Chapter "Nothing has such: power 10 broaden the mind as the ability to investigate sys- tematically and truly all ‘that comes under thy ob- ‘servation in life." Marcus Auretius "Selence 18 simply com- ‘mon sense at ts best, that is, rigidly accurate: in ob- servation and merciless to fallacy in logic.” = Thomas H. Haley “The burerfly counts rot months bie moments, and ‘as time enough" ~ Rabindranath Tagore Hydraulic Valves: The Regulator Learning Objectives ‘hile reading and after studying this ‘chapter, you will be able to: Identify, understand, and appreciate the various con- trol valves required for proper functioning ofthe hy- Araulic systems Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of three types of valve configurations-—poppet valves, sliding spool valves, and rotating spocl valves Understand and explain the construction, operation, and application of various directional control valves (such as check valves, position valves, and shuttle valves). & Leaen how the graphic symbols are desixnated for various hydraulic valves. 5 Distinguish hetween 2/2, 32, 42. and 4/3 direction- al control valves Understand and explain the construction, operation, and application of various pressure, control valves (euch as pressure relief valves, pressure reducing valves, and sequence valves). © Understand and explain the construction, operation, ‘and application of various flow control valves (such 4s globe valves, needle valves, pressure-compersat- ced flow conto valves).7 Hyprautic Vatves : Tue Recutator FaaiwTRoBueTION 0 fer, we fave discussed about hydraulic punps for gonerating pressure, and abow yale cylinders and motors fr converting tat pressure int sel mechanieal work, But toelet and regulate te pressure andthe low ofthe ud from the pump tothe cats tho fydautc (as well as pneumatic) systems require control valves. In fat, the effitnt function of the entire fluid power systems depend to some extent on the control components (Ce, valves) used. Although there are significant practical differences between the hydraulic and pneumatic devices (mainly in terms of operating pressures and types of seals), the ons of contol valves ae vey siniar ‘operating principles and descr In this chapter, we shall discuss about the various control valves tequited for proper functioning ofthe hydraulic systems 7.4. What are Hydraulic Valves ? ¥ Hydraulic valves are devices used to control pressure, flow direction, or flow rate in ydraulic circuits ¥ These control valves utilize mechanical motion to control the distribution of hydri energy within the system, 7.4.2. Types of Control Valves Control valves are classified into three basic types, based on their function in the hydraulic system, as 1. Directional control valves, 2, Pressure control valves, and 3. Flow control (or volume control) vatves. EZWALVES CONFIGURATION ‘There are three essential types of control valves based on their configuration or modes of poration. They are 1. Poppet (or seat) valves, 2. Sliding spool valves, and 3. Rotary spool valves,9. pen tyres art Preumatics A brief understanding of these valve configurations are essential before discussing the ‘construction and operation of different types of control valves. 7.3. POPPET (OR SEAT) VALVES Hydraulic Valves : The Regulater — SEE i 7.3.4. Construction and Operation sn ‘The most common form of poppet valve is shown in or Fig7.1. Nommally this valve is in the elosed condition and heave there is no connestion between port | and port 2. In poppet valves, balls, dises or cones are used in conjunction with valve seats to control the flow. In the Fig7.1, a ball fate | shown : ‘When the push-button is depressed, the ball is pushed out ae of its seas and hence the flow is permited from port 1 to port | Pot fal 2. When the push-button is released, spring and fluid pressure force the ball back up against its seat and so closes off the Lt flow. Fig, 71. Construction of « poppet valve 7.3.2. Advantages of Poppet Valves Poppet valves exhibit the following advantages (8, Sinpte in design, Gi) Very robust, and (W), Less expensive, iv) Less sensitive to luid contamination, 7.3.3. Disadvantages of Poppet Valves ‘The force required to operate the poppet valves are more, Therefore they are suitable ‘mostly for low pressure applications. 7.3.4, Applications of Poppet Valves Poppet valves are essentially two-way valves. Therefore they are limited to = © applications in which flow reversal is not required, e.g. check valves and relief valves, and (4) low-power applications because of their relatively high leakage rates, 7A, SLIDING SPOOL VALVES ‘The sliding-spool valves are the most frequently used type in hydraulie systems. 7.4.1. Construction and Operation Fig.72 illustrate a typical sliding spool valve. A spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control the flow. The raised areas called ‘lands’ block or open port to give the required operation Ww Petd Por? Port Pond Pot? Pott () Spool pesition 2 (@ Spoot postion 1 Fig. 7.2. Consiructon and operation of aslding-spoo! valve In Fig.7.2(@), the fluid supply is connected to port | and now port 3 is in élosed position. ‘Thus the flow is permitted from port | to port 2. in Fig.7.2(6), when the spol is moved to the left, the fluid supply is cut off and port 2 is connected to port 3. Thus the flow is permitted from port 2 to port 3. 74.2. Advantages of Sliding-Spoo! Valves (® Different operations can be achieved with a common body and different spool. (i) Reduced manutteturing cost. (if) Reduced fluid leakage rate. (i) All types of actuation are easily adaptable. 7.4.3. Applications of Stiding-Spoot Valves ‘They are used for high pressure applications. 7 ROTARY SPOOL VALVES Rotary spool valves have a rotating spool which aligns with holes in the valve casing 10 give the required operation 7.8.4. Construction and Operation (@ Spool postion 1 (©) Spool position 2 (©) Spool position $ Fig. 7.3. Construction and operation ofa rotary-spool valve14 $$ topion tp dratics ant Prouation Fig.73 illustrates the construction and operation of a typical rotary spool valve, with centre off action. Whaen the spool rotates, it opens and closes ports and subsequently allows and preven the fluid flow through that ports In Fig.73, there are four ports 1, 2, 3, and 4. For the position of spool as in Fig.73a), the flow is permitted from port | to port 3, and from port 2 to port 4. When the spool rotates to a position as shown in Fig.7.3(0), the flow is permitted ftom port Ito port 4, and from port 2 0 port 3. For the spot position shown in Fig.7.3(c), there is no fluid flow as all the four pots are blocked. 7.6.2. Advantages of Rotating Spool Valves (They are simple and compact in design and operation (i), They have low operating forces. 7.5.3. Applications of Rotating Spool Valves The rotary spool valves are widely used for low pressure applications. 7.6. DIRECTIONAL GONTROL VALVES 7.6.4. What are Directional Control Valves ? As the name suggests, the function of a directional control valve (DCV) is to contol the diection of flow in a hydraulic eiruit ¥ Inather words, directional courol valves (DC¥S) regulate the direction in which the ‘fluid flows in a hydraulic cireuit Inaddition o controling direction of actuator motion, the directional valves ace’ also used () to select alternate contol circuits, and (i) to perform logie control functions. ¥ ‘These valves ate not intended to change the rate of flow of fluids but they are either completely open or completely closed. They can be actuated to switeh the fluid flow direction by various actuating means sueh as electrical, mechanical or fluid pressure signals, Ths results in coresponding connection or disruption of flow between various port openings. 7.8.2, Classification of Directional Control Valves The directional control valves can be classified in many different ways. 1. The directional control valves are basically classified, according 40 the construction, into three groups, as 1. Poppet (or seat) valves, 2. Sliding spool valves, and 3. Rotary spool valves. Hydraulic Vales: The Regulator, 7s Hl. Based on the number of ports' present, the directional control valves may be classified (Two way valves, GG), Three way valves, and (Gil) Four way valves. lil, Based on the mode of actuation, the dicectional control valves can be classified as, (0) Manually opersted directional vaives, (Gi) Mechanically operated directional valves, Gil) Solenoid operated directional valves, and Gv) Pilot operated directional valves. IV, However, for our study we can classify the direct 1. Check valves, 2, Position vaives, and 3. Shuttle valves. a Now, we shall discuss the construction and operation of Some of the important directional control valves, inthe following sections. al control valves into three FCHECK VALVES (OR TWO WAY VALVES) a 7.7.4. Introduction Y Check valves are the most commonly used and the simplest type of directional control valves ¥ The check valve isa two-way valve because it conta analogous (0 a diode in electric circuits. Functions : The check valves are used = (0 twallow free flow in only one direction, and (to prevent any flow in the other ditestion ¥ Since check valves block the reverse flow of the fluid, they are also known as wom- return valves. The syinbotic representation of a check valve, shown in Fig7.4, illustrates its function clearly 1:2. Types of Check Valves Check valves are of several types. But the ‘wo important types of check valves are : =. = two ports. Also @ check valve is 1, Poppet-type check valves, and 2. Pilot-operated type check valves. Fig. 74 Symbolte representation of a check valve sports oe “Was! ae nothing but openings present in a contol valve. They rete Now path through the valve16 Applied Hydrautics ond Preumatics 7.1.3. Poppet-Type (or Simple] Check Valves 7.7.34. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical poppet type check valve is iHlustrated in Fig.7.5. Normally a spring olds the poppet in the closed position, ae ire on as wf > four WM a pital (a) Freeflow Sy @No flow Fig, 7.5. Construction and operation of«poppetiype check valve When flow is in the normal direction, the liquid pressure acts against the spring tension to hold the poppet offiet the seat, When the liquid pressure overcomes the spring force, as shown in Fig.7.5(a), the valve allows the ftee flow. When flow stops, the spring seats the poppet and liquid cannot passin the revese direction Instead, if flow is attempted in the opposite direction as shown in Fig7.5(b), the liquid pressure along. withthe spring force pushes the poppet in the closed postion. Hence no flow is permitted in opposite direction 7.73.2. Applications of Simple Check Valves Usually poppet type check valves are used to provide the pilot pressure to operate larger valves. 7.7.4, Pilot Operated Check Valves The piloted operated check valve allows free fluid flow in one direction, but reversed flow <éepends upon the pilot actuation. That means, this type check valve also allows the reverse flow, provided pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure port of the valve to overcome the spring force of the poppet 7.7.44. Construction and Operation The construction and ope Fig.76, First, the free flow in the normal direction from port A to port B is achieved in the usual ‘manner. But the reverse flow is blocked as the fluid pressure pushes the poppet into the closed position, of a typical pilot-operated check valve is illustrated in ydrlie Valves : The Regulator a J Plot pressure pon Pit piston Fig. 22. Symbolic representation of «a plloc-operated check valve In order to permit the fluid flow in the reverse direction £, from port B to port A, a pilot pressure is applied through the pilot pressure port. The pilot pressure pushes the pilot piston and the poppet down, Thus the fluid flow in the reverse direction is also obtained. The purpose of the drain port in the circuit isto prevent oil from creating a pressure buildup on the bottom of the pilot piston. 7.7.4.2. Graphical Symbol FFig.7.7 shows the symbolic representation of a pilot-operated check valve. tn Fig.7.7, the dashed line presents the pilot pressure line 1.7.4.3. Applications of Pilot-Operated Check Valves The pilot-operated check valves are widely used to hydraulically lock the cylinders such as in a hydraulic jack. Fig. 7.6 Pilot operated check valve 8, POSITION VALVES z 7.8:. Introduction ¥ The function of the position vatve isto control the introduction of fluid to the lines of the system. When the valve is operated, the liquid lines within it are shifted. ¥ The position valves are usually described by the following relation : (Nunber of ports/Number of positions) valve. For example, a 4/2 valve has 4 ports and 2 positions.18 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics ¥ The ports of a directional contro valve are designated by letters, as listed in Table 7. Table 7.1. Ports’ designations Pots Designation Working lines A.B Cand soon, Pressure (power) supply | P B.S, Tand ao on, (Normally T for hydraulle systems, RandS for pneumaticsystoms) ZY X andl soon Return/ Exhaust lines Control (plo) lines 7.8.2. Valve Position YA direct control valve has two or three working positions generally. They are : 1. Normal or zero position or neutral position. 2. Working positions (such as retractand extend positions), © tts nocessry to differentiate between neurral and operating positions. Indien control valves with sping retry, the neutral postion ie defined a the position to which the valve returns afer the actuating force hasbeen widrawn ¥ Inall fluid contro! systems, the valve positions ean be represented by letters @, 6c, and so on, with *0” being used for central neutral position. The starting (or initial) position isthe position taken up by the valve (due to spring in cease of spring actuated directional control valve) after installation, The valve attains the working positions when actuated 7.83, Valve Symbols For representing valves in circuit diagrams, symbols are used. Generally a valve is represented hy 2 square for each ofits switching positions. Two positions are represented by two adjacent squares, {t should be noted that symbols show only the functional aspect of the valve and not its principle of design or constructional details: ‘The basic valve symbols and their description are presented in Table 7.2. Table 7.2. Basic vatve symbols and their description ‘Valve symbot Description ‘A volve positian is represantad by a squave Valve position “Two position valve A number of squares # equal to the number of distinct positions thatthe vaive can take up. Therefore the figure shows th two position valve, Hydraulle Valves: The Regulator _ 79 valve. ha valve. Sena =) ee | erence Initial convection fy ‘The ports of a valve are added on the outside of the aa ceeceeanat Sees T] | erste ese tac ctr om ut Pw Jn positon ‘0, the losd is in the off (or neutral) position. Since alt A, B, P and T ports axe blocked, therefore no fluid flow. Im position’, the flow is reversed. Note: Here ports are shown only to the neutral Position: for other two portions, readers should mentally identify the ports] of row heads canbe used in peamatieceits 7.8.4, Valve Actuation Symbols To obtain complete valve symbols, valve actuations’ symbols must be combined with the above basic valve symbols. Fig.7.8 shows symbols for the various ways in which the valves con be actuated, * Actstion ge method of moving vlve element fan one positon to anther,2.19 plied Hycrtics act Prumaticg us buna AWW by sing x 2 wee FF ©) oy rte Fig. 78, Actuation symbols 7.8.5. Complete Graphic Valve Symbols Fig.7.9 illustrates how these various symbols can be combined to describe a complete valve operation, Pig,7.9(a) represents a pedal actuated, spring return 3/2 valve, Fig.7.9(b) represents push-button operated, spring return, 43 valve, a A |e Mish | SX Eltl pe Pr Ir (@) 32 valve, podal actuated, | (0) 43 valve, push button operated, | pring return fo centre spring return o centre Fig. 79. 7.8.6. valve Actuation ¥ In onder to respond to the systern requirements, we must provide a means of actuation to the hydraulic control valves. For example, to move the spool in a position valve, to change the setting of a pressure control valve, orto adjust flow-control valves, we need some form of actuation, Types of actuation methods : The four actuation methods normally used are 1 Manual actuation, 2. Mechanical actuation, 3, Blectrical actuation, and 4. Fluid actuation ¥ The graphic symbols for various actuation devices are shown already in Fig.7.8, Hydraulic Valves : The Regularor +1 4. Manual Actuation Manual actuation requires action by an operator who must make @ control judgement bbased upon some system requirement. ‘¥ Manu actuators include levers, push buttons, and pedals, Manual actuation is commonly used when system requirement is not critical tools and mobile equipment. ¥ It is widely used in machi 2, Mechanical Actuation ¥ Mechanical actuators include springs, plangers, callers, cams, and mechanical linkages. The springs and piungers are most commonly used to provide force for a variety of valve operations. 3. Electrical Actuation ¥ Electrical actustors re nothing but solenoid actuators. + A solenoid is a electromagnetic coil, When it is energized, it creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature: The armature is connected to the spool of the valve and the valve is actuated Most applications use 115 V, 60 ops solenoids. Also they are available in a wide range of AC or DC voltages. DC solenoids are quiet in operation, whereas AC solenoids may hum oF chatter ¥ The solenoids are energized by signals from pressure switches, limit switehes, oF timers which usually operate through power or signal relays to accommodate the ‘current required to actuate the solenoid ¥ Solenoid actuation provides flexibility in hydraulic system design, System commands ccen be obtained from signals in any port of the eirevit 4. Pilot Fu Actuation ¥ Oil oraircan be used to provide fuid power forthe actuation of valves ¥ Air canbe used to ctivate single-stage valves, or pilot valves on multistage units ¥ The advantage of pilt-fluid actuation isthe long life of uid components compared to that of electrical components. 7.8.7. Classification of Position Valves Position valves ate classified in terms of the number of fluid ports and the number of valve positions, as @ Two way, two position valves (2/2 valves) (i) Three way, two position valves (3/2 valves). (Hi) Four way, two position valves (4/2 valves), (iv). Four way, three position valves (4/3 valves), and so on.Applied Hydrauties and Prewnaties 7.3, TWO POSITION VALVES 7.9.4. 222 Directional Control Valves ‘The 2/2 valves have 2 ports and 2 positions 7.9.4.1. Construction and Operation ‘The poppet-type check valve illustrated in Fig,7.10 is a typical 2/2 valve. However, the ‘construction and operation of a similar type 2/2 DC valve is illustrated in Fig.7.1 > \ ZA : Fe a by le lel Ne. ee ne (Spot (©) Poppet position 2 | Parr poston 1 Fig. 7.10. Operation of a 22 DC salve Position 1 : When the push-button is position, spring and fluid pressure force ‘the ball up, therefore the flow is blocked, as shown in Fig,7.10(a). ston pushes the ball off its seat, then the 7.10). Position 2 When the pressure of the push floww is permitted from part Pita port A, as shown in F 7.9.4.2. Graphic Symbols Fig.7.10(c) depicts the above operation of a push-button operated, spring return type 2/2 valve. 7.9.2. 312 Directional Control Valves. The 3/2 valves have 3 ports and 2 positions, 7.9.2, Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical sliding-spool type, solenoid-actuated 3/2 OC valve js illustrated in Fig.7.11. It has three ports or openings : pressure supply port (P), output port (A), and exhaust port (R). Hydraulic Vabios: The Regulator 13 = | | | me S| | ZA Besosion | eka wy al ieee eer ea ee = Al (e) Spet postion 1 (a) Spool positl aN | o\ Hs ate [zx | Ses | | ' (@) Spmbor (©) Spool position 2 Fig. 7.11. Construction and operation ofa solenold-actuated 32 vane As shown in Fig.7.11(a) and (6), the valve is actuated by a current passing through a solenoid and, rotumed to ite original position by a spring, The spool slides over the finished valve bore inside the valve housing, Spool position 1: In the original or neutral position of che spool, (Fig.7.11(a)), the pressurized fuid lows from port P to port A to move the actuator, the exhaust port (R) Femaining closed. Spool position 2: When the solenoid i activated (Fig,7.11(b)), the spool moves to the ‘extreme left. In the extrome spool positon, the fluid from port P gets closed and hence the {uid is permitted to flow from port A to port R. ‘Thus the valve alternately connects and disconnects fui supply to the cylinder by the ding spool, 7.9.22. Graphic Symbol Fig.7.11(@) shows a graphic symbol of a solenoid actuated, spring return 3/2 valve, illustrating the above operation, 7.9.3, 4/2 Directional Control Valves ‘The 4/2 valves have 4 ports and 2d nct positions.314 $$$ applied tyrautice and Preumatis 7.9.3. Construction and Operation The construction and operation ofa typical sliding-spool type 4/2 DC valve is illustrated in Fig.7.12. It has four ports or openings, P, A, B, and T. 75 Flow ‘Spl poston + Poa eer i (@) Spoo! position t Spcatnoutat) posen 2 @ I Ae Ae is $8 \ VIN «i 7 Poa Fon oer iY ar ey | sa Ya Spo0! position 1 | ( Spool position 2 ‘Sioa pnion (0 Symbol of 2 valve Fig, 1.12 Operation of a 4/2 DC vale ‘Spool position 1: When the spool is in position as shown in Fig.7.12(a), the fluid can flow from port P to port A and return from port B to port T. Spoo! position 2 : When the spool isin the position as shown in Fig.7.12(6), the fluid can {low from port T to port A and return from port B 10 port P. 7.9.3.2. Graphic Symbol ig.7.12(€) represcats the graphic symbol for the above 4/2 DC valve. 7.40. THREE POSITION VALVES © 7.40.1. 413 Directional Control Valves The 4/3 valves have 4 ports and 3 distinct positions 7.40.4. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical sliding-spool type 4/3 DC valve is illustrated in Fig.7.13. This valve also has four ports P, A, B, and T. (eer sx LA booked er tr TAP 8 (2) Spool position 2 (neutral postion) (@ Graphic symbol - 8 © Spoot position 3 Fig, 713. Operation of 4/3 DC valve ‘Spoot position 1: Foe tie spool position shown in Fig.7.13(a), the fluid can flow from port P to port A and return from port B to port T Spool position 2: Ducing the neutral position shown in Fig.7.13(6), all the ports are blocked Spool position 3+ For the spool position shown in Fig7.13(c), the reverse flow is permitted. ie. fluid can flow from port P to port B and return from port A to port T. 7.40.1.2, Graphic Symbol Fig.7.13(@) represents the graphic symbol for the above 4/3 DC valve, 7.40.2, Centre Flow Configurations for Three-Position, Four-Way Valves As we discussed, the to extreme positions of a 4/2 control valve controls the t¥0 ‘extreme direction of motion of fluid. In 4/3 valves, the third position usually is an intermediate or a centre position. Varictcs of centre positions are possible in 4/3 DC valves by suitably designing the spool. Fig.7.14 illustrates some of the widely used centre flow path configurations for 4/3 valves.9.46 ——— Appiea tyarauites and Preumaties oT (a) Open conor A A a A i Zi Zi FT Gy Pressure and B closed: Aopen tank ‘Closed center ~ All ports closed L IIIA er (0 Pressure closed; A & B open to tank aa Y i * Le LAAN wt id aemc mn Cunha LEY YY SN cI Fig, 7.14. Various conter flow paths forthe tree positon, four-way valves ‘These centre positions are briefed below : 4. Open Centre : ¥ In open centre type, all ports of the valve P, A, B, and T are open to each other, as shown in Fig 7.14(@. Y Advantage : As soon as the cylinder completes its cycle, the open centre DC valve allows the pump flow to return to back the tank (reservoir) at a minimum pressure. ‘This prevents unnecessary heat build-up in the system. ¥ Disadvantage : When the valve is centred, no other cylinder can operate. Therefore, ‘open-centre type valve is used mostly for a single cylinder or single motor circuit, Hydraulic Valves: The Regulator 147 2. Closed Centre : 7 In closed centre type, all the ports P, A, B, and T are blocked to each other, as shown in Fig.7.14(e), ¥ Advantage : The closed centre type valve can use the pump flow for other parts of the circuit, Therefore closed typed valves are used when multiple functions are to be accomplished from one souree. ¥ Disadantage : When the valve isin closed centre position, the pump Flow cannot be unloaded to the tank. So the hydraulic eylinder or fluid motor eannot be moved. 3. Tandem Centro: ¥ The tandem contre type valve, as shown in Fig.7-14(/), directs the pup flow out ofthe reservoir Bort T with the other two working poms A and B closed when in the centre pos ¥ Advantage : Like, Open Cente valve, this type valve also unloads the pump at essentially atmospheric pressure. The application ofthis design isto permit the flow to be connected to a series of valves for multiple circuits ¥ Disadvantage : Wher i inumber of cylinders are operated from a single source, the pressure differential for each tandem centre valve will be 3 10 4 bar each while the valve isin its centre postin. 4, Floated Centre: ¥.qThe floated centre type valves allow independent operation of cinders connected tothe same power source, as shown in Fig.7.146),(d), and (e), ¥ Advantage This type does not build up any pressure inthe cylinder tines, Therefore, there will not be any drifting of eylinders during this colton, ¥ Disadvantage : The toad cannot be locked inthis position during the neutral position, 7.0.3. Applications of Position Valves YY Two way directional valves are generally used as shut off valves. Ul the two-way valve can block flow in both directions, ¥ Generally three way directional control valves are used to control single-2cting linear actuators, Y ‘The four way directional control valves are used to control double-acting actuators Y A three-position valve can be used : (0) (0 isolate an actuator from the circuit, (i) to provide a bypass to the reservoir around the actuator, or (ii) to hold an actuator in an intermediate position, kea check valve, AOA. Specification of Directional Control Valves q ‘The DC valves are usually specified by the following parameters 1. Rated flow, 2. Rated pressure, 3. Outlet and inlet port size, 4. 3 way or 4 way spoot, 5. Open or closed centre application, 6. Spring centred or not, 7. Solenoid type and power, efe18 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics 7AM SHUTTLE VALVE 7.44.4. What are Shuttle Valves ? Shuttle valve is also a typical directional control valve. ¥ Shute vatves, also known as double cheek valves, are used when control is required _from more them one power source, ¥ Inother words, a shuttle valve allows pressure in 2 line to be obtained from alternative Shuttle valve is generally used to shift the fluid flow from the secondary backup pump (source), when the main pump (source) becomes inoperate. 7.41.2, Construction and Operation The construction and operation of a typical three-port shuttle valve is illustrated in Fig.7.15(a), This shuttle valve provides a fluid path for two alternate sources, {As long as pressure in the right inlet port is greater than in the left, the shuttle piston closes the let port. When pressure atthe left port becomes greater than at the right, the piston moves tothe right against a stop, closing the right port and opening the fet. 7.41.3. Graphic Symbol Fig.7.15(6) shows the graphic symbol ofa shuttle valve. a Post inary | suey => TS seen > () Operation () Graphic symbol Fig. 7S, Shtte valve 7A2. PRESSURE SONTROL VALVES 7.42.4. What are Pressure Control Valves ? ¥ As the name suggests, pressure control valves are the devices used to control the fluid pressure in asystem. ¥ Functions : ‘The pressure contiol valves perform one or more of the following functions : Hydraulic Valves > The Regulator 79 (#) To limit the maximum: pressure in various circuit components as a safety i) To maintain the desired pressure levels in various parts of the circuits Gif) To unload system pressure, ie. to change the direction of all or part of the flow when the pressure ata certain point reaches a specified level Gv) To assist sequential operation of actuators in a circuit with pressure control 742.2. Types of Pressure Control Valves ‘The important types of pressure control valves and their functions are presented in Table 73. Table 7.3. Types of pressure control valves and their functions SNe. ‘Type FunetioryDescription 1 | Pressure limiting valve | Relief valve late the wiaximum pressure that can Be (tcl valve) applied to the part ofthe system to whic is connected. 2. | Presuroreducing valve | Presfureredvcing valve maintains e prescribed reduced (pressureegulstor valve) | pressure at its outlet regardless of the valve inlet pressure. 3. | Sequence valve SSequance valve directs How to more than one portion of fluid erie n sequence. 4 | Counterbatance valve (@ackepressuce valve) CCounterbalance valve parmits free Flow in one diraction| and restctedflove inthe opposite direction. | Unlording vatve Unloading valve allows pressure to build up © an adjustable setting, then bypasses the flow as fong as remote source maintains the preset pressure onthe pilot pot. | Prosnueewits Pressure switch is used when a pressure actuated electric als raqulrdt for system conte, 7 | Hydraulic fase ¥ Hytraulic fase employs » frangible diaphragm. which establishes the maxiawm pressure in by cit by rptrng ata preset presure Hydraulic fuse, analogous to an electric fuse, is used {0 prevent the systom pressure from exceoding beyond the allowable limit in order to protect the system components from damage However, we shall discuss the construction and operation of the pressure-limiting, Pressure-reducing, and sequence valves, in details, in the following sections. ten be te ht ei sec, oes, nd lang ve ae ly hd vas ‘hehe resect oe open vies9.20. $$ spied tydrates ond Prowmerios IMITING VALVES (OR RELIEF VALVES) 7.431, What is a Pressure-Limiting Valve ? Y ‘The pressuretimiting valve, also known a8 the relief valve, isthe protector of the hydraulic circu V Arelcf valve limits the maximum pressure that can be applied to the part of the system to which itis connected. Y Inter words, a relief valve protects a system from excessive fluid pressure over and above the design pressure Limit ¥ Normally the pressure relif valve is located in between the purnp and the actuator. Thus the reli valve protects the pump, the electric motor, and also other components of the circuit. 7.43.41. Types of Relief Valves ‘The two iniortant types of pressure relief valves are 1. Ditect-acting or simple pressure relief valve, and 2. Pilot-Sperated or compound pressure relief valve. 74. SIMPLE (OR DIRECT ACTING) PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE 7.44.4. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a simple poppet (ball)-type direst-acting pressure valve ig illustrated in Fig.7.16(a). It has one inlet port which is normally closed under the influence Of spring force. An adjustable spring load provides the pressure setting of the relief valve. je — heuting sero ap | Pressure | Song | sor | | | | iscname por p—~ 6) Symbol Bal ype poe Inet source press (rom pum) (@ Operation Fig, 116. Simple pressure relief valve Hydraulic Valves: The Regulator 721 ‘When the inlet pressure overcomes the force exerted by the spring, the valve opens and vents fo the atmosphere or back to the sump. Thus the relief valve protects the other elements {inthe system from excessive pressute by diverting the excess fluid to the sump or atmosphere when the system pressure tends to exceed the preset level The directacting type of relief valves have a ball, poppet or # sliding spool working against a spring, As the inlet pressure decreases, the valve closes again. The adjusting serew cap is used to adjust the pressure Iimit and to vary the spring force. 7.14.2. Graphic Symbo! Fig.7-16(b) represents the graphic symbol of simple relief valve, 7.44.3. Application of Simple Relief Valves ‘The dicect-acting pressure relief valves are used where the flow rate and the system pressure are low. 7.14.4. Limitation of Simple Relief Valves ‘When the required system pressure is high, a heavier spring is required. Because of the tse of heavier spring, the problem of valve chatter or pressure fluctuations are very commen, ‘COMPOUNE TA6.A. Introduction ‘The compound pressure relief valve overcomes the problem of directacting pressure relief valve, Thus these reli valves can be employed fora larger flow rate and higher system pressure, These valves are built in two stoges. 7.48.2. Construction and Operation The construction of a typical sliding-spool type pilot-operated pressure relief valve is illustated in Fig.7.17. ‘This compound relief valve operates in two stages + Stage 1 : The frst stage is the same as direct-acting type. As in the direct-acting type, the movable main poppet allows fluid to escape to the reservoir when the system pressure exceeds the setting of the valve. This first stage is shown on the tight side of the vaive. The ‘main poppet is retained to its seal by a light spring. ‘Stage 2: The second stage, also known as pilot stage, is located on the left side of the valve. [¢ contain a pilot valve poppet (also known as control poppet) which is held against a seat by an adjustable strong spring, The pressure limit ean be adjusted by using an adjustment serew, The inlet system pressure acts on both sides of the main poppet because of the small otifice shown in Fig.7.17, The fluid passes from the inlet port through the orifice to a control ‘chamber where it sets on the main poppet to add to the spring force. The system pressure also ‘cts on the pilot poppet as shown in Fig,7.17. R PILOT:OPERATED) PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE9.2, $$ appied tydrauties and Pneumatics ou pot (erconr pore) yy | Aduomest Fig. 777, Plot operated pressure-relief valve When the system pressure exceeds the setting pressure of the main poppet, the poppet it pushed from its seat towards lef. This forces the pressurised fluid on the left side to escape through the centrally drilled drain hole of the main poppet. This limits the pressure on the control chamiber side, Due to the restricted flow through the orifice, the fluid cannot enter int2 the control chamber as quickly as the fuid leaves through the deain hole, Because of this, the pressure on the right side exceeds that on the left and the main poppet moves to the lef. Thus it permits the fluid flow directly to the reservoir tink from the inlet port. When the pressure falls below the setting pressure, the main poppet retracts back to is original position again. TAG, PRESSURE REDUCINGIREGULATING VALVE 7.16.1. What is a Pressure Reducing Valve ? VAs the name suggests, a pressure reducing valve is wed to supply a prescribed reduced outlet pressure ina circuit and to maintain it ata constant vale. ¥ Generally this type of valves are used in multi-pressure systems where some part ofthe circuit is required to operate ata reduced pressue, 7.16.1.1. Types of Pressure Reducing Valves Like in pressure relief valves, the two important types of pressure reducing valves ae: 1. Direct-acting pressure reducing valve, and 2, Pilot-operated pressure reducing valve. ZT. DIRECT-ACTING PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE 7.47.4. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a direct-acting pressure reducing valve is ilustreted in Fig.7.18(a). Ithas a spring loaded spoo! to control the downstream (outlet) pressure. Hydraulic Valves : The Regulator 92 Senate isin : ste — re er on (2) Operation (©) Graphic symbol Fig, 218. Pressure reducing volve ‘When the main supply pressuro is below the valve setting pressure, fuid will flow freely from the inlet to the outlet. tt can be noted from Fig.7.18 that an internal connection from the outlet passage transmits the outlet pressure to the spool end opposite the spring. When the downstream (outlet) pressure inoreases to the valve setting pressure, the spool moves (0 the left t partly block the outlet port. During this period, only enough flow is pissed to the outlet to maintain the preset pressure, Ifthe valve closes completely, leakage could cause the spool pressure to build up. In order to avoid this, a continuous bleed to the tank is permitted to keep the valve stightly open. A separate drain passage is provided to drain this fuid to the tank. 7.47.2. Graphic Symbol Fig.7.18(6) shows a symbolic representation of a pressure reducing valve. a8, PILOT-OPERATED PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE ‘The pilot operated prossure reducing valves are built and operate on principles similar to the compound relief valves, described earlier ia Section 7.15. 7.18.1. Analysis of KW Power Loss Across the Pressure Relief Valve ‘The KW power loss across the pressure relief valve (also forthe unloading valve) can be Aetermined by using the relation EW power loss = PxO oy) Valve pressure setting in KPa, and Q = Outlet flow rate in m/s, (Ha) te stout be ates that there are no valves avilable for increasing the sytem presure. As dscused Above, it is posible nly to have a valve which will ede the system pressure where1.24 applies tiptratios ant Preraticn . SEQUENCE VAVLES 7.49.1. What are Sequence Valves Y The sequence valves are used to control the fluid flow to ensure several operations ina ‘particular order of priority in the system. The sequence valves are another type of pressure control valves, which are also extensively used in hydraulic systems, These valves permit several operations to be completed in a sequential order, Ze., one afier another, For example, a pressure sequence valve used in a clamping and drilling circuit will permit the clamping operation to take place first and then the drilling operation is accomplished. Y The sequence vaives are set to specific pressitre levels so as to ensure the priorities of function. 7.19.11. Types of Sequence Valves Sequence valves are basically relief valves with minor modifications and may be either of the direct-acting or compound type. 7.19.2, Pilot-Operated (or Compound) Sequence Valve 31 pilot-operated sequence valve is illustrated in ‘Tho construction and operation of a ty Fig 7.19) Geant ae vernal sve F ease ; feng i ven a ee (e) Operation Fig, 7.19, Pilot operated sequence valve ‘When the system inlet pressure is within the preset valve pressure, the valve allows the fluid freely through the primary port to operate the first phase. When the system inlet pressure exceeds the preset valve pressure, the valve spool moves up. As the spool lifts, Flow is diverted to the secondary port to operate the second phase. ‘The required sequential pressure can bo adjusted with the help of the adjusting serew. Aydraulic Valves: The Regulator, as 7.49.3. Graphic Symbol Fig.7.19(6) represents the symbs representation of a sequence valve, ia 7.20.4. What are Flow Control Valves ? Y Flow control vlves leo hiown es volume-conrol valves, are ssed fo regulte the vate of fluid flow to different parts of a hydraulic system. Sine contol of flow rate 4 means by which the sped of hydraulic machine laments gover, erfoe ow col valves ar ls haunt apedcomol vate ¥ The Mlow rate to a particular system coniponent is varied by throttling or by diverting the flow, 7.20.2. Types of Flow Controt Valves ‘The two basic types of flow control valves are 1. Non-pressure compensated flow control vaives, and (i) Globe valve, and (i) Needle valve. 2. Pressure compensated flow control valves. |ON-PRESSURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES: 721.1. What are Non-Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valves ?| Y The or-pressure compensated type flow control valves are used where system pressures vary considerably and precise flow-rate controls are not required. ¥ These valves operate based on the principle thatthe flow through an orifice will be constant, ifthe pressure drop emains constant ¥ All the simple valves such as globe, needle, butterfly, gate, and ball valves are non- pressure compensated valves. 7.21.2. Globe Valve Ina globe vale, flow rate can be changed by means ofa disk, plug, or bal which ness guint sea, as shown in Fig.7-20, 721, and 7:22 respectively. Fig. 7.20. Disk-type globe valre7126 —— Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics < ~ Han sen Hondaect Nese Le J Fig, 7.22. Ball-ype globe valve Fig. 7.23, Needle valve 1. Disk-type globe valve : Disk-type globe valve, also known as a butterfly valve, consists of a large disc which is rotated inside the pipe, the angle determining the flow rate, as shown in Fig. 7.20, 2. Plug-type globe valve : Plug-type globe valve has 2 tapered plug that can control the flow rate by varying the vertical plug position, as shown in Fig.7.21 3. Ball-type globe valve : Ball-type globe valve has a ball with a through-hole which is rotated inside a machined seat, as shown in Fig.7.22. 7.21.3. Needle Valve ¥ The needle valve has a pointed stem that can be adjusted manually to contro! the flow rate of fluid through the valve, as shown in Fig.7.23 Needle valves have a smaller flow area and higher pressure drop than the globe valve 7.21.4, Applications of Non-Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valves 1, The globe valves are used to throttle only in lines where the liquid velocity is relatively ow. 2. In comparison to lobe valves, needle valves are more suitable in throttling the flow for any velocity. 7.24.8. Limitations of Non-Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valves In both globe and needle valves, changes in the pressure drop produce variations in the flow rate, Therefore precise accuracy in flow-rate control and hence the speed control cannot be achieved by using non-pressure compensated flow control valves. 7.22. PRESSURE-COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES: 7.22.1. What are Pressure-Compensated Flow Control Valves ? ‘As we know the flow rate through any orifice depends upon the pressure difference between its inlet and outlet, Therefore a constant pressure drop across the valve orifice is required to assure accurate flow control. Ths is accomplished with the pressure-compensated flow control valve. Hydraulic Valves: The Regulator, ——— 7.22.2. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical pressure-compeasated flow control valve is illustrated in Fig, 7.24 (tom pur} ‘Thre wah feats tow Fig, 7.24, Pressurecompensated flow control valve ‘The valve actually has two main parts arranged in series. They ate : 1, Throttle valves : Similar to a needle valve, the throttle valve has an orifice whose area can be adjusted by an external knob setting. This throttle valve setting determines the flow rate isto be controlled 2, Pressure compensator : The pressure compensator spool controls the size of the inlet orifice and maintains a constant pressure drop across the throttle valve. AAs inlet pressure increases and overcomes the spring. force, the pressure compensator spool closes the inlet passage. It blocks off all flow in excess of the throttle setting. AS a result, the valve permits the fluid low only tothe amount for which the throttle is already set. When the fluid passes through the throttle valve, the pressure builds up in the spring side of the compensator. This pressure drop produces a rapid compensation in the form of spool motion. This spool adjustment causes the pressure drop to return quickly to its original valve, ‘thus maintaining constant flow. Flow contol valves can sso be feted badly by temperate changes whic change the viscosity ofthe ‘uid. Therefore often flow control valves have temperature compensation. 7.22.3. Flow Control Valve Symbols Fig.7.25 depicts graphic symbols for various types of flow control valves.1.28 Applied nyérates and Preumatis Ss © (@) Flow control graphic symbol ©) Symbol for non:pressurecompensated ‘low control vate (Symbol for (0 Symbotfor -pressurecompensated pressure aed temperature “Plow control valve compensate lw control vale | Fig. 7.25. Graphic symbols for varlous types of flow control valves From Fig.7.25, one can interrupt the following points ¥ The Slash arrow (7) across the orifice symbol represents that the orifice can be adjusted The vertical arrow (1) represents the pressure compensation Y The vertical ine with dot atthe base (1) represents temperature compensation. ¥ The symbol —>~ represents unidirectional flow. 7.22.4, Relationship Between Flow Rate and Pressure Drop For a Flow Control Valve ‘The following equation relates the flow rate versus the pressure drop relationship for @ needle valve : g=c/s (72) where Q = Volume flow rate in Lpm, C, = Capacity coefficient” in LpmAf KPa, "The term enpacity coefficient maybe defined a thew ate of wale in pm that will ow tough the valve aa pressure op of 1 KPa Hydraulic Valves : The Regulator 129 AP = Pressure drop across the valve in kPa, and S, = Specific gravity ofthe liquid. ~ In sdtion to the various hydra valves eseassed so fe, there are ote valves available for oer fe sppliaton such a8 servo valves and cag valves “Servo vues ave DC valves tht have infcitely variable postoningcapebiliy, Thus they can contol not only the direction of Quid flow but sso the quay of vd. Servo valves along with feedback-sensing devices ‘provide the very accurate contol of posto, velocity, and acceleration of actuators. Cartridge inset vabves are used extensively in mobile hydraulic systems such as eathsnoviag equipment and ‘efiee collectors, These inserts ar in the form of sorewed bartels, each of which conus complete cial Auetion such as pressure eli or shook sae ‘SOME ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (On Pressure Control Valve A pressure elie ve has a pressure seting of 100 bars. Calculate the AW power tos acess this valve f returns athe flow back othe tank from a 139 Eps ae a ‘Given Date 2 P= 100 bar = 100 10? kPa; Q= 1.39 Lps = 1.39 x 103 mis, © Solution :’ We know that the KW power loss across the pressure relief valve, TW power oss = PQ = (100 x 107) (1.39 x 103) = 13.9KW Ans. (0x Flow Control Valve Determine the flow rate through a flow contol valve that has @ capacity coefficient 3 LpmA{ Ka end a pressure drop of 720 kPa, The fui is hydrantic ait wih aspect gravity of 0.30 Given Data: C, = 3 LpmA|WPa ; AP = 720 kPa; $,=090, © Solution : We kava daa the low rate Unough a flow contol valve, a= af ~ af 18s tm 84.85.10 7 Sit = 0.0014 mie Ans. © ~ Inthis chapter. the purpose, construction, operation, and graphic symbols of various ‘control vaives required for proper functioning of the hydraulic systems have been discussed. Hydraulic valves are devices used to control pressure, flow direction. or flow rate in Aydraulic circuits.oo —— Applied Hydraulios and Prewenatics Y Types of control valves : Three basie types of control valves, based on their function in the hydraulic system, are 1. Directional control valves, 2. Pressure control valves, and 3. Flow control valves. Valves configuration : Three essential ypes of valve configurations are 1. Poppet (or seat valves, 2, Sliding spool valves, and 3. Rotary spool valves Y The function of a directional conirol valve (DCY) is to control the direction of flow ina hydraulic circuit Y The check valves, also known as non-returi valves, are used 10 allow free flow in ‘only one direction, and to prevent any flow inthe other direction. ¥ The function of the position valve isto control the inroductlon of guid to the lines ofthe system ¥ The position valves are usually described by their number of ports and pasitions. For ‘example, a 4/2 valve has 4 ports and 2 position. ¥ The purpose, construction, and operation df various directional control valves check valves, 272 valves, 3/2 valves, 4/2 valves, #/3 valves, and shutle valves~are discussed, n detail ‘Shutite valves, also known as double check valves, are wsed wien controls required from more than one power source. % The pressure control valves are the de Dpmten eee eee eee ee eee V Types of pressure control valves : The three important types are izes used to control the fluid pressure in a 1. Pressure limiting (or reli valves, (o) Simple pressre relief valves, and (b) Compound pressure relief valves: 2. Pressure reducing (or regulating) valves, and 3. Sequence valves. Hydraulic Valves : The Regulator —— 7 Flow control valves, also known as volume-control valves, are used fo regulate the rate of fluid flow to diffrent parts of a hydraulic system. 7 Types of flow control valves : The vo basic types of flow control vatves are 1. Non-pressure compensated flow control valves, and () Globe valves, and (ii) Needle valves. 2. Pressure compensated flow control valves. 7 T This chapter also described the purpose, construction, operation. and graphic ynbols of various pressure limiting valves and pressure sequence valves ¥ Formulae summary : For pressure relief valves : HV power loss For flow control valves: s Poor, ten) = 6( = P (kPa) « O(n) KEY TERMS ONE SHOULD REMEMBER ‘Volume control valves ‘Speed control valves Globe valves Pressure control vatves Pressure tinting valves Presure reducing valves yeaiie valves (Conte valves ‘Valves configuration Poppet valves Sequence valves Buttery valves ‘Sting spool valves Counter balance valves, Plug-type valves Rotary spool valves Unloading valves Ballaype valves Directions control valves Pressure switch Needle valves ‘Cheek valves Hydraulic fase Graphic symbols Non-return valves Rolie valves Capacity eoeicient Position valves ‘Simple pressure elit valves Shuttle valves ‘Compound pressure rte valves an DC valves Fw contro valves 32DC valves [Non pressure compensated flow 420 valves ‘conte valves AB DC valves Pressure compensated flow cooteol valves Y The pressure limiting vatve, also known as the relief valve, protects @ system fram excessive fluid pressure over and above the design pressure limit. ¥ The pressure regulating valve is used to supply a prescribed reduced oulet pressure ina cireuit and to maintain it at a constant value. The sequence vatve is used to comrol the fluid jlow to ensure several operations in a rticular order of priority in the system. REVIEW QUESTIONS Short Answer Type Questions On Introduction to Hydraulic Valves rol valves? What are the three important parameters that should be a hydraulic system ? 1. What are controlledga eee eee ~ Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics 2. ‘Name the three basic types of control valves based on their function ? 3. What are the three types of control valves based on their configuration ? 4, When do you prefer poppet type hydraulic valves ? 5. What are the advantages of sliding-spool type vaives over the poppet type valves ? On Directional Control Valves 6. What isthe function of a directional control valve ? 7. What isa check valve ? What ae its funetions ? ‘8, What isthe difference between a simple check valve and a pilot check valve ? 9. What do you mean by position valves ? 10. With reference to directional control valves, explain the terms way, part, and position, LL, What does.a 4/3 control valve represent ? 12, List atlesst four ways in which directional control valves can be actuated. 13, Draw the graphic symbol forthe following DC valves (@ Solenoid actuated spring return 3/2. DC valve. (6) Push button operated, four way, two position, spring offset DC valve, and () Pilot actuated, four way, threo postion, spring centred DC valve. 14. What is a solenoid and how does it actuate the spool of a DC valve ? 15, How does an open-center type DC valve differ fiom a closed-center type DC valve ? 16. Mention the application ofa (i) 3 way DC valve, and (if) 4 way DC valve. 17. What isthe purpose of a shuttle valve ? On Pressure Control Valves 18. What are pressure control valves ? Mention their functions. 19, Name various types of pressure control valves. 20. Why is a pressure relief valve used in a hydraulic system ? 21. State the two basic types of pressure relief valves. 22. Distinguish between a pressure control valve and a pressure relief valve, 23. Why are compound pressure relief valves generally preferred over direct-acting pressure relief valves ? 24. What isthe purpose of a pressure reducing valve ? 25. Draw the graphic symbols for the following pressure control valves (@ Pressure relief valve, (6) Pressure reducing valve, and (©) Pressure sequence valve, 26. Whats the purpose of a counter balance valve ? ydraulle Valves : The Regulator 133 27, What is the function of a unloading valve ? 28, What is a préssure switch ? 29. What is the use of a hydraulic fuse ? 30. How does the function cf'a pressure reli valve differ from that of a hydraulic fuse? 31. What are sequence valves ? When are they used ? On Flow Coritrol Vatves 32, What are flow control valves ? Why they are referred as speed-control valves ? 33. Name few non-pressure compensated flow control valves. 34. What are the limitations of non-pressure compensated flow gontrol valves ? 35. What do you mean by a pressure-compensated flow conttol valve? 36. Why are flow control valves often temperature compensated? 37. Draw the graphic symbol for a pressure compensated flow control valve 38, With reference toa flow contro! valve, define the torm capi coefficient. Essay Answer Type Questions 1. (@ Explain how poppet type DC valve and a sliding Spool type DC valve differ in constretion and operation (8) Which of these two types are mostly used in a hydraulic stem ? Why ? 2. (a) Where are check valves most commonly used ? (6) With aneat sketch, explain the construction and operation ofa pilot cheek valve - (a) Deseribe the construction and operation ofa solenoid operated 3-way, 2-position directional contol valve (8) Explain the principle ofa sliding-spool type 4/3 DC vale. 4. (a)_ Explain the different types of centres for a four-way three-position control valve «and mention the applications (8) How directional contol valves are specified ? 5. Describe withthe help of neat sketch the construction and operation ofa shutle valve 66. Explain with a neat sketch, the construction, principle, and working of a compound relif valve. How the problems of simple tlief valve are overeome using this valve List the applications ofthe valve 7. With a neat sketch, explain the prineiple and operation of a balanced piston relict valve 8. (a) Explain the working ofa directacting pressure reducing valve. (2) With a neat sketch, desribe the constuction and opera sequence valve. 9. (a) Write short notes on the globe and needle flow control valves. (2) What is meant by pressure compensated flow control valve? With a neat sketch, hhow does pressure compensation take place. of a pilot-operatedApplied Hydraulics and Pneumatics i 134 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. A pressure control valve has a pressure setting of 125 bars. Compute the kW power Joss across this valve if it returns all the flow back to the tank from a 1.5 Lps pump. [Ans, 18.75 kW] Accumulators and Intensifiers 2. A fow contol valve experiences pressre drop of 700 kPa fora flow rate of 1.6 Lps “The specific gravity ofthe Mud 5 090. Determine the capacity coeicient (Ans 3.44 ipmahlFPe ] oa Learning Objectives ‘While reading and ater studying this chapter, you will be able to: Understand and appreciate the functions and appli- cations of accumulators, Discuss the purpose, construction, and operation of IP various types of accumulators. ‘bit possibilities, they have it - fgegpetie, ey fee Rl Caleulate the capacity and sizing ofthe accumula lesson: Nothing. 5 in: tors Foran application. Deseribe the construction and operation of various accumulator circuits Lewis Mumford Sskten who’ aecomptish Understand and appreciate the functions and appli teat things in. the cations of pressure intensifier. dustrial world are the : : | dhs oho hay flth inthe Explain the construction and operation ofa pressure | producing power of booster Charles Filtmore’ 2 Describe the construction and operation of various > intensifier circuits,8 Accumutators AND INTENSIFIERS In addition to pumps, actuators, and valves, there are other ancillary devices are required to complete a hydraulic system. The important ancillary equipment and their functions are presented in Table 8.1 Table 8.1. Ancillary equipment used in the hydraulic system L._ Fluid Resérooir: ¥ Reservoirs basically are used to provide a storage facility for the hydraulic fluid used by the system. Y In addition, the reservoirs also serve to separate entrained air, remove contaminants, and dissipate heat from the hydraulic fluid, 2. Filters and Strainers: ¥ Filters and strainers are devices for tapping/ removing contaminants ¥ Since the longterm operation of a hydraulic system depends on the cleanness of the hycraulic fd used, therefore filters are necessarily used to provent any contaminants from entering the system. ¥ Strainers are nothing but conte filters. 3. Heat Exchangers (or Hydraulic Coolers): 7 Heat exchangers, also known as hydraulic coolers, are devices used to dissipate the heat generated in a Inydraulic aystem, ¥ We know thatheat is generated in all hydraulic syatems. The main sources of heat inchde, the pump, motor, pressure relief valves, and flow control valves, Much ofthis heat is transferred to the hydraulic fluid, causing a tise in fluid temperature, Since all hydraulic fluids exhibit « limited temperature range over which the viscosity and lubricating characteristics are optimum, the heat must be dissipated to ensure satisfactory operation This function i accomplished by the heat exchangers. 4. Accumulators: 7 An accumulator, also known as pressure accumulator, is a device which ean store hydeaulic (pressure) energy. ¥ Accumulators can be used for pressure compensation, pulse damping, Jeakage compensation, emergency power, auxiliary pressure, and several other applications.83 applied Hydronics and Preumatics 5. Intensifiers: V An intensifier, also known as pressure booster, is a device ‘used to compress the hydraulic fluid by a pressure greater than the system pressure generated by the primary pump. The intensifier convert a large-volume, low-pressure hydraulic fluid supply toa proportionately small-volume, high-pressure output 6. Pressure gauges: 7 Pressure gouges are used to measure the fuid pressure at various points in the system. Y Pressure measurement is considered as an important means of troubleshooting faulting operating hydraulic circuits, Pressure measurement can provide a good indication of leakage problems and faulty components such as pumps, motor, valves, and actuators, So pressure gauges are essential in any hydraulic systom. Pressure and Temperature Switches: “ A pressure switch isan inateament that automatically senses a change in pressure and opens or éloses an electrical switching element when a predetermined pressure points reached VA temperature switch isan instrument that automaticaly senses a change in temperature and opens or closes an electrical switching element when a predetermined temperature points reached. 8. Shock Absorbers: 7 A shock absorber is a device that toa gentle rest through the use of metred hydraulic fluid. V The shock absorber accomplishes the ‘smooth’ deceleration by meiering hydraulic fuid through orifices, converting work and kinetic energy into heat which is dissipated. 9. Hydraulic Piping: V The function of hydraulic piping is to contain and conduct the hydraulic fluid from one post of the system to another: Y The design of the uid conductors is just as important as the design of other components of a hydraulic system. | Out of these ancillary equipment, accumulators and intensifies deserve detailed description. In this chapter, we shall present the purpose, construction, and operation of various accumulators and intensifiers used inthe hydraulic system, 1g6 a moving load ¥ An accumulator is basically a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible ydraulic fluid is retained under pressure from an external source. “decumulators ana Inteniferg - 83. V In other words, hydraulic accumulator isa device used to store the energy of liquid under pressure and make this energy available asa quick secondary source of power to hydraulic machines (such as presses, lifts, and cranes). Y Example : in case of hydraulic crane or fit, the liquid under pressure needs to be supplied only during the upward motion of the load. This energy is supplied from hydraulic accumulator. But when the lift is moving downward, no large external energy is required and during that period the energy from the purnp is stored in the accumulator ¥ Thus the function of lydraulic accumadator ts analogous to that of the flywheel of a reciprocating engine and a capacitor in an electronic circu Y Definition : A nydraslc accumulator is.a device that stores the potential energy of an incompcessible fluid held under pressure by an external source (such as pump) egainst some dynamic force (euch as weight or gravity, mechanical force by springs, oF pressurised gas). 8.2.2. Suitability and Applications of Accumulators ‘Suitability : Accurnulators are suitable forthe following types of applications 1. For hydraulic shock suppression. 2. For fluid make-up ina closed hydraufi system. 2 3. For leakage compensation. 4, For source of emergency power in case of power failure. 5. For holding high pressures for long periods of time without keeping the pump unit in operation, Applications : Necumulators in conjunction with hydraulic systems are used on iarge hydraulic presses, hydraulic lifts, hydraulic cranes, farm machinery, power brakes and landing gear mechanisms on aisplanes, diesel engine starters, and other devices and machinery. 82.3. Types of Accumulators ‘Accumulators are classified in terms of the manner ia wh basic types of accumulators used in hydraulic systems are 1. Weight-loaded (or dead-weight) accumulators, 2. Spring-loaded accumulators, and 3. Gas-loaded accumulators. the load is applied. The three84 Applied Hydroulies and Proumaties EE 8.3. WEIGHT-LOADED (OR DEAD-WEIGHT) ACCUMULATORS. 7 8.3.4. Construction The construction and opera: tion of a dead-weight type accu rmulator is illustrated in Fig.8.1-1t ‘consists of a piston rod or plun- ger loaded with a dead weight ‘and moving within a eylinder to exert pressure on the hydraulic oil. The dead-weight provides the potential energy to compress the fluid. The dead-weight may be conerete block, iron or steel block, or any other heavy mae terial. The piston should have Fam recision fit with the accumulator | sree (to) —= p* Fewith the sccumutator | sce (euro) tube s0 as to reduce the leakage | "reese past the piston, One side of the accumulator eylinder is connec fed to the fluid source (pump) and the other side to the work load (machine). 8.3.2, Operation In the beginning, the ram is at the lower-most position. During idle periods of driven machine (say lift or crane) high pressure uid (oil) supplied by the pump is admitted in the accumulator eylindsr through the check valve. Fluid is allowed continuouely till the ram reaches its uppermost position. At this position, the accumulator cylinder is full of fluid and the maximum amount of pressure energy is accumulated. During the working stroke of the driven machine (c., when it requires ms of energy), the accumulated energy is discharged to the driven machine. 8.3.3, Advantages The advantages of the weight-loaded type accumulators are 1, The weightfoaded accumulators produce constant pressure for the full stroke 4e., ‘until all the fluid is sent out |—cyinder 7 __ Teworsond (inachine) Fig. 8.1. Welght-loaded hydraulic accunalator mum imount 2, They can supply large volume of fluid under high pressure. 3. The large volume of uid makes them possible to supply pressure to several hydraulic circuits Accueultors ond Inensifigys << 85 8.34, Disadvantages ‘The weightloaded type accumulators are not often used in modern hydraulic systems because of the following disadvantages 1. They are very heavy and expensive. 2. They are not portable and hence cannot be used for mobile applications, 3. They algo do not respond quickly to changes in the system demand. i SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATORS 8.4.4. Construction ‘The spring-loaded accumulators are similar in construction to that of dead-weight type accumulators. In this type, instead of loading the ram with dead-weight, it is preloaded with ‘compression spring, a’ shown in Fig.8.2. It consists of a cylinder body, # moveable piston, ‘and a compression spring. The spring provides the compression energy required for this accumulator. 8.4.2. Operation [As the spring is compressed by the piston, the hydraulic fluid is forced into the accumulator eylinder. ‘The pressure in the accumulator is dependent on the size and preloading of the spring. The accumulator pressure increases as the spring gets compressed, because incoming uid flow increases the load required to compress the spring. When the fluid is discharged out of the accumulator, it causes the spring (0 expand. As the spring approaches its free length, the accumulator pressure drops to @ minimum. Thus the pressure exerted by the spring-loaded type accumulator on the fluid is not constant asin the dead- weight type, 84.3. Advantages Fig, 8.2. Spring-loaded type accuraulator 1. The spring-loaded accumulators are usually smaller and less expensive than the Shoat @ - Prone al vave © - Pootvave © - Wooreiadod ype scatter @ ~ Lover operated, sexing ott 2 emergency shot vale Fig. 8.11. Accumulator asa hydraulic shock absorber“a6 Applied Hydraulics and Prewmatics ~ 841.4.2. Operation As shown in Fig.8.11, the accumulator is installed near the shut-off point in order to be more effective in quickly absorbing the shock wave. When the system demands to shut-off the supply suddenly, a 2/2 shut-off valve is used for the purpose, ‘When operator shifts handle of the 2/2 emergency shut-off valve, the fluid flow is stopped <2 suddenly. This results in high-pressure pulsations or hydraulic shock. The pressure pulsation is blocked by check valve, The surges between the check valve and the shut-off valve is used “ta store the oil in accumulator and thus the pressure pulsations of the oil in the pipe line is po absorbed, ., Baa SiziNG OF ACCUMULATORS: 8.12.4. Analysis of Weight-Loaded Type Accumulators Fig.8.12 shows a simple weight-loaded type scoumulator. Capacity of accumulator or amount of energy that the accun {sknown as the capacity ofthe accumulator al | - Derivation : Sy SI Let A = Ares ofthe sliding ram = we NTPN cue tom > oP Bl» « Diameter ofthe ram, so ANG ostine D L = Steoke or lift of the ram, P = Intensity of pressure of hydraulic fluid supplied by the pump, and W = Total weight of the ram including the weight ofthe dead-toad on the ram. We know that, W= PKA Work done in lifting the ram = Wx Liftofram = WxL = PxAxL Fig. 8.12. Weightloaded ype ‘accumulator fv WaPx A] aa |= (Sree (opamti) 1) P « Volume of accumulator (8.2) : Example 81 An accumulator has a ram of 200 mnt diameter and a lift of 6 m. If the \* hydraulic fluid is supplied at 60 bar, find: (i) the necessary lond on the ram, and (i) capacity of the accumulator. Aecumstors and Inteefers zee au Given Data : D=200 mm; L= 6m; P= 60 bar Solution: Area, A = FD? =] (0.2¥ = 0034 me (Load on the ram (#) W = PxA = (60x 103) (0.0314) = 1.884 10°N or 188.4KN Ans. -@ (@ Capacity of the accumulator : Capacity = PxAXxL = WxL = (1.884% 10°) (6) = 11304 105 Nem or 1130.4 KN-m Ans. © An accumulator is loaded with 400 kN weight. The ram has a diameter of 300 rum aud stroke of 6m. lis friction may be taken as 5 percent It takes two minutes to fall throughe its fall stroke. Find the total work supplies and power delivered to the ‘ydraulte appliance bythe accumulator, when 0.0075 m/s of guid is being delivered by a ‘pump, while the accumulator descends with the sated velocity. Take the density of oft as 1000 Nin. Given Data : W=400 KN ; D=300 mm L= 6m; Friction = 5% © Solution: Area, A = % D® = F 03) = 0.07068 m™ 1. Total work supplied to the hydraulic machine [Net load on accumulator when it descends = Actual load x (1 ~% of friction) 7 = 4000.95 = 380kN ‘Time taken by ram to fall through full stroke, 1 = 2 min or 120s Ditnie nove on persee = + = 785 = 00s av ae {Net eel ee eee Mertdney sama pr sens = {Et {seve = sH0.e005 = 19 Nal Ines of pen oft,» = Netend sin? BOI 3763 10°Nint We know that, P= pgh P| S635 19 or Pressure head, H be = To00 x 9.81 = 548mBas Applied Hydrautes and Preumattcs Weight of {vacates (Pe mee wait Os10 «0075x548 = 40 Kms = {Wokswelot |, {Warkesmtes} by accumulator) * | by the pump = 19440319 = 59.319 kNmwis Ans. -© Work supplied by pump per second ‘Total work supplied 10 hydraulic machine 2. Power delivered to the hydraulic machine : Powerdelivered = Work supplied per second = 50319KNmis = 59.319 KW Ans. 70 8.12.2. Analysis of Gas-Loaded Accumulators “As we have discussed in Section 8.5, gas-loaded accumulators are governed by the Boyle’s gas law. That means, the compression and expansion of the gas in gas-loaded accumulators are governed by the Boyle's law of ges. "The rate of discharge determines whether the process is isothermal o adiabatic. I the rate of discharge is quick, the expansion process can be assumed to be adiabatic (2,V,1=B,Vz). lsothermat (P, V, = P,V,) relations can be used for compression if the process is slow. Y The precharge pressure should be selected so that use is made of all liquid in the accumula. | 7 {Smorsat volume } im { vote othe composed}, ‘Volume of the Tiquid } of the accumlatce its supplied required by the system The compresced gas volume is faction ofthe charge and dicharge tina. Th req liquid volume can be determined from the performance of the accumulator. ‘The following solved numerical problems explain how the sizing of the gas-loaded accumulator can be determined in hydeaulc circuits {A gas-loaded accumulator has the fllowing data: Precharge pressure = 125 bar Charge accumulator (or maximum) pressure = 200 bar Pressure falls from 200 bar 175 bar when 20 lies of oll is discharged. What isthe sice (Le, volume) of the accumulator used ? Take the charging and discharging processes as isothermal Given Data: ,=125tar; Py=200 bar; P)=17S bers ‘Volume of oil discharged = 20 litres = 20 x 10-3 m>. dccumilators and Intencifers, — = 819 @ Solution : Fig,8.13 shows the three important states ofthe accumulator operation cme a : G = ~ —> Tooter! From pump (@) Precharge (8) Charging with oit | (c) Discharging the ott fo maximum pressure | to minimum pressure Fig 813, Three states of the accumulator operation For isothermal process, PM = V2 = PVs From Figs.8,13(6) and (c), we can write Py Va ~ Ps V3 o P, (V3—20x 109) = PS Vs {+ 20 litre of oil is discharged or (200. 108) (V,—20% 103) = (175 x 105) Vy on Vy = 016m? from Figs 8,13(@) and (c), we can write PL) = P5 M5 (125 « 105), = 175 x 109 (016) or Accumulator volume, V; = 0.224 m} or 224 litres Ans. “© The accumulator of Fig..l4 is 10 supply 8000 cm! of oll with a maximum pressure of 225 bars and a minimum pressure of 140 bars. Ifthe nitrogen precharge pressure is 95 bars, find the size of the accumulator. The hydraulic cylinder piston diameter is 200 mm. Accurate820 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics Given Data : , charge of oil = 8000. cm? = 8000 x 10-4 m3 ; Pgs = Pa = 225 bars; Py = 140 bars; Ppresarge = Pi =95 bars; D= 200 men? i © Solution : ‘The solution to this problem is quiet similar to the previous solved problem, So proceeding in the same way, we get the solution as below Using Boyle's gas law, we write PLV) = Pa V2 = PaV3 First take, P,Vy = PsVs Co P, (V3 ~8000 x 10-4) = PV, or (225 x 105) (V ~ 8000 x 10-6) = (140 x 108) V5 Ce Vy = 00212 m Now use, PLY, = PSV ~ oo (05 105)V, = (140 « 105) 0.0212) for V, = 00312 WP of 312L Ans. -© + Example &3 | For the accumulator of Example 8.4, find the load force Fjggq that the cylinder ean carry over its entire stroke. What would be the total stroke of the eylinder if the entire output of the accumulator were used ? Given Data : Refer Example 8.4 @ Solution : Since the pressure of the oil supplied by the accumulator to the cylinder varies from maximum (225 bars) to minimum (140 bars), we can consider the average pee (25 esta) cure eased Steere eect at a ialpae aa i 2, Total stroke of the cylinder (2) + ~ Given that the entre output ofthe accumulator (ie., V, = 0.0312 m of volume) were used 1 nis datas a supertivos data, That meats, this data may be an important data, but not rquiced to solve tht panculr problem. Aecumulators and Intensifiers 821 ‘Area of piston = 29812 gssi6an Ane -© A hydrauic circuit has been designed to crush a car body into bale see sing a 17S mim diameter hydraulic eylinder. The hydraulic cylinder 1s to extend 24 m turing «period of 10. The time between crushing strokes is 6 min. The accumulator has the folowing other details: Gas precharge pressure = 90 bore Gas charge pressure when pun is turned on = 225 bars ‘Minimum pressure required fo actuate load = 125 bars Cateutate te required sae ofthe accumulator. (@) What are the pamp flow requirements and the pump hydraulic KW power with dnd without an accumadator ? Given Data :D= 195 mim Extension =24 m; Pyacrge P90 bars :. Total stroke of the cylinder = Pesege Pras = Pa 225 bars; Pay ~ P5125 bats © Solution : Fig,8.15 shows the three important states oF the accumulator operation cast a eas oe (P2¥| ; [:) 7] _ —> Toston From pure (Precharge | (®) Charging with ott | _(c) Discharging the oit to:maxioum pressure | 0-minimum pressure Fig 815. Tiree states of the accumulator operation ‘The hydraulic eylinder diameter and stroke (extension ae given. Therefore the volume of the hydraulic eylinder i calculated as Viger ote = [D2] C= [$ errs? | 2 = oosrr ae Also, it should be noted from Figs8.15(b) and (c) that the volume of oil displaced (¥~ V9) from the aecuanslatr is nothing but the velume of clin the hydraulic cylinder. Vip V3—Vp = 0.0577 m3 @32. Applied Hydraulics and Preumaties @ Stee of the accumulator (¥,) : We know that, PLY, = P2V2 = For Figs.8.15(6) and (e), we can write PVa = PaV5 Py V2 _ 225x105) V2 _ or vy ht = “aio = 8M -G) On solving equations (@ an (#, we get Vz = 0.072 m? and Vs = 0.1298 mi? Now for Figs.8.15(a) and (6), we can write Puy = Pao Size of the T v, Piva or Sive of the accumulate, Vy = ‘ an = CEO 8 a oF 180L Ans. © (i) Pump flow rate (Open) and pump KY power (KW pag) (@) With accumulator : tis given that the time between crushing strokes is 6 min (360 see), t means that within 6 min time the pump must recharge the accumulator only and to the extentof the volume displaced in the cylinder during extension and retraction. This volume is equal to 2 (Vs ~ V3). Volume of oil pumped stile} ccharging the accumulator = 2(V3~ V2) 2 (0.1298 ~0.072) = 0.1156 m> Volume of oil pumped _ 0.1156 ‘Then the pump flow rate, Qyyap ~ VnE oto pumped Ore = 3.21 x 10-4m¥/s or 0321 Lis Ans. “© We know that the kW power, = PQ) 0 (ni ‘Woeng = 1000 = Sx 109G21x10-) _ = 13 T22KW Ans.“ (6) Without accumulator : Wien there is no accumulator, then the pump flow ra sven by __ Yolume of oil pumped tothe hydraulic cylinder pump = i taken forthe extension stroke Accumalators and Intensifers ae = Viwaunceninir _ 0.0577 ) = “Time taken ~~ 10 = 0.00577 m/s or S:77Lis. Ans. “© BQ _ (125 10°) (0.00577, ‘rune = “T000 1000 Comment : From the above results, it may be noted that by employing the accumulator, the pump size and the pump kW power requirement can be drastically reduced. Then kW, = TLA2S KW Ans.-© INTENSIFIERS AND INTENSIFIER CIRCUITS, EGE INTENSIFIER: en 8.13.1, What are Pressure Intensitiors 2 ¥ Pressure intensifier, also known as pressure hoosters, are use compress the liquid ina hydraulic system to a value above the pump discharge pressure. Y Inother words, « fydraulie intensifier is a device which converts a large-votume, low- pressure fluid supply ino a proportionately small-volune, high-pressure fluid outlet ¥ ‘The intensifier is usually located in between the pump and the machine (eg, press, rane, it that needs high pressure liquid for its operation ¥ The action of the intensifier i similar to that ofa step-up electrical transformer. ~ It finds its application at places where a liquid of very high pressure isto be developed from available low pressure. Typical applications include hydraulic presses, riveting ‘machines, and spot-wvelders 8.13.2. Construction and Working ‘The construction and operation oft ical pressure intensifier is illustrated in Fig 8.16. High pressure | trier an ae gy uate — sie | 9. Lonprssoe | panes =| : oa | Pianos Fig, 816, Operation ofa pressure mensifier824 ———— Applied Hydraulics and Preumatice ‘As shown in Fig.8.16, the unit consists of two pistons—low pressure and high pressure— having a common piston rod. The larger, piston is exposed to pressure from a low-pressure pump. The low-pressure fluid (oi) is introduced to the larger piston side and thus it forces the piston to move. Neglecting losses due to friction, the smaller end of the piston exerts the same force on the fluid in the intensifier chamber or smaller cylinder: 8.43.3, intensifier Ratio < 1 may be noted that the increase in pressure is directly proportional to the difference in areas of the two sizes of pistons. Let P, = Pressure exerted on larger or ‘operating* end of the piston, P, = Pressure exerted by smaller or ‘intensifying’ end of the piston, A, = Area of the larger or “operating” end of the piston, and A, = Areaof the smaller or ‘intensifying’ end of the piston. Since force load acting on the two pistons is safe, we get PuxAy = PX A, or Inten (83) ‘The volume output is inversely proportional to the above ratio. Therefore we can write, : igh outlet pressure (P,) ‘Area of large piston (Ag) Low inlet pressure (P,) Area oF small piston (or piston rod)(A) c __HHigh inlet flow rate (Q;,) = Tow outlet flow rats (Q,) 4 8.13.4. Advantages ‘Some of the important advantages of employing the pressure booster are as follows 1. In gircuits which require low-volume high-pressure flow over short period, the pressure intensifier eliminates the need of expensive, high-pressure pumps. 2. This unit is more compact and simple than adding another power unit for high-pressure cycling. 3. A low power input can be used to maintain a high pressure fora period of time. 4, Because"6f the seal between the high- and low-pressure chambers, the intensifier can be operated with a liquid different from that used in the high-pressure part of the 7 circuit 5. Since the high-pressurs 6. It automatically connects with the circuit when high-pressure is required and w disconnects when the demand is satisfied. 7. Its kW power requirements remain constant produced with small volume of oll, the heat generated is Aveumuletors and Intensifirs — 825 8.13.5. Ranges ‘The pressure intensifies are'available with pressure ratio ranging upto $0 to 1, developing, pressures to 350 bar, and flow rate to 0.5 Los 18436. Applications Intensitiers find most useful applications where the output pressures requires are much higher than are obtainable ftom a pump. Typical applications include punching presses, riveting machines, spot-welders, and in many high-pressure testing machines such as tubing fixtures for testing busting pressures and high pressure holding fixtures Example 8.7) A hydraulic fluid at 2 Lps and 75 bar enters the low-pressure inlet ofa $: Tpressire booster. Find the discharge pressure and fbi rae. ®, Given Data: Quy = 2ups = 2% 10 ils P75 bars FE B, @ Solution: Giventhat, GE = A ws Discharge pressure, P, = 5, = 5(18) = 37S bar Ans. -© P, ella tae S$ _ 2x13 a 1 One or Discharge flow rate, Qoyy = 4% 10-4 m¥s or 0.4 Lps Ans. “© Example 88) A hydraulic intensifier gets the low pressure liquid ata pressure of 50 bar and delivers it to a machine at a pressure of 150 bar. Ifthe intensifier has a capacity of 0.025 m} and stroke 1.25 m, calculate the diameters of the intensifier chamber and the larger cylinder to be used for this intensifier. Given Data : P, = 50 bar; P, = 150-bae; Capacity = 0.025 m?; Stroke = 1.25 m. © Solution : (i) Diameter of the intensifier chamber (D,) = Wotnow thet, Capacity of intensifier = Area of intensifier chamber (A,) x Stroke length. 025 = Ayx 12s or Ay = 0.02 m2 Welnow tht, A, = EDP = 00a e Diamett of intensifies te [D, = 041556m oF 159.6 mm Ans. ©826 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics (i) Diameter of te larger eylnder (D,) For the pressure intensifier, we know that A 150105 _ Aa or 50% 10° ~ 0.02 or Ay = 006.0? = or Diameter of 4 largenantindes Pp = ©2764 m oF 2764 mm Ans. -& #914; PRESSURE INTENSIFIER CIRCUITS 8.14.1, Intensifier Circuit in Punching Press Application, As we know, usually a heavy punching press requires two pumps (a low-pressure pump and a high-pressure pump) to obiain the high-pressure outlet flow required for the operation, But with the use of a pressure intensifier, one ean eliminate the expensive high-pressure pump in the punching press application 8.44.4. Circuit, Fig8.17 shows a basie hydraulic circuit employing an intensifier for use in a punching operation. This circuit consists of a low-pressure pump, 4/3 DC valve, pilot check valve, soquence valve, pressure intensifier, and cylinder, As shown in Fig 8.17, the intensifier should be installed closer to the cylinder to shorten the high-pressure lines. 8.14.1.2. Operation First operator places workpiece in fucture and shifts handle of 4/2 DC valve. When the 4/2 DC valve is shifted to the right side position, the oil lows to the blind end of the eylinder through the check valve, When the pressure in the eylinder reaches thie sequence valve pressure setting, the sequence valve opens and supplies the flow to the intensifier. Now the intensifier starts to operate and gives high-pressure output. This high-pressure output of the imensifier closes the pilot check valve and pressurizes the blind end of the cylinder 10 perform the punching operation. When the 4/2 DC valve is shifted to the left side position, the oil flows to the rod end of the cylinder. When it builds-ap the pressure, the pilot signal opens the check valve, Thus the cylinder is retracted to the starting position @ ~ Feersusiner O- yeaecen es @ ~ Pressure vavo ~ Lever opartod, sping rou ARDC abe @ - checkvave @ ~ ianstoe © ~ Double acting cstindor Fig. 8.17. Pressure intensifier circuit 8.44.2, Air-Over-Oil intensifier Circuit ¥ In some applications, the hydraulic and pneumatic cireuits are coupled to best use of the advantages of both oil and air mediums. ¥ This combination circuit is also known as frydro-pneumatic or pneumo-lydraulic circuits ot dual pressure systems. 8.44.21. Circuit ig.8.18 shows a typical air-over-oil intensifier. This circuit can be used for drawing a cylinder over a large distance at @ low pressure and then over a small distance at high pressure (such as in punch press applications). This circuit consists two lines-~ir lines and oil lines. In the circuit, the air lings are shown by single lines and oil lines by double lines, 8:14.22. Operation Extension : Whon the first 4/2 DC-valve (valve 1) is shifted to left mode, the air from the reservoir flows to the approach tank. In the approach tank, the air forces the oil tothe blind ‘end of the cylinder through the bottom of the intensifier, as shown by double fines Fig.8.18, Now the cylinder extends. Useful Work : When the cylinder experiences its load, the second 4/2 DC valve (valve 2) is actuated to the left mode. This valve position sends air to the top end of the intensifier.8.28 plied Hydraulics and Prewmaties Now the intensifier moves dovn, and the piston of the intensifier blocks the path of oil from the approaci tank. Now the cylinder receives high pressure oil at the blind end to perform the useful work such as punching operation Roun Ae_| Approach ei nk ave | One PRL Fit, ogulter, Iebicator ut | renter EEE Pee Eee Fig. 8.18. Aircoveroll intensifier cireuit Retraction : When the valve 2 is released (shifted to right mode), the air flow from the reservoir is blocked. The air from the top end of the intensifier is vented to the atmosphore ‘This completes the high pressure portion ofthe cycle When valve 1 is released (Le., shifted to right mode), the airflow is diverted to return tank ‘and also the air in the approach tank is vented. The diverted air flow pushes the oil to the rod ‘end of the cylinder. This causes the cylinder to retract, The oil from the piston end of the cylinder is diverted back to the approach tank through the bottom end of the intensifier. This completes the entire cycle of operation. 8.4.3. Graphic Symbol Fig8.19(a) and (b) show the symbolic representation of a pressure intensifier having. Single and double acting piston respectively. decimdators ore Itensifrs gag (@) Pressure intensifier, Single acting piston () Pressure intensifi double acting piston Fig, 819. Graphic symbol fora pressure intensifier f REVIEW AND SUMMARY ¥ Some of the important ancillary equipment used in the hydraulic system are 1. Fluid reservoir, 6. Pressure gauges, 2. Filters and strainers, 7. Pressure and temperature switches, 3. Heat exchangers, 8. Shock absorbers, and 4. Accumulators, 9. Hydraulic piping, 5._Intensifiers, 7 ¥ An accumulator is basically a pressure storage reservoir in which a non- compressible hydraulic fluid is retained under pressure from ant external source. ¥ Types of accumulators : The three basic types are 1. Weight-loaded (or dead-weight) accumulators, 2. Spring-loaded accumulators, and 3. Gas-loaded accumulators. @ Non-separator type, and (Separator ype. (@) Piston ype, (b) Diaphragm type, and (c) Bladder type. ¥ Applications of accumulators : The accumulator cireuits are used ais @ Leakage compensator, () Fluid make-up device, (i) Aucziliary power source, (i) Holding device, and ii) Emergency power source, (il) Lubricant dispenser. (yy Hydraulic shock absorber, “In this chapter, the purpose, construction, and operation of various types of accumulators and accwinulator eireuits have been described in detail ¥ Pressure intensifier, cso known as presser booster, is @ device which converts @ large-volume, low-pressure fluid supply into a proportionately small-volume, high- pressure fluid outletApplied Hydraulics and Preumatie Y Pressure intensifier finds its application at places where a liquid of very high pressure is to be developed from available low pressure. Typical applications include hydraulic presses, riveting machines, and spot-welders. Y At the end of the chapter, the purpose, construction, and operation of therpressure| intensifier and in nits have been presented. Y Formulae Summary 1. Sizing of accumulators For weight-loaded type accumulators: Capacity = BxA xb For gas-loaded type accumulators = @ PV, = Pa¥y > Pay co (een | mea | fo a KEY TERMS ONE SHOULD REMEMBER’ ‘Accumulator irsite, Slang of accumulators Capacity of aeamulators Intensifers Pressure boosters Intensifir catia Intensier eres Air avercilintoifer ‘Accumuatoes Weightoaded ype Spring-toaded type Gas-loaded type Norseparator acev@ulators ‘Ancitary exigent Fluid reservoir ers Strainers Pressure gtoges Pressure switches ‘Temperature switehes Diaphragm type Shock absorbers Bladder eype decals Hydraulic piging Aceuonutator symbols REVIEW QUESTIONS Short Answer Type Questions (On Ancillary Equipment L. Name aay four ancillary equipment commonly used in the hydraulic system. 2. What is the purpose of fluid reservoir? 3. What is the difference between a filter and strainer? 4, What is the purpose of a heat exchanger ? 5. Why is pressure measurement considered as a crucial process in the hydraulic system? 6. What is the use of pressure switch ? Accumulaors and Intensifies 831 7. What is a temperature switch ? ‘8. What isthe use ofa shock absorber in a hydraulic system ? (On Accumulators 9. What isthe function ofan accumulator ? What clectical device is it analogous to? 10, What are the thre basic types of accumulators used in hydraulic systems ? 1 List any five applications of accumulators. 12. What wil cause failure ofa dead-weight type accumulator ? 1B. Which type of securnulator operates at constant pressure ? 14. What ype of ga is used ina gas-loaded accumulator Why is oxygen not use for this purpose ? 15, Why are non-separator type gas-loaded accumulator not proferred in hydraulic systems ? 16, What is meant by the tem ‘eapacity” of an accumulator ? 17, What ace three significant accumulator operating conditions ? On Intensifiers 18, What is the function of @ pressure intensifier? What olectrical dovice is it analogous 19. Define the term intensifier ratio. 20, system would require an imtensifier ? 21. List any four epplications of intensifies. 22. Draw fluid power symbol for pressure intensifier, and gas-loaded type accumulator. Essay Answer Type Questions On Accumulators L. (@ What is an accumulator ? What are its functions ? (©) State various types of accumulators. (©) Compare a dead-weight type accumulator with a spring-loaded type accumulator, explaining their merits and demerits. Explain how a non-separator type accumulator works, List out the drawbacks that limit their use in hydraulic systems. What is the difference between a non-separator type and separator type accumulators ? Name the three types of the separator accumulator. Give one advantage and disadvanitage of each type. 4. With a neat sketch, explain the construction and operation of a piston-type accumulator, 5. What is a diaphragm-type accumulator ? Explain its working with a sketch. Also bring ‘out its merits and demer 6, (a) What is a bladder type accumulator ? With a neat sketch, explain the construction and operation of it. (®) Compare the various parameters of three types of separator accumulators 2@ @) 3. @ @)32 iaunaanaronenannan Applied Hydreiies ond Pneumatics 7. Explain with suitable circuits, how an accumulator ean be used as (i) leakage compensator, and (i), an emergency power source. 8. Make a circuit sketch showing the use of an accumulator as (@ secondary power source, and Gi) hydraulic shock absorber. On Intensifiers 9. (a) What is the function of hydraulic intensifier? (6) Explain the construction and operation ofa pressure booster, with a neat sketch (€) Make a fst of applications where intensifirs are employed ? 10. (@) Make a cireuit sketch showing an intensifier in a punching press application. () What is meant by an air-over-oll system ? Explain the operation of the air-over-oil intensifier eitcuit, PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE ‘On Accumalators 1. An accumulator has aram of 150 mm diameter anda lift ofS Ifthe ois supplied at 50 bar, find the necessary load on the ram, and capacity of the aceumulator. [Ans. 88.36 KN; 441.79 kN] 2. What is the size of accumulator necessary to supply 2000 cm} of oil with an allowable pressure drop from 22 MPa to 16 MPa. The precharge pressure is 13 Mpa. Take charging and discharging processes as isothermal, (Ams. 9025,64 cm? or 9.02 L} 3. The car erushing system isto be designed. The crushing force réquirement is such that 4 0.20 m diameter hydraulic cylinder is required at a working pressure of 1.3 x 107 Nim?, Time for crushing, is ebout 10 seconds and the stroke required 10 flaten the car is 25 m. Compare the power requirement of a circuit without ‘sccumulator and with accumulator. Accumulator details Time taken for charging of accurnulator = $ min; Initial pressure of charging (uncharged), Py = 0.8% 10? Nin? ‘Charge pressure of accumulator, Py = 24 x 10? Ném? s Minimum pressure for crushing, P=" 1.3 x 10? Nit (Ans. (Woh cma (QW penton acter = 1256 KW, and 102.1 KW) On Intensifiers 4, Ifan intensifier has an input pressure of 105 bar and the area of the input piston is 65 ‘em?, what would be the output pressure if the output ram has an area of 10 cm? ? [Ans. 682.5 bar] 5. A hydraulic intensifier gets the low pressure liquid at a pressure of 40 bar and d to:a machine at a pressure of 160 bar. Ifthe intensifier has a capacity of 0.021? and stroke 1.2 m. determine the diameters of the fixed ram and the sliding eylinder to be used for this intensifier. [dns 149 mm, 298 min} oo Electrical Controls for Fluid Power Systems "Abrays design a thing by. ynsidering: it in its next ger context a poerceee rhoise, Learning Objectives While reading and after studying this chapter, you will beable: SW Identify and understand the fianction of the various electrical contol devices use in the Mid power systems ba wisdom gathered over: ine T have found Mat: epee Ser {Explain the operating principle of an electrically ‘operated relay switch used in an electrobydreutic, system. 1% Understand and construct the electrical ladder b eWeakness of attitude iagrams Becomes weakness of 1 Interelate the operation of electrical ladder ‘character * diagrams with the corresponding hydraulic circuits.Evectrica. Controts FoR Fiuin Power Systems ‘SlinrRoDUGTION oe ‘Nowadays, the focus has been shifted from manual control to electrical control of fluid power systems. The electrical control devices are widely preferred because ofthe following reasons (@) They can be easily controlled (i) They improve the overall control flexibility of Muid power systems (ud. They provide quick and accurate control operations. (e) They require less maintenance. (©) They exhibit better reliability and have longer service lite. In addition, the complete automation requires the electrical signals (from computer iterfaces) to control the machines. In this chapter, we shall identify and understand the various electrical components used in the control of fluid power. Also we shall explain how these components are used in various ladder diagrams. JBUIVRES OF ELECTRICAL CONTROL DEVICES ‘The most commonly used electrical control devices are : 1, Push-button switches, 5. Solenoids, 2. Limit switches, 6. Relays, and 3. Pressure switches, 7, Timers, 4, Temperature switches, 9.2.4, Push-button Switches ¥ The push-button switches are primarily used for starting and stopping of the machinery. They also provide manual operation when an emergency arises, ¥ The push-button switches are also called as ‘momentary switches’, because they make or break contact only as long as they are held under pressure, ¥ Typ (0 Single-pole single-throw ~ Normally open type (SPST-NO), (@) Single-pole single-throw — Normally close type (SPST-NC), : The four commonly used types of push-button switches are :9.2. tpn tyros ent Preunaticg (itd) Double-pole single-throw type (DPST), and > Civ) Double-pole doubte-throw type (DPDT). for the above types of push-button switches, Bae (@ SPST-NC Fig 9.1 shows the symbolic represent ob ol (@ DRST-NOINC (@ DeDT-NONC ig, 81. Grape symbols for push-buton switches ¥ As shown in Figs.91 (@) and (2), the sinle-poe singl-throw type has one normally open and one normally closed pair of contacts As shown in Figs9.1 (¢) and (2), the double pole double-throw arrangement has two pairs of normally open and two pais of normally closed contacts to allow the inverting ‘of evo circuits with single input (> 9.2.2. Limit Switches Y The limit switches are used to identify the extreme limits of the cylinder actuation. Y Difference : The difference between the push-button and limit switches is that the push-button switches are actuated manually whereas the limit switches are ‘mechanically actuated dh ¥ Types Fig.9.2 shows the graph symbols for the commonly used limit switches. ] 13.80 | 0) 15-NO tet cased as | [ T Tt 1 [cree | fas) 3) | fmswerti [pee eee || | essere eeestetcd| Fig. 9.2. Grophie symbols for limit switches Fig. 9.3. Cinder with bull limit Htectrcal Controls for Fluid Power Systems 93 ¥ In Fig9.2(@), LS-NO means a timit-switch normally-open. Fig.9.2(6) shows a normally open limit-sviteh that is held closed. In Fig.9.2(c), LS-NC means a switch normally-closed. Fig.92(d) shows a normally ctosed type limit-switch that is held open ¥ Fig9.3 shows a hydraulic eylinder that has builtin limit switches, one at exch end of the eylinder. Y There are many operators available such as cams, levers, rollers, and plungers to ‘mechanically actuate the limit switches. 9.23. Pressure Switches “As discussed in Section 8.1, the pressure switches are used to sense @ change in pressure automatically, and opens or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined pressure is reached. ¥ They have usually two pressure settings, namely high and fow pressure. For example, in a circuit it may be required to stop a pump to maintain a given pressure. In thi circuit, the low-pressure setting will start the pump and the high-pressure setting stop the pump, ¥ Fig.94 shows the graphic symbols used for pressure switches =- | -r- (@) PS-NO @) PS-NC Fig. 9.4. Graphic symbols for pressure switches .9.4(a) shows a normally open Fig 9.4(6) depicts a pressure switch which is normally closed. 9.24, Temperature Switches As discussed in Section 8.1, the temperature switches are used to sense a change in temperature automatically, and opens or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined temperature is reached. ¥ Like other switches, these switches are also wired either normally open or normally closed. ¥ Fig9.5 shows the graphic symbols used for temperature switches. ¥ Fig95(a) shows a normally open type temperature switch and Fig,9.5(b) shows the normally closed type.Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics ~ = () TS-NC 94 (@ TSO Fig, 9.5. Grape symbols for temperature switches 9.26. Solenoids As discussed in Section 7.8.4, a solenoid is an electromagnetic mechanical transducer that converts an electrical signal into a mechanical output force. ¥ Solenoids provide a push or pull force to remotely operate fluid power valves. ~ Fig.9.6(a) shows the graphical symbol used to represent the solenoid. | 3e (2) Solenoid () Indicator amp Fig, 9.6. Graphle symbols for solenold and indicator tamp ¥ An indicator lamp is used to indicate the state ofa specific circuit components. Y Indicator lamps are used (8. to identify which solenoid operator ofa DC valve is energized, and (Gi) to indicate whether a hydraulic cylinder i extending or retracting. ¥ Fig 9.6(6) shows the symbolic epresentation of an indicator lamp. 9.2.6. Relays 9.2.6. What aro Rolays ? Y Tho electrical relays offer simple ON/OFF switching action in response to a signal issued by a contro! system. ¥ Inother words, relays are nothing but clectrically operated switches. ¥ Relays are commonly used to open or close the contacts and thereby energize or de- ‘energize solenoids which operate at a high current level. A low-voltage circuit can be used to energize relay coils that control high-voltage contacts used to open and close circuits containing the solenoids: 926.2. Operating Principle Fig.9.7(a) illustrates the operating principle of an electrically operated relay switch, 9s tecrical Controls for Fluid Power Systems eyo —- Normaly open contacts te |Noxmaty closed contacts (6) Electrical retay Fig. 9.7. Electrical relay Whén switch 1-SW is closed, the current flows through the coil of wire and thus a magnetic field is produced. This pulls a spring-loaded moveable relay arm that forces, the ‘contacts to open or close, Usually there are two sets of contacts with upper one being normally closed (NC) contacts, and the lower one is normally open (NO) contacts. 9.2.6.3. Graphic Symbols Fig 9.1(6) shows the graphical symbols for the relay coil and the symbols for the normally ‘open and closed contacts. 927. Timers ers, also known as time-delay relays, are time delay switches used to control the ime duration of a working eyele Timers are commonly applied in electrical control circuits when a time delay from the instant of actuation to the closing of contacts is required. Y These timers can be adjusted to change the dwell period for many machining operations. For example, ia a drilling machine operation the timers provide a dwell, which allows the drill to pause for a predetermined time at the end of the stroke to remove the chips. The symbolic representation of the timers is shown in Fig.9.8. ¥ Fig.9.8(@) shows a normally open switch when energized closes after a predetermined ‘time interval. Fig.9.8(6) shows a normally closed timer switch that is time opened when energized. Fig.9.8(c) shows the normally open timer switeh that is timed when96 Applied Hydraulics and Pneureties de-energized. Fig 9.8(¢) shows the normally closed timer switch that is time closed when de-energized. ce (@) NO Timed closed when energized) cc 1 (0) NO (Timed open when devenergized) () NC Cimed open when energized) eee (@) NC (Timed clased when de-energized) Fig. 9.8, Electrical timer symbols : 9.3.4, Introduction It should be noted that while drawing any electrohydraulic (or electropneumatic) circuits, separate circuits should be drawn for the fluid system and the electrical system. Also each components should be labeled so that one can understand exactly how the two systems interfaced. The second circuit showing the electrical system is known as ladder diagram. ‘Thus the operation of the total system can be understood by examination of both the fluid power circuit and ladder diagram (Le., electrical circuit) 9.3.2. What is Meant by a Ladder Diagram ¥ A ladder diagram isa representation of hardware connections between switches elas, solenoids, et., which constitute the basic components of an electrical control system. ¥ In other words, « ladder diagram is nothing but an electrical diagram showing the hardware connections benween the various electrical control devices. 9.3.3. Details of a Ladder Diagram ‘Consider a typical ladder diagram as shown in Fig9.9 for some application ¥ Legs and Rungs In Fig.9.9, the two vertical electrical power supply fines are called “tegs*, and the horizontal lines containing electrical components are called “rungs. In ladder diagrams, always the power is connected to the left leg and the ground is connected tothe right leg. ¥ It should be noted that always the switches should be shown in their unactuated (Le., open) mode in the ladder diagrams. ‘Electrical Controls for Fluld Power Systems 97 tet ‘Soknoid such Fig. 9.9. Typical lider diagram ¥ Since the electric circuit diagram resembles to a ladder, this diagram is called a ‘Tadeiercliagram : ¥ Uses : Ladder diagrams provide a circuit designer with a practical means to examine input process and output functions to-quickly plan the circuit layout design for a particular hydraulic or pneumatic application, Now vie shal illustrate some important clcroyitraalie ci diagrams. ‘Ea CONTROL OF ACYUNDER USING A SNGLE UAT SWITCH 9.44, Circuits and Construction ‘An electrohydraulic system whieh uses a single soloncid valve and a single limit switch to control a double-acting hydraulic cylinder is illustrated in Fig.9.10, t one wo tte We can (©) Ladder diagram (a) Hydraulic circuit diagram Fig, 9.10, Conirol of hydraulic elinder using single lit switch98 —~ Applied Hydraulics and Preumaties Fig9.10(a) shows the hydraulic circuit diagram and Fig.9.10(6) shows the electrical cirouit diagram, also known as the ladder diagram. “The hydraulic circuit [Fig.9,10(a)] consists of a single solenoid valve (which is labeled as SOL A) and # single limit switch (which is labeled as I-LS). The ladder diagram {Fig.9-10(2)] use one relay with a coil (designated as 1-CR) and two separate, normally open. sets of contacts [labeled as 1-CR (NO)]. Also two push-button switches, one normally closed (labelled STOP) and one normally opened (labelled START) ate included. 9.4.2. Operation The sequence of operation is as follows : Extonsion Stroke : 1. When the START push-button switch is pressed momentarily, the relay coil 1-CR gets energized which clases both sets of contacts of I-CR. 2. The upper I-CR set of contacts serves to keep coil I-CR energized even though the START push-button switch is released, 3. The lower 1-CR set of contacts closes to energize solenoid A to extend the cylinder. Retraction Stroke 4. When the extension stroke of the piston reaches its end, the piston rod eam actuates I-LS (NC). Now the I-LS opens to de-cnergize coil I-CR. 5, The de-energisation of coil I-CR reopens the contacts of 1-CR to deenergize solenoid [A. This returns the valve to its spring offset mode and the cylinder retracts Cycle of Operation 6. The retraction of cylinder again closes the contacts of 1-LS but coil 1-CR is not energized because the START push-button switch and upper 1-CR contacts have returned back to their normally open position. Thus the cylinder stops atthe end of the retraction stroke. 7. The cycle of operation can be repeated by pressing the START push-button switch manually. The STOP button is actually an emergency button and whenever it is pressed, it will immediately stop the extension stroke and fully retracts the cylinder back. ‘Si RECIPROCATION OF AIGYLINDER USING PRESSURE SWITCHES 95:4. Circult and Construction Fig.9.11 shows how two pressure switches can be used fo control the operation of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Fig.9.11(a) shows the hydraulic circuit diagram and lecrical Controls for Fluid Power Systems 99. 9.11(b) shows its ladder diagram. In Fig.9.11(6), as long as switch 1-SW is elosed, the cylinder reciprocates continuously. ssi | we sous | | can | | 23 j () Hydreuic crui dtagram (0) Lada dtagram | Fig. 9.11. Reciprocation of elinder using pressure switches 9.8.2. Operation ‘The sequence of operation is as follows. Extension stroke 1, When solenoid SOL A is energized, the 4/2 DC valve is shifted to left mode and it forces the oil to flow into the blind end of the cylinder. Thus the cylinder extends. 2, When the eylinder is extended to its maximum strcke, the pressure builds up'o actuate pressure switch -PS, This energises the solenoid SOL B, as could be seen from Fig9.11(6). Retraction stroke 3. When the solenoid SOL B is energised, the 4/2 DC valve is shifted to right mode and it forces the oil to flow into the rod end of the cylinder. Thus the cylinder retracts. 4, When the eylinder is fully retracted to its left, the pressure builds up to actuate pressure switch 2-PS. During retraction period, pressure switch I-PS has been de-actuated to de-energise SOL B. Ghele of operation 5. The closing of the contacts of 2-PS energizes SOL A to once again begin the extending stroke of the cylinder. Thus the eycle of operation can be repeated again and again,9.10 $$ dpplied riytrauttes and Paeumatics DER 916.4. Circuits and Construction Fig9.12 shows how limit switches can be substituted for pressure switches to control the operation of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Figs.9.12(a) and (b) show its corresponding hydraulic and electric circuit diagrams respectively. fl conn (© Hydraulic creuit diagram () Ladder diagram Fig, 9.12, Reciprocation of eylinder using limit switches 96.2. Operation ‘The sequence of operation and control capability are exactly the same as that of the system discussed in Section 9.5.2, except that each pressure switch is replaced by a normally ‘open limit switch. 7. DUAL-CYLINDER SEQUENCING CIRCUIT 97.4, Circults and Construction Fig 9.13 illustrates a electrohydrautic system that provides a eycle sequence of two hydraulic cylinders. Fig.9.13(a) shows the hydraulic cireuit of the system and Fig9.13(b) shows its ladder diagram. This system uses two sequence valves V, and V; to contol the sequence of operations of two double-acting cylinders. 9.7.2. Operation ‘The sequence of operation is as follows = Extension stroke L. When the START. push-button switch is momentarily pressed, solenoid SOL A is energized. tecrical Controls for Fluid Power Systems ont 2. When the SOL A is energized, th 4/2 DC valve V, is sifted to left mode and it forces te ol to flow into the blind end ofthe eylinder 1. Thus, the eylinder I extends. 3. When limit switch IMLS is actuated, solenoid SOL Cis energized. 4, When the SOL C is energised, the 4/2 DC valve Vis shifted to left mode and it forces the ol to flow into the lind end of the eylinder 2. Thus, the cylinder 2 extends. pee oytyr2 smart it 01a Ts a8 nus 5048 “ 4 sou sous soe tp atx dX tas, soe a oi See (a) Hydrate ici diagram (© Later diagram Fig, 8.13. Dualeyinder sequencing creuit Retraction stroke 5. When limit switch 2-LS is actuated, solenoid SOL B is energized, 6. When the SOL B is energized, the valve V, is shifted to right mode and it forces the oil to flow into the rod end ofthe eylinder I. So the cylinder 1 starts to retract. 7. As the eylinder 1 starts to retract, it desctuats the limit switch 1-LS, which de- energizes SOL C. 8, When the SOL C is de-energised, the vaive V, is shifted to spring offset mode. This forces the piston ofthe eslinder 2 to retract its original positon 9. As a result, both cylinders | and 2 retract at the same time, and thus a eycle of ‘operation is eompleted acting hydraulic eylinder. 9.8.4. Circuits and Construction g9.14 illustrates an electrical control of a regenerative cylinder. Fig.9.14(@) shows the Iiyraulie circuit ofthe system and Fig.9.14(b) shows its ladder diagram.oa epi rties n Prentn iM VY. sou 1S Y a | sou sash HI-AIXF ar oat tv i Peer Poe eee eer (2) Hydraulic cireuit diagram sw ernacr exreno untoap —f 185 (No) Kcr) sole +6R (0) Ladder diegrars lesricalConvols for Fluid Power Systems 7 9.13 2, When switch I-SW is shifted to ‘EXTEND" position, the solenoid SOL A is ‘energized. This shifts the 4/3 DC valve V, to the right mode and it forces the oil to flow into the blind end of the eylinder. Thus the cylinder extends. 3. Now the oil from the rod end of the eylinder passes through check valve V3 (0 join the incoming oi from the pump. This oi addition facilitates rapid cylinder extension. 1. When oil pressure builds up due to intended loadings on the cylinder, it actuates a normally open pressure switch I~PS. This energizes both coil 1~CR and SOL C. . When the SOL C is energized, the 3/2 DC valve Vo is shifted to the left mode and it directs the oil from the rod end ofthe cylinder tothe oil tank. Thus the cylinder extends slowly when itis loaded. Retraction stroke 6. When switch 1-SW is manually shifted into the ‘RETRACT position [Fig 9.14(6)), the solenoid SOL B is energized. This shifts the 4/3 DC valve V, to the left mode and it forces the oil to flow into the rod end of the eylinder. Thus the eylinder Fully retracts. 7. When the svlitch [-SW is manually shifted to the ‘UNLOAD" position [Fig.9.14(6)), all the solenoids and the relay coit are de-energized, At this time, the valve Vj isin its spring centered to unload the pump. Z REVIEW AND SUMMARY. ¥ The electrical control devices are widely used t0 improve the overall control Alexibility of fluid power systems. : Y ‘Types : The most commonly used electrical control devices are : 1. Push-button switches, 3. Solenoids, 2. Limit switches, 6. Relays, and Pressure switches, 7. Timers. Temperature switches, _ ¥ The push-button switches are mainly used for starting and stopping of the machinery. They also provide manual operation when an emergency arises. ¥ The limit switches are used to identify ne extreme linis ofthe cylinder actuation. Fig. 2.14, Electrical control of regenerative circuit 98.2. Operation ‘The sequence of operation is as follows : Extension stroke 1. First switch 1-SW is manually shifted into the ‘EXTEND’ position, as shown in Fig.9.14(0).. Y The pressure switches are used 0 sense a change in pressure automatically, and opens or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined pressure is reached. Y The temperature switches are used to sense a change In temperature automatically, and opens or closes an electrical switeh when a predetermined temperature is reached. Y A solenoid is an electromagnetic mechanical transducer that converts an electrical signal into a mechanical output force.9.14 ~ Applied Hydraulics and Preumaties An indicator lamp is used to indicate the state of a specific circuit comporient. ¥ Relays are commonly used to open to close the contacts and thereby energize or de- energize solenoids. | + Timers are time delay switches used to control the tine duration of a working eycle. YA ladder diagram is a representation of hardware connections between switches, relays, solenoids, etc, which constitute the basic components of an electrical controt system, ¥ At the end of the chapter, the various electrohsdraulic circuits have been analyzed) with the help of ladder diagrams. ems 7) REV TERMS ONE SHOUED REMEMBER Oni trical control devi Presure switebes Timesdeay relays Push-button switcher PS.NO Ladder diagram SPST-NO PsNe Less : SPST-NC Temperature switches anes DPST-NOINC TS.NO lectrohydrate cies f DeDT-NOINC Ne Dest einder sequencing Momentary switches Solenoids reuit Lisi switshes Indiestor top Regenerate creat Ls-No Relays usxc Tleers REVIEWUESTIONS. Short Answer Type Questions Why are electrical controls of fluid power systems preferred than the manual controls ? Name any four basic electrical devices commonly used in the control of fluid power systems, ‘What is the use of a push-button switch ? What are the four types of push-button switches ? Also draw their graphic symbols. ‘What are limit switches ? How do they differ from push-button switches ? Draw the graphic symbols for representing limit switches. ‘What is the purpose of a pressure switch ? Also draw its graphic symbol, What is the use of a temperature switch ? Also draw its graphic symbol What is a solenoid ? Also state its use, What is the purpose of having an indicator lamp in an electric cireuit of a fluid power | system ? Bleetrical Controls for Puid Power Systems 9s ‘What do you mean by an electrical relay ? ‘What isthe purpose ofa timer ? Explain one situation where you use an electrical timer. Draw the graphic symbols forthe following (@ Solenoid, (6) Indicator lamp, (©) Relay, and (ad) Timer. What isa ladder diagram ? What are the uses ofa ladder diagram ? i 2 1. 4 15. 6. Essay Answer Type Questions 7 |. What is meant by an electrical relay ? With neat sketch, explain the. working principle of an electrical relay. 2.,With the use of a ladder diagram, explain how a solenoid valve and a limit switch control the operation of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. 3. With the help of separate hydraulic and electrical circuit diagram, describe how pressure switches or limit switches can be used to control the operation of a double- acting hydraulic cylinder. 4, Making the ladder diagram, explain a dual-cylinder sequencing circuit. ‘5. Discuss the ladder diagram connections for a regenerative circu ooPneumatic Systems and Components Chapter 10: Basics of Pneumatics Chapter 11: Air Compressors and Fluid Conditioners Chapter 12: Pneumatic Valves and Actuators Chapter 13 : Fluid Power Circuit DesignBasics of Pneumatics Learning Objectives ‘While reading and after studying this chapter, you wll be able to: Recognize and explain the advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic systems. Identify and appreciate the applications of pneumatic system: 1s industries! felts, & Describe the various properties desired of a medium (Git) ina pricumatic system Understand and apply the perfect gas laws to determine the pressure, volume, and temperature of 4s in a pneumatic system, % List the basic components required for a pneumatic system, nes csSo far we have discussed the hydraulic systems which use hydr ‘medium to transmit and contro power. Now we shal! shift our focus on the other branch of fluid power ‘pneumatics’. Thus the following chapters of the text is devoted to the study of pneumatic systems, 10.24, What does the term ‘Paeumatics’ refer ? ¥ The term ‘pneumatics’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘pneuma’, which means ait, wind, or breath. ¥ Definition : The pneumatics inay be'defined as that branch of engineering-science which deals with the study of te behaviour and application of compressed ai. + Like hydraulics, pneumatics is a branch of the fluid power technology. Thus the pneumatics is the technology that deals wit the generation, control, and transmission of power using pressurised air 10.2.2. Pneumatic Systems ¥ Pneumatic system is the one that uses a pressurized gas io transmit and control power. ¥ However, almost all pneumatic systems prefer to use air rather than some other gas as their fivid medium. Y The ait is popularly used as the fluid medium in pneumatic systems due to the following reasons (® Airis abundantly available, (i is safe to use (as ithas the fie-proof characteristics). (Gil) {his very cheaper in cost. (i) Easier maintenance and easy handling, (9) Team be exhausted easly to the atmosphore after use. 10.2.3. Advantages of Pneumatic Systems Over Hydraulic Systems (What are the reasons for considering the use of Pneumatic Systems instead of Hydraulic Systems 7) {In many applications, the pneumatic systems are preferred over the hydraulic systems, due to the following reasons :102 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics 1. Since the weight density of gas is many times lesser than liquid, therefore inertia effect ‘of pneumatic components are fesser than hydraulic system components. Thus the force required to accelerate gas (ir) is much lesser than that required to accelerate an equal, volume of cil. ince viscosity of air is much lesser than that of ol, therefore the pneumatic systems experience lesser frictional pressure and power loses than the hydraulic systems. 5. Unlike in hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems can exhaust its fluid medium the atmosphere after completing its assigned task. This reduces the requirements of special designs For reservoirs and leak-proof systems 4, Preumatic systems are comparatively cheaper in cost han the hydraulic systems. 5, Preumatic systems prove beter operational advantages when compared to hydraulic systems. 6. Compared to hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems are lesser in weight. 7. Unlike in hydraulic systems, leakage of air in pneumatic systems will not affect the system performace very much (because the air compressor supplies the pressurised ar continuously). 10.24. "The main disadvantages of pneumatic systems are given below : 1. Due to the high compressibility of air, pneumatic systems cannot provide precise actuator control and precise positioning control. \dvantages of Pnoumatic Systems 2. Due to compressor design limitations, pneumatic systems can be applied only to low- pressure (less than 17 bars) applications; whereas hydraulic systems can be applied to high-pressure (upto 700 bars) applications. 10.2.6. Applications of Pneumatic Systems {As discussed in Section 1.5, like hydraulic systems, the application of pneumatic systems ccan be found in almost all industries/fields. However some of the industrial applications are listed below 1. Stamping, 2. Drilling, 3. Hoisting, 4. Punching, 5. Assembling, 6. Clamping, 7. Riveting, 8. Materials handling, 9. Logic controlling, and 10. Hammering. 10.2.8, Selection of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems For a given application, there is no hard and fast cule to follow to decide which of the system should be used. However, the following guidelines may be followed for the selection : Basis of Peumatics 103 1. Ifthe application requires a very high pressure or an extremely accurate feed, then an oil hydrautic system can be used. ; 2. ifthe application requires speed, a medium amount of pressure, and only a fairly accurate fee, then an ar pneumatic system can be used 3. If the application requires only a medium amount of pressure and a feed of greater accuracy, then a combination of air and hydraulic systems can be used. (DS: PROPERTIES OF AIR 40.3.1. What is the Composition of Air? ¥ Actually speaking, ai tasteless. a mixture of gases. Air is invisible, colourless, odourless, aid Y Composition :The main constituents of air by volume are 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygén, ‘and 1% other gases such as argon and carbon dioxide. The gaseous layer of air around the earth is known as atmosphere. 10.3.2, Pressure Relations! Atmospheric pressure : The ait surrounding the earth exerts a pressure on the earth's surface. The pressure prevailing directly on the carth’s surface is known as ‘atmospheric pressure. ¥ The atmospheric pressure is also referred to as reference pressure, Normally it considers the sea level as its reference point ¥ The atmospheric pressure may be calculated from the fundamental principle of barometer which states that the barometer reads the pressure due to the height of mercury (Hg) in the tube and its w Atmospheric pressure = pz h (10.1) where P = Density of Hg = 13600 kg/m’, & © Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 mvs?, and ‘fe = Height of Hg column = 760 mm of Hg at normal sea lev ‘Substituting the above values in equation (10.1), we get Atmospheric pressure = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.76 = 1,01,396 Nin? = 1.013 bar But for easy and simple calculation, we take the atmospheric pressure as I bar, ¥ Absolute and gauge pressure : As discussed in Section 4.3.5, the relationship between atmospheric, absolute, and gauge pressures can be given as below : ‘Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure (102) Pogy = Py L013 bar (003)og Applied Hyrdraulies and Pneumatics Y Pressure variation with altitude : The atmospheric pressure decreases with the | increase in altitude, as shown in Fig.10.1. From Fig.10.1, it may be noted that the pressure varies linearly upto an akitude of 6 km and after thatthe pressure drops about LL kPa per kan change in altitude. ‘ade ink —> a a a) Prossura in KPa —> Fig, 10.4. Pressure varlation inthe atmosphere Y Standard air : Standard air is sea-level air having a temperature of 20°C, pressure of 1.013 bar, and a relative humidity’ of 36%6, Usually the above valves of standard air are used while making pneumatic system calcaations. 10.3.3, Porfect Gas Laws We know that, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Gay-Lussac’s law and thé general gas law are called the ‘perfect gas laws’ because they were derived on the basis of a perfect gas. The ait behaves like a perfect gas or an ideal gas with very insignificant deviation from the perfect ‘gas. Therefore all the perfect gas laws are equally applicable to ar: 1. Boyle's Law Y Boyle's law states that if temperature remains constant, the pressure of a confined ‘mass of gas will vary inversely with its volume. J Naventcay, P< when T=constat oa - eV = Consent * PME = PEED = et Vy) Therm relauve humid can be dened asthe rai of the paral pressure of water vapour law given volume ‘feu to the pata presre of water vapour when the sane volume of mixture is surat a the same tempers pases of Preumatios, = inaneesaaneny tT] 2. Charles' Law ¥ Charles’ law states that pressure remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of gas will vary directly as its absolute temperature: ¥ Mathematically, V a T when P=constant (106) y or ¥ = Constant 2.2.0 3 (07 7 17m 7G i, : 3. Gay-Lussac’s Law Y Gay-Lussae’s law states that volume remaining constant, the pressure of a confined ‘mass of gas will vary directly as us absolute temperature. ¥ Mathematically, P ce T when V=constant (108) zg or £ = constant Alm LB aos) i TOT 4, General Gas Law ¥ Boyle's, Charles’, and Gas-Lussac’s laws can be combined to obtain the general gas given by, T= Constant (10.10) PLY or Tr i 2 OI) to the entect ga Law, the Pond T ropresntssbvolte presure ap sbsohue semper (i °K respetively, 10.3.4. Other Properties of Ait The properties, discussed in Section 2.3-2.12, such as density, specific volume, viscosity, compressibility, bulk modulus, et, are also equally applicable tothe air. oar BASIC PREUMATE: ‘As discussed in Section 1.8, pneumatic systems have components that are similar to those used in hydraulic systems. 10.4.1, Components of a Pneumatic Systom “The basic components required for any pneumatic system are presented in Table 10.1Applied fHydeaulies and Pneumatics Table 104. Components of a pnewmatic system ‘Compressor: 7 A compressor is a device used to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere. ¥ The compressor, considered as an air source, supplies the required quantity of ai ‘Air tank (or Receiver tank): The ait tank stores a given volume of compressed air coming out from the compressor. ‘An electric motor or other prime mover is used to drive the Fluid conditioners (or air processing equipment) : The purpose of fluid conditioners is to make the compressed air more acceptable medium for -the pneumatic system. ‘The important air processing equipment are as follows: ( ‘Air filters: To remove contaminants from the air before it-reaches pneumatic components such as valves and actuators. (i) Air pressure regulator: To reduce the ait pressure to the desired level for the particular circuit application. (i) Air lubricator: To ensure proper lubrication of internal moving parts of ‘pneumatic components. (ia) Air dryers : To remove the moisture from the ar leaving the compressor. (©) Pneumatic silencer (or muffler): To control the noise caused by a rapidly exhausting air stream flowing into the atmosphere. Control valves: ¥ Control valves are used to control air direction, pressure, and flow sate, ¥ The important control valves include check valve, shuttle valve, diséctional control valve, and flow control valve. bases of Pneumatics 40.42. Construction and Operation Fig.1022 illustrates a typical pneumatic system which uses compressed air to obta useful mechanical work through the pneumatic actuator. This self-explanatory circuit consists of compressor, receiver tank, air processing equipment (filter, regulator, and lubricator) control valves (4 way manual DC valve and two adjustable flow control valves), pnematic actuator, and miscellaneous components such as piping, pressure gauges, and water drain, Cora of compressed a ‘Ai processing equipment ue [sway manus croctonal ©. Pneumatic actuators: The actuator is used to convert the energy of the compressed air into mechanical force or torque to do useful work, ¥ Actuators can be cylinders to provide linear motion, or motors to provide rotary motion, 7. Piping: The pneumatic piping carries the air from one location to another, [Example 161] A compressed ar receiver bas volume of 6 mat 4 bar gauge presre Ifthe volume of the seme receiver Is inerensed to I'm}, determine the gauge prevar ofthe aie asumltg constant temperate process Given Data: V, = 0.6 w?; P, (gauge)~ 4 bar; V2 n3; T= Constant. © Solution : Given that temperature remains constant, therefore applying Boyle's law, We get10,8 Applied tiydraties amd Preumaties PV, = PaVe Here the P, and P, represents absolute pressures. Given that, Py guge) = 4 bat Priascotne) = Pr quae * Pam = 4*1 = 5 bar Now, 5x06 = P2x1 OF Pp sats) = 30 bar =3- Pocanesey = Pocansorey ~ Par bar Ans. © The 50 mm diameter piston of the pneumatic cylinder of Fig. 103 ‘retracts 150 mm from its present position (P, = 2.5 bars gauge, V, = 350 cm) due to the eiternat load on the rod. If the port atthe blind end of the cylinders is blocked, find the new pressure, assuming the temperature does not change. Given Dati Dygg ™ $0-mm ; Stroke = L= 150 mms P, (gauge)=2.5 bar, Vj, = 350m? = 350 10m ; T=Constant, Fig, 103, Pa cenpey * Pa v- (Eo) 650. 10% ~[§ @oszo1s ] = 3947105 mw Solution: Poon) = 2541 = 35 bar Final volume, V3 = ‘Now using the Boyle's law, we get PV, = PVo or -35(350% 10-6) = Py (5.547 10-5) or Py aohte) = 22.08 bar Pa eemge) ~ Pa apottey~ Pam 2208-1 = 21,08 bar Ans. © ‘Example 103] The cylinder of Fig.10.3 has an inital position where P, = 2.5 bars” ‘gauge and V,=350 emt, os controlled by the load on the rod. The air temperatures 35°C. | The load on the rod 1s held constant to maintain constant air pressure, but the ar Basi of Pnewnatics — 109 temperature is Increased 0 70°C. Find the new volume of air at the blind end of the oplinder. Given Data .$ bar; Vy = 350 om? ; Ty = 35°C = 35 + 273 = 308 K; 10°C = 10273 = 343K © Solution : Given that pressure is constant, so using the Charles” law, we get ¥ ieee = constant of FP = Ps gauge) P= constant; T; 350x108 | Na, 308 = 33 or Vp = 389.77 10m? or 389,7¢m? Ans. > The eplinder of Fig,103 has a locked positon (V7, = constant. Py = ‘The values of T, and T, should be expressed in K] 25 bars gauge and T, = 30. If the temperature increases to 75°C, what is the new pressure in the blind end ? Given Data : V, = Constant : Py gauge) 25 Bars OF B, gisoge) =2.5 + 1 3.5 bars; T,=30°C = 30 +273 = 303K; T,= 75°C= 75 #273 = 348 K. © Solution : Given that volume is constant, so applying the Gay-Lussac’s law, we get zr Py Pe ES constant or 72 = 72 v Th 35 | Pe 303 ~ 348% Print) = 402 bars or Pacem Preanisny~Pom = 402-1 = 3.02 bar Ans. © Example 10.5.) Gas at 75 bars gauge and fans 48T is contained in the 1000 emt eylinder of ig.104. A piston compresses the volume to 750 cm while the gas is heated 0 110°C. What isthe final pressure in the cylinder. Given Data: Py eno) = 15 +1 = 76 bars; T= 45C= 45 +273 318K; Vj, 1000 em? ; Vp = 750 om? ; 75 bars oF P eponse) Ty= 10°C = 110 +273 = 383K. © Solution : We know the general ges law that, Pv PAV, _ P2Vy T= Constant of Et =F10.10 Applied Fiydrauties and Prenmetics 26,100010-6) _ Pa(750x 10°) 318 383 2 Gas laws Fluid conditioners: o Pa antawy = 122,05 bars Poeematc systems Boyles tow Filter = eget aoe ir Carta Rogstator Poem) = (2205-1 = 124.05 hare Ana. Atmospheric pressure Gas-Lussac’s law Lubricator, > Stantardaie Geral eas taw Ale dyer Conpresor Silencer ~ Inthis chapter, the introductory concepts of the pneumaties have been presented. Sanaa ate | 7 the pneumatics may be defined as that branch of engineering-science which deals Ping withthe study ofthe behaviour and application of compressed air. ~ Pneumatic systems use pressurized gases as thelr medium to transmit and control REVIEW QUESTIONS power. Y Al is popularly used as the fluid medium in almost all pneumatic systems, Because air is safe, low-cost. and readily available fluid Y The advantages, disadvantages, applications, and selection of pneumatic systems shave been described in his chapter. Y Air isa mixture of gases containing about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other’ gases such as argon and carbon dioxide. ¥ Absolute pressure g ~ ¥ Standard air is sea-level air having a temperanure of 20°C. pressure of 1.013 bar, 7 and a relative humidity of 36% Y Perfect gas laws 1. Boyle's law: 2. Charles? law : = Constant — or g 2 g 8 3. Gay-Lussae’s law: 4. General gas law : = Constant or SIZ sie sis 2 ¥ The basic components required Jor any pneumatic system are : 1. Air compressor, 5. Control valves, 2. Air tank, 6. Pneumatic actuators, and 3. Prime mover, 7. Piping. 4. Air processing equipment @ Air filters, Gil) Air lubricator, (y)_Pnewmatic silencer Gi). Air pressure regulator, (iv) Air dryer, and Short Answer Type Questions Define ‘pneumatics’, Why is air used as the fluid medium in all pneumatic systems ? Pneumatic systems cannot provide precise actuator control’—Why 7 |. ‘Pneumatic systems cannot be applied to high-pressure applications’—-Why ? Name any four applications of pneumatic systems. For what type of application, you would prefer to use pneumatic systems rather than hydraulic systems, 7. Give the composition of air. 8. What is meant by atmospheric pressure ? Give the relationship between atmospheric, absolute, and gauge pressures, 9. Show the graph explaining the pressure variation with aliude, 10. What do you mean by standard air? 1, State the following perfect gas laws @ Boyle's taw, (Charles? taw, (Ul) Gay-Lussac’s law, and (iv) General gas law. 12. Name any six basie components required in a pneumatic circuit. Essay Answor Typo Questions 1, (@_ What are the reasons for consi hydraulic systems? (6). What are the major drawbacks of using pneumatic systems. (@)_ How can you select a fluid medium for a given application 2. With a simple sketch, explain the functions and working of basic components required for a pneumatic system. ing the use of pneumatic systems instead of10.2 FORPRACTICE 1. The atmospheric air is compressed by an compressor to 1/5" the volume. What is the gauge pressure of compressed air, assuming the temperature does not change. ¥, Laine: (= § and = 1 bar az give; now we Boyle's aw) (Ans. 5 ba 2, 500 cm of air st temperature 30°C, contained in a cylinder, is heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 70°C. Caleulate the increase in volume of ait? [Ans, 66 en] 3. Airis contained ina cylinder at Py = 3 bar gauge, and T, = 25°C. If the air is heated to 80°C without changing its volume, wat is the new pressure of the air? Ans, 3.74 bar gauge} 4, Gas at 50 bars gauge and 60°C is contained in the 0.75 m? cylinder. The ges is ‘compressed to the volume of 0.6 m> and the temperature inereases to 130°C. What is the final pressure of the gas? [dns 76.15 bars gauge) oo Air Compressors and Fluid Conditioners ‘The important thing is. Learning Objectives rot 10. stop. questioning Curiosity has its own rea- sot for existing.” ~Albert Einstein ‘While reading and after studying this, chapter, you will be able to: Understand and appreciate the use of air F ahamacles aut baibs ‘compressors in pneumatic systems. “yeloped in easecand quiet 1 construction, operation, merit sepa i aseand aie) Deseribe te constuction, operation, merits and ‘oy wal and sifering can ranges of vatious type compressors including the sou! be sirengthened, stom. serew-, and vane type compressors. “leton cleared, ambition ® ae [inspired ond suacess ach Determine the size of compressor ur receivers for feved” an application, Helen Keller sti Understand and appreciate the purpose of various "isa thousand tes bet oe ter to have common sense without education than £0 Iraveecucaitom wibed common sense.” ~ Robert Green Ingersoll Determine the ar capacity ratings and the power required to drive compressors for an application. Describe the purpose, consruction and operation of various fluid conditioners including ar filter, ait : : pressure regulators, ar Lubrcatrs, mufflers, and sir dryers.Air Compressors AND Fruin Conpitioners ‘As we know the vast majority of pneumatic systems use compressed atmospheric air a¢ the working medium. The performance of the pneumatic system and its components mainly depend on the compressed air supply. The compressor compresses the atmospheric air into the compressed air and supplies the necessary quantity of air with required pressure. Before the compressed air is being supplied to other circuit components, it should be coniditioned/processed so as t0 achieve better and safe operations. For this purpose, fluid conditioners such as filters, regulators, lubricators, mufflers, and air dryers are used. mn of ¥ In this chapter, we shall describe the purpose, construction, and operat compressors and fluid conditioners. 14.2.4, What is a Compressor ? ¥ A compressor is a device used to compress air (or any ges) from a low inlet pressure (usually atmospheric pressure) to a higher desired pressure level, ¥ In pneumatic systems, compressors are used to compress and supply the required ‘quantities of air. Y As per the laws of perfect gas, the compressor increases the pressure of the air by reducing its volume. 11.2.2. Types of Air Compressors ¥ There are two basic types of compressors, based on theit method of e pressure generation. They ate : 1. Positive displacement compressors, and 2. Dynamic type compressors. ¥ Positive displacement compressors work on the principle of increasing the pressure of 4 definite volume of air by reducing that volume in an enclosed chamber. rey transfer and Dynamic compressors, also known as turbo compressors, employs rotating vanes or impellers to increase the pressure of the air12 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics The detailed sub-classification of compressors are presented in Fig. 11.1 — | —— rote conn m — [Fecsoste |] [Rar cae asm | [esa 1 maton 2 gran | | 2 vr 2 kaw 2 bitaon| |. ae ad Ys ens Fig. 11.1. Types of air compressors However, the study of piston-, serew-, and vane-type compressors are more important from our subject point of view. 14.3, PISTON-TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR: z ae ¥ Piston compressors are the most commonly used compressors in the fluid power industy. ¥ The construction and working ofa piston-type reciprocating compressor is very much similar to that of an internal combustion (IC) engine. 14.3.4. Construction ‘A typical piston-type reciprocating compressor consists of a cylinder, cylinder head, piston with piston rings, inlet and outlet valves, connecting rod, crank, crankshaft, bearings, etc, The arrangement ofa basic single eylinde* compressor is ithstrated in Fig. 11.2. 11.3.2. Operation First 8 prime mover, mostly an electric motor, is used to drive the compressor unit, The clectrie motor supplies the rotary motion to the crank shaft, which in turn converted into reciprocating motion of piston through the erank and connecting rod arrangement. Inlet stroke : During the downvvatd motion of he piston [Fig.11.2(@)], the pressure inside the cylinder falls belaw the atmospheric pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to the pressure difference. The air is drawn into the cylinder until the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke dir Compressors and Fluid Conditioners - 3 (© Intasrote (8) Outersroke iis Fig. 11.2. Single cylinder compressor Outlet stroke : As the piston starts moving upwards (Fig.11.2(b)}the inet valve is closed and the pressure starts increasing continuously until the pressure inside the cylinder is above the pressure of the delivery side which is connected to the receiver. Then the outlet valve ‘opens and ac is detivered during the remaining upward motion ofthe piston tthe receiver. 11.3.3. Multicylinder Piston Compressors ‘Though 2 single-cylinder compressor can provide pressure upto about 10 bars, usually a muiticyfinder compressors (having 2 to 16 cylinders) are used for increasing compression capacity and also due to many practical reasons. 11.3.4. Single Stage and Multi-Stage Compressors ¥ In single stage compressor, the compression of the ait from the initial pressure to the final pressure is carried out in one eylinder only. ¥- When the compression of air from the initial pressure tothe final pressure is carried out in more than one cylinder, then the compressor is known as multi-stage compressor. Y Staging : Staging, means dividing the total pressure among two or more cylinders by allowing the outlet from one cylinder into the inlet ofthe next cylinder and so on, Y Why should we go for staging? ‘As we know, as per the general gas laws, the compression of air will result in significant ‘noreas in temperature. For instance, ia single-stage compressor gives the compressed ar of about 5 bar, the compressed air temperature can rise fo over 200°C. This in turn inerease the ‘motor power needed to drive the compressor. Thus the effective cooling af compressor is necessary. When the multistage compressors are used, the effective cooling ean be implemented between stages. This effective cooling (2) reduces input power requirements, and (increases the efficiency of the compressor.1a = Applied Hydrauiies and Prewmatcs ~ ©-A typical, self-explanatory, two-stage compressor arrangement is illustrated in Fig 113, Fig. 113, Two-stage compressor ¥ To get the practical feel of a compressor unit, the simple view of reciprocating at- ‘compressor unit showing various external pais is presented in Fig. 11.4 I Se eS ee | secona sae fer Intake ter Frat stoge ‘evnae Gis oF ete resent moor sey "SF ae ove ‘route | —— ‘he Pressure Pressure 7 ‘soe ‘wc | ae |-— tone { : Wee ‘let ——— vee ¢ oS tb Fig. 114, Pars of reciprocating air compressor di Compressors and Fluid Conditioners ———— as 11.38. Advantage 1. Piston type compressors are available in wide range of capacity and pressure. 2. The overall efficiency of piston ‘compressors are hi compressors. 3. Very high air pressure and air volume flow rate can be obt multistage compressors. 4, Better mechanical balance can be achieved with mut 14.3.8, Ranges ‘The single-stage screw compressors are available with capacities upto 1250 m’“br and pressures of 10 bars. The multi-stage screw compressors ate available with pressure upto bout 350 bar. 411.37. Need for Compressor Starting Untoader Control Once a pressure has been developed in the compressed air piping, the established air pressure will push back against the compressor. ‘This makes starting the compressor ‘more difficult when required. So an arrangement called ‘starting unloader control’ is required to start the compressor whenever desired. This arrangement releases the pressure in the piping to the atmosphere and now the compressor is free to start Whenever needed, ‘When the air compressor is stated for the very first time, the starting unloader control is not required as there is no established pressure against which the compressor must start ‘114. SCREW COMPRESSORS. : ‘Serew compressors are used in many applications where medium pressures (<10 bar) and medium volumes of air (upto 5000 m*/hr) are required, 41.4.1. Construction ‘The construction and operation of a serew compressor is very similar to.a hydraulic screw pump described in Section 5.10. A typical screw lobe compressor having unsymmetrical profile of screw rotors is illustrated in Fig. 1.5. ‘As shown in Fig.11.5, it consists of two serews—one with convex and the other with ‘concave contour, generally called male and female rotor respectively. Also a minimal clearance is maintained between the two intermeshing rotating sorews, 11.42. Operation As the serews rotate, air is sucked into the housing through the inlet port. The sucked air is ‘trapped between the screws and carried along to the outlet port16 — Applied Hydrate and Pneumatics | Fate eae | y N © Te | vis => |= > | Som © eee 1 N N Maw roto | cw | Fig. U5. Serew compressor 11.43, Advantages ‘The advantages of serew compressors are = 1. Simplicity. 2. Fewer moving parts rotating at a constant speed. 3, Steady delivery of air without pressure pulses. 1144, Ranges The singlotage sre compress are aval with apes upto 2500 mr and pressure of br. “TUE: ROTARY VANE COWPRESSOR meee “he com vane type compressor are wed in applications where l-pressre ad lowe Volume ae ceded. Fe example hy af used for iasrument and ether boron se ness 11.5.4, Construction ‘The construction and opsration of a rotary vane compressor is very much similar to a hydraulic vane pump described in Section 5.11. A typical sliding-vane-type rotary compressor is illustrated in Fig, 11.6. It consists of a rotor located eccentrically in a cylindrical outer casing. The rotor carries a sot of spring-loaded vanes in the stots ofthe rotor, as shown in Fig. 11.6, 11.5.2. Operation ‘The air at atmospheric pressure is entrapped between two vanes, As the Fotor rotates, the entrapped air is compressed between the vanes and then discharged through a port to the Air Compressors and Fluid Conditioners === Fig 11.6, Rotary vane compressor 11.5.3, Graphic Symbol ‘Tho symbolic representation of compressors are shown in Fig.11.7. wh | (c) Single iced displacement | (b) Single, variable displacement Fig. 11.7. Compressor graphic symbols 11.84. Advantages 1 Rotary vane compressors are pulse free and therefore can be used without a receiver ifrneeded. 2. ‘They are smaller in size and lighter in weight. 3. ‘They can work at high speed. 11.8.5. Ranges ‘The rotary vane type compressors are available with capacities upto 3000 m?/hr and pressures of 3 to 10 bars 11.8.6. Specification of Compressors Air compressors are generally speeified/rated by the following, 1. Outlet pressure of air that can be delivered by she compressor, 2. Capacity oF volume of air that can be delivered by the compressor, and 3. Compressor configuration and cylinder geometry.1s — Applied Hydraalics and Pneumatics 148.7. Analysis of Ai Capacity Rating of Compressors. Q,andQ, = Volume flow rate of air at the compressor inlet and outet respectively (m/min), fandP, = Absolute pressure of air at the compressor inlet and outlet respectively (kPa abs), and Ty andT, = Absolute temperature of air at the compressor inlet and outlet respectively (°K). Te - (F(z) aun n, a= alr}la 14.5.8, Analysis of Sizing of Air Receivers ‘The air receiver size can be determined by using the following equation = v= a (M12) where Receiver size (m*), 1 = Time that receiver can supply required amount of air (min), Q, = Consumption rate of pneumatic system (standard m/min)’, Q. = Output low rate of compressor (standard m/min), Page ~ Maximum pressure'level in recoiver (kPa) and Pray = Minimum pressure level in receiver (KPa). 11.8.8. Analysis of Power Required to Drive Compressors ‘The theoretical power required to drive an air compressor can be determined by using the following equations pra esate )Thereet ower nvn = Fa (Eee) ™ us) Where Py, = Inlet aunospherc pressure (KPa ab), gy = Outlet pressure (Pa abs), and Q = Flow rate (standard m/min). Overall compressor ! (i) Acta power ay = {crea fd emit} tay * standard minin reans the inlet ar volume (in ini) is tthe sandal mosphere conditions of 1.013 tar and 20°. ‘Air Compressors and Fluid Conditionert us Air is used at a rate of 1.25 m/min from a receiver at 48°C and 12 bar gauge. How many standard m/min of free air must the compressor provide ? Given Data: Qy= 1.25 mfmin; Ty = 45°C = 45 +273 =318 K; 12 bar of Paiahusuey = 12+1-= 13 bar = 1300 kPa Po cgsape) © Solution: Iris given 3 standard free air is used as the inlet. So the standard Py (reo) =I bar = 100 kPa and Ty =20°C =20+273 = 293°C a= a(f)() = 125(0)) 13.82 m/min of free air Ans. -© We know that, “That means, the compressor must receive atmospheric air (I bar and 20°C) at arate of 13,82 m/min in order to deliver air (12 bar and 43°C) at 1.25 m/min. () Cateutate the required size of a receiver that must supply air to a ‘pneumatic system consuming 0.85 standard mi?/min for 8 min beoween 10 bar and 7 bor ‘eforé the compressor resumes operation. (i) What sive is required ifthe compressor is running and delivering air at 0.2 standard mi/nin? Given Data: Qe" 0.85 win; €=8 mins Pray 7 bar = 700 KPa. Page 10 bar = 1000 kPa; © Solution : () Required receiver size before the compressor starts operation : Since compressor has not started its operation, the output flow rate of compressor, Qe 1O1Q-Q) 1018 «(085-0 Receiver size, V, = 1000-700 a7 = 2289 m> Ans. -© (i) Required receiver size when the compressor is running and delivering air at 0.2 standard m/min: Given that Qe = 0.2 m/min $OL x8 (0.85 —02) Receiver size, V, 1000-700 1.75 m3 Ans. -© Example TL3| Determine the actual power required to drive a compressor that “delivers air at 3.5 standard m/min at 8 bar gauge. The overall eficency of the compressor 1s 74%, Given Data: Q=3.5 w/v Pou guge) 8 BAF OF Poy fay 8+ 1 = Sar = 900 KPa; ng = 74%, © Solution: Since standard atmosphere ai isthe ink sit, Pay" 1 ar = 100 KPaApplied Hydraulics and Pneumatics ‘Theoretical power (kW) = 79 kW Ans. © The actual power (kW) = Theoretical power (kW) x ng 179x074 = 1328 KW Ans.- FLUID CONDITIONERS 146, FLUID CONDITIONERS, 3 cea 11.64, Introduction ‘The atmospheric air that is compressed in the compressor is obviously not clean because the atmospheric aie contains many contaminants such as smoke, drt, water vapour, ete. This contaminated air may lead to excessive wear and failute of pneumatic components. The system performance and accuraey depend mainly on the supply of clean, dry and contamination-free compressed air, Therefore fluid conditioners ars used to condition the | compressed air before leaving into various pneumatic components. 11.6.2. What are Fluid Conditioners 7 ¥ Purpose: ‘The purpose of Mid’ conditions is to make the compressed air more acceptable and suitable fluid medium for the pneumatic system components as well as for operating personne. ¥ Blements of fluid conditioners ‘The important fluid conditioners are 1. Filters, 2, Regulators, 3. Lubricators, 4. MufMers, and 5. Air dryers In these, the frst three units together are called FRL (Filter Regulator-Lubricator) unit or service “ha AIR FIETERS: 11.74, What are Air Filters ? Y Functions : The function of air filters is to remove all foreign matter and allow dy, ‘lean air to flow without restriction to the regulator and then on to the lubricator, Air Compressors and Fluid Conditioners Ea wide ranges starting from a fine mesh wire clath (whieh only ins out heavier foreign particles) o elements made of synthetic materials (which are designed to remove very small particles). Usually in-ine filter ctements can remove contantinants in the Sto 50 jem range. 11.7.2. Factors Affecting Selection of Filters While selecting the filters, the following factors at least should be taken into account: 1. Size of particles to be filtered from the systen Capacity ofthe filter. Accessibitity and maintenability Life of the Filter. Ability to drain the condensate, 44.7.3. Construction ‘The construction and operation of a typical cartridge-type filter system Fig.11.8(a), J CD Arow @ Fiter-separator manual drain ae ‘automatic drain (©) Graphic symbol > ao > EY eter —_¥ Pier Ak a | eee 4 Plastcbowt sump (@) Construction and operation ——— rain valve | Fig. 168, Typical ai-flter systemne Applied Hydraulies and Preumatcs | in Compressors and Pluid Conditioners <= It consists of the filter cartridge, deflector, plastic bowl, baffle, water drain valve, etc, It consists of diaphragm, valve, main end dampening springs, efc, Usually the diaphragm 11.7.4. Operation is made of oibresistant synthetic rubber witha nylon cloth reinforcements, “The arto be filtered is allowed downward with a swirling motion tha forces the moistre and the heavier particles to fall dowa, The deflector used in the filter mechanically separate the contaminants before they pass through the cartridge filter, The filler cartidge provide 1 random zig-2sg passage forthe air ow. This type of ae low acest the solid particles inthe | oo cartridge passage. | ‘The water vapour gets condensed inside the filter and is collected at the bottom of tc | a pour get te sg filter bowl. Also heavier foreign particles that are separated ftom the air are collected at the bottom of the bowl, Then the accumulated water and other solid particles atthe bottom of te Vente 5 filter bow! are drained off withthe use of an on-off drain valve located at the bottom of th filter bow |, Dsetragm 14.78, Graphic Symbol Pera Fig.11.8(6) shows the graphic symbol for an ar-fiter. ZA, tricot Celt ate 398. AIR PRESSURE REGULATOR unpre) Sone _ 11.8.1. What are Air Pressure Regulators ? S Function : The function of the air pressure regulator is to regulate the pressure of he Derpening ring incoming compressed air so as to achieve the desired ar pressure at a steady condition, (@ Constnction and operation The compressed air leaving the compressor should be properly prepared before it goe 4 into the eireuit. The air should have the proper operating. pressure’ for the circuit Improper fluctuating pressure level in the piping system can adversely affect the 4 ‘operating characteristics of the system components such as valves, eylinders, ec. ‘Therefore, sir pressure regulators are fitted to ensure the constant supply pressue | inmespective of the pressure fluctuations in the compressor unit. ¥ For example, the line from the compressor may carry a pressure of 10 bar, the st | pressure regulator can reduce this pressure to 0 bar to any point between the fall line 4 pressure and zero pressure. q Thus the air pressure regulators act as pressure guards by preventing pressure surges drops from entering the air circuits. ‘Types : The two types of ar pressure regulators are : 1. Diaphragmtype regulator, and 2. Piston-type regulator. 11.8.2, Construction The construction and operation of a typical diaphragm-ype air pressure regulator i ilaseatd in Fig. 11.9(0). Fig. 11.9. Typical ar pressure regulator 11.8.3. Operation ‘The diaphragm allows the proper amount of movement for opening sind closing at the valve seat. When the adjusting screw is in the fully retracted position, the valve is closed. When the adjusting serew ia turned to comprocs the adjusting and dampening springs, the valve is opened. Thus the air is allowed from inlet port to the outlet port. ‘The pressure of the outlet air depends upon the size of the valve opening that is ‘maintained, This is determined by the compression of the adjustable spring. Higher the spring compression, more will be the amount of opening and hence more the pressure and vice versa, ‘The ventholes are provided to let out the undesirable excessive outlet pressure, if any, into the atmosphere. The dampening spring is provided to act as a dampening device needed to stabilize the pressure. 14.84. Graphic Symbol Fig. 11.9(6) shows the graphic symbol of the air pressure regulator.Hg plied Hyaraulcs and Pneumatics AIRLUBRIGATOR 44.9.1, What is an Air Lubricator ? Y Fanction : The function of an aic lubricator is to add a controlled amount of oil air to ensure proper lubrication of internal moving pasts of pneumatic components. Y The lubricator adds the lubrication oil in the form of a fine mist to reduce the friction and wear of the moving parts of pneumatic components such as valves, packings used in air cylinders, ere. ¥ At the same time excessive lubrication is also undesirable, Excessive lubrication may result (malfunction components, (if) increased environmental problems, and Gi) seizing of components after prolonged downtime. 11.9.2. What is the best type of Lubricant for a Pneumatic System ? 1, Generally @ good-quality, light-grade spindle oil is used in pneumatic systems. 2+Sometimes, a mixture of 50% kerosene and SO% SAE 30 Git is-Also used us lubricant. 11.9.3. Construction and Operation The construction and operation of a typical force-feed type air lubricator is illustrated in Fig.11.10(@). Its operation is similar to the principle of simple carburetor used in the petrol ‘engines to obtain air-fuel mixture. wit ie ne SNA SJ nerd | outa! CD beans “s SS i i (6) Symbol for oe ‘ebrcane on (a) Consrucion and operation Fig. 110. Air ubrleator ‘ir Compressors and Fluid Conditioners nas [As the air to be lubricated enters into the inlet pipe, the venturi ing located in the pipe inoreases its velocity of low. Itcauses a focal reduction in the upper chamber. This pressure Aiffesentil between upper and lower chambers causes suction of lubrication ol from the ol reservoir to the upper chamber. Now the oil in the form of mist is sprayed in the aie stream and the airoil mixture is obtained. This airoil mixture is Forced to swirl as i€ leaves the central cylinder causing more ail particles to be spread out of the ar stream, The amount of ‘il dropping into the upper chamber canbe controlled by a needle valve 14.9.4. Graphic Symbol Fig. 1.10(8) shows the graphic symbol for an ats tbricator. 41.9.5. FRL Unit ¥ In most pneumatic systems, the compressed air is first flere and then segutated to the specific pressure and made 10 pass through a lubricator for lubricating the oil. Thus usually a filter, regulator, and lubricator are placed in the inet fine to each at cizcuit ‘These may be installed as separate units, but more often they are used in the form of a combined unit. ¥ The combination of filter, regula, and lubricator is often labelled as FRE sit or service unit. ¥ Fig. 11.11 illustrates the arrangement of a FRL unit. ‘teen, denyerais,||cizan, cetyerates,|| clan. conydated ‘ogdste, brated | compressed || compressed ar omprested sir for| | equate at desied| | (97%) wih press Joinders. vales,|| pressure fe spe | vars tee, ror, Pressure vata wa sores compressed ak, Emulsonmade | [Fotead com tsieatng ot || poste a of Fig. 1111. Compressed aie generation und distribution system showing a FRL unitUn t@ pple tydrautios and Preumatcs Y Composite symbol : Fig.11.12 illustrates how individual component symbols form a composite symbol of a FRE unit, Air Compressors and Fluid Conditioners gay 1.10.3. Graphic Symbol Fig 11.13) shows the graphic symbol fora mutfer. GAS RIRDRYERS Pressure Fite regulator an (@ Graphic symbols for individual components 14.104, What are Mufflers 7 Function : The function of muffle (also known as pneimatic exhaust silencer) is to control the noise caused by a rapidly exhausting airstream flowing into the atmosphere. ‘Noise created by air exhausting from an air system not only cause nervous tension and dissatisfaction among the operators, but also results in mental fatigue, lack of concentration, and inefficiency. This exhaust noises can be greatly reduced by installing a muffler at each pneumatic exhaust port 11.10.2. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical pneumatic silencer is illustrated in Fig.11.13(@) ests. rove | ‘ar >In ost > stmasphere (0) Grophie symbol (@) Construction Fig. 1113. Muffler As shown in Fig.11.13 (a), the exhaust air stream enters one end, and passes out the another end after passing through a series of baffles. The baffle tubes are perforated with @ large number of small holes. The outer shell acts as a barrier and helps guide the stream foward the exit to the atmosphere. ‘11.14.4. What are Ale Dryers 7 Function : The function of air dryers is to remove all water vapour/moisture from the air leaving the compressor. As we know, the atmospheric air contains moisture to a varying amount depending on the prevailing atmospheric conditions. Even after compression in the compressor, the contains the same'amount of moisture. This moisture should be removed before the is fed into any pneumatic system components. Thus air dryers are placed at suitable points in the pressure ait line to safeguard the pneumatic components. from the corrosive effects of moisture. 11.11.2. Types of Air Bryers: ¥ The three main types of air dryers used to remove the moisture in the compressed ait are: 1. Reftigerated dryer, 2, Deliquescent dryer, and 3. Absorption dryer, 1111.3. Construction and Operation The construction and operation of a eee typical deliquescent-typo dryer is illustrated in Fig. 11.14. Sea Ht uses a chemicsl agent called a essicant. As shown in Fig.11.14, the moisture air enters at one end, passes through the chemical agen, and pases out | at the other end. The chemical agent absorbs | gat rin ‘ater vapour/moiscure and slowly dissolves it as a fiquid. The liquid is collected at the ‘bottom of the unit where it can be drained. Fig. 11.14, Deliquescent dryeriffy PRBSnUABFsnannananananat Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics iY REVIEW AND SUMMARY Y A compressor is a device used to compress air from a low inlet pressure to a higher desired pressure level. ‘Types of air compressors : 1. Positive displacement compressors, and 2. Dynamic compressors. Y The consiruction, operation. advantages, disadvantages, and ranges of piston-, screw; and vane-type compressors have been described in this chapter. Y Formulae summary : ? t saver sempre: 2, = 0(2\(2) 101 & min) xO, ~ 2) sd n/n Ponce Pry) KP@ Pn ( Paw 26 recipe = 2 [ (Sef 1 Actual power and Overalicompressor efficiency 0) = Fasretical power *100 2. Air receiver sizes ¥,(m) = 7 The purpose of fluid conditioners isto make the compressed air more acceptable and suitable fluid medium for the pneumatic system components as well as for ‘operating personnel “ 7 The various fluid conditioners includes 1 Filters, 2. Regulators, 3. Labricators, 4. Mufers, and 5._Air dryers ¥ Te function of ar filters is to remove al foreign matter and allow dry, clean air to flow without resrition tothe regulator and then onto the lubricator. Y The function of the air pressure regulator is to regulate the pressure ofthe incoming ‘compressed air so as to achieve the desired cir pressure at a steady condition Y The function of an aie lubricator isto ada a controlled amount of oil with air 10 __ensure proper lubrication of ternal moving parts of pneumatic components. ~The function of a muffler i to control the noise caused by a rapidly exhausting ir stream flowing into the atmosphere. 7 The function of air dryers is to remove all water wapourinoistare from the air ___leaving the compressor. Y the purpose, pes, graphic symbol, construction. and operation of the above-said uid condiioners are also presented in this chapter. ‘Ar Compressors and Fluid Conditioners nas _ KEW-TERMS ONE SHOULD REMEMBER. oinpreners Ate ecever sie Fositvedslacementcompresrs Fai coetiners Pitonsype ‘Ale iers Serewtyee ‘ie preser reuters Rouay-rane ype Ae erator stg Mote Single stage compress Air dyer Mutistage compressors, PRL ant Air capacity rating ofcomprsors—Pneamatie sence Biss eee REVIEW QUESTIONS aE ‘Short Answer Type Questions : 1. What isthe use of @ compressor in pneumatic system ? 2, ‘List any four types ofr compressor. 3. What docs staging mean ? 4. What do you mean multistage compressors? Why are they preferred ove single-stage compressors ? '. What is the purpose of compressor starting unloader control ? 6. How can you specify an air.compressot ? 7. What is the purpose of fluid conditioners ? ® 9. ‘Name any four fluid conditioners used in pneumatic systems. What isthe function of air filters ? 10. What are the factors affecting the selection of air filters ? 1. What is the purpose ofan ai pressure regulator? 12. What is the use of lubrictors applied in pneumatic systems ? 13. What kind of oil should be supplied to the lubricator ? 14, What do you mean by FRE unit ? 45. Why are mufflers used in pneumatic systems ? 16, What isthe need for air dryers ? 17, Name various sir dryers sed to remove moisture from air ? 18, Draw graphic symbols forthe following : ( Aircompressor, (it) Filter, (ii) Regulator, (iv) Lubricator, () FRL emit, and (wD) Mutter.1120 Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics Essay Answer Type Questions 1. @ With a neat sketch, explain the construction and operation of a pistontype reciprocating compressor. Also bring out the advantages of employing it. (8). Write a brief about compressor starting unloader control. 2. Compare and contrast the construction, operation, advantages, and ranges of a screw. type compressor with a ratary vane-type compressor. 3. (@) Why is it necessary 0 keep compressed air clean, lubricated, and free from moisture? (6) With a suitable sketch, describe the construction and operation of a cartidge-type * air iter. 4, Explain the construction and operation of an air pressure regulator. 5. (a). With a simple sketch, explain how the compressed air can be lubricated (&) Describe the operation of an ‘FRL? trio unit. the importancé of the pneumatic silencer ? With a sketch, discuss the jon and construction of a muffler. (2) With a neat sketch, explain the purpose, construction, and operation of an air dryer: z iPROBUEMS FOR PRAGTICE. 5 1. Air is used at a rate of 1 m/min from a recsiver SOPC and 10 bar gnuge. Ifthe amospheric air is 1 bar and the atmospheric temperature is 20°C, how many standard _n/min offre air must the compressor provide ? [Ans 9.071 mein} 2. Caleulate the required size of a receiver that must supply ait to & pneumatic system consuming 1.2 standard mP/min for 10 min between 12 bar and 8 bar before the compressor resumes operation. (i) What size is royuived i the compressor is cunning and delivering air at 0.38 standard min? [Ans (0) 3.03 m5 (i) 2.14 0] 3. Determine the output pressure of compressor operating wit the following data Overall efficiency of compressor = 74% ‘Act power required to drive the compressor = 15 kW ‘Compressor inlet pressure = Atmospheric CCoinpressor outlet flow rate = 4.25 standard n/n (ee: 1. Fd te dcr ove = gy A 2. Using equation 11.3, find the unknown outlet pressure (P,,) [Ans. 804.6 kPa absolute or 704.6 kPa gauge] ao a | tPatiaice and ppisever: ce have amagtedlefoct gy | Before which aiffexties sods ir anid: obstacles’ ne i Pneumatic Valves and Actuators Learning Objectives ‘While reading and after studying this chapter, you will be able to: Identify, understand, and appreciate the various air ‘control valves required for proper functioning of the pneumatic systems, Understand and explain the construction, operation, «and application of various directional control valves (euch as chock valves, two-way, three-way, four ‘way DC valves, shuttle valves, and quick exhaust valves) ‘Understand and explain the construction, operation, and application of sir pressure regulator and flow control valve. Identify and describe the construction, operation, and application of various types of pneumatic cylin- ers. Identify and describe the costrction, operation, and application of various types of ar motors.Pneumatic Vatves AND Actuators 12 SEANTRODUCTION Like in hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems also require control valves to direct and regulate the flow of air from compressor to the various load devices. As we know, in order to control the movement of pneumatic actuators, the compressed air has to be regulated, controlled, and reversed with a predetermined sequence. Also one has to control the pressure and flow rate of the working medium (compressed air) to produce the desired level of forte ‘and speed of actuators. These functions are achieved withthe use of pneumatic valves We need to convert the pressure energy of air (called pneumatic energy) into, mechanical energy to perforin useful works. This function is accomplished by the devices known as pneumatic actuators. Like in hydraulic systems, pneumatic actuators also use both pneumatic cylinders and air motors. The pnoumatic cylinders generate motion in a straight line:to perform the work. The air motors generate rotary ouput motion to perform the werk. tion of various In this chapter, we shall discuss the principle, construction, and appl ‘control valves and actuators employed in a pneumatic system. PNEUMATIC VALVES 422, NR CONTROL VALVES: 12.2.1. Functions of Aif Control Valves ‘The main functions of pneumatic valves are (® To start and stop pneumatic energy; Gi) To control the directional flow of compressed air; (ii) To contral the flow rate of the compressed air; and (iv) To control the pressure rating of the compressed air. 12.2.2. Types of Air Control Valves ‘The pneumatic valves can be classified in many ways. 1. Classification based on their main function 1. Directional control valves, © Check valves, (i), Shuttle valves, Gil), Two-way D.C valves, (iv) Thiee-way D.C valves, and (0) Four-way D.C valves.22 Applied Hydroulies and Preunatics 2, Pressure control valves, and 3. Flow control valves. Classification based on thelr construction : 1. Poppet (or seat) type valve, 2, Sliding spool type valves, and 3. Rotary spool type valves. ‘Now we shall see some important air control valves in the following sections. 12.3.1. What are Check Valves 7 + Check valves are the most commonly used and the simplest type of directional control valves. Fanetions : The check valves are used : (0 twaallow free flow of compressed air in only one direction, and (ii) +0 prevent any flow of compressed ar in the opposite direction ¥ Since check valves block the reverse flow of the fluid, they are also known as non- return vatves. 42.32. Construction and Operation ‘The sectional view and ANSI symbol of pneumatic check valve ae shown in Fig12.1(0. ‘The construction and operation of a typical pneumatic check valve is illustrated in Figs 12.10) and (). ANS! Symbot @ Fig: 12.1. Preumatie check valve ‘As showa in Fig.12.1(6), when flow is in the forward direction, the compressed air pressure pushes the disk seal and thus the valve allows fre flow. lnstead, if flow is attempted Pheumatic Volves and Actuators —— 123 in the opposite direction as shown in Fig12.1(c, the compressed air pushes the disk seal in the closed position, Hence n flow is permite in opposite direction, 374, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES 42.4.1. What are Directional Control Valves 7 ¥ As the name suggests, the function of a directional control valve (DC¥) is to control the direction of flow in a pneumatic circuit. Y The DCVs are used to start, stop and regulate the direction of air flow and to help in the distribution of air in the desired line. ¥ Types: As discussed in Section 7.6.2; the D.C valves can be classified in many different ways. - 1, Based on the construction ; + © Poppet (or seat) valves, (@ Sliding spoo! valves, and (Gi) Rotary spool valves. 2. Based on the number of ports present : @ Two way valves, (W), Three way valves, and (UD Four way valves. 12.4.2. Two-Way Valves 124.24. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of an ait-pitoted (ie., ai-operated), two-way pneumatic vabe is ilustrated in Fig.t2.2, Basically two-way vaive is an on-off type valve. This 2/2 way has two ports (a supply port and an exhaust port) and two positions (open and closed). As shown in Fig.12.2, 2/2 way Nave is available to operate either normally open or normally closed conditions. A normally open two-way valve (Fig.12.2(a)) permits flow in its normal or in its rest Position and blocks flow when actuated. The normally closed valve (Fig. 12.2(B)) block flow {nits normal position and permits flow when actuated, ‘»» These valves have long life and can be used to handle dry and latApplied Hydraulics and Prewmaties 2 ‘Operate Omar oa sremrses t t | an Joust | Site (@ Normally open Spr oper state sresstaed pret Shanta Bove | aa aan Si (6) Normalty closed Fig, 12.2, Two-way, air pitoted valve 12.433, Three-way Valves “The three-way type valves have three ports—an inlet an exhaust, and a cylinder por. 12.4.3.1. Construction and Operation “The construction and operation of o typical poppettype three-way two-position (Le. 32) peumatic valve is illustrated in Fig 12.3(a), Fig. 12.3(6) shows the graphic symbol of the 374 way valve. ‘As could be seen from Fig.12.3(a) that one flow port is connected to either of the oe ‘two ports. This valve may also be used to pressurise one port and exhaust the other port. THs | these valves ean be used asa pilot relay to operate the other valves 4 Pa are tesco teeeIEHHHEeEPPESESE Eig ee fat aan i rieaer fet | aso i | ttt pot area i aust @ (6) Graphic symbot Fig, 123, 32 ay DC valve oytoder wl STD 12.4.4. Four-Way Valves “The four way type valves have four ports—an inlet, an exhaust, and two eylinder ports. 412.4.4.1. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation of a typical valve-seat type four-way two-position (ie, 4/2) pneumatic valve is ilustrated in Fig,12.4(a) Fig.12.4(6) shows the graphie symbol of the 4/2 way valve [wom | ots ap per | ULL ca CY — sing seer sesh a ee se | : aeealiantt Fig. 12.4, 4/2 way DC valve1246 $$$ Applied Hydraulics and Pneumatics ‘As showin in Fig. 12.4, the inlet port P connects to eylinder ports A and B to exheust port R When the valve elements are actuated by means of the push button, they are unseated and port P connects to cylinder ports B and A to exhaust port R. ; Gerry wo way DC ves ad as on-off yp vane: tee way DC valves ar edt onl single-tctng lines atustos four way DC valves are used to coil double-actng actuators 12. SHUTTLE VALVES 125.1. What are Shuttle Valves’? ¥ Shuttle valves, also known as double check valves, are used when control is required from more than one power source. ¥ in other words, shuttle valves are used to solect the higher of the two input pressures automatically and connects to output port. This valve is also known as ‘OR GATE" 42.6.2. Construction and Operation ‘The construction and operation ofa typical three port spool-type shutle valve is illustrated in Fig.12.5(@). The alternative ball-type shuttle valve for the same purpose is shown in Fig 12.508). Bet yinaor gon 7 Gecmecsen || @ - Pessenetvave || @ ~ Preopaated ! Boece ! De® - Seavrcrgveres || DEG - cecrvovon | @ - coweswocrnter |) =} Fig. 13.6. Automatte cylinder reciprocating system13.0 ———_———~ Applied Hydraulies and Pneumatics 13.9.2. Operation Retraction: When the 4/3 DC valve is shifted to the leit envelope flow path ‘configuration, cil flows from the pump tothe rod end of the eylinder. This pump flow retracts the eylinder. The check valve I prevents shifting of the 4/3 DC vatve until the full retraction stroke completes, As the piston reaches its end of stroke, the pressure builds up in the sequence valve 1 and it opens. This allows the pilot pressure signal to shift the DC valve to the right mode. Extension : When the pilot signal shifts the 4/3 DC valve to the right mode, the oil flows to the blind end of the cylinder. This pump flow.extends the eylinder. The check valve’ 2 prevents shifting of the DC valve until the full extension stroke completes. As the piston reaches its end of stroke, the pressure builds-up in the sequence valve 2 and it opens. This, allows the pilot pressure signal to shift the DC valve to the left mods again. “Thus the sequence repeats and the cylinder reciprocates continuously. “78:0, HYDRAULIC CYLINDER SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUITS There are many industrial applications roqire nearly perf synchronization of movement of two or more cylinders in onder to complete some phase of operation, To accomplish the identical task from the cylinders atthe same rate, synchronizing circuits are employed. This synchronization'can be achieved in many ways Sich as (2) By using double- end cylinders in series, (ji) By using mechanically linked pistons, (ii) By using hydraulic Inotors as metering devices, (Iv) By using low contol valves. (9) By asing ai-hydraulic cylinders in series, etc. Now we shall discuss how synchronization is achieved using the double-end cylinders in sevies 43.101, Synchronizing Hydraulic Cylinders Connected in Series 13.10.2, Cireuit Fig:13.7 illustrates a eireuit to synchronize two cylinders by connecting them in series. This circuit uses a solenoid-operated, spring-offset 4/3 DC valve and two double-acting hydraulic eytinders. 43.10.3. Operation Extension of eylinders 1 and 2: Whea the 4/3 DC valve is shifted to the left envelope flow path configuration, oil flows from the pump to the blind end of eylinder 1 and thus the cylinder 1 extends, At the same time, oil from the rod end of cylinder I i forced to the blind end of eylinder 2 and thus the cylinder 2 also extends, Now the oll returns to the tank from the rod end of eylinder 2 via the DC valve, Once full extension of eylinders | and 2 are over, the DC valve is shifted to the right mode Fuld Power Cireult Design Q- therm | | @ - Fitersirainer > wate ne else ~ Solenodeparated @ Sstngatan a BC wave @©tQ - danse inane Hey Ee Fig, 13.7. Synchronizing hydraulic esinders by connecting thent in series Retraction of cylinders 1 and 2: When the 423 DC valve is shifted tothe tight mode, cil ‘lows from the pump to the rod end of eytinder 2 and thus the eylinder 2 retracts. Atthe same time, oit from the blind end of cylinder 2 is forced to the rod end of eylinder 1 and thus the cylinder | also retracts. Now the oil returns tothe tank from the blind end of eylinder 1 via the DC valve, ‘Thus both extension and retraction operations of both cylinders are synchronized by connecting them in series. But for the two cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 should be equal to the difference between the areas of the piston and cod for cylinder 1 13.41. SPEED CONTROL GIRGUITS 1311.1. Speed Control of a Hydraulic Cylinder ‘As we have discussed in Section 7.20, flow control valves are used to control the speed of hydraulic eylinders. It should be noted that the location of flow control valve with respect to ‘ther components in a circuit will have effect on the characteristics of the circuit performance. The three basic types of locations of the flow control valve in any hydraulic, circuit are Meter.in oiruit, Meter-out cirouit, and Bleed-off circuit