collector voltage now applied via R4 to the base of T1 becomes almost zero, forcing TI into a ‘cut-off non-conducting condition, The volts drop across R1 is almost zero and so 6 volts is applied via R3 to the base of 2, keeping it switched hard-on. Under these conditions, the two outputs are: ‘Q six volts (Logic 1) and Q zero volts (Logic 0). A positive pulse at $ (SET) will cause T1 to conduct and the ensuing volts drop across RI will switch T2 off. The two outputs will now be: ‘Q zero volts )Logic 0) and Q six volts (Logic 1). A positive pulse at R (RESET) will send the outputs back again to the original condition. So, a pulse at S sets Q at Logic 1 and a pulse at R sets Q at Logic 0. These devices are widely used in storage and timing device circuits. -25-FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS There are two basic types of Field Effect Transistors (FETs). A Junction Gate FET (JUGFET] and a Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) JUGFET With reference to figure 35. The bar of N-type material provides the medium through which the majority carriers (electrons) pass. In doing so, they have to pass between the two sections of P-type material, known as the Gate. The two P- type sections are usually connected together electrically (so are at the same potential) and are used as the Control electrode. Current enters at the SOURCE electrode and leaves at the DRAIN electrode. GATE Potype N-type GATE Channel i Fig. 35 JUGFET As in any semiconductor device containing P-N junctions, depletion zones exist at these junctions. In this device, the P-type gate sections are more heavily doped than the N-type channel. This results in the depletion zone extending further into the channel than it does into the gate. Brainy | cote ) i source! source: neenannen PECHANNEL Fig. 36 JUGFET SYMBOLS ~26-Note: The opposite arrangement of a P-type channel and N-type gate is also available Operation With reference to figure 37. The Drain-Source voltage Vps sets up a current flow of majority carriers through the channel. The Gate-Source voltage Vos reverse- biases the gate-channel junction, thus increasing the width of the depletion zones. As can be seen in the diagram, these zones are not uniform in shape. This is because the potential gradient between drain and source produces a greater potential difference between the gate and the channel towards the drain than it does towards the source. Thus we have characteristic wedge’ shaped depletion zones. P-type (sate) Depletion Zone. @| N-channel Daplation Zone Fig. 37 JUGFET SCHEMATIC Since no majority carriers exist in the depletion zones, the width of the channel through which they can flow is dependent on the size of these zones and hence on the value of Vos. It is in this way that Vos controls the current flow. Under normal operating conditions, the gate-channel junction is reverse-biased so that only a very small leakage current flows in the gate-source circuit. It has, therefore, got a very high input impedance. Uses The JUGFET can be used as an amplifier or a switch and the next diagram shows it connected as an amplifier. Its input resistance is very high compared with that of a transistor (1 x 10!°0 compared to 1 to 5k for a transistor). Its output impedance is 50k tol MQ compared to a transistors output impedance of 10- 50ka. -27-Signal ‘due Rg Maintains @ High Input Impedance. Fig. 38 JUGFET AMPLIFIER MOSFET Also called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor ~ IGFET. The basic’ construction of an n-channel MOSFET and symbol is shown in figure 39. © OXIDE —N CHANNEL RAND PTVPE o SUBSTRATE, cares s = wet, 7 SOURCES Fig. 39 MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL DEPLETION) The main difference between this device and the JUGFET is that there is no direct electrical connection between the gate terminal and the semiconductor material Instead they are insulated from one another by a very thin layer of highly insulative silicon oxide DEPLETION ose —— Kg = 200 ENHANCEMENT MoDe Fig. 40 OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL DEPLETION) = 28-The voltage between the gate and the source (Vgs) controls the electron concentration in the channel. If the drain (D) is made positive to the Source (S) and Ves is zero a current will flow. If Vos is made negative, positive holes are attracted into the channel so reducing the number of free electrons in the channel . and therefore channel current decreases. This is known as the DEPLETION . MODE. If Vos is positive, electrons are attracted into the channel from the P substrate increasing current flow - this is known as the ENHANCEMENT MODE. Ifa P-channel FET (figure 41) was used in the enhancement mode, the conduction is by holes. oxo ° Prvpe SUBSTRATE, s METAL : 8 s| oa - Fig. 41 MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT) ‘The MOSFET has a higher input impedance.than the JUGFET > 1.10120, however its output impedance is similar to that of a bi-polar transistor 10 to 50kQ. When used as a switch its switching time is very fast. Ipima \bg = 20V 23 4s ‘es Fig, 42 OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT) MOSFET structure is very compact and is widely used in integrated circuits. Great care has to be taken to protect MOSFETS from electrostatic charges, which could break down the insulated oxide layer, They are supplied with a metal clip short circuiting the leads, which should be left in place until connected in the circuit, -29-CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) This is one of the mos? important families of logic gates which uses a P-channel and an N-channel MOSFET to create alll the relevant logic gates. An example of an invertor gate is shown in figure 43. The great advantage of CMOS is that in both the HIGH and LOW states the current consumption is very small (1 x 10°). Power consumption is therefore low and the fan out is high (typically 50) The speed of operation is poorer than TTL. -——0 Von - 10v. tchaneod Fig. 43 CMOS INVERTOR GATE FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS Feedback is the return of a portion of the output signal of an amplifier back into the input signal of the same system, There are many variations on this but the following deals with the Lroader principles. Aeding” Networs AMP Signal Bignal In Out Proportionat Fig. 44 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER -30-There are generally two types of feedback ~ which, incidentally, occurs in all forms of control systems whether mechanical, electrical, electronic ete, these are Positive Feedback and Negative feedback, Positive Feedback When the returned portion of the output signal assists the input signal, it is called Positive Feedback. This causes an increase in the overall gain, It can be many times larger than the gain without feedback, but can also lead to instability and oscillation. The Gain of an amplifier with Positive feedback is given by: A A Where Ar = Gain with feedback 1~ fA A = Gain without feedback B = Feedback fraction = Feedback Output It can be seen that, if fA equals unity, the gain is infinite and oscillation occurs. Negative Feedback When the returned portion of the output signal opposes or tries to cancel the input signal, it is called Negative Feedback, This is the most common form of feedback (in all control systems), having several advantages and uses. — ~ The Gain of an amplifier with Negative feedback is given by: Ar= _A__ which gives a reduction in overall gain. 1+fA Negative Feedback is used to: a) Improve the stability of the gain. It is less affected by changes in transistor parameters and temperature changes. b) Effectively change the input and output impedances. ¢) Reduce ‘noise’ and distortion, d) Increase bandwidth (see below) -31-VOLTAGE GAIN Gain Without Feedback 0,707 | Gain with Feedback without Prtgack i (BANDWIDTH) H— With Feedback Fig. 45 FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE. Hz Frequency Response and Bandwidth The GAIN of an electronic amplifier is determined by such things as the type of amplifying device being used and by its associated circuit components. Any particular circuit arrangement will provide maximum gain at a single frequency (or over a narrow band of frequencies) and less gain at all other frequencies Since many amplifiers are required to provide amplification over a wide range of frequencies it is common practice to provide each amplifier with a graph showing how its gain varies with frequency. This is known as the amplifier’s Frequency Response Curve. Figure 45 shows an example. ‘The Effects of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth An amplifier’s gain is generally considered to be adequate as long as it is equal to, or greater than, half the Maxizaum Power Gain, (OR) An amplifier's gain is generally considered to be adequate as long as it is equal to, or greater than, 0.707 of the Maximum Voltage Gain. The range of frequencies over which this requirement is satisfied is known as the amplifier’s BANDWIDTH. -32-As stated above, negative feedback has the effect of reducing the gain of an amplifier but it also has the very valuable effect of increasing its bandwidth. Figure 45 shows graphs of an amplifier’s gain and associated bandwidth, both with and without negative feedback. OSCILLATORS With reference to figure 46 assume the capacitor is charged from an external supply. When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge, thus changing magnetic field causes an induced voltage into the coil, the back emf opposes this discharge and this therefore takes some time. Eventually the capacitor discharges and its electrical energy has been transferred to the coil. At this time the magnetic field begins to collapse, current now flows to charge up the capacitor, lower plate +ve. Once charged the capacitor discharges in the opposite sense creating a magnetic field of opposite polarity. : Fig. 46 SIMPLE OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT ‘This oscillation would continue indefinitely if the circuit had no resistance, but the coil has resistance, so the oscillations gradually decrease. To maintain the oscillation some energy must be continuously fed into the LC circuit. Most oscillators are amplifiers with positive feedback which means the feedback is in phase with the input and makes good the energy losses in the oscillatory circuit. Radio Frequency Oscillators With reference to figure 47, the basic operation of this circuit is as follows. -33-Switching on the power supply charges up the capacitor and starts the oscillations. Feedback is obtained by the changing magnetic field in L1 inducing an emf into L2, Thus emf is applied between the base and emitter, which causes more collector current and therefore more current in L1, this continues until oscillation is maintained Fig. 47 OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT ‘The feedback from L2 being enough to draw dc from the supply to make good the energy losses and keep the oscillation going. So the oscillator converts de to ac. For very high frequency stability crystal oscillators are used in the range 1 to 10 MHz. Audio frequency oscillators using resistors and capacitors are used up to 50 MHz. # eee You have already seen the commonest square wave type oscillator, that is the Astable Multivibrator. THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH The transistor has no moving parts and can switch at very high speeds. In switching applications the transistor is treated as a two state device, ie the transistor is either fully conducting or cut-off. In figure 48, when the input voltage reverse biases the base-emitter junction and the transistor is cut-off and acts as an open switch. If the input voltage switches to a large forward bias the transistor will conduct and act as a closed switch. -34-Ve Vee o/P o/P A Fig. 48 THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH Fast switching is desirable and N-P-N types are preferred because thelf majority carriers, which are electrons, travel faster than the majority carriers (holes) in P- N-P types. : MOSFETS can be used as switches, their switching speed being about ten times faster than a transistor. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS. An integrated circuit (IC) is a complete electronic circuit on a chip of silicon about 5inm square and 9.5mm thick. Figure 49 shows a typical IC cutaway so you can see the silicon chip and the leads radiating from it to the pins. The diagram shows a dual in-line package, but circular packages are available. ICs are assembled this way to allow their fitment to PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards} etc. Otherwise they would be too small for handling and connection purposes. -35-(CHIP §X8X 1mm) PLASTIC CASE CONNECTORS (from chip to pins) (epacing= 2.5mm) por Pita Fig. 49 IC PACKAGE SILICON WAFER about 10cm ismeter containing hundreds of Integrated Cireulte (1 9) Fig. 50 SILICON WAFER Silicon is the base material used, as it has a high degree of purity anda continuous regular monocrystalline structure. A silicon wafer (about 10cm in diameter) is produced onto which hundreds of IC’s can be formed. Figure 51 shows how areas of silicon oxide deposited on the silicon are selectively removed. It is basically a photographic process where areas of the chip are masked and then the surface is subject to wv light. The unmasked areas are ‘eaten’ away using a solvent leaving those areas that are required. Finally the unmasked silicon oxide area is removed by etching. blank -36-siLicon, ee TOO vo gh hh Ht Lt TOE exvosen aneaor eee PHOTO RESIST (@)sticon suce WITH OXIDE SURFACE (@)PHOTO RESIST APPLIED TO ‘THE WHOLE SURFACE (€) PHOTO RESIST MASKED AND EXPOSED TOWLIGHT (@)NASK REMOVED ANO EXPOSED |AREA OF PHOTO RESIST REMOVED BY A SOLVENT ERRRETTEETH] (©) exeoseD AREA oF sicon--— ‘OXIDE ETCHED AWAY: (FINALLY THE REMAINING PHOTO RESIST IS REMOVED LEAVING A "WINDOW IN THE OXIDE LAYER Fig. 51 IC PRODUCTION - 1 Figure 52 shows how a transistor is made using the diffusion process, ie exposing the wafer at high temperature to the vapour of boron or phosphorus so their atoms diffuse through the window producing a ‘P’ or ‘N’ type are Fig. 52 IC PRODUCTION - 2 -37- ono ae com ,° pervs oxo TYPE EuTeR SND N¥P= SucoN oe romuation m (nance ano ewrres F I \CONTAST viNDOWE fL_______fl sy aase wnoow fo ih Sees 4 sroconne “ RESIST PROCESS E contre perusoN a CAP coya.vwenum | ax FomuarioN "CONTACTS FORMED : J) Granen = . | Une = cieurren i, *AMDoWw MADE Poem aaFaaCHH 0H NOWOUAL wes Ane Bra seconb e J | povonesisr = eure ie £ PHOTOS | towneMonolithic integrated circuits are manufactured by an extension of the planar diffusion process. The active elements (transistors), and the passive elements (diodes, resistors and capacitors) are all created by modifying the conductive properties of the silicon Integrated diodes are made by forming a P-N junction similar to that previously described. Integrated resistors are thin layers, the resistance being defined by the length and width of the layer. Integrated capacitors are made by using the capacitance of reverse biased P-N junctions. Hybrid integrated circuits use film techniques to form passive components and interconnections on an insulating layer. However, the active components are produced separately and designed for direct attachment to the interconnections of the film circuit There are two broad types of IC 1, Linear (analogue) i 2. Digital (logic) Linear Circuits Most linear IC’s are based on bi-polar transistors but in some cases FET’s are used exclusively or in addition to bi-polar types. The majority of today’s linear integrated circuits use operational amplifiers (op-amps). OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS A typical op-amp contains twenty transistors as well as resistors and small capacitors. The chief properties of op-amps are: 1. Very high open loop gain 2. High input impedance (1 x 106 to 1 x 10129), 3. Low output impedance (typically 10009). blank -38-Now InVERTING wrur InvERTING INPUT OFFSEY u Fig. 53 CIRCUIT - OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ne oureura « Gy INPUTS A G Yee Oy oFrser ADIUST A oI ap E NC Veo 2] OUTPUT B Fa} oreser B) ADJUST B (3) Fa }mourss os Fig. 54 SYMBOL With reference to figure 55, the basic op-amp has one output and two inputs. The NON-INVERTING (NI) input is marked + and the INVERTING ()) input is marked -, In the diagram point E is the common reference for the input and output volts. The de power supply is typically #5v to +15v with Ov being the reference level. With the Ni input grounded (chassis potential), an input at I, causes a voltage of opposite polarity to appear at the output, To achieve the high gain necessary Darlington pairs are used and usually two or more differential amplifiers are put in series to increase the gain still further. This is done using two differential outputs to drive the differential inputs of the next stage. The last amplifier is usually a complimentary class B amplifier, -39-Fig. 55 BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUIT NOT OUTPUT OFFSET NoTeH INCASE Fig. 56 SYMBOL oe With the 1 input grounded and an input at N1, causes a voltage of the same polarity to appear at the output. When signals are applied to both input terminals the output is the difference between to the two inputs, ie two identical signals will produce zero output. The op-amp is basically a differential amplifier. Power Supply Inverting Positive Input 1-—— NI Non-inverting Input Output Power Supply Negative Fig. 57 OP-AMP SYMBOL -40-Although the power supplies positive and negative are shown in the basic op-amp symbol they are usually omitted on wiring diagrams. Most op-amps use negative feedback, ie feeding some of the output back to the inverting input. The coupling between the stages is direct coupling, In practice even when de bias conditions are met and no input signal is applied, there may be a small voltage at the input, called the differential input offset voltage. It may be caused by different manufacturing tolerances of the components of the op-amp. This offset voltage produces a voltage at the output (with no input signal remember) and in certain applications is undesirable. For the 741 op-amp this is achieved by placing a variable resistor across the offset null pins (1 and 5) and adjusting it until the output is zero when the input is zero. In ac operation a coupling capacitor at the output removes any de component caused by the offset voltage. Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of large amplitude output voltages that an op-amp can allow before it behaves non- linearly, it is measured in volts per micro-second {V/us). -— As previously stated the op-amp is basically a differential amplifier so it is useful to look at its operation, Vin,| Vin Fig. 58 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER The circuit shown produces an output which is proportional to the difference between the two inputs. If Rs = Rr then Vout is equal to the difference in input voltages. If Rr and Rs heve different values then the circuit gain (Ao) = Rr/Rs. In general the output is Vo= Aa (V2 ~ Vi} -41-Op-amp as an Inverting Amplifier With reference to figure 59, the input voltage Vj is applied to the inverting terminal via resistor Ry. The non-inverting input is grounded. Feedback is applied from the inverting input via Rz which because of the inversion of the amplifier acts as negative feedback. Output is of opposite polarity to input. Re yj RL & > op o Ve Lond ah Fig. 59 OP-AMP INVERTING AMPLIFIER Fig. 60 OP-AMP NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER Op-amp as a Non-inverting Amplifier Figure 60 shows a non-inverting op-amp. The input voltage is applied to the non- inverting input (+) with the inverting input grounded. The feedback resistor is still connected to the inverting input to obtain negative feedback. Output is the same polarity as the input. Op-amp as a Simple Voltage Comparator With reference to figure 61 the op-amp compares V; to Vrs. When V1 is slightly greater than Vee the op-amp saturates in one direction and when Vr is greater than V) it saturates in the other direction, It is therefore behaving as a two-state digital device with Vo switching from high to low, ie comparing voltages. When fed with an ac input the op-amp in its saturated condition is converting a continuously varying analogue signal into a two-state digital one, ie converting a sine wave into a Square wave. ~42-Vs Fig. 61 SIMPLE COMPARATOR Fig. 62 OP-AMP INTEGRATOR. Op-amp as an Integrator The circuit shown (figure 62) is similar to an inverting amplifier but feedback is via a capacitor. It therefore inverts, amplifies the input signal over a period of time determined by the values of Ry and Ci, 7 Op-amp as a Differentiator (Figure 63) This circuit responds only to changes of input V;. It is only during these input changes that current flows through C; and Ry. The output is the inversion of the input rate of change Be ae a | » o“P fb bev Lead a Fig. 63 DIFFERENTIATING OP-AMPOp-amp as a Voltage Follower (Figure 64) This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier in which 100% negative feedback is applied by connecting the output directly back to the inverting terminal. This effectively gives a situation where the output voltage follows the input and almost exactly equals it. It has an extremely high input impedance and a low output impedance and its main application is for impedance matching, ie to act as a buffer amplifier, > orp Vi o—t-Ve Load Fig. 64 VOLTAGE FOLLOWING OP-AMP. Op-amp as a Summing Amplifier (Figure 65) ‘The output voltage Vo is equal to the inverted sum of the inputs Vo = -(Vi + V2 + Va} Fig. 65 SUMMING OP-AMP Other uses of Op-amps Linear IC’s are used in audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers and video amplifiers, but are of specialised types and require a small number of external components. Figure 66 shows a radio frequency amplifier. -44-———-} r s15v Fig. 66 RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER LOGIC CIRCUITS These are devices used in logic networks and computers to control the flow of digital data through a system, Are known as logic gates since the ‘gates’ are opened and closed by the binary inputs in order to perform a particular logical function Originally gates were large and operated mechanically by pneumatics ete but now they are miniature solid state electronic devices. They are the basic building blocks from which many different kinds of logic outputs are obtaiied. Common gates are the AND, NOT, OR, NAND, NOR and XOR gates. The inputs and outputs to/from the gate can be represented by Boolean algebra (George Boole British mathematician 1815 -1864). : Logic gates have binary inputs of 1 or 0 and they may represent (in a circuit) ON, CLOSED (logic 1} or OFF, OPEN (logic 0). In drawings the gates are represented by symbols. Commonly these are American, so we shall use them here, but there are British Standard symbols also ‘The AND Gate This gate can have two or mers inputs and only one output. It will give an output if all inputs are on, If any one input is not available the output will be zero. The symbol for a 2 input AND gate is shown below. INPUTS=A&B © OUTPUT=S rN s B Fig. 67 TWO INPUT AND GATE SYMBOL -45-SSE EE eee Eee ee | I: SWITCHA SWITCHB LAMP «EARTH tye Fig. 68 ELECTRICAL AND GATE CIRCUIT The AND gate can be made up electrically by two switches in series. The lamp will only light when switches A AND B are both made. If any one switch is open the lamp will not light. The operation of the logic gate can be described by means of a TRUTH TABLE. When switch A is open (logic 0) and switch B is open (logic 0) there is no output the lamp (logic 0). When switch A is made (logic 1) and switch B is open (logic 0) there is still no output to lamp (logic 0). i anit When switch A is open (logic 0) and switch B is made (logic 1) - still no output to lamp (logic 0) When switch A is made (logic 1) and switch B is made (logic 1) there is an output to the lamp (logic 1) . eee So when A AND B are logic 1 then there is an output. This is summarised in the truth table. Horo mu ooy HOOOg Where A and B are the inputs and $ is the output, only 2 inputs are shown but there may be more A, B, C, D ete. ‘The Boolean expression for this gate is written A.B = S, The dot means AND, and the expression is read as “A AND B equals S” (in some books the output is called 2). For a three input AND gate the three inputs would be A, B and C and the Boolean expression would be A.B.C = S ~46-The OR Gate This can have 2 or more inputs and will give an output if any one input is logic 1 a Ss / B Fig. 69 OR GATE SYMBOL SWITCH A et EEE EEE > +VE =~ LAMP EARTH SWITCH B Fig. 70 ELECTRICAL OR GATE CIRCUIT An OR gate circuit can be made up by two switches in parallel. The latp will light if switch A OR B is closed, So the truth table is: B| A s 0 oO 0 Both switches open — in) 1 Switch A closed — oy; 1 1 Switch B closed 1 1 tt Switches A and B closed The Boolean expression is: A+Bes ‘The + means OR and the expression is read as “A OR B equals S”, The NOT Gate This gate has one input and one output, Fig. 71 SYMBOL FOR A NOT GATE -47-This gate produces an inversion of the input signal, so when the input is A the output is NOT A, which is symbolised by a bar on top of the A = A. So the output of this gate is the opposite to it’s input. So input logic 1, output logic 0. Input logic 0, output logic 1. The truth table is: A Ss 1] 0 of} a ‘The Boolean expression is: S=K ‘The line above the A means NOT, read as NOT A. The NAND Gate This is short for NOT AND and works similar to a NOT gate except that it has more than one input A s B Fig. 72 SYMBOL FOR A NAND GATE The bubble on the end of what is an AND gate has the same function as in the NOT gate ~ it inverts the signal, except that in this case more than one input is involved. In this gate when A is 0 and Bis 0 then the output is 1. In the AND gate this would be 0. So the NAND gate is an inverted AND gate. The truth table is: Horo> Heoo Ore g ‘The Boolean expression is: AB=S5 The bar over A.B gives NOT AND and is read as ‘NOT (A and B) equals S”. The NOR Gate ‘This is short for NOT OR and is simply a negated OR gate. - 48 -eae Fig, 73 SYMBOL FOR A NOR GATE Again an input A = 0 and B = 0 would, for an OR gate, give 0 as an output, but for the NOR gate it would give a 1 as an output. The truth table is: Hoop rorow coorn ‘The Boolean expression is: A+B~=S_ The bar over A + B gives NOT OR and is read as “NOT (A OR B) equals S”, The XOR Gate I ‘The OR gate gives an output when A OR B = 1 and when A AND B = 1, The XOR gate only gives an output when A OR B are 1 not when A AND B are 1, so it is exclusively an OR gate and will not work with the AND function. Itis read as a two syllable word x then or. A s B Fig. 74 SYMBOL FOR XOR GATE The truth table is: A B s 0 0 oO 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 ° The Boolean expression is AB+AB =S which is read as “NOT A AND B OR A AND NOT B EQUALS §”. ~49-It should be appreciated that for all of the above we have assumed logic 1 to be positive (about +5 volts} and logic 0 to be zero (about 0 volts). This is called positive logic and is the notation most frequently used. However, negative logic may be used, and this means that logic 0 is positive (+5 volts) and logic 1 is zero (0 volts}. Positive logic is used throughout this book. Note. Any bubble (small circle) at the end of a logic line as it connects to a gate inverts or negates that signal before it enters the gate. As a consolidation exercise, work through the following example and then try the logic circuits Activity. Ad 1 Bo os Co AEE EEE 2 LOGIC CIRCUIT 1 Example. With reference to logic circuit 1. What is the output logic level $ if A = logic 1, B = logic 0 and C = logic 0? With A = 1 and B = 0. Bis inverted because of the bubble so the ifiputs to gate 1 is 1 and 1 so the output is 1. The inputs to gate 2 is 0 and 0 (0 from C and the 1 is inverted) so S must equal 0. What would be the Boolean expression for this circuit? Working from the first gate: ‘The output from gate 1 is AAND NOTB=A.B The output from gate 2 is NOT (A AND NOT B) AND C= A.B.C ACTIVITY Study the following logic circuits and determine the output logic level for each. — >, 0 2 LOGIC CIRCUIT 2 -50-LOGIC CIRCUIT 2 There are two main types of logic circuit: a) TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) b) CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semicond The following shows the scales of integration which refer to the number of gates contained in a single package: * Small Scale Integration (SSI) - containing not more than 1! gates. * Medium Scale Integration (MSI) - containing up to 100 gates. * Large Scale Integration (LSI) - containing between 100 ~ 1000 gates. * Very Large Scaie Integration (VLSI) _- containing over 1000 gates. ‘The following diagrams show some TTL and CMOS gates. i Fig. 75 TTL AND GATERI R2 8v > TL T2 Fig. 76 TTL ‘NAND’ GATE Figure 76 shows a two input NAND gate which uses a multiple emitter N-P-N transistor. If both inputs to T1 are high, then no current flows from the base to the emitter. Current does flow through the base collector circuit to switch on T2 The output F is near zero volts. If either input A or B go low then Tl conducts. As a result T1 passes a momentary collector current to ground in the form of positive charges stored in the base of T2, which goes negative. T2 switches off, output goes high. — AE ae D mp Fig. 78 CMOS ‘NAND’ GATE -52-Properties of TTL and CMOS TTL uses bi-polar transistors along with diodes and transistors formed to microscopic dimensions on a slice of silicon (chip). TTL must have a steady SV de supply, while CMOS will work on de voltages between 3 and 15V and usually requires much less power. CMOS uses uni-polar Field Effect Transistors (FET) with metal-oxide-silicon technology; this lends itself to VLSI as they take up less room on a chip, compared to the TTL. CMOS has a much higher input impedance. One important point with CMOS is that if static electric charges are allowed to build up on it’s input pins, these voltages can break down the thin layer of silicon oxide insulation between the gate and the other electrodes of MOSFET’s and this will destroy the IC. So anti-static protection is important. Gate operating parameters include: a) Speed of operation bd) Fanin co) Fanout 4) Noise margin e) Power dissipation Speed of operation ~ the time that elapses between the application of a’signal to an input terminal and the resulting change in the logical state at the output terminals, Fan in ~ number of inputs coming from similar circuits that can be connected to the gate without adversely affecting its performance. ==) ~~ Fan out ~ the maximum number of similar circuits that can be connected to it’s output terminals without the output falling outside the limits at which logic levels 1 and 0 are specified Noise margin ~ this is maximum noise voltage (unwanted voltage) that can appear at it’s input terminals without producing a change in output state, Power dissipation ~ as in any circuit, supply voltage multiplied by the current (Power = V x I] gives the power in the circuit and this heat must be dissipated. Typical figures for TTL and CMOS are shown below. Speedof Fan Fan Noise Power Operation in out margin dissipation Standard TTL oS 8 10 O04 40mw CMOS 30n8 880d. Sv 0.001mW -53-Ifyou look back at the diagrams for the TTL AND gate and the TTL NAND gate you will see that the NAND gate uses fewer components and is therefore cheaper to produce. ‘This also applies to the NOR gate, ie it is cheaper to produce than the OR gate, NAND gates can be connected together to form any of the other basic gates - thus reducing production costs by manufacturing one gate only. The following drawings show how these gates can be formed. NOT GATES (INVERTING) AND GATES. ay [y—- 7) OR GATES DoD at Fig. 79 USE OF NAND GATES a LD =D a a -54-Figure 80 shows the pin connections of IC’s for different gate configurations. There is no need to remember them but it does give a good idea of how the chip (with the gates in} is connected - although the chip itself is so small that it looks like a piece of silver metal 4 or Smm square. vetCd fol fal Gl Gol fa) Pal pol ES bc Wu q | a q q j wold [al fal fol fal Pa) 7 a} ir} LO a Vee & WOW MOS AND GATE Fig. 80 IC PIN CONNECTIONS -55-IC’s are made which also perform the function of encoding, decoding, performing binary addition (adders) and multiplexers. In sequential logic circuits flip-flops are extensively used all of which are manufactured on IC’s. ‘The SR Flip-Flop The SR flip-flop has two output terminals Q and Q. Figure 81 shows the SR flip- flop using NAND gates. Fig. 81 THE SR FLIP-FLOP With reference to figure 81: When S=1 R=0 Q=1 Q=0 the flip-flop is SET When S=0 R=1 Q=0 Q=1 the flip-flop is RESET ee When S = 0 R= 0 then no change occurs Q and @ will be what they were before, When S = 1 and R = 1 then Q = 1 and Q equals 1. The circuit is stable while $< R= 1, but if they are changed simultaneously from 1 to 0 then due to different switching times of the gates we cannot predict whether Q or Q will be 1 The output state is said to be indeterminate so S = R = 1 should not be allowed to occur. The truth table is shown below. s R Q Q 1 0 1 Oo oO 1 0 1 0 © Depends on state before inputs applied 1 1 Indeterminate -56-So basically the flip-flop can exist in two stable states: Q=1@=0) o Q=0@=1) Clocks In sequential logic circuits where there may be a large number of flip-flops, it is important they all act at the same time, so no circuit operates out of sequence. This is achieved by a CLOCK pulse from a high frequency pulse generator. The circuits may be triggered when the clock pulse changes from 1 to 0 or when it changes from 0 to 1 (edge triggered) or when the level is 1 or 0. Figures 82 and 83 show a clocked SR flip-flop and it’s truth table. ‘eK eL00%) re otL qe seal. x owecenea. ee Fig. 82 CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOP __ | OUTPUTS | OUTPUTS ] DURING BEFORE AFTER ppoeeey INPUTS | CLOCK CLOCK CLOCK | COMMENTS PULSE PULSE PULSE [sTRTATS -oTeroe Tse oTotrita ri oT 1 0 NO CHANGE Loi of 4 aa AIE+O: 1 {9 1 ourpurs iio Por Ta Tori Q_| FLIP-FLOP SETS 1] 0 0 a) 1 - a 0 | ere geo 1 FLIP-FLOP oi Taiyo Ta 0 0 Le oO fip.i 0 0 1 [0 1 08 Ori rliloy oi o [1 i THIS INPUT Lipite to 0 1d 1_| nor atrowep Fig. 83 TRUTH TABLE - CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOPD Type SR Flip-flop This is a modified SR flip-flop. The D stands for Delay. If you look at the truth table, when the clock pulse changes (rises), whatever is at D is transferred to Q, when clock pulse falls Q stays at that level. NO MATTER WHAT IS APPLIED TO D, Q will only change state at the next clock pulse. The truth table shows that the output equals the input one clock pulse earlier, ie the data is held back until the clock pulse = Sao 3 _PLexievocny Fig. 84 CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP ‘OUTPUTS OUTPUTS IN BEFORE AFTER id CLOCK PULSE | CLOCK PULSE =|lo]o io =|-lojo}or 1o|41olo| | -oJolo| loon ||] lo|HJo|H Io) Fig. 85 TRUTH TABLE CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP JK Flip-flop Figures 86 and 87 show the layout and truth table of the JK flip-flop using NAND gates. ~58-sf3 Ec oe exeooe » +p i Tee Fig. 86 JK FLIP-FLOP ‘OUTPUTS DURING OUTOUTS INPUTS BEFORE, clock AFTER CLOCK # ‘CLOCK PULSE PULSE PULSE COMMENTS IEE REE HQ 4] 4 OF Ate [RB | EO EEG. ofoTi fo fa i_[o1 | 6) 80 GaNGEN O-HIHFOH HOH ted 1 1 {ofa eee 1S). 1 1 [1] 0__[stavsaror 7 SETS TO | r[o0]o]7 4 0 TEE HOH be eagita o}i tile T OO) STAYS aOR RESETS TO ofiyoyia i 1-0 [1 | SS teoes es i ee ra 1 {0 1 0 i 1 (0]uaa fetkentnad Fig. 87 TRUTH TABLE JK FLIP-FLOP The two inputs are called J and K and the operation is described in the truth table. J = K = 1 is allowed (unlike § = R= 1 in a SR flip-flop) and toggles (changes state) when this input is applied. Shift Registers, which store a binary number and shifts it out when required usually consist of a number of flip-flops and manufactured in IC’s as are counters and memories. The Astable, Monostable and Bistable multivibrators are also manufactured on IC’s using op-amps as the diagrams below. -59-Trigger Input Ry laput > op, i Trigger Re GV, Looe Fig. 90 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBs) In this technique metallic foil is bonded onto a base board made from insulating material, and a pattern is printed onto the foil and chemical etching on to the foil forms a series of current conducting paths. The components are then mounted to the board and soldered to the appropriate points to make-up the circuit required The boards are usually made-up of layers of phenolic resin impregnated paper, or epoxy resin impregnated glass-fibre cloth. The thickness of the boards depends in the strength and stiffness required. The boards are manufactured in three basic configurations: -60-1) Single layer - These boards contain all printed conducting paths on one side with the components mounted on the opposite side. 2) Multilayer - These have printed conducting paths on both sides and the components may also be mounted on both sides. 3) Multilayer sandwich - These boards are many thin boards laminated together with the components mounted on one or both external sides. The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil. To bond the copper to the board, copper foil sheets are cut to the size of the board and steel separate plates are interposed between the layers as shown in figure 91: — nse era, SOONG OF CONCUCTOR MATERIA ‘SNGLECD Fig. 91 MAKE UP OF PCBs ‘The layered sheets are bonded in a hot press, The heat during the pressing operation melts the resin in the base material so that it flows and fully wets the material and the copper foil. As polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds, each layer of base material reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil is bonded to it. When cooled each board is trimmed to the required size, inspected and packed in polythene bags. Next a master diagram must be produced to show clearly the conductor pattern (a sort of wiring pattern) required and where the components are to be located, This ' is usually done by computer aided design techniques. -61-The printing process may be by the etching or additive process. In the etching process the copper foil is cleaned and coated with a photo-sensitive solution known as a ‘resist’, this solution has the property of becoming soluble when exposed to strong light. The master diagram is then placed over the board and exposed for a time in a printing machine. The resist is washed away to leave the resist etched away around the circuit pattern. The board is then placed in a bath of ferric chloride to etch away all the unprotected copper. corpenron —_atastanmpeonenotapertn ——_PRNTEDERCUT ease aren cSoctolpeapennppece Sey ter mars Fig. 92 ETCHING PROCESS a 7 An alternative process is the additive method. In this process the copper is deposited only in the areas where conductors are required. Again the board is coated with a photo resist solution. A negative of the master diagram is then screen printed onto the board, exposing the areas for the conductor layout. These exposed areas are chemically activated and the whole board is immersed in a copper plating solution, when the required thickness is obtained the board is withdrawn from the solution, ff assist nay fom wth sca cued ate ASE MATERA (Comedic ping pot Savon Fig. 93 ADDITIVE PROCESS The components are soldered to the board by two main methods (a) by hand, (b) mass soldering. -62-In mass soldering all joints are soldered simultaneously by bringing the board into contact with an oxide free surface of molten solder, which is contained in a special bath. The solder specification for mass soldering is 60/40 tin/lead. To prevent oxidation a flux is used and in the automated mass soldering system a fluxer unit is incorporated, removal of any flux residue is by solvents. After manufactured organic coatings (sometimes called conformal coatings) are applied to the surfaces. The type of coating depends on the protection required, ie temporary or permanent. Temporary protection is usually in the form of a resin based compound. Permanent protection is provided by epoxide or polyurethane based resins having very low oxygen absorption rates. They also have good resistance to humid conditions; are resistant to cracking and discolouration. Coatings are applied by brush, spray, roller or dipping. (CIRCUIT WODULE DESIGNATION (69 SIGNAL SELECTOR) BOARD REF NUMBER . en ‘COMPONENTS COMPONENT SOLOER LOCATIONS BASEMATERIAL FINGER OR EDGE CONNECTOR FRONT REAR Fig. 94 TYPICAL DOUBLE SIDED PCB RESISTOR IC PACKAGE Fig. 95 BOARD COMPONENTS -63-Flexible printed wiring circuits are available and usually serve as a means of interconnecting units and are basically copper foil conductors bonded to a base of thin flexible insulator (polyester, epoxy glass cloth and polyamide) and covered with the same material Printed circuit boards are widely used in components on a modern large transport aircraft. When removing or replacing these boards strict precautions must be observed. The reason for this is that the static electricity or charge that we have in our body can cause serious damage to the software of the components on the boards. The table shows typical electrostatic voltages that may be developed. - ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES MEANS OF STATIC GENERATION RELATIVE HUMIDITY (96, 7070 20 65 TO 90, WALKING ON CARPET 35,000 1,500 WALKING ON VINYL FLOOR 12,000 250 a WORKING AT BENCH 6,000 100, VINYL (PLASTIC) DOCUMENT ENVELOPES 7,000 600 ‘POLY BAG’ PICKED UP FROM BENCH 20,000 1,200 CHAIR PADDED WITH POLYURETHANE 18,000 1,500 Fig. 96 TABLE OF TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES If we were to touch the edge connectors or some other exposed metal part then a surge of current due to the difference in potential between our body and the PCB would cause damage to the components. The following table lists static sensitive devices and voltages that can cause damage. These devices are often referred to as ESD's (electrostatic sensitive devices) "Tipe OF DEVICE :ONGE WERE DRGE NOS FET 150 TO 1,000 Mos 250 TO 1,000 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR 4,000 TO 15,000 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) | __4,000 TO 18,000 THIN FILM RESISTORS 150 TO 1,000 ‘ Fig. 97 TABLE OF VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY -64-To identify components fitted with ESD’s a symbol is used on the line replacement unit (LRU) and associated documentation, transport bags etc. To overcome the static discharge problem the person removing the PCB must use a conducting wrist strap which is connected to a convenient grounding point on the aircraft and the person, to initially discharge any energy within the body. © GO & ‘TYPICAL SYMBOLS A ‘AU Tiaieat nen meer ies viet cette Q surest eutcrmostanic ttectrostatic Tigi Sesame | | Ap Stesitive Deva CAUTION SERVE PRECAUTION WOR WAnOLING we Qa evectggtanie, TEASE Fig. 98 ESD DECALS AND WARNINGS When removing an ESD PCB (or any PCB for that matter) electrical power is removed, the wrist strap is connected to the ground (there is usually a convenient point nearby on the aircraft), attach strap to your wrist and remove the PCB using the extractors provided. Place the PCB immediately into a special conductive bag (designed for ESD components) and identify with a label, do NOT use staples or adhesive tape. Remove wrist strap if not immediately refitting a new PCB. Do not forget any documentation such as JAA form 1 ete. If you are removing the complete LRU then it is important you do not touch the connector pins and place dust caps on all connectors. REMEMBER STATIC DISCHARGE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE! -65-SERVO MECHANISMS Licence By Post Licence By Post © copyrignt B EASA66 4.3 ISSUE 354AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations /guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Open loop systems Closed loop systems Performance of servomechanisms Improvement of transient response Servomechanisms components Synchronous transmitters Synchros Torque synchros Control synchros Differential synchros Resolver synchros Inductance transmitters Linier variable differential transformers Capacitance transmitters Page 11 20 26 32 32 35 39 43 49 50 52HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK The same applies to this book as applies to book 1. This means that it is written to the B2 level, and B1 people should check the How to Tackle This Book section of book 1 to check what subjects should be learnt and to what depth. None of the contents applies to the A Line Mechanic. You may need to read some sections of the book more than once to get a thorough understanding of the subject, and for Full Student students you can always contact your tutor if still in doubt.SERVOMECHANISM PRINCIPLES A servomechanism is a force amplifier mechanism where the output accurately follows the input but with greater power. Movement can be linear or rotary. If the output is controlled by the input only it is called an Open Loop system. If there is some form of feed-back or follow-up the system is called a Closed Loop system using the servo-loop to provide part of the control. Most closed loop systems use negative feed-back where essentially the servomechanism constantly compares demand with output, any difference generating an error signal which drives the output in the required direction to reduce the error to. zero. Servomechanisms may be de or ac operated. Open Loop Control System Suppose that we wish to control the position of a radar scanner (the load). Suppose also that we have a motor capable of driving the scanner and some means of controlling the motor. Such an arrangement is illustrated in figure 1. POWER AMPLIFIER LOAD EG RADAR SCANNER] INPUT [CONTROL DEMAND ELEMENT SIGNAL Fig. 1 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM The control element controls the magnitude and direction of the input toa power amplifier, whose output drives the motor at the desired speed in the required direction. ‘The motor, in turn, moves the load in accordance with the input demand. ‘The control element could be calibrated with a scale indicating the required position of the load. When the control dial is set to the correct setting for the required position, we hope that the load (possibly unseen) is doing what has been requested - to move in a particular direction and at a particular speed (and with some systems at a particular acceleration [rate of change of speed)}). In practice, the accuracy of this form of control is limited because there are several factors, other than the input, that affect the output (eg variations in the output load, in the amplifier characteristics or in the motor circuitry). There are no means of controlling these variations in the open loop system and, because of the resulting inaccuracy, open loop systems are rarely used.Closed Loop Control System If the operator observes what the load is doing and makes appropriate corrections at the input, the system is no longer open loop; it is now, in effect, a closed loop system, the human operator completing the loop between output and input. He/she compares the desired effect with the actual effect and adjusts the system so as to reduce the error between them. He/she is thus, in this connection, an ‘error detector, and the amount of error which the person observes determines how adjustments are made to the input to produce the desired results. This sort of control is used ~ using the human error detector - in almost every activity we do - driving a car ~ combing your hair - using tools etc. To measure the error and take the necessary correcting action, we have ‘built in’ the human operator as an essential control element. A more effective and efficient control can be obtained by replacing the human operator with an automatic control system, In addition there is a saving in manpower. ‘The essential features of a closed loop system are: * The feedback of output information concerning the behaviour of the load. =", * The comparison of this information with the behavioiir demanded by the input. : * The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between the desired behaviour and the actual behaviour, * The amplification of the error signal to control the power into a servomotor. a * The movement of the load by the servomotor in such a direction /speed/acceleration as to reduce the error signal to zero, at which point the output is the same as that demanded by the input. Figure 2 shows a block schematic diagram of a basic closed loop contro! system. In this arrangement: 7 6, is the input demand, which in this case is in the form of a shaft angle. (0 = theta). * 6, is the output shaft angle of the load. * The control element converts the demand @, into some form ; suitable for operation of the error detector, eg produces a voltage proportional to 6.INPUT DEMAND. CONTROL ERROR ELEMENT DETECToR| 8 OUTPUT Go PU’ Qo FEEDBAG Cee ELEMENT Fig. 2 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM * The feedback element does the same for the output angle-0., eg produces a voltage proportional to 6,. * The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to @, and the other due to @,; it produces an error signal e proportional to the difference between the two inputs, ie (6, - 8, : * The error signal operates the amplifier which, in turn, causes the motor to rotate until 6 equals @, (output equals demand); at this point the error signal is zero and the drive from the motor ceases, the output load having taken up the position demanded by the input. eos Practical Closed Loop Control System (figure 3) The input demand 6, sets the angle of the transmitter (CX) rotor. The resulting alternating field in the control transformer stator induces a voltage in the transformer rotor and this voltage is fed as an error or misalignment signal to the amplifier. The amplifier output is used to drive an ac servomotor that turns the output shaft and also the rotor of the control transformer through output angle 6, When the output shaft is turned into alignment with the setting of the input shaft (0, = @) the transformer rotor is at right angles to the transmitter rotor and its own stator field. In this position there is no error signal induced in the transformer rotor, there is no input to the amplifier or servomotor, and the motor stops, The output has now taken up the position demanded by the input.i. $* Rotoracts as an ror detector ‘oNTROL coNTROL TRANSFORMER TRanswiTTeR (CT) Power SERVO ane MoToR Bo Fig. 3 PRACTICAL CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Servomechanisms To be classed as a servomechanism, an automatic control system-must have: (@) Error actuation. (b) Power amplification. () Closed loop control. (a) Continuous operation, or ‘follow-up’ properties, ie if the load is disturbed from the demanded position, it always tends to return to that position. The system is said to be error-actuated because it is the error between the output demanded by the input and the actual output which starts the action. The final net input to the amplifier is the error signal and nét the input demand We must have torque amplification to be able to drive heavy loads. The servo therefore contains an amplifier that supplies the necessary driving power to the servomotor; the motor provides the required torque. The servo also has a closed loop system: Error detector - amplifier - motor and load - error detector... Finally, continuous operation is assured in a servomechanism because any variation in the output from that demanded by the input automatically produces a difference between output and input, and hence an error signal. The error signal again starts the correcting action. A servomechanism has many applications, covering a wide range of power, position, speed and acceleration requirements.‘Types of Servo There are two main classes of servomechanism - Remote Position Control (RPC) servos and speed control servos fa) (b) Inputs RPC servos, These are used to control the angular or linear position of a load. Speed Control Servos. These are used to control the speed of a load. In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made proportional to the input demand (usually a voltage). Two types of input to a servo are: 1. STEP INPUT - created when the input shaft is suddenly rotated from one angular position to another. . RAMP INPUT - created when the input shaft is rotated at a constant angular velocity. 7 SHAFT ANGLE (RADIANS) Fee TIME Fig. 4 STEP INPUT RADSISEC. SHAFT ANGLE (RADIANS) TIME —— Fig. 5 RAMP INPUTPERFORMANCE OF SERVOMECHANISMS. Response The response of a servo is the pattern of behaviour of the load when a change is made to the input condition. It has so far been assumed that if the input moves to 6, the load will simply follow, its response being a reproduction of the input movement The paragraphs that follow will show that matters are not as simple as this. INPUT DEMAND ERROR SIGNAL ourpur SHAFT Fig. 6 SIMPLE SERVOMECHANISM ~ Step Input - No Friction For this discussion we will assume that thé input and output-were aligned at 6, until the input suddenly changes to @,. An error signal proportional to ®, - 6, appears at the amplifier input and the motor is energised to null the error. One important point must now be emphasised. The torque delivered by the motor to the load is directly proportional to the error. It acts only on the inertia of the load, which therefore accelerates at a rate proportional to the error. As the error reduces so the acceleration reduces, until it reaches zero with zero error But this is not a satisfactory state of affairs, for the load acceleration is in one sense only and that to increase its velocity. Saying that the acceleration is zero at zero error simply means that the load has reached a steady speed when we require it to be stationary. Further, since there is nothing to stop it, it keeps moving past the required position. The error signal produced, and, therefore, the torque applied to the load, now reverses in sense to slow down the load. Since, however, the components operate symmetrically about the null, the pattern of deceleration is a mirror image of the original acceleration.The load stops when it has overshot by the initial error, and from there the performance is repeated. The resulting load oscillation about the demanded position is illustrated graphically in figure 7. OUTPUT SHAFT ANGLE (RADIANS) 0 TIME ——» Fig. 7 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT - NO FRICTION Ramp Input - No Friction The description of the response can be followed in the diagram. In the early states of the ramp, while the error signal is small, the load accelerates slowly and lags behind the input. The error signal grows as the lag increases, building up the acceleration. Eventually the load speed equals the input speed but since a substantial position error exists it continues to accelerate. When its speed exceeds that of the input the position error starts to decrease; the acceleration reduces and the load reaches a constant speed at zero position error with no error signal. ‘The load speed, however, exceeds the input speed and an overshoot results. That the outcome is a continuous oscillation can be easily imagined from this point. SHAFT OUTPUT ANGLE (RADIANS) fe 0 TIME — Fig. 8 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT - NO FRICTIONEffect of Restraints The oscillatory responses are obviously not desirable, and luckily, restraints on the load have a stabilising effect. Various inherent factors oppose the load movement and they include static friction, kinetic (sliding) friction, eddy currents, air resistance, viscous lubricants and others. Lumping them all together for the moment the general effect is to reduce the amplitude of each successive swing until gradually the output becomes steady. ‘The oscillations are known as transients and they are effective during the transient response period, or settling time. Once the output has settled it has reached the steady state. While restraints are beneficial in stabilising, or damping, the response, they do have certain detrimental effects, One of these is that power is wasted; another is the introduction of error into the steady state. Steady State Errors \ Examination of the various restraints present would show that their effect is in part due to a small constant magnitude force known as coulomb friction and in part to viscous friction that increases with, speed. J Coulomb friction is that part of the frictional force that is independent of speed, for example a brake shoe on a brake drum. j The resistance due to coulomb friction tends to degrade the sensitivity of a servo, for a torque that overcomes it must be generated before any movement of the load takes place. To provide this torque the load error must reach some finite size, and any errors less than this will not be corrected. Figure 9 shows the effect of coulomb friction on the response to a step input. 7N 77 ~~ DEAD SPACE \ ren N POSITION, l ME ——> ~- COULOMB FRICTION Fig. 9 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT WITH COULUMB FRICTIONThe load comes to rest somewhere within a band of error, known as the Dead Space, the width of which depends on the amount of coulomb friction. For most modern servos the coulomb friction is very small, and its effect is often neglected. Viscous friction does not produce a dead space in the step input case since it has no value when the speed is zero. It does however produce a similar effect when the ramp input is considered. In the steady state the load is moving with constant speed; it is therefore being resisted by viscous friction. An error signal must be produced to overcome this, therefore, an error must exist. ‘The response is illustrated in figure 10 and the error necessary to overcome the friction is known as Velocity Lag. The output shaft rotates at the same speed as the input shaft but lags behind it by some constant angle. This positional error is velocity lag-~-"- Coulomb friction may be considered small compared with viscous friction during a ramp input, but, of course, it also contributes to this error. However, the greater part is due to viscous friction, and since this increases with speed the error is generally reckoned to vary in direct proportion to speed VELOCITY LAG. POSITION 6 f _ viscous FRICTION TE ——> Fig. 10 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT WITH VISCOUS FRICTION Response of a RPC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction) Figure 11 shows a basic RPC servo system. Assuming the output shaft is driving a load, and has taken up a position which agrees with that demanded by the input shaft (9, = 0). The error signal is therefore zero, and the servo is stationary in a steady state condition.INPUT DENAND, ERROR SIGNAL oureur SHAFT LOAD Fig. 11 BASIC RPC SERVO I+ RESPONSE TIME ——» a ' 1 1 ' ' INPUT DEMAND 0; 1 AND OUTPUT Go SUDDEN CHANGE IN i |_— INPUT DEMAND 81 TIME Fig. 12 RESPONSE CURVE Now suppose that the input shaft is suddenly turned through a certain angle in order to bring the load into @ new position, ie a step input is applied. The sequence of events is illustrated in figure 12. (a) The input demand @, is suddenly change to a new value at point a. The output shaft cannot immediately follow this change in demand because of the inertia of the load. Therefore there is now a difference between 6, and , and an error signal is produced. (b) ‘The error signal, after amplification, causes the motor to accelerate in an attempt to bring the output shaft to the new demanded position, Because of the inertia of the load this takes time; there is therefore a time lag during which the output angle 6, is changing in response to the change in demand (b in figure 12). -10-()__ As the motor turns the load, the output angle 8. approaches the demand €,, The error signal, which is proportional to (8, - 6.) therefore decreases but the driving force remains until 8, equals 6, at point ¢; this is the required load position (4) By the time 6, has reached the demanded position, the load has acquired considerable momentum and overshoots (point d). (e) The error signal now increases in the opposite direction (@, greater than 6) and the motor applies a reverse torque which eventually stops the load and brings it back to the required position at point e. () Once again, however, the momentum of the load carries it past the required position and another overshoot occurs at f. The load may thus oscillate about its final required position many times before it comes to rest; a servomechanism that does this is said to be ‘hunting’. IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE ae For many applications the simple servo using its inherent friction for damping is perfectly adequate. This is usually the case for small position servos, but where large loads are involved the transient response is unsatisfactory. Time and energy is wasted during this period, and bearing wears increased. It is desirable to reduce the number of oscillations, and also the response time. Two methods commonly employed are described. Viscous Damping This method is simply a controlled increase of the inherent viscous damping to achieve the required response. One device in use is the eddy current damper as shown in figure 13. This simple device consists of a thin disc of metal with high electrical conductivity (usually aluminium), which is attached to the output shaft of the servo. It spins between the poles of electromagnets mounted around its periphery. Eddy currents are induced of magnitude proportional to the field strength and to the disc velocity. These eddy currents set up magnetic fields that act against the inducing fields and forces opposing the disc rotation are created. -l-ELECTRO MAGNETS FEEDBACK =¢— Fig. 13 EDDY CURRENT DAMPER These forces are closely proportional to the disc velocity, and therefore provide parallels to the inherent viscous forces. They can be controlled by adjusting the current flow to the clectromagnets, thus varying the amount of damping that can be applied ‘ Figure 14 shows some of the stages, coulomb friction being ignored for simplicity. Using only inherent friction under damping is achieved. Too much extra viscous friction will produce a sluggish response and the system is over damped. The degree of damping which just prevents any overshoot is known as critical damping Slightly less damping than this, to allow one small overshoot is optimum damping, which gives the shortest settling time. Most designers aim for this condition. UNDER DAMPING ourPUT SHAFT PosITiON Oy OVER DAMPING CRITICAL DAMPING OP Tim DAMPING TE ———e Fig. 14 DEGREES OF DAMPING - STEP INPUT -12-‘The effect on the transients for a ramp input can be similarly adjusted to produce optimum damping. A snag arises, however, for any increase in viscous friction also increases the velocity lag. Thus to remove the transient oscillations completely a considerable velocity lag must be expected, Figure 15 illustrates the response for two degrees of damping for a ramp input Velocity Feedback Damping This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one respect; the compensation produced is proportional to the velocity, or rate of movement, of the output shaft. Velocity feedback damping has the advantage, however, that it consumes little power. Light DAMPING POSITIONS TIME —> Fig. 15 DEGREES OF DAMPING - RAMP INPUT In an RPC servo the load is required to be moved from one position to another as quickly as possible without causing instability (hunting) or wasting power ‘We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes the servomotor to apply a torque, which accelerates the load. As the load gathers speed and approaches the desired position an arrangement is required that will ‘anticipate’ that the load is going to overshoot and so reverse the motor torque before the desired position is reached. If the arrangement is adjusted correctly the result is that the load comes to rest just as it reaches the required position with overshooting and hunting not oceurring For a servomechanism, this arrangement is achieved by attaching a tacho- generator to the output shaft. A tacho-generator is a small ac or de generator that produces a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the output shaft. -13-A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the amplifier in opposition to the error signal {negative feedback) to provide the necessary compensation. This is known as velocity feedback damping, because the voltage fed back is proportional to the velocity of the output shaft, The aim with velocity feedback is to reduce the net input to the amplifier to zero and then to reverse it before the output shaft reaches its required position. If the amount of feedback is correctly adjusted - and this can be done fairly easily by means of a potentiometer - the forward momentum of the load, acting against the reversed torque, causes the load to come to rest just as it reaches the required position, INPUT DEMAND 8 ourput SHAFT ourpur Shar Position Vetooiry FEEDBACK SIGNAL AoHO GENERATOR Fig. 16 SERVO SCHEMATIC WITH VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING +h eur DeWAND e DEMANDED POSITION /8.5*@;) —=———————n SHAFT 8 SIGNAL (9r80) ° vevociry Feeboack sooner’ | Fig. 17 VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING -14-The action is illustrated by the graph (figure 17). Initially, when the step input is applied, the output shaft docs not move and the full amplified error is applied to the motor (no velocity feedback since the load is at rest) The motor accelerates the load and, as the input and output shafts come into alignment, the error falls. At the same time, because the load is now moving fast, a large velocity feedback voltage is applied in opposition to the error voltage. The net input to the amplifier therefore drops rapidly and then increases in the opposite direction as the velocity feedback voltage becomes larger than the error signal. A decelerating torque is thus applied to the load before it reaches the demanded position. As the motor slows down, the velocity feedback voltage falls; so also does the error signal because the output and input shafts are coming more into alignment When the required position is reached, the motor stops; velocity feedback is zero and so also is the error signal, the input and output shafts being aligned. So transient response can be improved in two ways, by applying extra viscous friction or by velocity feedback. Both increase velocity lag in response to ramp inputs, but of the two, velocity feedback is preferred since power is not wasted. Just to re-cap CA The feedback voltage from the tacho-generator to the amplifier is in opposition to the error signal. : In a servo that is being driven at a constant speed there must always be an error signal to keep the load moving, however this error signal will have to be larger than required as it has to be greater than the velocity feedback voltage. Therefore, velocity lag is greater than required, ie greater positional error between input and output shafts. We shall now look at common methods to reduce velocity lag in step input and ramp input systems. ‘Transient Velocity Feedback This type of damping is often referred to as ‘acceleration feedback damping’ and is used in an angular velocity system to reduce velocity lag. With reference to figure 18 - inserted between the tacho-generator and the amplifier is a differentiating network. In a speed control servo, the velocity feedback provides damping when transient speed changes occur, however when the speed is constant no damping is required, however the signal is still being fed to the amplifier and causing excessive velocity lag, -15-DIFFERENTIATOR TACHO.GENERATOR “TRANSIENT vevociry FEEDBACK Buen @o POSITION FEEDBACK ERROR VOLTAGE E = (@)) fe no) Fig. 18 TRANSIENT VELOCITY FEEDBACK The transient velocity feedback system is designed therefore to provide damping during changes in speed, but when the speed is constant, provide no damping and therefore reduce velocity lag to a minimum. When the speed of the output shaft is constant, the tacho-generator voltage is constant, after the initial charging current the voltage across R falls to zero, there is no output from the network, no damping to the system, velocity lag reduced. When the speed changes, ie damping required, the capacitor charges or discharges through R to give an output to the amplifier to provide the necessary damping. ‘i The tacho-generator output is therefore differentiated by CR giving damping only when the load speed is changing Phase Advance Damping Stabilisation of a servomechanism to obtain a good transient response in an RPC system and a good steady state response in a velocity system, reducing velocity lag can also be achieved by inserting a suitable network in the input to the amplifier. A typical arrangement using a correction network, known as a phase-advance network is shown in figure 19, In an RPC system when a step input is applied, there is a large error signal, the current through R and the charging current through C are in the same direction. The input to the amplifier is therefore Ix + Ic (modified error signal), this causes the servomotor to accelerate rapidly. As the error signal decreases, C commences to discharge through R, the total current therefore into the servo amplifier is then Ir - Ic. -16-MODIFIED ERROR ERROR SIONAL SIGNAL INPUT DEMAND ‘ \ [ERROR CORRECTION NETWORK. ourpur SHAFT MopirieD > error SIQNAL, Fig. 19 PHASE ADVANCE CORRECTION NETWORK By suitable choices of C and R, ie controlling the time constant of the network, it can be arranged that the signal itself becomes zero before the error signal is zero, providing a retarding torque before the load reaches the required position. Overshooting is prevented and stability during the transient period improved. Velocity feedback damping is omitted, the network is doing the same job but is not introducing velocity lag. ae For a velocity control system (ramp input), the network provides damping on the initial switch ‘on’ and for any speed change as described for the step input system. However, at steady state the error is very small indeed and velocity lag is greatly reduced. So this system, by removing velocity feedback damping, has reduced velocity lag, the correction network providing the necessary damping. Other types of correction networks are used, depending on the response required. Some RPC servos require only a rapid response with velocity lag being unimportant; in other RPC servos, velocity lag must be taken into consideration. In systems required to rotate at a constant angular velocity, velocity lag must be reduced to a minimum, Different combinations of C and R in the network may be used to produce the desired response. Error Rate Damping Another method used to reduce velocity lag in an angular velocity control system is error rate damping. One possible arrangement is shown in figure 20. One tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft and produces a voltage proportional to the speed of the shaft. A second tacho-generator is mounted on the input shaft producing a voltage proportional to the input speed. There are therefore three input signals to the amplifier. -17-‘The combined input is a voltage proportional to the error plus a voltage proportional to the input speed minus a voltage proportional to the output speed If you remember, in a velocity feedback system in the steady state, ie input and output shafts rotating at the same speed, the velocity lag was mainly caused by the signal from the output tacho-generator. Qvevocry ‘TACHO-GENERATOR Fexo veociry FORWARD FEEDBACK TRCHOSENERATOR Gx) Seem eee ieee In this system the input tacho-generator is cancelling this signal in the steady state, so velocity lag is reduced to a minimum. The position error reducing any velocity lag that does exist, In principle, this arrangement seems fine but it is difficult to get two tacho- generators to give exactly the same output, especially with time. However a simplification of this arrangement is possible. The two tacho- generators are producing voltage outputs proportional to input minus output speed, or proportional to the speed of the error signal. The velocity of this error is equal to rate of change of error with respect to time. This can be achieved by using a differentiator, ie differentiating the error with respect to time. ‘Therefore by combining the derivative of the error signal and combining it with the actual error, the net input to the amplifier is a voltage proportional to the error plus a voltage proportional to speed (input minus output). So therefore, in the steady state, the system has low velocity lag. In the transient state the differentiator will provide the necessary damping signals. At start up, rate of change of error signal is high and the input to the amplifier will be high to accelerate the load. As the input and output shaft speeds come into line the output of the differentiator opposes the position error signal to provide a retarding torque before the load reaches the required speed. At steady state the differentiator output is zero, position error signal reduces velocity lag. -18-DIFFERENTIATOR, SERVOMOTOR Fig. 21 ERROR RATE DAMPING WITH DIFFERENTIATOR Integral Controt ‘The methods so far described reduce velocity lag, but have no effect on lag and dead space caused by inherent friction. A common method of dealing with these residual steady state errors is known as Integral Control.” DIFFERENTIATOR, SERVOMOTOR Fig. 22 INTEGRAL CONTROL ‘The differentiator D (figure 22) acts as previously described for error and damping, The integrator is connected as shown, ie integrating the error signal and feeding into the amplifier. An integrator is a device that takes on input signal and slowly builds up that input signal on its output. When the servo system reaches its steady state with a small residual error, the integrator output wil! have built up to provide an additional signal to drive the load to the alignment position -19-Adjustment of the integrator output can be made to ensure that when the error signal is zero its output is just sufficient to counter inherent friction. Summary Most servos in aircraft systems are damped by inherent friction, extra viscous friction or velocity feedback. However in some applications, improved sensitivity and reduction of velocity lag are required. Figure 23 shows a comparison of damping methods. METHOD OF DAWFING RESPONSE TO STEP INPUT | RESPONSE TO RAMP PUT REMARKS tere prienon coxsesaate MTN) (UNDERDAMPED) SMALL VELOCITY Lao. s.0W paureD nesrone. aoe vevocrY io. viscous Danese [USEFUL ONLY ON SHALL SERVOS BECAUSE OF POWER Losses, [FAST DAMPED RESPONSE, LARGE VELOCTTY LAO. [SATISFACTORY FOR MOST RPC SYSTEMS, VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING TERROR RATE DAVEE TEASE ADVANCE NETWORK ‘TRANSIENT VELocrTY FEEDBACK DAMPING [FAST DAMPED RESPONSE, PRACTICALLY ZERO) INTEGRAL OF ERROR vevocrny Lad. DIFFICULT TO MAINTAIN STABILITY, Fig. 23 COMPARISON OF DAMPING METHODS SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS DC Servo Components The positional feedback signal would be from a potentiometer in most cases. The error detector would be potentiometer circuits or electronic circuits producing an error signal proportional to the difference between input and output shaft rotations. The servo amplifiers must produce sufficient power to drive the servomotor; this power requirement will depend on the system. The power amplifiers used in conjunction with voltage amplifiers (to provide gain) will thus vary the power output. -20-DC servomotors must be capable of being reversed and the torque developed must be proportional to the error signal input. As torque is proportional to the product of the armature current and the field current, the armature current is kept constant, and the torque can be controlled by varying the field current (error signal). So separate supplies are used, the armature current being fed from a constant current source and the field being fed from the servo amplifier. Figure 24 shows a de-operated servomotor. Attached to the motor is a servo amplifier, feedback is provided by a potentiometer, the wiper of which is driven by the motor. ‘The de tacho-generator mounted on the output shaft of the servomechanism is a small, separately excited de generator. It will produce a de voltage that is directly proportional to the speed at which it is driven and whose polarity depends on the direction of rotation. AC Servo Components ‘The positional feedback signal may be from potentiometers, synchros, LVDT's or RVDT's. The servo amplifier is a conventional transistorised amplifier with voltage and power amplifiers, AC servomotors capable of producing moderately high torque are usually induction motors. Induction motors run at a constant speed (related to the frequency of the ac supply), but their torque and their direction of rotation can be controlled by the amplified error signal, without the use of complex circuitry. ‘Two-phase and three-phase induction motors are common in ac servo systems; the two-phase type is more usual. The two-phase induction motor (figure 25) requires two ac supply voltages 90° out of phase with each other. One phase is fed to the control system and then through the servo amplifier to one stator winding of the motor; this supply is controlled by the error signal. -21-The other phase, known as the ‘reference phase’, is fed directly to the other phase winding of the motor. When the reference phase to one stator winding and the error-controlled phase to the other winding are both present, a rotating magnetic field is produced; the squirrel-cage rotor follows this field and rotates. The direction of rotation depends on the sense of the error signal, ic on the direction of misalignment between input and output shafts of the servo. As the misalignment signal passes through the zero error signal position, the phase of the error-controlled voltage reverses and this reverses the direction of rotation of the motor. When the error is zero, the error-controlled phase voltage is also zero and no rotating magnetic field is produced and the motor stops. ‘The torque developed by the motor depends on the magnitude of the error signal; the greater the error, the larger the torque. REFERENCE PHASE SUPPLY. rs ERROR CONTROLLED. PHASE SUPPLY Fig. 25 TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR Hysteresis motors may also be used as ac servomotors, A typical arrangement is shown in figure 26. A two-phase supply is required, the reference phase voltage being applied to phase windings AA:, and the error-controlled voltage to BB). At any one instant, A will act as a N-pole and Ai as a S-pole; B and B, will be neutral. ‘The rotor - a cobalt steel ring - will therefore have a S-pole induced at X and a N-pole at Y. A quarter of a cycle later, B will act as a N-pole and B; as a S-pole, A and A, will be neutral, However, the rotor, which is made of a large hysteresis loop material, will have retained its S-pole at X and its N-pole at Y. So point X on the rotor is attracted to the B stator winding and Y is attracted to Bi. =22-Since a torque is being exerted on the rotor it will turn to follow the rotating magnetic field and will continue to do so until the error signal falls to zero. The direction of rotation depends on the phase of the error-controlled voltage relative to the reference voltage and this, in turn, depends on the sense of the error. The torque developed depends on the magnitude of the error. REFERENCE Pease SUPPLY ERROR CONTROLLED PHASE SUPPLY Fig. 26 HYSTERESIS SERVOMOTOR Servomotor Construction Figure 27 shows a two-phase induction motor, the two phase winding accommodated in slots in the stator. The rotor is of the squire! cage construction type generally with aluminium conductors. ci LIP (to hola bearing) ae ROTOR SHAFT a HOUSING / sean 7 ROTOR \ REAR CAP cORCLIP mG @ < /. TERMINAL CAP sraroSimone TAA Sa a rerunarucions 4° OG ¢ (YB ccaané , WASHER . Fig. 27 SERVOMOTOR CONSTRUCTION -23-‘The stator and rotor slots are skewed, this prevents the reluctance of the rotor moving away from one of a number of positions where the slots in the rotor and stator are aligned and so ensures smooth torque output. The ac tacho-generator is used to provide velocity feedback damping in ac servo systems; it is mounted on the output shaft so that it rotates at the same speed as the load. The ac tacho-generator (figure 28) is usually a drag-cup generator that produces an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac supply. However, the amplitude of the voltage depends on the speed of rotation; and the phase of the voltage leads or lags the ac supply depending on the direction of rotation, ‘The drag-cup generator has a two-coil stator whose axes are at right angles, as in a two-phase induction motor. The rotor, however, is a copper or brass cup with a stationary iron cylinder fitted inside it to complete the magnetic path for the stator, me a OUTER OUTPUT SHAFT DRAG INNER REFERENCE STATOR WINDING cur ¢ STATOR WINDING ~ (eee Fig. 28 AC TACHOGENERATOR DETAILS AC is applied to only one stator coil ~ the primary coil. As the output shaft drives the rotor, voltages are induced in it by interaction with the field produced by the current in the primary stator. At any instant, maximum voltage is induced in that part of the cup passing through the primary axis. Maximum circulating (eddy) currents are therefore in this axis, and these currents produce a secondary magnetic field that is at right angles to the axis of the primary field. This secondary field alternates at the frequency of the supply current but its magnitude depends on the amplitude of the circulating eddy currents induced in the rotor by the primary field; this, in turn, depends on the speed of rotation, The secondary stator winding of the tacho-generator is at right angles to the primary axis and so has a voltage induced in it by the secondazy field only. -24-This is the output voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the speed of rotation and whose phase relative to the reference ac supply depends on the direction of rotation. A typical ac tacho-generator provides a velocity feedback voltage of 0.5V per 1,000 rpm of the rotor. DRAG CUP STATIONARY Rg sSSSEESEEES Peet er A 7 fom, ® Gree Fig. 29 DRAG CUP ROTATION i a {vacua If a control system operates on ac but is supplied with de, then a device known as a modulator has to be employed. The modulator will convert the de input into an ac output of fixed frequency such that the magnitude of the ac output is proportional to the magnitude of the de input. Whenever the de input goes into reverse polarity, corresponding to a reversal in the sense of the data being represented by the dc signal, the ac output will reverse its phase, eg +ve de input, ac output -ve de input, ac output . The P P modulator is said to be ‘phase sensitive’. Alternatively if the control system operates on de but is supplied with ac a demodulator is required. This converts the ac input signal into a de output signal. Whenever the ac signal reverses phase, corresponding to a reversal in the sense of the data being represented the de will reverse polarity, eg ac input A +e de output. ac input LS, -ve de output. The demodulator is said to be ‘phase sensitive’, it may also be called a ‘phase sensitive rectifier’. -25-SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMITTERS These are data (normally position) information transmitters that transduce movement information and send this data to remote receivers /indicators in real time (i¢ synchronously) The Desynn System ‘The Desynn is a de system of transmission that indicates continuous variation of shaft position, It is a relatively simple system, which because it produces a low torque, is useful only for remote indication of angular position; as such it is ideal where a simple pointer and scale indicator is adequate. As in all electrical remote indication systems, the input shaft is connected toa transmitter clement that is connected to the receiver unit by wires. The receiver ‘unit drives the output shaft that operates the remote indicator: In the Desynn system (figure 30), the transmitter is a circular potentiometer which has three fixed tapings (a, b and c) spaced 120° apart, connected to the receiver unit. A rotating spring loaded mechanism (to take up backlash) is mounted on the input shaft and carries two sliding contacts or wipers that are arranged opposite one another. The wipers are fed, via slip rings and brushes, from the positive and negative terminals of a de supply. INDICATOR MAGNETISED iH RoTOR STATOR “WINDINGS, TRANSMITTER INDICATOR 200 60 ToROIDAL RESISTOR TRANSMITTER Fig. 30 THE DESYNN SYSTEM ~26-‘The receiver has three coils (a, b and c) with axes 120° apart (connected in stax). Within them is a permanent magnet rotor which is capable of rotation through 360° and which carries a pointer over a calibrated scale. The three air- cored coils in the receiver are connected to the tapping points a, b and c on the transmitter by the three lines shown in figure 30. ‘A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation of the indicator, will return the points to an "OFF SCALE" position if the power supply fails or is switched ‘OFF’ (See figure 32). When a de supply is connected to the transmitter wipers, the voltages at the tapping points a, b and c in the transmitter cause currents to flow through the three stator coils in the receiver, a resultant magnetic field is produced and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field. For example, with the input shaft in the position shown at a in figure 33, point a is at 24V with respect to supply negative, while b and c are both +8V. With a positive by the same amount to both b and ¢, current flows from a through coil a in the receiver; it then divides equally and half the total current goes through coil b and half through coil c back to the transmitter. The magnetic fields fa, fi and fe associated with these currents and also the resultant magnetic field are shown by vectors and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field / RESISTOR TAPPING ToRoIDAL RESISTOR OPERATING weer aRw: OPERA WiPER ARI DRIVE SPINDLE’ SECTOR RETURN, SPRING BIUcN Fig. 31 DESYNN TRANSMITTER -27-If the input shaft is rotated 120° clockwise, as at bin figure 33 the voltage distribution is such that the total current flows through coil b, it then divides equally through a and c and flows back to the transmitter. The vectors show that the resultant magnetic field has also rotated 120° clockwise from its initial position and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this new axis. The magnitude and polarity of the voltage at each tapping point on the transmitter therefore vary according to the position of the wipers. Thus, if the input shaft is rotated, the variation of voltage at a, b and c produces changes in the currents flowing in the stator coils, and a magnetic field rotating in sympathy with the input shaft is produced. The rotor magnet remains aligned with this field at all times and so rotates in synchronism with the input shaft, A pointer, moving over a calibrated scale, is attached to the rotor so that a remote indication of the position of the input shaft is immediately available. A typical example of the use of the Desynn i remote indication of wing flap position, the flap shaft acting as the ‘input’ shaft. ROTOR / HOUSING STATOR ROTOR’ END PLATE" POINTER END NUT HOUSING ROTOR ae No VOLTAGE MAGNET SGRASE eno cover. Fig. 32 INDICATOR - EXPLODED VIEW The Desynn is said to be self-synchronous because the output shaft continuously moves in sympathy, or in synchronism, with the input shaft. Any change in the position of the input shaft results in an immediate and corresponding change in the position of the output shaft; this synchronous movement is inherent in the system, ie it is self-synchronous. The Desynn also gives a continuous indication of change of position through 360°. It is, however, only a low power device, the current being limited by the resistance of the transmitter potentiometer. The Desynn is therefore only suitable for operating indicating pointers and similar light loads. -28-‘TRANSMITTER RECEIVER, > CURRENT input SHAFT ® © reste FIELD RESULTANT FIELD 120° ‘clockwise 0 clockwise Fig. 33 DESYNN SYSTEM- THEORY = —— Figures 34 and 35 show a Desynn system used to indicate flap position on a small passenger carrying aircraft. Note the linkage between the flap and the transmitter and the available adjustments. FLAP CONTROL ‘UNIT FLAP DRIVE MECHANISM INDICATOR FLAP SELECTOR DESYNN FLAP SELECTOR ‘TRANSMITTER CABLE SYSTEM DESYNN CABLE ‘SYSTEM Fig. 34 DESYNN - TYPICAL APPLICATION -29-EXTENSION aDWUSTABLE Luin t0 naMt tc a rowinas, RADIUS 27519 Desvan posifion TRANSIITTER Locka WASHER uae. eae DETAR A Fig. 35 TYPICAL SYSTEM SET-UP ‘Typical Desynn Faults The table below shows some of the possible faults and subsequent actions. SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY Pointer ‘OFF SCALE’ | Power supply failure/ | Check fuse or C/B. | OFF : Switch ‘ONt Pointer displaced 180°. | Power supply reversed. | Check transmitter for Rotation correct. correct wiring. Pointer rotation 2 connections crossed. | Check wiring reversed. connections between transmitter and indicator. Pointer displaced 120° | 3 connections crossed. | Check wiring or 240° clockwise. connections between Rotation correct. transmitter and indicator. Pointer displaced and | Open circuit or short __| Carry out insulation | moves in 180° steps. _| circuit. resistance check and continuity checks. -30-L_oneaseo ueveruenari | 3 |__NEREASED LEVER LENGTH || input REDUCED ANGULAR RANGE MOVEMENT | worgaseo ancuLan nance i—__J DECREASED LEVER LENGTH Fig. 36 PRINCIPLE OF LEVER LENGTH ADJUSTMENT. Maintenance Checks on Adjustment of Transmitter On the Desynn system there are usually two forms of adjustment, one adjusts lever length and the other lever angle. Refer to figure 36. Hl ! LevERLENoTH Fig. 37 PRINCIPLE OF LEVER ANGLE ADJUSTMENT -31-Lever length on the transmitter is the distance between the lever pivot point X and the connection to the link at Y; this arm is adjustable as shown in detail A-A figure 35. It should be noted that making the extension arm longer would inerease lever length and decrease indicator pointer movement. Making the extension arm smaller will decrease lever length and increase indicator pointer movement. The basic adjustment of this type of system is to set the flaps to various positions (checking that they select correctly from the flight deck and carrying out an actual angular or linier measurement check of the flaps. Check also that they move smoothly and all together. Check the flight deck pointer indication and adjust the lever length as required ensuring correct pointer indication at all flap positions. It should be noted that adjusting lever length generally only counteracts a regularly increasing or decreasing error, eg for each whole unit of movement it only moves 0.8 of a unit. In other systems, adjustment of lever angle may be possible. This is the angle between the adjustable link arm and the extension arm in figure 35, (Note. It cannot be adjusted on this system), ——~ Unlike lever length adjustment, lever angle adjustment is not a constant value, ie for each adjustment the pointer deflection becomes progressively greater for each indication position. Therefore, on systems with both types of adjustments, it will be necessary to adjust each in turn to obtain the desired pointer indications. SYNCHROS ae i In many cases on modern aircraft it is necessary to transmit information from a remote point and transfer this data to a control unit or instrument. A typical data transmission system used to do this uses ‘synchros’, ‘There are four basic types: Torque synchros Control synchros Differential synchros Resolver synchros Sa aoa Torque Synchros The basic construction of this type of synchro is shown in figure 38. The stator is star connected with the windings 120° apart, the rotor has a single winding which is fed with single-phase ac via slip rings. -32-LOWERENDCAP SHELL ROTOR ROTOR SHAFT STATOR LEADS {to stator windings) \, iar SUP RINGS f ROTOR LEADS— ROTOR COWS. BEARING LEADS TO SLIP STATORCONS UPPER END CAP RINGS Fig. 38 TYPICAL SYNCHRO DETAILS The torque synchro circuit is shown in figure 39. It consists of a Torque Transmitter (TX) and a Torque Receiver (TR). The TX and TR are similar but the TR has some form of damping mechanism to prevent oscillation, The TR can be used as a TX but the TX cannot be used as a TR as it has no damping. Note the circuit symbol in figure 40. ‘AC SUPPLY Fig. 39 SYNCHRO CIRCUIT Si Se I > Ra Fig. 40 CIRCUIT SYMBOL HagTRANSMITTER (A) RECEIVER (8) 1%. a : se ss - oF 8: EF : cs scsurniy : =) ASB i 45° CLOCKWISE. 45° CLOCKWISE, (a) Symmetrical connections. Rotors move through the same angle s: s. Ry pee 45° CLOCKWISE 226° CLOCKWISE] (2) Rotor connections reversed, Output rotor Teacs by 160% 7 s: s a one =: gos oe Ss S; L rd @ As nae “ eet 48° CLOCKWISE 285° CLOCKWISE. (€)*Syclic” shift of stator connections, ‘Output rotor leads by 240°, a (45° CLOCKWISE 45° ANTI-CLOCKWISE| (6) Two stator leads interchanged ‘Output rotor reverses direction of rotation, Fig. 41 EFFECT OF VARIOUS INTERCONNECTIONS IN THE TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM -34-Operation of Torque Synchro System (figure 41) In this system ac is fed to both synchro rotors. Assuming the rotors are in identical positions then the ac applied to the rotor is acting like the primary of a transformer and em‘’s will be induced into the stator windings. ‘These emf will depend on rotor position. If the rotors are in identical positions then the em!’s in the TX and TR stator windings are identical and no current flows between the two-synchro stators. This is known as the ‘NULL’ position, The TX is usually mechanically coupled to an input shaft and the rotor of the TR is coupled to a pointer of an instrument. A typical application on older aircraft would be flap position indication. The TX being in the flap transmitter near the flap and the TR being in the flap indicator on the flight deck. If the flap is moved (TX input shaft moves™= say 20°) then the eis in the TX stator will change due to change of rotor position. These emf’s are no longer equal to the TR stator voltages, therefore current must flow between the two stators, This causes 2 resultant magnetic field in the TX and TR stator's. Jj The TX rotor cannot move as it is mechanically coupled to the flap. The TR rotor is free to move and lines up with this resultant field (which is 20° from the NULL position). As the rotor lines up with this field, the two rotors are again in the same position, the emf’s induced in the stators are the same, no current flows and the flap position indicator now shows the new flap position. The effect of interchanging the rotor and stafor connections are shown in figure 41, Note particularly that reversal of rotor connections (b) produces an output that is 180° out from the input rotation and changing over any two stator connections gives reversed direction of TR rotation. It should be noted thet the output of the TR produces a low torque, enough only to drive a light pointer mechanism. CONTROL SYNCHROS The control synchro system provides an error voltage signal in the receiving element. This error signal is an indication of the displacement of the two rotor windings relative to each other. The control synchro system comprises two synchros the Contro! Transmitter (CX) and the Control Transformer (CT). The CX is similar in construction to the TX except the windings are of high impedance. The control transformer (CT) also has windings of high impedance; the rotor winding is wound on a laminated cylindrical former and fitted in slots that are skewed to prevent lock-on’ effect. -35-The control synchro can be used to indicate control surface position, flap position ete with the CT in the indicator, or used in a servo system to provide a signal to a flying control surface servomotor. ox cr Input SHAFT 8 ‘OEARBOK output ourpur SHAFT ‘SERVO MOTOR SINGLE PHASE ‘AC SUPPLY AMPLIFIED ERROR SIGNAL ac SUPPLY. _ TO CONTROL PHASE REFERENCE PHASE Fig. 42 CONTROL SYNCHRO One of the two important things to note is that the ac supply is fed only to the CX rotor and the discriminator amplifier, and the other is that in the NULL (no error signal) position the rotors are at 90° to one another. ee In the NULL position the ac voltage applied to the CX rotor acts like the primary of a transformer and voltages are induced in the CX stator windings ‘These voltages will be different, and this difference in potential will drive a current through the CT stator windings. oe ourpur \F APPLIED. | ‘Apes 6 VOLTAGE ‘CLOCKWISE ERROR VOLTAGE IN-PHASE oureur_ | ovrpur_ 9} —_ VOLTAGE VOLTAGE " |"yo ERROR SIGNAL ANTI-CLOCKWISE ERROR VOLTAGE OUT-OF-PHASE Fig. 43 CONTROL SYNCHRO - APPLIED & OUTPUT VOLTAGE These currents produce magnetic fields around each coil; the fields combine to form one resultant field. In this NULL position this resultant field cuts the CT rotor at 90° so no emf is induced into the CT rotor winding. - 36-If the CX rotor input shaft is moved the voltages in the CT rotor will change, due to change of rotor position. These new voltages will change the currents flowing through the CT stator windings and therefore the position of the resultant magnetic field Whatever angle the CX rotor is turned, the resultant magnetic field across the CT will also move the same amount. As this resultant field is no longer at 90° in the rotor but at an angle to it, then an emfis induced in the rotor winding. This induced emf is fed to the discriminator amplifier where its phase relationship is compared with that of the supply to provide the correct error voltage and phase relationship to the two phase induction control phase and Grive the motor in the correct sense. The motor drives through a gearbox to the indicator (in this example) and also to the rotor of the CT. When the motor has driven the CT rotor until it is 90° to the new field, no voltage will be induced, the motor stops, and the indicator shows the movement of the CX input shaft. The two-synchro rotors are once again in the NULL position ie 90° to one another. eee Again, in this system if two of the stator windings between the CX and CT are swapped then, for a clockwise input to the CX rotor, the output signal to the indicator will be anti-clockwise, ie the indicator will show reverse indication. What would be the effect of swapping the rotor leads Ri and Rz on the: a) CX rotor? ! b} CT rotor? : ‘Stick off Voltage This voltage is applied to a CT to prevent the possibility of the servo system aligning with a 180° error. Fig. 44 COARSE FINE SERVO SYSTEM -37-An example of this is described below which is similar to an altimeter fed with fine and coarse signals from an Air Data Computer. When the system is misaligned by a large amount the coarse synchro control signal is fed into the servo amplifier. When the servo motor has driven the output shaft sufficiently near to the line up, the fine control signal is switched to the amplifier and the servo system is then controlled by the fine synchros. vous vous. Fig. 45 GRAPH OF COARSE & FINE SIGNALS If the coarse ~ fine ratio is even and there is an error of 180° the input to the servo motor will be such that the coarse signal will try to drive the system back to zero but the fine system will hold the system at 180° and the system will be unstable at this point (figure 45). To overcome the possibility of the system aligning with a 180° error a small alternating voltage known as a stick-off voltage is added to the coarse synchro signal (figure 46), which will cause the coarse synchro signa to be displaced at the 180° position so ensuring there will be no null point at 180° Fig. 46 COARSE - FINE SERVO WITH ‘STICK OFF’ VOLTS -38-‘There will be no displacement at the 0° position so the system should align correctly. The coarse-fine system can be operated by a relay. The amplifier is connected in the coarse synchro rotor line so that if the signal exceeds a pre-set value the amplifier causes the relay to operate and so changes the signal to the servo amplifier from the fine to the coarse control transformer. DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHROS These are used as an additional synchro (TDX or CDX) inserted between a TX and TR in a torque differential system and between a CX and CT in a control differential system. They give an output proportional to the sum or difference of two inputs. The Torque Differential Transmitter (TDX) is similar in construction to the Control Differential Transmitter (CDX). The rotors have three windings instead of the usual single winding, spaced 120° apart wound on a slotted core connected in the star configuration. One end of each winding is connected to a slip ring on the rotor shaft. The stator windings are the normal star connected windings at 120° to one another. Figures 47 and 48 show the basic construction and the éléctrical schematic diagrams. The CDX has higher impedance windings than the TDX. ‘COMMON ‘CONNECTION ~ Fig. 47 ROTOR DETAILS 5, STATOR R 5 Ri ROTOR 5, R, Ry & Fig. 48 STATOR/ROTOR COILS & SYMBOL -39-TORQUE DIFFERENTAIL SYNCHO SYSTEM With reference to figure 49 note the input shaft 1 is attached to the TX rotor and input shaft 2 is connected to the rotor of the TDX. The TR rotor is connected to a pointer, giving the sum of the difference between the input shaft angles 1 and 2. Power supply is connected to the TX and TR rotor. If input shaft 1 is rotated, say 15° clockwise and input shaft 2 is kept still, the voltage changes in the TX stator windings to cause current to flow in the TDX stator This produces a field which cuts the TDX rotor and this induced emf drives currents through the TR stator windings, producing a field which has moved 15° clockwise and the rotor, free to move, will line up with this field, indicating the movement of input shaft 1, So in this condition the TDX is acting as a transformer. Assume input shaft | is kept still and input shaft 2 is rotated-15° clockwise. Moving the TDC rotor clockwise is equivalent to moving the field 15° anti- clockwise. The induced emf in the rotor produces voltages that drive currents through the TR stator that causes the field produced to rotate 15° anti- clockwise and the TR rotor will line up with this, indicating the movement of input shaft 2. oe i TRANSMITTER DIFFERENTIAL RECEIVER m TRANSMITTER TR OX +S)S:8/R, Re Ry ‘AC SUPPLY Fig. 49 TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM If now input shaft 1 in rotated 45° clockwise and input shaft 2 is rotated 15° clockwise then the output will be the difference between the two inputs ie 30° clockwise output of TR. -40-If the stator windings between TX and TDX are crossed (S1-Ss, S-S1) and TDX to TR (Ri-Ss, Rs-Si) are crossed then 45° clockwise rotation of the TX rotor and 15° clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor will give the sum of the two inputs. ™* TOK TR ac SUPPLY o— A-D=B 45°CLOCKWISE 18° cLockWise 30° CLOCKWISE TRANGLE = TX ANGLE - TOX ANGLE Fig. 50 SYMMETRICAL CONNECTION TRANGLE = TX ANGLE + TDX ANGLE Fig. 51 TWO INPUT & OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED Crossing over (S1-Ss, S3-Si) between TX and TDX produces an output that is the reverse of the sum of the two inputs, see figure 52. TR ANGLE © TX ANGLE + TDX ANGLE Fig. 52 TWO INPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED Just crossing over (Ri-So, Rs-S:) between TDX and TR produces the reverse difference between the two inputs. -41-™ ox TR 45° CLOCKWISE 18° CLOCKWISE 0° ANTI-CLOCKWISE] ‘TWO OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED: TR ANGLE # TX ANGLE -TDX ANGLE Fig. 53 TWO OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM This is very similar to the torque differential system with the CDX between the CX and CT. AC supply is fed to the CX only, the output being an error signal proportional to the sum or difference of the two shait rotations. ~~~ The operation is similar to that of the torque synchro system. ox px er Rs ERROR SIGNAL B= PROPORTIONAL AC SUPPLY TOO 0, PUT Kd SHAT cw Fig. 54 CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM SHAFT ANGLE OF FIELD PROPORTIONAL TO @,-0, Frequency and Supply Voltages The supply frequency will be 400Hz and input voltages are 115V or 26V giving induced line voltages of 90V and 11.8V respectively and control transformer maximum outputs of 57.3V and 22.5V respectively. The following table gives a list of the possible faults and subsequent actions. ~42-SYMPTOM CAUSE, I REMEDY No movement of Power failure/OFF. Check appropriate fuse, receiver. Switch ‘ON’, Receiver displaced 180° from transmitter. Rotation correct. One pair of rotor connections reversed. Check rotors for correct wiring. Reverse rotation of receiver. 2 connections between stators reversed, Check stators for correct wiring. Receiver displaced 120° or 240° clockwise from transmitter. Rotation correct. 3 connections between stators crossed. Check stators for correct wiring. Receiver displaced 0°, 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 300° and moves in 180° steps. Short circuit between 2 stator lines. Carry out insulation resistance check between stator lines, Receiver oscillates between 2 points approximately 75° apart | Open circuit on one stator line. Carry out continuity check on stator lines. RESOLVER SYNCHROS An alternating voltage can be represented by a makes with the x axis. L ZL) Fig. 55 A PHASOR phasor length-r and the angle it This is called the POLAR co-ordinates Za, This phasor can be split into its two component parts as shown in figure 56. Fig. 56 COMPONENTS OF A PHASOR ~43-Where x = rcos 6G andy=rsing These are called the CARTESIAN co-ordinates of the phasor. R,ROTOR STATOR «, 4 2, INPUT SHAFT Ry SYMBOL, a AR, - Fig. 57 RESOLVER SYNCHRO - TWO STATOR & TWO ROTOR WINDINGS A resolver synchro can convert from polar to Cartesian ie feed in an ac voltage and rotate the shaftZ@_ and it will give two outputs r sin © and r cos ©. It can also convert Cartesian to polar ie feed in a sine and cosine voltage and it resolves them into a voltage and shaft rotation. The resolver synchro as shown in next diagram, has two windings on the stator at 90° to one another and two windings on the rotor at 90° to one another. We shall now look at the resolver synchro operation in both modes. Polar to Cartesian In this mode the rotor winding RsRs is shorted and an alternating voltage r is fed into coil R:Ro. With the system stationary, $12 winding is directly opposite so maximum voltage is induced into it, while stator winding SoS is at right angles to this supply and no voltage is induced. If the rotor is now moved to angle © then the voltage in $1S2 will fall and that in SaS4 will begin to rise and at 90° rotation the emf induced into SiS will be zero and that induced into SS; will be maximum. If this rotation continued than a $182 = r cos © (cosine waveform) and SS, = r sin 6 (sine waveform) will be formed. -44-fr ac. SUPPLY R. A BP Rees D 1 Fig. 58 INPUT SIGNAL i Po Roos FROM 818; RSIN@ FROMS,S. Fig. 59 COS & SIN OUTPUT SIGNALS So by rotating the rotor an angle © we have split the input voltage into its two Cartesian components. Cartesian to Polar - Note here the cosine voltage (r cos @) is applied to the stator winding $:S2 while the sine voltage (r sin 6) is applied to the stator winding SsSs. These two voltages produce fields in the stator that combine to form one field that cuts the rotor windings R)R2 and RsRs, The emf induced into RiRe is fed to an amplifier. § Bs wercng eB & SRR Yer tsind ye SRW Fig. 60 CARTESIAN TO POLAR SYSTEM -45-The amplifier output is fed to a servomotor that is mechanically coupled to a load and the rotor of the synchro. So the rotor and load are turned, when the rotor winding R:R2 is at 90° to the stator field there is no emf induced into RiRo and the servomotor stops. The rotor winding Ray at this time is aligned with the stator field and the voltage induced will be the resultant of the input voltages V, and Vy. VOLTAGE INDUCED INTO R, Re Vas Fig. 61 PHASOR DIAGRAM The voltage output and the angle the rotor has turned through represents the polar co-ordinates, Resolver synchros are used in aircraft instruments and navigation systems. SLAB SYNCHROS These are synchros consisting of wound stators and rotors. Typical uses are in gyroscopic instruments where the rotor is connected to one component and the stator on another. For example to measure roll movement in-a-vertical gyroscope, where the stator is mounted on the case and the rotor on the outer gimbal, so any roll movement moves the case relative to the outer gimbal STATOR Fig. 62 TYPICAL SLAB SYNCHRO THE SYNCHROTEL This can be used as a low torque control transformer or transmitter. The next diagram shows the quite unusual construction. The stationary rotor coil fits into the highly permeable case over the central core. -46-The conventional three-phase stator also fits over the core. The rotor is an aluminium hollow cylinder with an oblique section that rotates in the air gap between the stator and the coil. The rotor shaft is supported in jewelled bearings. STATIONARY HIGH PERMEABILITY 3@ STATOR RoTORCOL CASE ALUMINIUM 32 SIGNAL SIGNAL LINES. LINES TO AMPLIFIER Fig. 63 SYNCHROTEL - EXPLODED VIEW Because of the low torque required to operate the synchrotel they are ideal for connection to capsule operated devices, eg Pitot-static capsules. Wher used as a control transformer it will be connected to a contro! transmitter as shown in figure 65. : STATIONARY ROTOR COIL Y} 7 y y Wy Deo? ig UMA 3 STATOR WINDINGS Fig. 64 SYNCHROTEL CUT-AWAY -47-3 3 SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER to Ha SUPPLY CAPSULE SYNCHROTEL oer MECHANIC) AL contrat Cy ~| LOAD SERVO AMP 400 He SUPPLY Fig. 65 SYNCHROTEL PRINCIPLE The transmitter (CX) is typically fed with a 26V 400Hz supply, the induced voltages in its stator are connected to the synchrotel stator and the current flow through the windings produces a magnetic field that cuts the rotor - the rotor position having been determined by the capsule movement. _/ As the rotor is around the core then a component of the flux cutting the rotor will flow along the core and cut the rotor winding. The output from this winding is fed to the servo-amplifier where it feeds the control winding of a 2 phase servomotor that drives the indicator and also the CX rotor. This changes the CX stator voltages and therefore the synchrotel stator current and flux, This will continue until the synchrotel stator flux is no longer producing an output from the rotor winding, ie the NULL position. The indicator now shows a position of the pressure applied at that instant. When used as a transmitter the rotor winding is energised producing an axial flux along the core, this causes a current flow in the rotor. This rotor current produces a radial flux that cuts the stator coils and induces an emf into them. The emf induced is a function of rotor position determined by input pressure measurement, -48-INDUCTANCE TRANSMITTERS These are ac operated and rely on induced emf’s being applied in a transducer depending on the transducer position. The ‘E’ and T Bar ‘This type of sensor is used in older servo instruments acceleration sensors, air data computers, cabin pressure transducers etc. ‘The fixed laminated E shaped core has an alternating supply connected to its central limb, the outer two limbs are wound with coils connected in series opposition. The laminated I shaped core sits parallel to the E core and is attached to whatever we are trying to measure the movement of, eg in a servo altimeter the I bar is connected to the capsules. In the following diagram the I bar is parallel to the E bar andthe ac fed to the central limb creates a magnetic flux which will flow as shown. The flux in the top and bottom limbs will be the same, as the air gaps between the I bar and B core are equal. The emf induced into the two coils B and C will be the same but of opposite phase, so the output will be zero. | senor | i i oF — pee ‘GRAPHS OF NOUCED CURRENT Wy FLUK UNKAGES Bac IMNOINGS AND IN OUTPUT Fig. 66 1 BAR NEUTRAL INCREASED FLUXDENSITY O———— vecreaseo om Fig. 67 I BAR - POSITION 1 -49-When the I bar is moved by the sensing element, as shown in figure 67, the air gaps are now unequal, there is now more flux cutting coil B (less air gap) and ess flux cutting coil C (larger air gap). The emf induced in coil B is greater than that in coil C, the output is therefore the difference between these two giving an output that is ‘in phase’ with the input. The amplitude of the output will depend on the amount of movement of the I bar. ‘The next diagram shows the I bar moved in the opposite direction, in this case the emf induced coil C is greater than coil B and the output will be ‘anti-phase’ to the input, again the amplitude will depend on the amount of movement of the I bar. DECREASED ——; Flux oensiry ac suPpLY ourpur| ot ourrur INCREASED FLUX DENSITY Fig. 68 I BAR - POSITION 2 ! THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT) why The LVDT consists of a primary coil of a transformer; the secondary has two coils connected in series opposition. In between the two coils is an iron core that can be moved in a lineer manner by the system whose displacement is to be measured, A BEF oubur a 3 ourPur| 3 \ae INPUT 4 : LA GRAPHS OF COILS IRON CORE A&B AND OUTPUT Fig. 69 LVDT - CORE CENRAL POSITION Figure 69 shows the LVDT with the core central, the outputs of the two coils A and B will be equal but of opposite phase, the output of the LVDT is therefore zero. -50-If the core is displaced as shown in the next diagram, the output of coil A increases (iron core full in line) and that of coil B decreases (air gap only). The output is therefore the difference and is ‘n phase’ with the input, the amplitude depends on the amount of displacement. hh aaa A AC JTPUT 3 LA Fig. 70 LVDT - CORE POSITION 1 If the core is displaced downwards, as shown in the next diagram, then coil B output increases (iron core fully in line) and that of coil A decreases (air gap only), once again the output is the difference between the two and is ‘anti- phase’ to the input, the amplitude depends on the amount of displacement. Ae § ourbur canal fs Sieevr i iid if Fig. 71 LVDT - CORE POSITION 2 © The LVDT is used, as an example, for control surface position indication ( attached to the servo actuator). They are also used in Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) Transmitters, accelerometers and some older fuel flow transmitters. ‘There is another version of this transformer called the ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (RVDT) that works on the same principle, but as the name implies the central core moves in a circular movement. One of the uses is to measure control column movement. With reference to figure 69, as the control column is moved a cable assembly is attached to the RVDT input drum and therefore rotates the central core of the RVDT’s to give an output to, for example, a spoiler control module. blank -51-oe 3 RVOTS AND GEAR TRAIN. ‘CAN DRIVE CO sar Fig. 72. TYPICAL RVDT FITMENT - B777 FBW SYSTEM CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTERS The most common use of capacitance transmitters is in fuel quantity indication systems. In principle the sensor has two concentric tubes with the fuel being the dielectric. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on: 1. The distance between the plates; 2. The area of the plates and 3. The dielectric constant of the material between the plates. As the distance between the plates and the area of the plates is set the only variable is the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. Capacitor Formed By Metallisation Metallisation Section through capsule showing capacitance change produced by capsule ; deflection under pressure ‘Metallisation Fig. 73 CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER -52-Air has a dielectric constant of 1 and aircraft fuel has a dielectric constant of approximately 2. This means whatever the capacitance was with air as the dielectric, when fuel replaces the air the capacitance will approximately double £g 100pF to 200pF. So therefore this is a good way of measuring fuel quantity as the tank is filled with fuel the dielectric changes gradually from air to fuel increasing the capacitance as the fuel level increases. ‘This same principle is used for measurement of hydraulic fluid level in the hydraulic reservoir. Another type of transmitter used in digital air data systems is the formation of @ capacitor by depositing a metallic film on a small area in the centre of a diaphragm to form a capacitor (figure 73). As pressure is applied to the diaphragm the two metallic films come closer together changing the distance between the ‘plates’ and changing the capacitance. This forms part of a capacitive bridge network that will change its output depending on the pressure applied, These are used as pressure transducers in some digital air data computers, -53-