Burkert-The Orientalizing Revolution - Near Eastern Influence On Greek Culture in The Early Archaic Age (Revealing Antiquity) - Harvard University Press (1998) PDF

THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
Near Eastern Influence on

Greek Culture in
the Early Archaic Age
Walter Burkert
TRANSLATED BY
Margaret E. Pinder
and Walter Burkert
H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS
C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts
London, England
Copyright © 1992 by the President and
Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Burkert, Walter, 1931-

The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek
culture in the early archaic age / Walter Burkert; translated by
Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert.
p. cm. — (Revealing antiquity; 5)
Translation of: Die orientahsierende Epoche in der griechischen
Religion und Literatur.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 0-674-64363-1 (cloth)
I S B N 0-674-643 6 4 - X (pbk.)
1. Greece—Civilization—to 146 B . C . 2. Greece—Civiliza-
tion—Middle Eastern influences. I. Title. II. Series.
DF78.B85 1992 92-8923
938—dc20 CIP
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Introduction 1
i . " W h o Are Public Workers": The M i g r a n t Craftsmen g

Historical Background g
Oriental Products in Greece 14
Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century 23
The Problem of Loan-Words 33
2. " A Seer o r a H e a l e r " : M a g i c a n d M e d i c i n e 41

"Craftsmen oj the Sacred": Mobility and [-'amity Structure 41
Hepatoscopy 46
Foundation Deposits 33
Purification 35
Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic 63
Substitute Sacrifice 73
Asclepius and Asgelatas 73
Ecstatic Divination 79
Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo 82
3. " O r A l s o a G o d l y S i n g e r " : A k k a d i a n and E a r l y

G r e e k L i t e r a t u r e 88
From Atrahasis to the "Deception of Zeus" 88
Complaint in Heaven: Ishtar and Aphrodite 96
The Overpopulated Earth 100
Seven against Thebes 106
v
C O N T E N T S
Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic

Fables 120
Magic and Cosmogony 124
Conclusion 128
Abbreviations 131
Bibliography 133
Notes 133
Index o f Greek Words 219
General Index 221
VI
ILLUSTRATIONS
Map T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the N e a r East i n t h e early

archaic p e r i o d
Figure 1. B r o n z e t y m p a n o n f r o m t h e Idaean cave, C r e t e ;

Heraklion M u s e u m ; d r a w i n g by H i l d i Keel-Leu
Figure 2, N o r t h Syrian bronze plaque f r o m horse har-

ness, i n s c r i b e d ; c o u r t e s y o f the D e u t s c h e s A r c h ä o -
logisches I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r .
88/1022
Figure 3. Liver models from Mesopotamia and from

Piacenza, I t a l y : B r i t i s h M u s e u m , L o n d o n , a n d M u -
seo A r c h e o l o g i c o , Florence; f r o m C . O . T h u l i n , Die
etmskische Disziplin, v o l . I ( G ö t e b o r g , 1905), plate I I
Figure 4. B a b y l o n i a n bronze f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the Hera

s a n c t u a r y at S a m o s ; Samos M u s e u m ; c o u r t e s y o f t h e
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, A u f n a h m e D A I
A t h e n , N e g . N r . 78/600
Figure 5. L a m a s h t u plate f r o m C a r c h e m i s h ; d r a w i n g b y
Hildi Keel-Leu
vu
I L L U S T R A T I O N S
Figure 6. Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield 86

strap f r o m O l y m p i a ; d r a w i n g s f r o m Journal of Near
Eastern Studies 21 (1961), 115; c o u r t e s y o f the U n i -
v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o Press. Seal f r o m B a g h d a d : draw-
i n g b y C o r n e l i u s B u r k e r t ; courtesy o f the Vordera-
siatisches M u s e u m , B e r l i n
Figure 7. Cypriote silver bowl from the B e r n a r d i n i 103

t o m b , Praeneste; c o u r t e s y o f the M u s e o d i V i l l a G i u -
lia, R o m e
Figure 8. O r t h o s t a t e r e l i e f f r o m the palace at G u z a n a - 112

T e l l H a l a f ; f r o m H . T . B o s s e r t , Altsyrien (Tübingen:
E r n s t W a s m u t h V e r l a g , 1951), f i g . 472; c o u r t e s y o f
Verlag E r n s t W a s m u t h , T ü b i n g e n
viii
N
PREFACE
T h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sit-

zungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. I am
grateful to Glen Bowersock f o r p r o m o t i n g an E n g l i s h transla-
t i o n . W i t h a v i e w t o a l a r g e r p u b l i c a n d i n o r d e r t o reflect the
c u r r e n t state o f s c h o l a r s h i p , I have revised t h e b o o k t h r o u g h o u t
and i n s o m e places e x p a n d e d the a r g u m e n t .
M y thesis a b o u t t h e indebtedness o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n t o east-
ern s t i m u l i m a y appear less p r o v o c a t i v e t o d a y t h a n i t d i d e i g h t
years ago. T h i s change m a y be p a r t l y an effect o f the o r i g i n a l
p u b l i c a t i o n , b u t m a i n l y i t reflects the fact t h a t classics has been
l o s i n g m o r e a n d m o r e its status o f a s o l i t a r y m o d e l i n o u r m o d -
ern w o r l d . Yet i t s t i l l seems w o r t h w h i l e t o h e l p b r i d g e the gaps
b e t w e e n related fields o f s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t o m a k e available m a -
terials o f t e n n e g l e c t e d b y o n e o r another. Such an exercise m a y
c o n v e y t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f u n e x p e c t e d discoveries even w h e n i t
necessitates a fair a m o u n t o f a n n o t a t i o n .
I o w e special t h a n k s t o Peter F r e i , Paul H o s k i s s o n , F r i t z Stolz,
R o l f Stucky, a n d M a r k u s Wafler f o r t h e i r help o n matters o r i -
ental, a n d t o Peter B l o m e for detailed a r c h a e o l o g i c a l advice.
IX
THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
" G o d ' s is t h e O r i e n t , G o d ' s is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n . 1
Classical scholars have found i t d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n such a b a l -

anced perspective a n d have t e n d e d instead t o t r a n s f o r m " o r i e n -
t a l " a n d " o c c i d e n t a l " i n t o a p o l a r i t y , i m p l y i n g antithesis a n d
c o n f l i c t . T h e G r e e k s h a d b e c o m e aware o f t h e i r o w n i d e n t i t y as
separate f r o m t h a t o f t h e " O r i e n t " w h e n t h e y succeeded i n r e -
p e l l i n g the attacks o f t h e Persian e m p i r e . B u t n o t u n t i l m u c h
later, d u r i n g the crusades, d i d the c o n c e p t and the t e r m Orient
a c t u a l l y enter the languages o f the W e s t . 2
T h i s fact h a r d l y e x -
plains w h y even t o d a y i t s h o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r t a k e u n -
prejudiced discussion o f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n classical Greece
a n d t h e East. B u t w h o e v e r tries w i l l e n c o u n t e r e n t r e n c h e d p o -
s i t i o n s , uneasiness, a p o l o g y i f n o t r e s e n t m e n t . W h a t is f o r e i g n
and u n k n o w n is h e l d at a distance b y an a t t i t u d e o f w a r y defen-
siveness.
T o a large e x t e n t this is the result o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p -
m e n t w h i c h b e g a n m o r e t h a n t w o centuries ago a n d t o o k r o o t
especially i n G e r m a n y . I n c r e a s i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f scholarship
converged w i t h ideological p r o t e c t i o n i s m , and b o t h constructed
an i m a g e o f a p u r e , classical Greece i n s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n . U n t i l
w e l l i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as l o n g as p h i l o l o g y was closely
c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e o l o g y , the H e b r e w B i b l e n a t u r a l l y s t o o d n e x t
t o the G r e e k classics, a n d the existence o f cross-connections d i d
n o t present any p r o b l e m s . Jephtha's d a u g h t e r a n d I p h i g e n i a
w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e m o d e l s even i n t h e r e a l m o f opera; Iapetos
i
T H E O R I E N T A L I Z I N G R E V O L U T I O N
was traced t o J a p h e t h , t h e K a b e i r o i t o a S e m i t i c d e s i g n a t i o n f o r
" g r e a t g o d s , " a n d t h e " E a s t " was f o u n d i n t h e n a m e o f K a d m o s
the P h o e n i c i a n , the " W e s t " i n t h e n a m e o f E u r o p a . 3
In accord-
ance w i t h t h e Odyssey and H e r o d o t u s , "Phoenicians" were read-
i l y accepted as the l i n k b e t w e e n East a n d West.
T h e n three n e w t r e n d s erected t h e i r o w n b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o l -
l e c t i v e l y f r a c t u r e d t h e O r i e n t - G r e e c e axis. P h i l o l o g y b r o k e free
o f t h e o l o g y — F r i e d r i c h A u g u s t W o l f m a t r i c u l a t e d as studiosus
philologiae at G o t t i n g e n i n 1 7 7 7 — a n d at t h e same t i m e ,
4
with
J o h a n n J o a c h i m W i n c k e l m a n n , a n e w c o n c e p t o f classicism, o n e
w i t h r a t h e r p a g a n tendencies, asserted i t s e l f a n d c a m e t o a t t r a c t
h i g h regard. Second, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the w o r k o f Johann G o t t -
fried Herder, the i d e o l o g y o f r o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m developed,
w h i c h h e l d l i t e r a t u r e a n d s p i r i t u a l c u l t u r e t o be i n t i m a t e l y c o n -
n e c t e d w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e , t r i b e , o r race. O r i g i n s a n d
o r g a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n r e c i p r o c a l c u l t u r a l influences
b e c a m e t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n his r e a c t i o n t o F r i e d r i c h
Creuzer's m o r e universal m o d e l , C a r l O t f r i e d M u l l e r gained
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e w i t h his idea o f " G r e e k t r i b a l c u l t u r e . " 5
Precisely at t h e t i m e w h e n J e w s w e r e b e i n g g r a n t e d f u l l legal
e q u a l i t y i n E u r o p e , n a t i o n a l - r o m a n t i c consciousness t u r n e d t h e
trend against " o r i e n t a l i s m " and t h u s gave a n t i - S e m i t i s m a
chance. Third, linguistics scholars' discovery of "Indo-
European"—the derivation o f most European languages t o -
g e t h e r w i t h Persian a n d S a n s k r i t f r o m a c o m m o n a r c h e t y p e — a t
t h a t t i m e r e i n f o r c e d t h e alliance o f G r e e k , R o m a n , and Ger-
m a n i c and thus banished the Semitic t o another w o r l d . 6
It re-
m a i n e d t o d e f e n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f the G r e e k s against t h e
I n d i a n relatives w i t h i n t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n f a m i l y 7
i n order to
establish t h e c o n c e p t o f classical-national G r e e k i d e n t i t y as a
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a n d self-sufficient m o d e l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n w h i c h , at
least i n G e r m a n y , was t o d o m i n a t e t h e later n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 8
U l r i c h v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f ' s s c o r n f u l assessment i n
1 8 8 4 — " t h e peoples a n d states o f the Semites a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s
w h i c h h a d been d e c a y i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s a n d w h i c h , i n spite o f the
a n t i q u i t y o f their culture, were unable to c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g to
the H e l l e n e s o t h e r t h a n a f e w m a n u a l s k i l l s , c o s t u m e s , a n d i m -
2
I N T R O D U C T I O N
p l e m e n t s o f b a d taste, a n t i q u a t e d o r n a m e n t s , r e p u l s i v e fetishes
f o r even m o r e r e p u l s i v e fake d i v i n i t i e s " — i s n o t representative
o f his w o r k ; b u t even later he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f late
a n t i q u i t y s t e m m e d " f r o m t h e O r i e n t a n d is t h e d e a d l y e n e m y o f
true H e l l e n i s m . " 9
B e h i n d t h e i r a s c i b i l i t y a c e r t a i n i n s e c u r i t y seems t o l u r k . I n
fact t h e i m a g e o f p u r e , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d H e l l e n i s m w h i c h makes
its m i r a c u l o u s appearance w i t h H o m e r h a d been o v e r t a k e n i n
the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y three g r o u p s o f n e w discoveries: the
reemergence o f the ancient Near East a n d Egypt through
t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f c u n e i f o r m a n d h i e r o g l y p h i c w r i t i n g , the
u n e a r t h i n g o f M y c e n a e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f an
o r i e n t a l i z i n g phase i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f archaic G r e e k art.
Classical p h i l o l o g y g r e e t e d these discoveries w i t h hesitancy.
T h e M y c e n a e a n p e r i o d was g r a d u a l l y accepted as G r e e k p r e h i s -
tory, 1 0
a n d the f i n a l d e c i p h e r m e n t o f L i n e a r B as G r e e k con-
firmed this as fact. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A s s y r i o l o g y w i t h t h e
i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f r e a d i n g c u n e i f o r m — G i l g a m e s h m a d e his
entrance i n the guise o f I z d u b a r — c o u l d be v i e w e d f r o m a d i s -
1 1
tance a n d w i t h s o m e c o n d e s c e n s i o n b y an established b r a n c h o f
s c h o l a r s h i p . W h e n a f e w u n m e t h o d i c a l studies t r i e d t o p r o m o t e
the fundamental i m p o r t a n c e o f B a b y l o n i a n literature i n relation
t o w o r l d h i s t o r y , i t was left t o the t h e o l o g i a n s t o refute t h e " p a n -
Babylonianists." 1 2
O n l y outsiders w r o t e about " H o m e r and
Babylon." 1 3
H i s t o r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a d less d i f f i c u l t y
o p e n i n g themselves to the n e w dimensions o f w o r l d history.
E d u a r d M e y e r b e g a n t o p u b l i s h his m o n u m e n t a l History of An-
tiquity i n 1884, a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i n fact u n i q u e a c h i e v e m e n t . 14
T h e p u r s u i t o f this u n i v e r s a l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the c o l l e c t i v e

u n d e r t a k i n g o f The Cambridge Ancient History.
B y c o n t r a s t , t h e a n t i - o r i e n t a l reflex was t o p r e v a i l i n the f i e l d
w h i c h lay m u c h closer t o H e l l e n i s t s , i n the assessment o f t h e
P h o e n i c i a n s , w h o h a d o f o l d been r e g a r d e d as the active i n t e r -
mediaries between the O r i e n t and Hellas. Julius Beloch, a
scholar o f genius flawed b y his idiosyncrasies and overt anti-
S e m i t i s m , p r o m u l g a t e d t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e significance o f the
P h o e n i c i a n s i n e a r l y Greece was close t o z e r o , t h a t the " P h o e -
3
n i c i a n " H e r a k l e s o f T h a s o s was n o less o f a fantasy t h a n the

mythical Phoenician K a d m o s . 1 5
I n s t e a d , a n c i e n t A s i a M i n o r was
f o u n d t o be o f special i m p o r t a n c e , w h e r e s o o n I n d o - E u r o p e a n s
w e r e t o appear, w i t h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f t h e H i t t i t e language.
A b a r r i e r was erected against the S e m i t i c .
Yet t h e m a r k e d i m p a c t o f " t h e o r i e n t a l " o n G r e e k art b e t w e e n
the g e o m e t r i c a n d t h e archaic p e r i o d s — a n i m p a c t m a d e e v i d e n t
b y i m p o r t e d o b j e c t s as w e l l as b y n e w t e c h n i q u e s a n d character-
istic m o t i f s o f a r t i s t i c i m a g e r y — c o u l d n o t be d i s r e g a r d e d , at
least after F r e d r i k Poulsen's b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 . 16
Even
e x p e r t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s appear t o feel u n -
c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t t h i s fact a n d i n d e e d advise against u s i n g t h e
expression " t h e orientalizing p e r i o d . " 1 7
T h e foreign elements re-
m a i n subject t o a p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t : T h e r e is h a r d l y a s t a n -
d a r d t e x t b o o k that has o r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k objects d e p i c t e d side
b y side; m a n y o f t h e o r i e n t a l finds i n t h e great G r e e k sanctuaries
have l o n g r e m a i n e d — a n d s o m e s t i l l r e m a i n — u n p u b l i s h e d . T h e
fact t h a t O l y m p i a is t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l o c a t i o n f o r f i n d s o f
eastern b r o n z e s , r i c h e r i n t h i s respect t h a n all t h e M i d d l e E a s t e r n
sites, is s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d .
I n G e r m a n y i n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n the t w o w o r l d w a r s a n e w
hermeneutic approach p r o m o t e d concentration o n the i n d i v i d -
u a l , " i n t e r n a l " f o r m a n d style i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l
achievements, t o the d e t r i m e n t o f o u t w a r d influence. A r c h a e o l -
o g y t h u s achieved a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e archaic style
a n d i n fact d i s c o v e r e d afresh the g e o m e t r i c style; h i s t o r i a n s such
as H e l m u t B e r v e w i s h e d t o r e n o u n c e " u n i v e r s a l " h i s t o r y i n fa-
vor o f Hellenism. 1 8
T h e j o i n t w o r k o f Franz B o l l a n d C a r l B e -
z o l d i n t h e arcane field o f a s t r o l o g y r e m a i n e d a h a p p y b u t i s o -
lated p h e n o m e n o n . A n o t h e r specialty w h i c h failed t o a t t r a c t
general n o t i c e was t h e d i s c o v e r y b y O t t o N e u g e b a u e r t h a t t h e
" P y t h a g o r e a n t h e o r e m " h a d been k n o w n a n d used i n B a b y l o -
n i a n m a t h e m a t i c s a t h o u s a n d years b e f o r e P y t h a g o r a s . 1 9
Among
G e r m a n p h i l o l o g i s t s o n l y Franz D o r n s e i f f t o o k a close l o o k at
eastern c u l t u r e f r o m Israel t o A n a t o l i a , b u t i n d o i n g this he h a d
the air o f an o u t s i d e r .
D o r n s e i f f was o n e o f the first t o g i v e c r e d i t t o the n e w d i m e n -
4
s i o n o f the i m p a c t o f t h e N e a r East o n classical Greece, w h i c h

was d i s c o v e r e d w i t h t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g i c a l
texts. 2 0
H o w e v e r , t h e first a n n o u n c e m e n t s a n d studies o f " I l l u -
yankas a n d T y p h o n " m e t w i t h o n l y a s l i g h t response. T h e b r e a k -
t h r o u g h came w i t h the t e x t o f Kingship in Heaven, published i n
1946, t h e m y t h w h i c h has the c a s t r a t i o n o f the g o d o f heaven b y
K u m a r b i , so s i m i l a r t o H e s i o d ' s tale a b o u t U r a n o s a n d K r o n o s ;
since t h e n the K u m a r b i - K r o n o s p a r a l l e l has been established
a n d , l a r g e l y as a result o f t h e efforts o f A l b i n Lesky, Kumarbi has
b e c o m e a s t a n d a r d reference t e x t f o r classical p h i l o l o g i s t s . 2 1
An
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o f acceptance, b r o u g h t o u t b y sympathetic
Indo-Europeanists, was that with the Hittites an "Indo-
E u r o p e a n " p e o p l e h a d e m e r g e d t o represent t h e " O r i e n t . " B u t
i n t h e w a k e o f H i t t i t e epic a n d m y t h o l o g y s i m i l a r t e x t s o f Se-
m i t i c U g a r i t c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classical s c h o l a r s , 22
a n d the
Greek fragments o f P h i l o n o f B y b l o s dealing w i t h Phoenician
m y t h o l o g y a t t r a c t e d fresh i n t e r e s t . 23
In addition to m y t h o l o g i c a l
m o t i f s the n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a n d t h e l i t e r a r y s t y l e o f epic b e -
came t h e subject o f c o m p a r a t i v e study, t o o . Since t h e n , H o -
m e r i c epic can n o l o n g e r be h e l d t o have existed i n a v a c u u m ; i t
stands o u t against a b a c k g r o u n d o f c o m p a r a b l e eastern l i t e r a r y
forms.
H o w e v e r , a n e w l i n e o f defense q u i c k l y d e v e l o p e d . I t is g e n -
e r a l l y a n d freely accepted that i n the B r o n z e A g e there w e r e
close contacts b e t w e e n A n a t o l i a , the S e m i t i c East, E g y p t , and
the M y c e n a e a n w o r l d , t h a t s o m e " A e g e a n koine'' can be f o u n d
t o characterize t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B . C . 2 4
O n e can refer t o
M y c e n a e a n i m p o r t s i n U g a r i t ; A l a s i a - C y p r u s is m e n t i o n e d as a
nexus o f East-West c o n n e c t i o n s ; H e s i o d a n d H o m e r are also
v i e w e d f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . W h a t is m u c h less i n focus is the
" o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d " o f the c e n t u r y b e t w e e n approximately
750 a n d 650 B . C . — t h a t is, the H o m e r i c e p o c h , w h e n , as w e l l as
eastern s k i l l s a n d i m a g e s , the S e m i t i c art o f w r i t i n g was t r a n s -
m i t t e d t o Greece a n d m a d e t h e r e c o r d i n g o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e
possible f o r t h e first t i m e . G e r m a n scholars i n p a r t i c u l a r h a d a
strange t e n d e n c y t o lean t o w a r d an earlier d a t i n g o f the G r e e k
script, 2 5
t h e r e b y s h i e l d i n g H o m e r i c Greece f r o m the influence o f
5
the East w h i c h was so n o t a b l e i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r o u n d 700. I t

s h o u l d be clear a n y h o w t h a t b o t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s , B r o n z e A g e a n d
later a d o p t i o n s , are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f
always m a k i n g c l e a r - c u t d i s t i n c t i o n s c a n n o t be used t o refute t h e
h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g i n b o t h areas t o an e q u a l degree.
I n the m e a n t i m e , archaeological research has r e n d e r e d the
" d a r k ages" i n c r e a s i n g l y l e g i b l e a n d has cast t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y
i n p a r t i c u l a r i n e ve r - sh ar p e r relief. W h a t p r o v e d decisive were
the discoveries o f G r e e k s e t t l e m e n t s i n S y r i a a n d o n Ischia i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e excavations at L e f k a n d i a n d E r e t r i a o n E u -
boea. T h e A s s y r i a n e x p a n s i o n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e spread o f t r a d e i n m e t a l ores i n t h e w h o l e area p r o v i d e s
a persuasive h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e m o v e m e n t o f eastern
craftsmen to the West, as well as for the spread of the
Phoenician-Greek alphabet. 26
W e n o w seem w i t h i n reach o f a
balanced p i c t u r e o f t h a t decisive e p o c h i n w h i c h , u n d e r t h e i n -
fluence o f t h e S e m i t i c East, G r e e k c u l t u r e b e g a n its u n i q u e flow-
e r i n g , s o o n t o assume c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y i n the M e d i t e r r a -
nean. 2 7
T h i s v o l u m e pursues t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
p e r i o d , t h e G r e e k s d i d n o t m e r e l y receive a f e w m a n u a l skills
a n d fetishes a l o n g w i t h n e w crafts a n d i m a g e s f r o m t h e L u w i a n -
A r a m a i c - P h o e n i c i a n sphere, b u t w e r e i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r r e l i -
g i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e b y t h e eastern m o d e l s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e -
gree. 2 8
It will be a r g u e d that m i g r a t i n g "craftsmen o f the
sacred," i t i n e r a n t seers a n d priests o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d
n o t o n l y t h e i r d i v i n a t o r y a n d p u r i f i c a t o r y s k i l l s b u t also ele-
m e n t s o f m y t h o l o g i c a l " w i s d o m . " I n d e e d H o m e r , i n an o f t e n -
q u o t e d passage o f t h e Odyssey, enumerates various kinds o f m i -
g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " w h o are p u b l i c w o r k e r s " : f i r s t , "a seer o r a
healer," o n l y t h e n t h e carpenter, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , the " g o d l y
singer." 2 9
W h i l e the second c h a p t e r tries t o f o l l o w t h e tracks o f
"seers" a n d " h e a l e r s , " t h e t h i r d chapter t u r n s t o t h e r e a l m o f
these singers, p r e s e n t i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n eastern a n d
G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h m a k e i t p r o b a b l e t o assume c o n n e c t i o n s ,
even d i r e c t l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e o f h i g h eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s o n t h e
6
final phase o f H o m e r i c epic, t h a t is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -

eracy, w h e n w r i t i n g t o o k over f r o m o r a l t r a d i t i o n .
T h e results w h i c h can be reached w i t h any degree o f c e r t a i n t y
r e m a i n l i m i t e d . T h e b r i d g e t h a t once p r o v i d e d the d i r e c t c o n -
tact, t h e l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e o f a n c i e n t S y r i a , has i r r e v o c a b l y d i s a p -
peared. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d w e have t h e u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
c o m p a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts f r o m b o t h t h e G r e e k a n d the
o r i e n t a l sides. T h i s task b o t h enables a n d d e m a n d s p r e c i s i o n . B y
c o n t r a s t , i n the case o f the m o r e sensational c o n n e c t i o n s b e -
t w e e n K u m a r b i o r I l l u y a n k a s a n d H e s i o d a t i m e gap o f five o r
six centuries has t o be b r i d g e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c
distance b e t w e e n East a n d West. T h e H e s i o d i c p r o b l e m s , w h i c h
have been t h e subject o f m u c h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n i n recent d e -
cades, w i l l n o t be discussed i n detail h e r e . 3 0
They complement
the perspectives u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially i n v i e w o f the
clear l i n k b e t w e e n H e s i o d a n d E u b o e a .
T h e studies p r e s e n t e d i n this b o o k m a y s t i l l r u n u p against a
final a n d perhaps i n s u p e r a b l e l i n e o f defense, the t e n d e n c y o f
m o d e r n c u l t u r a l t h e o r i e s t o a p p r o a c h c u l t u r e as a s y s t e m e v o l v -
i n g t h r o u g h its o w n processes o f i n t e r n a l e c o n o m i c a n d social
d y n a m i c s , w h i c h reduces a l l o u t w a r d influences t o n e g l i g i b l e
parameters. T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g the i n t e l l e c t u a l a c u m e n and
a c h i e v e m e n t o f s u c h t h e o r i e s . B u t t h e y m a y s t i l l represent j u s t
o n e side o f t h e c o i n . I t is e q u a l l y v a l i d t o see c u l t u r e as a c o m -
plex o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n u i n g opportunities for learn-
i n g afresh, w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l yet p e n e t r a b l e f r o n t i e r s , i n a w o r l d
o p e n t o change a n d e x p a n s i o n . T h e i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n as o p -
posed t o o r a l c u l t u r e is perhaps the m o s t d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e o f
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w r o u g h t f r o m the outside, t h r o u g h b o r r o w i n g .
I t m a y s t i l l be t r u e t h a t t h e m e r e fact o f b o r r o w i n g s h o u l d o n l y
p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r closer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , that t h e f o r m
o f selection a n d a d a p t a t i o n , o f r e w o r k i n g a n d r e f i t t i n g t o a n e w
s y s t e m is r e v e a l i n g a n d i n t e r e s t i n g i n each case. B u t the " c r e a t i v e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " b y the G r e e k s , ' h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t , s h o u l d
3
n o t o b s c u r e the sheer fact o f b o r r o w i n g ; t h i s w o u l d a m o u n t t o

yet a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y o f i m m u n i z a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o c l o u d w h a t is
foreign and disquieting.
7
T h e m o d e s t a i m o f this b o o k is t o serve as a messenger across

boundaries, 3 2
t o d i r e c t the a t t e n t i o n o f classicists t o areas t o
w h i c h t h e y have p a i d t o o l i t t l e r e g a r d , a n d t o m a k e these fields
o f s t u d y m o r e accessible even t o nonspecialists. I t m a y also e n -
c o u r a g e o r i e n t a l i s t s , h a r d l y less p r o n e t o i s o l a t i o n , t o keep o r
r e n e w t h e i r contacts w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g f i e l d s . 33
M y e m p h a s i s is
deliberately o n p r o v i d i n g evidence for correspondences and for
the l i k e l i h o o d o f b o r r o w i n g s . I f i n c e r t a i n cases the m a t e r i a l s
themselves d o n o t p r o v i d e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l
transfer, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s i m i l a r i t i e s w i l l s t i l l be o f value, as
i t serves t o free b o t h the G r e e k a n d the o r i e n t a l phenomena
f r o m t h e i r i s o l a t i o n a n d t o create an arena o f p o s s i b l e c o m p a r i -
sons.
T h i s is n o t t o p r e c l u d e m o r e s u b t l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f G r e e k
a c h i e v e m e n t s as a consequence. Yet i n the p e r i o d at a b o u t the
m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , w h e n d i r e c t c o n t a c t had been es-
t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e A s s y r i a n s a n d the G r e e k s , G r e e k c u l t u r e
m u s t have been m u c h less self-conscious a n d t h e r e f o r e much
m o r e m a l l e a b l e a n d o p e n t o f o r e i g n influence t h a n i t b e c a m e i n
subsequent g e n e r a t i o n s . I t is the f o r m a t i v e e p o c h o f G r e e k c i v i -
l i z a t i o n that e x p e r i e n c e d the o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .
8
C H A P T E R O N E
" W H O ARE PUBLIC WORKERS"

The Migrant Craftsmen
Historical Background
A f t e r t h e u p h e a v a l a n d d e v a s t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v a i l e d f r o m Greece
t h r o u g h A n a t o l i a t o S y r i a a n d Palestine a b o u t 1200 B . C . and
w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d , o n the basis o f E g y p t i a n texts, t o
" p e o p l e s o f t h e s e a " — a m o n g w h o m the Philistines are t h e m o s t
t a n g i b l e — t h e k i n g d o m s , palaces, a r t i s t i c s k i l l s , and w r i t i n g sys-
t e m s w h i c h h a d m a d e the g l o r y o f t h e B r o n z e A g e h a d l a r g e l y
disappeared. 1
I n t h e eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , o u t s i d e E g y p t , u r -
ban c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d l i t e r a c y s u r v i v e d o n l y i n t h e area o f C i l i c i a -
Syria-Palestine. A s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f H i t t i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n c o n t i n -
u e d t o d o m i n a t e C i l i c i a and e x t e n d e d as far as n o r t h e r n S y r i a .
H i t t i t e style is m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e i n m o n u m e n t a l s c u l p t u r e and
o t h e r art o b j e c t s — i m p o r t a n t sites are T e l l H a l a f - G u z a n a , Car-
chemish, M a l a t y a - M i l i d , Samâl-Zincirli, Karatepe —and 2
par-
t i c u l a r l y i n t h e H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h i c s c r i p t , w h i c h persisted at
K a r a t e p e u n t i l n e a r l y the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; i t was used
f o r a l a n g u a g e o f t h e H i t t i t e f a m i l y w h i c h is n o w called H i e r o -
g l y p h i c L u w i a n . C o n q u e r i n g A r a m a i c tribes, speaking a Se-
m i t i c l a n g u a g e a n d u s i n g alphabetic w r i t i n g , w o n s u p r e m a c y i n
s o m e places, f o u n d i n g p r i n c e d o m s such as G u z a n a a n d S a m ' a l .
S o u t h e r n S y r i a , i n c l u d i n g the cities o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e ,
h a d l o n g been affected b y E g y p t i a n style a n d influences. The
9
" W H O A R E P U B L I C W O R K E R S "
western Semites based i n t h i s area, called Phoinikes by the

G r e e k s , w e r e c o n t i n u i n g t o e x p a n d t h e i r sea t r a d e . E a r l y c o n -
n e c t i o n s reached n o t o n l y t o C y p r u s b u t also t o C r e t e . 3
Increas-
i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n these a c t i v i t i e s was t h e search for c o p p e r and
iron ores. 4
T h e m o s t p o r t e n t o u s a c h i e v e m e n t i n Syria-Palestine was the

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t , w h i c h , t h r o u g h its i n g e -
n i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , m a d e r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g m o r e w i d e l y ac-
cessible f o r t h e first t i m e . I t was used e q u a l l y b y Hebrews,
Phoenicians, and Aramaeans. 5
T h e i n v e n t i o n goes back t o t h e
B r o n z e A g e , b u t i t g a i n e d its u n i q u e p o s i t i o n o n l y w i t h t h e c o l -
lapse o f t h e B r o n z e A g e , w h i c h m a d e m o s t o f t h e o t h e r w r i t i n g
systems disappear.
T h e e x p a n s i o n o f A s s y r i a i n t o this h e t e r o g e n e o u s assemblage
o f cities, k i n g d o m s , a n d t r i b a l centers f r o m the n i n t h c e n t u r y
o n w a r d s b r o u g h t d y n a m i c change o f w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l p r o p o r -
t i o n s . F o r t h e A s s y r i a n s , t o o , t h e search f o r r a w m a t e r i a l s , p a r -
t i c u l a r l y m e t a l s , seems t o have been a d r i v i n g force. I n a n y event
Assur b u i l t u p the strongest a r m y o f the t i m e , e m p l o y e d i t i n
i n c r e a s i n g l y f a r - r e a c h i n g raids w i t h ruthless d e m a n d s f o r s u b -
m i s s i o n a n d t r i b u t e , a n d t h u s f o u n d e d the first w o r l d p o w e r .
A s h u r n a s i r p a l ( 8 8 4 - 8 5 8 ) a n d Shalmaneser I I I ( 8 5 8 - 8 2 4 ) l e d t h e
first successful advances t o S y r i a ; i n 877 an A s s y r i a n a r m y s t o o d
o n t h e shores o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n f o r the first t i m e . I n 841 T y r e
a n d S i d o n w e r e f o r c e d t o pay t r i b u t e , a n d i n 834 so was Tarsos
i n C i l i c i a . T h e H i t t i t e city-states w e r e f o r c e d t o f o l l o w s u i t o r
w e r e d e s t r o y e d . T h e G r e e k s m u s t have been aware o f this east-
e r n p o w e r , at least o n C y p r u s , because i t was a r o u n d t h i s t i m e —
about 8 5 0 — t h a t Phoenicians f r o m Tyre were settling o n Cy-
prus; K i t i o n became a Phoenician city. Phoenician colonization 6
was also r e a c h i n g b e y o n d t o t h e far West: 814 is the t r a d i t i o n a l

date f o r t h e f o u n d i n g o f C a r t h a g e .
A f t e r Shalmaneser, A s s y r i a n forces d i d n o t appear o n the

Mediterranean for a w h i l e . D u r i n g this period Greek traders
first reached S y r i a . G r e e k m e r c h a n t s are present i n A l M i n a o n
t h e O r o n t e s e s t u a r y f r o m the e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y ; 7
from
t h e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach t o N o r t h Syria, to Urartu, and
• 11 •
a l o n g the s h o r t e s t caravan r o u t e t o M e s o p o t a m i a . I n a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y t h e same p e r i o d the G r e e k s are i n evidence at T a r s o s a n d 8
s o m e w h a t later at T e l l S u k a s . T h e r e are also G r e e k f i n d s f r o m

9
Rash-al-Basid (Poseidonia), Tell Tainat, Tyre, and H a m a . C o n -

n e c t i o n s g o t o n e a r b y C y p r u s , b u t above a l l t o E u b o e a , w h e r e
excavations at L e f k a n d i have b r o u g h t t o l i g h t relics o f a r e l a -
t i v e l y affluent c o m m u n i t y i n t h e t e n t h a n d n i n t h centuries w h i c h
was o p e n t o t r a d e w i t h t h e E a s t . 1 0
I n the eighth century Eretria
a l o n g w i t h C h a l k i s reached its peak; b u t A t h e n s was n o t n e g l i -
g i b l e either. F r o m C h a l k i s the G r e e k s reached the West even b e -
f o r e t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , as can be seen f r o m the
s e t t l e m e n t o f traders a n d c r a f t s m e n d i s c o v e r e d at P i t h e k o u s s a i -
I s c h i a . " H e r e , t o o , t h e t r a d e i n ores was c r u c i a l , above all w i t h
the Etruscans; t h e P h o e n i c i a n r o u t e v i a C y p r u s t o C a r t h a g e a n d
t h e n t o Sardinia h a d t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h a t o f the Greeks f r o m
E u b o e a via Ithaca t o P i t h e k o u s s a i . I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these
r o u t e s t h a t t h e first e x a m p l e s o f G r e e k s c r i p t appear, i n E u b o e a ,
Naxos, Pithekoussai, and A t h e n s . 1 2
Place-names l i k e Soloi,
"metal ingots"—attested both i n Cilicia and on Cyprus—
Chalkis, " b r o n z e - h o m e , " and Tarshish, " f o u n d r y , " 1 3
m a r k the
e c o n o m i c interests, as does t h a t verse o f the Odyssey w h i c h has
t h e T a p h i a n M e n t e s t r a v e l l i n g overseas t o trade f o r b r o n z e w i t h
a cargo o f i r o n . 1 4
T h e r e n e w e d a n d s t r o n g e s t advance o f t h e A s s y r i a n s began
under Tiglath-pileser I I I (745-727), w h o crushed the p o w e r o f
U r a r t u , m a d e vassals o f T y r e a n d B y b l o s , and p e r m a n e n t l y a n -
c h o r e d the A s s y r i a n forces i n the West. I t was i n his t i m e —
s h o r t l y after 7 3 8 — t h a t a r e p o r t first m e n t i o n s I o n i a n s — t h a t is,
G r e e k s ; an officer is r e p o r t i n g a c o u n t e r a t t a c k o n S y r i a : "The
I o n i a n s came. T h e y a t t a c k e d . . . t h e cities . . . [ N . N . p u r s u e d
t h e m ? ] i n his ships . . . i n the m i d d l e o f the s e a . " 15
I t has l o n g been a m a t t e r o f c o m m e n t a n d discussion t h a t t h e

easterners c a m e t o call t h e G r e e k s I o n i a n s — J a w a n i n H e b r e w ,
16
Junan i n A r a b i c a n d T u r k i s h . T h e A s s y r i a n f o r m is Iawan(u) or,

w i t h an i n t e r n a l c h a n g e o f c o n s o n a n t s , Iaman(u); i n the t e x t
q u o t e d above the d e s i g n a t i o n is " ( c o u n t r y ) la-u-na-a-a"—that is,
Iaunaia. I t has been established t h a t this is n o t the n a m e o f C y -
12
p r u s , w h i c h the A s s y r i a n s i n fact called ladnana. 11

Greeks o n
C y p r u s never called themselves I o n i a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s a refer-
ence a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y can h a r d l y be t o
I o n i a n s f r o m Asia M i n o r either, t o M i l e t o s o r Ephesos. T h o s e
I o n i a n s c o m i n g b y sea w h o e n c o u n t e r e d t h e A s s y r i a n s must
rather have been G r e e k s f r o m E u b o e a , A t h e n s , o r b o t h , as t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e a n d t h e spread o f w r i t i n g suggest—not
e x c l u d i n g islands such as S a m o s o r N a x o s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is
c o n f i r m e d b y t h e Iliad: I n the o n e passage i n w h i c h Iacmes are
referred t o , t h e y are f i g h t i n g a l o n g s i d e the O p u n t i a n L o k r i a n s ,
a n d the A t h e n i a n s are given prominence immediately after
t h e m . C l e a r l y , n e i g h b o r i n g tribes are referred t o ; i t is a p p r o -
p r i a t e t h a t Iaones f r o m E u b o e a s h o u l d be placed b e t w e e n the
O p u n t i a n s and the A t h e n i a n s . 1 8
A s s y r i a reached t h e h e i g h t o f its p o w e r u n d e r S a r g o n I I ( 7 2 2 -
705). N o t o n l y the s m a l l H i t t i t e states o f C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n -
c i r l i , b u t also C i l i c i a became p r o v i n c e s o f A s s y r i a . I n 708 the
k i n g s o f C y p r u s , i n c l u d i n g those o f G r e e k cities such as Salamis
a n d Paphos, p a i d h o m a g e t o S a r g o n . I n K i t i o n S a r g o n left a
stele a t t e s t i n g his deeds. B u t w h e t h e r the u s u r p e r I a m a n i o f
A s h d o d , w h o was d r i v e n o u t b y S a r g o n i n 711, was " t h e I o -
n i a n , " as his n a m e w o u l d suggest, has been d i s p u t e d ; 1 9
and the
c o m m o n v i e w that M i t a , k i n g o f the " M u s h k i , " w h o p a i d h o m -
age t o S a r g o n i n 709, was k i n g M i d a s o f P h r y g i a , celebrated b y
the G r e e k s , a n d hence t h a t the A s s y r i a n s w e r e i n contact w i t h a
great P h r y g i a n k i n g d o m i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , seems n o l o n g e r
tenable. 20
Sennacherib ( 7 0 5 - 6 8 1 ) p u t d o w n an u p r i s i n g i n Tarsos i n 696.

According to Greek accounts transmitted by Berossos the
G r e e k s f o u g h t the A s s y r i a n s at sea a n d w e r e d e f e a t e d . 21
Even A l
M i n a was d e s t r o y e d a r o u n d 700, b u t was a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y
r e b u i l t anew. O n t h e w h o l e the n u m e r o u s v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s and
catastrophes d i d n o t d e s t r o y East-West c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t rather
i n t e n s i f i e d t h e m , perhaps because n o w streams o f refugees w e r e
m i n g l i n g w i t h t h e traders. I n a n y event o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s and
d o m e s t i c i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m appear m o r e and m o r e i n Greece
a r o u n d 700, and a l i t t l e later i n E t r u r i a . B y t h e n c u n e i f o r m w r i t -
i n g is f o u n d i n Tarsos a l o n g s i d e ceramics f r o m R h o d e s , S a m o s ,
a n d C o r i n t h . O n C y p r u s t h e p e r i o d o f A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n is
also a m a r k e d l y " H o m e r i c " e p o c h .
E s s a r h a d d o n ( 6 8 1 - 6 6 9 ) also t r e a t e d t h e k i n g s o f C y p r u s as his
underlings. 2 2
H i s successor A s h u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 9 - 6 2 9 ) , t h e m o s t
splendid k i n g o f N i n e v e h , endured forever i n the m e m o r y o f
t h e G r e e k s as " S a r d a n a p a l l o s . " 23
Essarhaddon and Ashurbanipal
f o u g h t the C i m m e r i a n s i n A s i a M i n o r , as d i d t h e G r e e k s . B u t
the centers o f g r a v i t y w e r e s h i f t i n g b y t h e n . S i d o n , w e l l k n o w n
t o t h e G r e e k s as a center o f P h o e n i c i a n t r a d e , was t o t a l l y d e -
stroyed b y the Assyrians i n 6 7 7 . 2 4
B y 663, h o w e v e r , K i n g P s a m -
m e t i c h u s h a d been able t o e n t r e n c h his forces i n E g y p t a n d t o
shake o f f t h e A s s y r i a n y o k e at last. W i t h the e n r o l l m e n t o f G r e e k
mercenaries i n t o his service E g y p t became m o r e i m p o r t a n t
f r o m t h e G r e e k s ' p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n t h e r u i n e d cities o f S y r i a .
A t n e a r l y t h e same t i m e K i n g G y g e s , i n his s t r u g g l e against t h e
C i m m e r i a n s , h a d f o u n d e d t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e L y d i a n s w i t h its
center i n Sardis a n d established d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h A s s y r i a b y
665. 2 5
T h u s t h e " R o y a l R o a d " was o p e n e d u p w h i c h l e d f r o m
Sardis t o the E a s t . 26
I t was this above all w h i c h b r o u g h t I o n i a n s
i n t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e eastern t r a d e , a n d t h u s ensured t h e
r a p i d rise o f t h e I o n i a n s o f A s i a M i n o r . M e a n w h i l e , o n E u b o e a ,
C h a l k i s a n d E r e t r i a l o s t t h e i r forces i n the L e l a n t i n e war, h a v i n g
been o u t s t r i p p e d i n t h e w e s t e r n t r a d e b y t h e rise o f C o r i n t h ,
w h i c h c o l o n i z e d K e r k y r a i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . I n this n e t w o r k
o f changing interrelations Greek culture gained supremacy and
eclipsed t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e .
Oriental Products in Greece
I t is n o t G r e e k t e x t s , b u t r a t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l finds w h i c h offer
a solid f o u n d a t i o n for tracing Eastern c u l t u r a l influences in
Greece i n t h e e i g h t h a n d early seventh centuries a n d f o r e v a l u -
a t i n g t h e i r significance. O b j e c t s o f o r i e n t a l p r o v e n i e n c e appear
at G r e e k sites i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , especially i n t h e r a p i d l y
e v o l v i n g G r e e k sanctuaries, a n d at t h e same t i m e G r e e k r e p r e -
s e n t a t i o n a l s t y l e is u n d e r g o i n g basic m o d i f i c a t i o n s b y t a k i n g u p ,
14
i m i t a t i n g , a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m o t i f s o f eastern art. T h i s is n o t
the place f o r a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f sites a n d objects, c o n t e x t s a n d
proveniences. A f t e r F r e d r i k P o u l s e n a n d T . J. D u n b a b i n , J o h n
B o a r d m a n has p r o v i d e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t ; a w e a l t h o f
m a t e r i a l has also been p r e s e n t e d b y H a n s - V o l k m a r H e r r m a n n
and b y W o l f g a n g H e l c k , a n d a r i c h s u r v e y has r e c e n t l y been
added b y G u n t e r K o p c k e . 1
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l o c a l styles and
hence t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the o r i g i n o f i n d i v i d u a l pieces is still
i n progress. M a n y sites i n t h e N e a r East r e m a i n u n e x p l o r e d o r
p a r t i a l l y e x p l o r e d , a n d archaeologists are c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i n g i n
the m o s t u n f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a m i d s t incessant turmoil,
w a r f a r e , a n d p l u n d e r i n g . Nevertheless the o u t l i n e s o f c u l t u r a l
a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t seem t o be f i r m l y established, w h i l e
the c e n t r a l c o n n e c t i n g r o l e o f S y r i a b e t w e e n t h e Late H i t t i t e ,
Urartian, Assyrian, a n d E g y p t i a n c u l t u r a l influences has be-
c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y clear.
A s f o r Greece, t r a d e w i t h t h e East never c o m p l e t e l y s t o p p e d .
T h e r e are i n d i v i d u a l i m p o r t e d pieces f r o m the t e n t h a n d n i n t h
c e n t u r i e s ; t h e i r n u m b e r s increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the e i g h t h c e n -
t u r y , a n d even m o r e so i n the first h a l f o f the seventh. T h e e x o t i c
o r i g i n is clear i n t h e case o f i v o r y c a r v i n g — a l t h o u g h this s k i l l
was s u b s e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s — a n d even m o r e so i n
2
the case o f o s t r i c h eggs o r the t r i d a c n a shells f r o m the R e d Sea,

w h i c h appear i n t h e seventh c e n t u r y . J e w e l r y is m o r e f r e q u e n t l y
3
f o u n d , g o l d i n m a n y f o r m s , faience beads, a n d also beads o f

g l a s s — H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s as described b y H o m e r , "three-
eyed a n d m u l b e r r y l i k e , " are i d e n t i f i a b l e as such a set. T h e use4
a n d spread o f g e m s a n d seals offer even m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e v i -

dence o f the c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e E a s t . 5
N e a r l y one h u n d r e d
S y r i a n - C i l i c i a n seals have been f o u n d at Pithekoussai-Ischia; 6
a m u l e t - t y p e o r n a m e n t s o f S y r i a n a n d E g y p t i a n style o c c u r i n
the t o m b s o f L e f k a n d i , a n d t h e p r i n c e w h o was i n t e r r e d i n the
H e r o o n at E r e t r i a was c a r r y i n g a P h o e n i c i a n scarab i n a g o l d
s e t t i n g . C y l i n d e r seals, t h e t y p i c a l M e s o p o t a m i a n f o r m o f seal,
7
have been u n e a r t h e d at O l y m p i a as w e l l as o n Samos and

Delos. 8
T h e evidence i n m e t a l w o r k is m o r e i m p r e s s i v e . Phoenician
'5
b r o n z e a n d silver b o w l s w e r e w i d e l y t r a d e d as special c o s t l y o b -
j e c t s . A s w e l l as o n C y p r u s , t h e y have been f o u n d i n A t h e n s ,
O l y m p i a , a n d D e l p h i , i n s o u t h e r n Italy, Praeneste, a n d E t r u r i a .
T h e y have l o n g been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the krateres from Sidon
mentioned by H o m e r ; 9
t h e i r t e c h n i q u e a n d style also appear t o
present the closest a n a l o g y t o the s h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s as d e s c r i b e d
i n t h e Iliad. A t least t h r e e o f these b o w l s , f o u n d i n O l y m p i a ,
s o u t h e r n Italy, a n d Praeneste, c a r r y Aramaic-Phoenician i n -
s c r i p t i o n s ; o n e , f r o m F a l e r i i , has an i n s c r i p t i o n i n c u n e i f o r m . 1 0
A t O l y m p i a i n a b o u t 670 B . C . b r o n z e r e l i e f vessels f r o m the Late

H i t t i t e c i t y T a b a l w e r e r e w o r k e d t o f o r m t h e d r a p e r y o f large
statues f a b r i c a t e d f r o m b r o n z e f o i l . 1 1
O t h e r m e t a l objects a r r i v e d
i n Greece f r o m t h e same r e g i o n , o r f r o m N o r t h S y r i a , o r even
f r o m U r a r t u v i a N o r t h S y r i a : e m b o s s e d stands a n d above all a
n e w f o r m o f large t r i p o d c a u l d r o n s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h sirens o r
snakes. G r e e k c r a f t s m e n w e r e q u i c k t o a d o p t t h e t e c h n i q u e a n d
t o create t h e i r o w n m a s t e r p i e c e s . 12
A u n i q u e set o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g
w o r k s o f art is t h e b r o n z e t y m p a n o n and t h e b r o n z e shields
f r o m t h e Idaean cave o n C r e t e ; t h e t y m p a n o n i n p a r t i c u l a r ( F i g -
u r e 1) has a p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n l o o k . A g r e e m e n t o n the d a t i n g o f
these objects has yet t o be achieved, b u t i t is h a r d l y t o be
d o u b t e d t h a t t h e y served t h e c u l t o f Z e u s i n the sacred cave o f
Ida. 1 3
F i n a l l y , t h e r e are pieces o f h o r s e harness s k i l l f u l l y w o r k e d
i n m e t a l , p r e s t i g e objects for t h e a r i s t o c r a c y l i k e m a n y o t h e r
items. 1 4
Outstanding among these are the beautiful bronze
plates i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s as g i v e n t o K i n g Hazael o f
Damascus b u t subsequently dedicated to A p o l l o o f Eretria and
t o H e r a o f S a m o s , at w h o s e sanctuaries t h e y w e r e f o u n d ( F i g u r e
2). K i n g H a z a e l is k n o w n t o have been active t o w a r d s the e n d o f
t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e d e d i c a t i o n at E r e t r i a can be d a t e d ar-
c h a e o l o g i c a l l y t o t h e m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h — a rare case o f p r e c i -
s i o n as t o t h e p r o v e n i e n c e a n d c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e o r i e n t a l i m -
pact.
C y p r u s a n d also C r e t e are i n a special p o s i t i o n ; t h e y have been

" o r i e n t a l i z i n g " all t h e t i m e . R h o d e s b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t i n the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y as w e l l . I n c o n t r a s t t o B e l o c h ' s theses there is
16
Figure 1. Bronze tympanon from the Idacan cave, Crete, eighth

century B.C.: "Master of Animals" holding up a lion, two demons: Zeus
and kouretes?
n o w clear evidence t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p e r -
fumes o n R h o d e s even before 7 0 0 . 1 5
O n Samos, t o o , t h e i n f l u x
o f o r i e n t a l g o o d s seems t o b e g i n before 7 0 0 . 1 6
A l l the great sa-
c r e d sites w h i c h c a m e t o flourish b y t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , D e l o s ,
D e l p h i , a n d above all O l y m p i a , have p r o d u c e d substantial finds
o f o r i e n t a l o b j e c t s ; a n d n e x t t o E r e t r i a A t h e n s deserves special
notice. 1 7
E t r u r i a s t a r t e d its o w n o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t h r o u g h i n -
dependent contac t s with Phoenician trade w h i c h spread to
17
THE ORIENTALIZING REVOLUTION
Figure North Syrian bronze plaqu efrom horse harness, ninth century
2.
B . c.,
found in the Hera sanctuary at Samos . Aramaic inscription:
"What (god) Hadad has given to Lord Hazael from Umqi il1 the year
whel1 the Lord crossed the ri vel'. "
. 18 .
neighboring Italy, including Latium; 1 8

it finds marvellous
e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e rich t o m b s o f Praeneste excavated l o n g a g o . 1 9
Domestic craftsmanship and p r o d u c t i o n developed from

these i m p o r t s , i n i v o r y c a r v i n g as w e l l as i n m e t a l w o r k . 2 0
Ori-
ental p i c t o r i a l m o t i f s also appear i n o t h e r f o r m s o f m a n u f a c t u r e ,
above a l l i n t h e m o s t e n d u r i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e best preserved
k i n d o f p r o d u c t s , c e r a m i c s . ' A g a i n a f e w references m u s t suf-
2
fice: T h e t h e m e o f t h e M i s t r e s s o f the A n i m a l s a n d t h e M a s t e r
o f t h e A n i m a l s , w h i c h goes back t o B r o n z e A g e t r a d i t i o n s , is
g i v e n a n e w lease o n l i f e ; 2 2
i n a d d i t i o n there are characteristic
representations o f a n i m a l h u n t i n g and, i n particular, the l i o n
fight. 2 3
F e w G r e e k s w o u l d ever have a c t u a l l y seen a l i v e l i o n : I t
was f r o m p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e l i o n b e c a m e such a f a m i l i a r c o n c e p t
t o all (even i f l i o n s a n d panthers w e r e o c c a s i o n a l l y confused i n
the i m a g e s ) . A n o l d e r , H i t t i t e style o f r e p r e s e n t i n g l i o n s is
superseded i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y b y an A s s y r i a n m o d e l . T h e
m o r e exotic gallery o f composite beasts—griffins, sphinxes, and
s i r e n s — l i k e w i s e has B r o n z e A g e ancestors, b u t was r e v i v e d and
adapted t o t h e n e w f a s h i o n . 2 4
T h e c h i m a e r a can c l e a r l y be l i n k e d
to Hittite representations, 25
w h i l e t h e T r i t o n — a m a n w i t h fish's
tail—seems to come straight f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a . 2 6
Finally the
m o t i f o f the Tree o f L i f e s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d , a n d i n general
the a n i m a l friezes, t h e l o t u s a n d t h e p a l m e t t e f r i e z e s . 27
B u t the
prothesis scenes a n d t h e representations o f the s y m p o s i u m w i t h
revellers r e c l i n i n g o n couches also have an o r i e n t a l p e d i g r e e , as
the c u s t o m i t s e l f a p p a r e n t l y e v o l v e d i n the E a s t . 28
R e l i g i o u s i c o n o g r a p h y p r o p e r s h o w s c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes:
T h e M y c e n a e a n h e r i t a g e gives w a y before t h e eastern e x a m p l e s .
T h u s i n d i v i d u a l b r o n z e statuettes o f t h e w a r r i o r g o d b r a n d i s h -
i n g h i s w e a p o n i n his r i g h t h a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e S y r o - H i t t i t e
r e g i o n , h a d appeared i n Greece already i n t h e Late Mycenaean
p e r i o d ; m o r e are f o u n d n o w , a n d t h e y are c o p i e d i n t h e e i g h t h
century. 2 9
W h e t h e r g o d s o r h u m a n w a r r i o r s are b e i n g r e p r e -
sented i n t h e G r e e k c o n t e x t is a m a t t e r o f d i s p u t e ; b u t there is
n o d o u b t t h a t those later " t y p i c a l l y G r e e k " i m a g e s o f Z e u s and
P o s e i d o n , b r a n d i s h i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y t h u n d e r b o l t o r t r i d e n t , are
u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e d f r o m these statuettes. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
19
the t h u n d e r b o l t i n t h e h a n d o f the w e a t h e r g o d , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
r e m a i n s clearly d e p e n d e n t o n the eastern m o d e l . 3 0
Q u i t e differ-
ent is the i m a g e o f a n a k e d goddess, s t a n d i n g , o f t e n t o u c h i n g
her breasts, w h i c h h a d been c o m m o n i n S y r i a f o r a l o n g t i m e ; i t
is presented t o the G r e e k s b o t h i n the f o r m o f m e t a l reliefs, es-
p e c i a l l y o f g o l d j e w e l r y , a n d o f s i m p l e clay tablets m a d e f r o m
m o l d s . She is u s u a l l y called A s t a r t e - A p h r o d i t e , t h o u g h o n s l i g h t
evidence. 51
O t h e r types o f d i v i n e images were occasionally i m -
ported, t o o . 3 2
I n Greece the goddess was q u i c k l y p r o v i d e d w i t h
c l o t h i n g , b u t the i m a g e o f t h e s t a n d i n g goddess c o n t i n u e d t o
p r o l i f e r a t e ; a n d the statues o f g o d d e s s e s — n o w o f t e n m a d e o f
l o c a l w o o d t o f i n d t h e i r place i n the n e w l y erected temples—
w e r e c l o t h e d i n r o b e s t h a t s t i l l i m i t a t e d the l u x u r y o f the East,
j u s t as H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s i n the Iliad d i d . A s i g n a l e x a m p l e is
A r t e m i s o f E p h e s o s , w i t h the r e c t a n g u l a r d i v i s i o n s o f her r o b e ,
the f i l l e t at the b a c k o f her headdress, and the w o o l l e n r i b b o n s
i n her h a n d s . 3 3
E v e n closer t o c u l t i c activities seem t o be those
c u r i o u s m a s k s w h i c h w e find dedicated i n G r e e k sanctuaries, o n
S a m o s a n d , above a l l , at O r t h e i a ' s p r e c i n c t i n Sparta. T h e g r o -
tesque f o r m o f s o m e o f t h e m e v i d e n t l y i m i t a t e s o r i e n t a l H u m -
baba m a s k s . 3 4
B u t even t h e f o r m o f the o m p h a l o s b o w l w h i c h
b e c a m e u n i v e r s a l l y e m p l o y e d f o r l i b a t i o n i n G r e e k w o r s h i p is o f
o r i e n t a l t y p e . M o s t o f a l l , frankincense, generally introduced
d u r i n g this t i m e i n t o the w o r s h i p o f the g o d s , r e m a i n e d an o r i -
ental i m p o r t , as its n a m e s , libanos a n d myrrha, continued to i n -
dicate. 35
O n e area o f m o r e p r o f o u n d eastern influence o n the practice

o f G r e e k r e l i g i o n at the t i m e can o n l y be t o u c h e d u p o n : the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a r g e altars f o r b u r n t offerings a n d above all the
b u i l d i n g o f t e m p l e s t o serve as houses f o r d i v i n i t i e s , represented
b y c u l t statues. T h e r e seems t o be n o G r e e k t e m p l e p r o p e r a n -
t e d a t i n g the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , the p e r i o d o f the i m p e t u s o f eastern
craftsmanship. A m o s t peculiar i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f indigenous,
P h o e n i c i a n , a n d G r e e k c u l t is attested at K o m m o s , o n the s o u t h
coast o f C r e t e . 3 6
T h i s was e v i d e n t l y a place w h e r e passing ships
used t o anchor, t o take o n p r o v i s i o n s a n d t o d o h o m a g e t o l o c a l
d i v i n i t i e s . U s e o f t h e c u l t site is d o c u m e n t e d f r o m the t e n t h
20
century o n , w i t h various structures still identifiable, remains o f

ritual meals a n d v o t i v e figurines; b u t i n t h e later n i n t h c e n t u r y
there is a d i s t i n c t i v e l y P h o e n i c i a n s h r i n e , w i t h three p i l l a r s
represent t h e sacred center, between w h i c h offerings were
c r a m m e d . I t is i n t e g r a t e d later w i t h m o r e G r e e k - l o o k i n g s t r u c -
tures. K o m m o s t h u s is o n e o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e m e e t i n g
points o f Phoenician and Greek religious practice.
T h e P h o e n i c i a n m e r c h a n t s h a d always been r e g a r d e d as the car-

riers o f o r i e n t a l c u l t u r e , t h e s u p p l i e r s o f o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s t o the
G r e e k s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i m a g e presented b y t h e Odyssey:
Homer m e n t i o n s Phoinikes, men o f Sidon, as p r o d u c e r s of
c o s t l y m e t a l vessels, t r a d i n g b y sea a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i n d u l g i n g
i n piracy. B e l o c h t r i e d t o force t h e P h o e n i c i a n s o u t o f t h e A e -
gean p i c t u r e , asserting a lack o f clear a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o o f o f
t h e i r presence, especially t h e lack o f P h o e n i c i a n ceramics. By
now, however, Phoenicians are c l e a r l y attested even t h r o u g h
t h e i r ceramics o n K o s a n d R h o d e s , and traces o f t h e i r presence
have been f o u n d at E p h e s o s , t o o . 3 7
B u t w i t h the excavations at
A l M i n a , the s p o n t a n e o u s advance o f t h e Greeks t o t h e East has
been w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d . T h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e Greeks and the
P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n appears f r o m early o n t o d e -
v e l o p i n m u t u a l c o m p e t i t i o n . B o t h seem t o start b y e s t a b l i s h i n g
f o r e i g n t r a d i n g f a c i l i t i e s , f o l l o w i n g earlier A s s y r i a n p r a c t i c e , b u t
s u b s e q u e n t l y b e g i n t o f o u n d i n d e p e n d e n t cities, colonies as w e
call t h e m ; f o r t h e P h o e n i c i a n s these w e r e p r i m a r i l y K i t i o n o n
C y p r u s a n d C a r t h a g e i n A f r i c a , w h i l e G r e e k cities came i n t o
b e i n g i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y and S i c i l y ; these d e v e l o p m e n t s l e d t o
new forms o f competing power politics.
H o w e v e r , t h e t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s set i n m o t i o n , first b y the
P h o e n i c i a n s a n d t h e n b y t h e E u b o e a n s , w e r e n o t the o n l y c h a n -
nels f o r m u t u a l c o n t a c t . M o r e i n t i m a t e c u l t u r a l contacts and ex-
changes t o o k place o n t h e level o f s k i l l e d c r a f t s m a n s h i p . I t has
l o n g been s u g g e s t e d t h a t , f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y ,
eastern c r a f t s m e n m i g r a t e d t o G r e e k cities a n d passed o n t h e i r
s k i l l s t o the G r e e k s . I n t h e h a r d t i m e s o f the A s s y r i a n conquests,
m i g r a t i o n s o f refugees m a y r e a d i l y be assumed. J o h n B o a r d m a n
21
has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h i s m o v e m e n t i n d e t a i l , especially i n the case

o f C r e t e . H e p o i n t s t o t h r e e g r o u p s o f evidence: A family o f
g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m cutters i n K n o s s o s b e g a n t o reuse a M i n o a n
T h o l o s t o m b a n d consecrated i t b y a f o u n d a t i o n d e p o s i t i n o r i -
e n t a l style, a r o u n d 800 B . C . ; a special w o r k s h o p o f b r o n z e s m i t h s
p r o d u c e d the t y m p a n o n w i t h p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n i c o n o g r a p h y a n d
the b r o n z e shields for t h e Idaean cave; f i n a l l y , Syrian-style
t o m b s c o m p a r a b l e t o those near C a r c h e m i s h are f o u n d at A f r a t i ,
i n c e n t r a l C r e t e , i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y . T h e s e
t o m b s as w e l l as t h e h a l f - f i n i s h e d g o o d s i n the T o m b o f t h e
G o l d s m i t h s at K n o s s o s are c o n v i n c i n g i n d i c a t o r s t h a t i m m i g r a -
t i o n h a d t a k e n place; a n d t h e t w o phases o f i m m i g r a t i o n , before
800 a n d again a r o u n d 700, c o r r e s p o n d closely t o the A s s y r i a n
campaigns. 38
T h e actual p r o o f t h a t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e appearance o f east-

e r n p r o d u c t s , t h e r e was n o t j u s t trade t h r o u g h v a r i o u s i n t e r m e -
diate c o n t r a c t o r s b u t also l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g t h r o u g h d i r e c t
c o n t a c t , lies i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s w h i c h d o n o t
arise f r o m s i m p l y b u y i n g f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . T h i s applies t o t h e
art o f g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m c u t t e r s 39
as w e l l as t o i v o r y c a r v i n g
a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f b r o n z e w o r k i n g , be i t
h a m m e r i n g (sphyrelaton) o r casting w i t h t h e " l o s t c o r e " m e t h o d ;
the r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e asphalt core o f eastern t e c h n i q u e w i t h
o n e o f resin a n d b r a n s h o w s j u s t h o w c r a f t s m e n a d a p t e d crea-
tively to n e w requirements. 4 0
E v e n the s i m p l e yet extremely
p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f m a k i n g clay figures in molds came
f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a a n d S y r i a ; i t appears at G o r t y n and C o r i n t h
s h o r t l y after 7 0 0 . 41
I t w o u l d o f course be possible t o assume t h a t
s o m e G r e e k s e n t e r e d i n t o a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s u n d e r n a t i v e crafts-
m e n i n t h e East, w h e t h e r at A l M i n a i n S y r i a o r at Tarsos; this
w o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , lead t o t h e same results. N e i t h e r case i n -
volves distant contacts, b u t rather intensive c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h
d e t a i l e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n at least f o r t h e p e r i o d o f an a p p r e n t i c e -
s h i p . T h e C r e t a n f i n d s t i p t h e scale m o r e t o w a r d s t h e l i k e l i h o o d
o f i m m i g r a n t c r a f t s m e n i n the G r e e k s p h e r e — w h i c h does n o t
r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l j o u r n e y s i n the o p p o s i t e
direction.
22
T h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e existence o f m i g r a n t o r i e n t a l crafts-
m e n o c c a s i o n a l l y meets w i t h c r i t i c i s m b o t h f r o m classical ar-
chaeologists a n d f r o m o r i e n t a l i s t s . Whereas t h e f o r m e r , b y rea-
s o n o f m e t h o d , t e n d t o be r e l u c t a n t t o c o n s i d e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s
for personal, almost anecdotal coincidence, 42
t o t h e l a t t e r the
i m a g e o f free e n t e r p r i s e p r o j e c t e d i n t o the " d a r k ages" appears
i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r o y a l p o w e r a n d b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t char-
acterized eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s . H e r e i n d e e d is a clear d i s t i n c t i o n
4 3
b e t w e e n w e s t e r n a n d eastern t r a d i t i o n s . T h a t c r a f t s m e n are n o -
table f o r m o b i l i t y , t h a n k s t o t h e i r s k i l l s , i n c o n t r a s t t o resident
peasants o r l a n d o w n i n g n o b i l i t y , is clearly stated i n t h a t verse o f
H o m e r o n t h e " p u b l i c w o r k e r s , " demioergoi (Od. 17.383-385).
S o l o n , a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , realized this and e n c o u r a g e d the
i m m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o A t h e n s : " t o change residence for
the sake oftechne" is t h e t e r m used here f o r such m i g r a t i o n . 4 4
At
the same t i m e t h e t y r a n t s o f C o r i n t h h a d s o u g h t after such
c r a f t s m e n ; later T h e m i s t o k l e s a t t r a c t e d technitai w i t h t h e offer o f
i m m u n i t y f r o m taxes " s o t h a t as m a n y p e o p l e as possible s h o u l d
take u p r e s i d e n c e . " 45
T o j u d g e b y t h e i r names—-such as A m a s i s ,
L y d o s , a n d B r y g o s — p o t t e r s and vase painters o f t h e s i x t h c e n -
t u r y seem t o have i m m i g r a t e d f r o m E g y p t , L y d i a , o r P h r y g i a . 4 6
F o r A r i s t o t l e i t is p r a c t i c a l l y the r u l e t h a t c r a f t s m e n are i m m i -
g r a n t n o n c i t i z e n s ; he also speaks o f slaves as c r a f t s m e n , 47
but it
is c e r t a i n t h a t w h e r e h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d craft skills are c o n c e r n e d
t h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f slavery. I n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s " m i g r a n t
c r a f t s m e n " is a c o m m o n t e r m . 4 8
A t least b y this t i m e t h e y w e r e
t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d i n t h e S e m i t i c East, t o o . Jesus Sirach w r i t e s o f
c r a f t s m e n : " a n d even w h e n t h e y l i v e i n a f o r e i g n place, t h e y d o
n o t need t o s t a r v e . " 4 9
A t e n t m a k e r f r o m Tarsos became one o f
the h i s t o r i c a l l y m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f these travellers: the apostle
Paul.
T o r e t u r n t o t h e archaic e p o c h : A s s y r i a n c r a f t s m e n are p r e -
s u m e d t o have been present i n U r a r t u ; 5 0
and i n t h e same w a y
m e t a l w o r k spread t o t h e Scythians a n d thence far o n i n t o A s i a .
A n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n traces t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f G r e e k craftsman-
s h i p i n t o E t r u r i a t o D e m a r a t o s o f C o r i n t h , t h e p u r p o r t e d father
o f K i n g T a r q u i n i u s Priscus; he was f o l l o w e d , i t is said, b y a host
23
o f craftsmen. 51
E v e n w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t o f this a n e c d o t a l t r a -
d i t i o n i t is c e r t a i n t h a t G r e e k p o t t e r s a n d vase p a i n t e r s estab-
l i s h e d themselves i n v a r i o u s non-Greek areas i n Italy. I n the
East, o n the o t h e r h a n d , g o o d c r a f t s m e n h a d l o n g been m u c h
s o u g h t after a n d h i g h l y v a l u e d . I t was precisely f o r t h i s reason
t h a t t h e r u l e r s a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p c o n t r o l o v e r t h e m as far as was
possible b y bureaucratic means. S o l o m o n had a w h o l e t r o o p o f
c r a f t s m e n , w h o w e r e e m p l o y e d i n the service o f K i n g H i r a m o f
T y r e , sent t o h i m f o r t e m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . 5 2
I n a s i m i l a r v e i n the
Ahiqar n o v e l r e c o u n t s t h a t the k i n g o f E g y p t o r d e r e d an a r c h i -
tect f r o m the r u l e r o f N i n e v e h . 5 3
W h e n K i n g S a r g o n b u i l t his
palace i n K h o r s a b a d after the m o d e l o f a " H i t t i t e H i l a n i , " as he
states i n his i n s c r i p t i o n s , 5 4
he p r o b a b l y d i d n o t hesitate t o r e q -
uisition the appropriate craftsmen f r o m N o r t h Syria. Docu-
ments f r o m M a r i s h o w that craftsmen were organized b y kings
as m o b i l e teams a n d k e p t r e a d y f o r d e p l o y m e n t as r e q u i r e d . 5 5
In
M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h , the h e r o o f t h e f l o o d d i d n o t fail t o reserve
a place f o r c r a f t s m e n i n the a r k . 5 6
A H i t t i t e treaty expressly stip-
ulates t h a t f u g i t i v e c r a f t s m e n are t o be e x t r a d i t e d . 5 7
Yet even t h i s
clearly demonstrates the l i m i t s o f the c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : a
c r a f t s m a n w h o deserted w o u l d have calculated his chance o f b e -
c o m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y e m p l o y e d i n any n e w place. Letters f r o m
M a r i speak o f an a r c h i t e c t o r a s m i t h s i m p l y " g o i n g a w a y " a p -
p a r e n t l y o f his o w n free w i l l a n d w i t h the state t a k i n g n o steps
against h i m . 5 8
T h i s is n o t a b l e p r o o f t h a t , de facto, q u a l i f i e d spe-
cialists c o u l d n o t be d e n i e d a c e r t a i n m o b i l i t y a l r e a d y i n the
B r o n z e A g e O r i e n t . N o t t o o d i f f e r e n t are the adventures o f the
p h y s i c i a n D e m o k e d e s i n the t i m e o f D a r i u s , as related b y H e -
r o d o t u s : he r e t u r n e d t o his h o m e l a n d against the w i l l o f the G r e a t
K i n g , a n d the k i n g was n o t able t o get h i m b a c k . 5 9
B y that t i m e
o t h e r G r e e k specialists, c r a f t s m e n o f a l l k i n d s as w e l l as m e r c e n -
aries, h a d l o n g f o u n d t h e i r w a y t o the o r i e n t a l c o u r t s , t o N e b u -
chadnezzar i n B a b y l o n 6 0
as w e l l as t o D a r i u s i n P e r s e p o l i s . 61
T o s u m u p : F o r c r a f t s m e n i n t h e East, at least t h e chance f o r

free m o v e m e n t h a d e x i s t e d f o r s o m e t i m e , since the influence o f
the despots was l i m i t e d i n e x t e n t . I n the West this m o b i l i t y was
f u l l y d e v e l o p e d b y the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . I t can be p r e s u m e d
24
that p r e c i s e l y t h i s factor c o u l d act as a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r e m i -

g r a t i o n t o t h e freer West. We f i n d t h e eastern c r a f t s m e n o r g a -
n i z e d i n the f o r m o f f a m i l y g u i l d s , as Sons o f t h e C r a f t s m e n
(mare ummani) i n B a b y l o n i a , as Sons o f t h e F o u n d r y m e n (bn nsk)
in Syria. 6 2
S u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s guarantee f o r m s o f m u t u a l s u p -
p o r t w h i c h m u s t have o p e r a t e d v e r y m u c h t o t h e benefit o f
e m i g r e s . E v e n i f free e n t e r p r i s e i n c r a f t s m a n s h i p was an i n v e n -
t i o n o f t h e e a r l y o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , the " o r i e n t a l s " w e r e cer-
tainly involved too.
A n o t h e r m o b i l e e l e m e n t t h a t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d is the
t r o o p s o f m e r c e n a r i e s w h o c o u l d m a k e a p r o f i t a b l e life a m i d s t
the rise and fall o f e m p i r e s . We k n o w o f the I o n i a n a n d t h e C a r -
ian m e r c e n a r i e s o f P s a m m e t i c h u s ; 63
A n t i m e n i d a s the b r o t h e r o f
Alcaeus served as a m e r c e n a r y f o r B a b y l o n , as d i d Sappho's
brother, Charaxos, for E g y p t . 6 4
W h e t h e r Krethi a n d Plethi in
D a v i d ' s b o d y g u a r d means C r e t a n s s e r v i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h P h i l i s -
tines is less c e r t a i n . 6 5
I t is m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e Karim attested i n
the n i n t h c e n t u r y at J e r u s a l e m w e r e i n fact C a r i a n s f r o m Asia
M i n o r ; at a n y rate C a r i a n soldiers s u b s e q u e n t l y played an i m -
portant role i n seventh- and sixth-century E g y p t . 6 6
Nor would
there have been a s h o r t a g e o f Greeks t r y i n g t h e i r l u c k i n the East
at t h a t t i m e , even i f t h e case o f the I a m a n i o f A s h d o d r e m a i n s
uncertain. 6 7
T h e h o p l i t e w e a p o n r y w h i c h c a m e i n t o use at the
e n d o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n Greece is closely l i n k e d t o A s s y r i a n
a n d U r a r t i a n a r m s . T o i l l u s t r a t e a G o r g o n s h i e l d s u c h as is d e -
s c r i b e d i n t h e Iliad, o n e can use an e x a m p l e f r o m O l y m p i a side
b y side w i t h o n e f r o m C a r c h e m i s h o n the E u p h r a t e s . 68
Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century
F o r t h e general h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t

a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d is the a d o p t i o n o f the
P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y t h e G r e e k s a n d its s k i l l f u l a d a p t a t i o n t o
G r e e k p h o n e t i c s . ' I t can a l m o s t s t a n d as a m o d e l f o r c u l t u r a l t r a n s -
m i s s i o n at t h e t i m e : A s t h e b o r r o w i n g f r o m t h e S e m i t i c is b e -
y o n d a l l d o u b t , the creative d e v e l o p m e n t b y G r e e k i n v e n t o r s is
n o less clear; a n d a date s i g n i f i c a n t l y after t h e collapse o f M y c e -
25
naean c u l t u r e , b u t n o later t h a n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ,
is n o w w e l l established.
F o r us, t h e G r e e k s c r i p t is t h e first perfect w r i t i n g system,
b e i n g t h e earliest a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t t o use signs f o r b o t h v o w e l s
a n d c o n s o n a n t s c o n s i s t e n t l y , w h e r e a s S e m i t i c w r i t i n g was, and
is, basically c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s o n a n t s . Its p e r f e c t i o n is c o n -
f i r m e d b y its success i n t h e West. Nevertheless t h e a p p a r e n t i n -
v e n t i o n , the n o t a t i o n o f v o w e l s , arose i n fact f r o m misunder-
s t a n d i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m : A s the alphabetic
sequence o f the S e m i t i c s y s t e m was l e a r n e d a n d t h e a c r o p h o n i c
p r i n c i p l e u n d e r s t o o d b y G r e e k s , t h e y f o u n d a w o r d such as al-
pha t o b e g i n w i t h an a s o u n d a n d n o t w i t h a g u t t u r a l g l o t t a l
s t o p — d e n o t e d b y S e m i t i c aleph. 2
Just t h e d e l i b e r a t e c r e a t i o n o f
an a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r f o r the f i f t h v o w e l , Y , w h i c h is n o t present
i n the S e m i t i c m o d e l and t h u s was placed at the e n d o f the series,
is evidence o f a c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i o n b y s o m e G r e e k " i n v e n t o r . "
T h e l e t t e r Y appears i n all G r e e k alphabets a n d all alphabets d e -
rived f r o m t h e m , i n c l u d i n g P h r y g i a n and Latin.
3
F o r the t i m e a n d place o f t h e a d o p t i o n o f the Phoinikeia, as

H e r o d o t u s says t h e letters w e r e originally called, 4
there are
m a n y clues b y n o w , b u t n o f e w e r o p e n q u e s t i o n s ; n e w f i n d s
c o u l d s t i l l alter t h e p i c t u r e . T h e earliest G r e e k letters r e c o g n i z e d
t o date o r i g i n a t e i n N a x o s , Ischia, A t h e n s , a n d E u b o e a a n d a p -
pear a r o u n d o r a l i t t l e before 7 5 0 . 5
T h i s date fits p e r f e c t l y the
t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s o f the lawones f r o m S y r i a v i a E u b o e a t o the
West. O n Ischia G r e e k g r a f f i t i are f o u n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c g r a f f i t i so t h a t i n o n e case even t h e l i n g u i s -
tic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is d i s p u t e d ; a n d finally a Greek g r a f f i t o has
been d i s c o v e r e d o n a n e i g h t h - c e n t u r y sh e rd f r o m A l M i n a . 6
C o m p l i c a t i o n arises w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l letters i n s e r t e d i n G r e e k
alphabets after Y ; i t is precisely C h a l k i s / E u b o e a a n d A t h e n s t h a t
differ i n this r e s p e c t — t h e l e t t e r X conveys t h e s o u n d kh i n A t t i c ,
b u t x at C h a l k i s a n d hence i n the w e s t e r n colonies a n d f i n a l l y i n
L a t i n ; i t seems n a t u r a l t h a t b o t h t h e C h a l c i d i a n a n d t h e A t t i c
alphabets s h o u l d have been p r e c e d e d b y o n e o f those " r e d " ones
w h i c h have n o n e o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r s , w h i c h is t h e case o n
C r e t e , M e l o s , a n d T h e r a ; b u t there are n o e i g h t h - c e n t u r y d o c -
26
u m e n t s o f w r i t i n g f r o m these places so far, a n d t h e inference can

be called i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e r e is m u c h t o substantiate the idea
7
t h a t C y p r u s h a d a r o l e t o p l a y as an i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t i o n i n t h e
transmission of writing: The distinctive designation o f the
Greek letters as Phoinikeia seems to presuppose that other
" s c r i b b l i n g s " (grammatd) w e r e k n o w n f r o m w h i c h the P h o e n i -
cian w e r e d i f f e r e n t . T h i s was the case o n l y o n C y p r u s , w h e r e a
linear s c r i p t o f M y c e n a e a n t y p e had been adapted t o the G r e e k
a n d persisted t o H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s ; the first document now
k n o w n f o r its use i n w r i t i n g G r e e k dates f r o m t h e e l e v e n t h cen-
t u r y . I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t the linear scripts h a d t a k e n the d i r e c -
8
t i o n f r o m left t o r i g h t , t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t was t o p r e v a i l i n Greek

a n d subsequent w r i t i n g , i n c o n t r a s t t o S e m i t i c use; h o w e v e r , the
change o f d i r e c t i o n f r o m l i n e t o l i n e , called bustrophedon, as o f t e n
p r a c t i c e d i n early G r e e k w r i t i n g , is also f o u n d i n s o m e P h o e n i -
cian d o c u m e n t s a n d is c o m m o n i n Late H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s . 9
Of
course the G r e e k s c r i p t c o u l d also have been d e v e l o p e d i n Syria,
a l t h o u g h there is j u s t o n e g r a f i t t o f r o m A l M i n a so far. We
m i g h t s t i l l l o o k t o C r e t e , n o t so m u c h because o f the P h o e n i c i a n
i n s c r i p t i o n o n a b o w l that ended up i n a t o m b i n Knossos
a r o u n d 900, b u t r a t h e r because o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y close c o n n e c -
t i o n s w i t h o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m a n s h i p and c r a f t s m e n f r o m around
800; i t was also o n C r e t e t h a t l a w s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n w r i t i n g
earlier t h a n e l s e w h e r e i n G r e e c e . " Nevertheless there is n o e v i -
1
dence f r o m C r e t e so far t o r i v a l the e a r l y g r a f f i t i f r o m the sphere

o f t h e Iaones. I n a n y case, the a r g u m e n t e m p l o y e d w i t h great
success at o n e t i m e , t h a t t h e great differences w h i c h appear f r o m
the start a m o n g l o c a l G r e e k alphabets p r e s u p p o s e a " l o n g d e v e l -
o p m e n t " s t r e t c h i n g over m a n y decades, i f n o t centuries, has
been f i r m l y r e f u t e d b y L i l i a n J e f f e r y . 11
T h e so-called develop-
m e n t , o r r a t h e r the process o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , i n c l u d i n g s o m e er-
rors i n c o p y i n g , idiosyncrasies o f "hands," and some intentional
a d d i t i o n s d i d h a p p e n e x t r e m e l y fast, w i t h i n a f e w decades, i f n o t
years, r e a c h i n g even t h e P h r y g i a n s i n one d i r e c t i o n and the
Etruscans i n t h e o t h e r n e a r l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
S o m e S e m i t i s t s s t i l l t e n d t o plead t h a t the G r e e k alphabet is

s i g n i f i c a n t l y o l d e r , o n the basis o f c e r t a i n details o f the l e t t e r
27
formations. 12
T h e finds o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c i n s c r i p t i o n s i n
Syria, h o w e v e r — a n d one should p r o b a b l y l o o k t o N o r t h Syria
r a t h e r t h a n t o P a l e s t i n e — a r e s t i l l t o o scanty t o p e r m i t a d e f i n i t e
sequence o f l e t t e r f o r m s t o be established; e v e r y n e w f i n d m a y
change t h e p i c t u r e . 1 3
F r o m the G r e e k side, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
the argumentum ex silentio has b e c o m e ever m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g :
I n t h e i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y o f G r e e k g e o m e t r i c ceramics w h i c h
can be classified a n d d a t e d w i t h a reasonable degree o f p r e c i s i o n ,
n o t a s i n g l e s c r i b b l i n g has so far been discovered t h a t l o o k s l i k e
a G r e e k l e t t e r b e f o r e , say, 770, w h i l e i n the decades f r o m 750 t o
a b o u t 700 there are n o w dozens a n d dozens o f d o c u m e n t s . A
c u l t u r a l e x p l o s i o n has h a p p e n e d here; there is n o t h i n g t o suggest
t h a t t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t h a d been i n h i d i n g f o r centuries before
t h a t date. T h u s t h e existence o f G r e e k s c r i p t i n the t e n t h and
even i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y appears, f r o m the state o f t h i n g s , t o be
v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . T h e place o f a d o p t i o n c u r r e n t l y r e m a i n s
o p e n . T h e G r e e k reference t o " P h o e n i c i a n s " c a n n o t be t a k e n t o
m e a n t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e n a r r o w e r s e n s e — t h a t is, t h e i n h a b -
itants o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e — m u s t have been t h e source.
P h o e n i c i a n s o r A r a m a e a n s f r o m N o r t h S y r i a r e m a i n an e q u i v a -
lent o p t i o n .
F o r the m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w r i t i n g o c c u r r e d
there is an i n v a l u a b l e clue, even i f i t is o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d : t h e
G r e e k names o f t h e letters (alpha, beta, gamma, a n d so o n ) w i t h
t h e i r u n a l t e r a b l e o r d e r . T h e s e are S e m i t i c w o r d s — b u l l , house,
a n d so o n — w h i c h have n o sense at all i n G r e e k . T h e y were
preserved f o r o n e p a r t i c u l a r reason: A l l t e a c h i n g o f r e a d i n g and
w r i t i n g b e g a n w i t h l e a r n i n g t h i s sequence b y heart. T h i s ex-
plains also w h y m u c h earlier t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d sequence appears
i n t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t S e m i t i c a l p h a b e t i c scripts, i n t h e
U g a r i t i c c u n e i f o r m a l p h a b e t attested i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
a n d i n t h e " P h o e n i c i a n " a l p h a b e t , e v i d e n c e o f w h i c h has n o w
been u n c o v e r e d f r o m as early as t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . 1 4
Even
across l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s , t h e same m n e m o n i c sequence was
learned b y r o t e i n t h e same way. W i t h the alphabetic s c r i p t , f o r
t h e first t i m e a s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g h a d c o m e i n t o b e i n g w h i c h
was so s i m p l e t h a t i t c o u l d be used b y all p e o p l e o f n o r m a l i n -
28
telligence even o u t s i d e t h e circles o f learned p r o f e s s i o n a l scribes;

t h e y need t o be t a u g h t f o r o n l y a s h o r t t i m e a n d t o get s o m e
practice i n h a n d w r i t i n g . We m a y form s o m e p i c t u r e o f the
teaching of writing i n the S y r o - P a l e s t i n i a n region. 1 5
When
m u c h later w e read i n Josephus t h a t " o f all those w h o dealt w i t h
the G r e e k s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s used w r i t i n g t h e m o s t , f o r p r i v a t e
business as w e l l as f o r t h e i r p u b l i c a f f a i r s , " 16
he was r e f e r r i n g t o
a s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n g o i n g back a t h o u s a n d years. T h e inference is
that t h e " i n v e n t o r " w h o first used these letters f o r t h e n o t a t i o n
o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n at least one s c h o o l
lesson, w h e t h e r o f t h e A r a m a i c o r the P h o e n i c i a n t y p e , w h e t h e r
i n S y r i a o r o n C y p r u s , perhaps even s o m e w h e r e else w i t h s o m e
e m i g r a n t w h o h a d received an e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h i s gives
cause t o reflect o n t h e sheer c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t rules the evidence
available t o us: T h e S e m i t i c l e t t e r names alpha, beta, and so o n
o c c u r i n G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y at t h e e a r l i e s t , 17
but
t h e y m u s t have been i n c u r r e n t use ever since t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ,
as t h e y h a d been a d o p t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l alphabet; t h a t
those meaningless w o r d p a t t e r n s s h o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o G r e e k at any later t i m e is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e . T h e L a t i n a l -
p h a b e t can serve as a c o u n t e r p r o o f : W r i t e r s o f L a t i n d i d n o t
a d o p t t h e a n c i e n t P h o e n i c i a n m n e m o n i c sequence; rather, t h e y
let t h e v o w e l s s o u n d f o r themselves and a d d e d an e - v o w e l t o the
c o n s o n a n t s , as t h e G r e e k s h a d already d o n e w i t h t h e i r a d d i t i o n a l
letters Y O o n the one h a n d a n d $ X f , pronounced "phee,"
" k h e e , " "psee," o n the o t h e r ; b u t even so the L a t i n s and the R o -
m a n s started s c h o o l b y l e a r n i n g t h e i r a be ce—as w e s t i l l d o t o -
day. I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i n t h i s respect t h e Greek practice has
r e m a i n e d closer t o P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n t h a n
the L a t i n d i d t o t h e G r e e k .
T h u s i t is clear t h a t the a d o p t i o n o f the P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y

the G r e e k s was m o r e t h a n t h e c o p y i n g o f letter f o r m s ; i t i n -
c l u d e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the t e c h n i q u e o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n -
i n g h o w t o read a n d w r i t e . T h i s presupposes a c e r t a i n i n t i m a c y
o f c o n t a c t s , as is also i n d i c a t e d b y those objects w h i c h a l m o s t
never s h o w u p i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d yet are
m u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g than i n d i v i d -
29
u a l g r a f f i t i : w r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls t o g e t h e r w i t h the

a p p r o p r i a t e w r i t i n g t o o l s . T h e s e i n d e e d m u s t have a c c o m p a n i e d
the use o f the G r e e k s c r i p t f r o m t h e start. T h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t ,
deltos i n G r e e k , has even k e p t its S e m i t i c n a m e , daltu—daleth in
Hebrew—together with the name o f t h e special wax with
w h i c h i t is c o v e r e d , malthe. Daltu o r i g i n a l l y means d o o r b u t is
used f o r a w r i t i n g t a b l e t already i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y U g a r i t , as
i t is i n H e b r e w later o n . 1 8
W o o d e n w r i t i n g tablets w e r e i n use i n
M e s o p o t a m i a as w e l l as i n S y r i a a n d Palestine; t h e f i n d o f o n e
e x e m p l a r i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w r e c k at U l u B u r u n near
K a § , T u r k e y , is c o n s i d e r e d sensational, even i f n o trace o f the
w r i t i n g f o r w h i c h i t was used has been preserved; s o m e w r i t i n g
tablets o f i v o r y f r o m Sargon's palace i n N i m r u d have been
k n o w n for a long t i m e . 1 9
I n G r e e k the " f o l d i n g t a b l e t " o n w h i c h
t o w r i t e m a k e s its appearance w i t h t h e B e l l e r o p h o n t e s s t o r y i n
H o m e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f the "fatal l e t t e r " m o t i f . 2 0
I t is t r u e t h a t
t h e o l d e s t d i r e c t t e s t i m o n i e s f o r t h e w o r d deltos o c c u r i n A e s c h y -
lus, b u t the reference t o " b r o n z e deltoi" as a t e r m f o r a n c i e n t
sacral l a w s s h o u l d p o i n t back t o t h e seventh o r s i x t h c e n t u r y . 2 1
W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e is t h a t t h e w o r d deltos c o n s i s t e n t l y carries
the v o w e l e i n n o r m a l G r e e k , as o p p o s e d t o a i n S e m i t i c daltu;
s l i g h t d i s t o r t i o n s o f v o w e l c o l o r i n g are n o t s u r p r i s i n g w i t h b o r -
r o w e d w o r d s , b u t t h e e is e q u a l l y characteristic o f t h e Greek
l e t t e r n a m e delta, w h i c h r e p r o d u c e s the same S e m i t i c w o r d . I n
contrast, i n the C y p r i o t syllabic script, w h i c h remains unaware
o f t h e s t a n d a r d G r e e k a l p h a b e t , t h e e x p e c t e d f o r m f o r the w r i t -
i n g t a b l e t is attested, daltos, closer t o the S e m i t i c , j u s t as the
P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e so close o n C y p r u s . 2 2
T h a t the n o r m a l Greek
t e r m f o r t h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t a n d the l e t t e r n a m e s h o w e x a c t l y t h e
same m e t a m o r p h o s i s indicates t h a t b o t h b e l o n g t o g e t h e r f r o m
the s t a r t — i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t the deltos i n Greece is as o l d as
the Greek alphabet.
B o o k s w e r e i n general use i n t h e P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c r e g i o n
i n the f o r m o f leather scrolls; i n the special case o f t h e Israelite
Torah, this f o r m has remained mandatory. Aramaic "scroll
scribes" m a d e t h e i r w a y t o M e s o p o t a m i a a n d became v i r t u a l l y
indispensable to the Assyrian a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , even w h e n t h e
30
" t a b l e t scribes" o f the m u c h less p r a c t i c a l yet o l d a n d venerable

c u n e i f o r m script insisted o n their privileges and still enjoyed
higher rank. T h u s the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Assyrian empire
was based o n t w o l a n g u a g e s , o r rather, t w o s c r i p t s . 23
Aramaic
as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a n g u a g e c a m e d e f i n i t e l y t o the fore w i t h
the A c h a e m e n i d s o f Persia; b y t h e n i t is called " i m p e r i a l A r a -
m a i c " (Reichsaramaisch) b y m o d e r n specialists. B u t even D a r i u s
d e f e r r e d t o t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n a n d d e e m e d i t necessary t o have
Persian c u n e i f o r m created. F o r p r a c t i c a l purposes the Persians
c o n t i n u e d t o use t h e scrolls; there was a l i b r a r y o f leather scrolls
i n Persepolis, b u r n t d o w n b y A l e x a n d e r . 24
I n Greece the leather
s c r o l l , w r a p p e d a r o u n d a w o o d e n s t i c k , is already referred t o i n
the seventh c e n t u r y b y A r c h i l o c h u s , as he i n t r o d u c e s his o w n
p o e m w i t h t h e c u r i o u s t e r m skytale, s t i c k — a d m i t t e d l y this t e r m
was o b s c u r e even f o r G r e e k readers i n later a n t i q u i t y . 2 5
We have
the w o r d o f H e r o d o t u s t h a t t h e I o n i a n s s t i l l called papyrus
b o o k s diphtherai, s k i n s , as this w o r d h a d b e c o m e established t o
designate b o o k s i n the b e g i n n i n g s o f literacy. F o r c o n f i r m a t i o n
even m o r e a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e has c o m e u p : I n s i x t h - c e n t u r y b u s i -
ness letters f r o m t h e M i l e s i a n c o l o n y O l b i a , diphtherion as t h e
" m a s t e r b o o k " is seen t o c o n t r a s t w i t h single lead sheets used as
letters, molibdion. 26
T h u s i t is h a r d l y a c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t , i n the
f i f t h c e n t u r y , oracle b o o k s are referred t o as diphtherai, 27
as these
p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e one o f the earliest uses o f w r i t i n g . A s c o n -
tacts w i t h E g y p t became m o r e f r e q u e n t , p a p y r u s , being so
m u c h cheaper a n d l i g h t e r , b e c a m e the d o m i n a n t w r i t i n g m a t e -
r i a l . I t was called byhlos f r o m t h e P h o e n i c i a n t r a d i n g post G u b l a /
B y b l o s , o r chartes, a f o r e i g n w o r d o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n . I t seems
t h a t p a p y r u s b e c a m e available at t h e earliest i n the era o f P s a m -
m e t i c h u s , a b o u t 660, o r m o r e p r o b a b l y o n l y w h e n the Greeks
settled at N a u k r a t i s a r o u n d 600. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h t o l i t e r a c y
precedes t h i s date even i n I o n i a ; this is reflected i n the l o c a l d i a -
lect w h i c h a d h e r e d t o t h e t e r m f o r leather s c r o l l , diphthera.
A k k a d i a n c u n e i f o r m side b y side w i t h A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n ,
a n d G r e e k a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t produces a c o n t i n u u m o f w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y w h i c h stretches f r o m the E u p h r a t e s
t o Italy. C u n e i f o r m tablets are f o u n d n o t o n l y as far as Syria b u t
3i
also o n C y p r u s a n d i n Tarsos, w h e r e t h e G r e e k s w e r e d e f i n i t e l y
present. A l i t t l e f a r t h e r east, at G u z a n a - T e l l H a l a f , a business-
m a n w o u l d c o n d u c t his c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p a r t l y i n c u n e i f o r m ,
p a r t l y i n A r a m a i c , w h e r e a s an A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y
such as H u z i r i n a - S u l t a n t e p e near H a r r a n k e p t a l i b r a r y o f c u n e -
i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e . T h e p r a c t i c e o f w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s can be f o l -
l o w e d f r o m c u n e i f o r m t h r o u g h A r a m a i c and H e b r e w d o w n to
the G r e e k s o f t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s . 2 8
C a r l Wendel
has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t g o b e y o n d business
d o c u m e n t s ; I t is t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e subscriptio i n particular that
connects t h e l a y o u t o f later G r e e k b o o k s w i t h c u n e i f o r m p r a c -
tice, the i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e w r i t e r / a u t h o r a n d the t i t l e
o f t h e b o o k r i g h t at the e n d , after t h e last l i n e o f t h e t e x t ; this is
a detailed and exclusive correspondence which proves that
G r e e k l i t e r a r y p r a c t i c e is u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n M e s o p o t a -
m i a . I t is necessary t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t A r a m a i c l e a t h e r scrolls
f o r m e d the c o n n e c t i n g l i n k . 2 9
H e r e , h o w e v e r , w e are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the c a t a s t r o p h i c state

o f preservation: T h e w h o l e o f A r a m a i c and Phoenician literature
has been l o s t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e perishable m a t e r i a l s o n w h i c h i t
was w r i t t e n , w o o d o r leather, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f t h a t off-
s h o o t i n Israel w h i c h was t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e B i b l e a n d t h u s
r e m a i n e d p r e s e r v e d as a sacred t e x t . T h e r e are, nevertheless,
t w o pieces o f e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a r y texts i n -
deed e x e r t e d i n f l u e n c e o n A r a m a i c s c r o l l - l i t e r a t u r e . T h e sole e x -
t a n t scraps o f an e a r l y A r a m a i c l i t e r a r y t e x t f o u n d so far are the
Ahiqar f r a g m e n t s f i o m E l e p h a n t i n e . T h e Ahiqar novel—long
k n o w n i n its later, A r a m a i c - S y r i a n f o r m a n d i n v a r i o u s versions
i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s — i s set i n S y r i a i n the t i m e o f K i n g Sennach-
e r i b a n d m a k e s use o f names t h a t m a y be h i s t o r i c a l . T h e piece
i t s e l f w a s , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y , w r i t t e n after t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o f N i n -
eveh, b u t t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d is felt t o l o o m l a r g e i n t h e p i c t u r e .
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h i s t e x t is r e m a r k a b l e p r o o f f o r a c o n t i n u -
ous tradition from Mesopotamia via Syria t o Palestine and
Egypt. 3 0
A n o t h e r tale a b o u t A s h u r b a n i p a l is e x t a n t i n A r a -
maic, 3 1
a n d G i l g a m e s h appears as a m y t h i c a l g i a n t a m o n g the
r e m a i n s o f A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m Q u m r a n , i n a f r a g m e n t
32
o f t h e A r a m a i c B o o k o f H e n o c h : T h e m a i n character o f the
m o s t b r i l l i a n t w o r k o f c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e has left his echo i n
A r a m a i c w r i t i n g s o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . B y s o m e r o u t e o r
other, t h e n a m e G i l g a m o s even p e n e t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k litera-
ture. 3 2
N o t all c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n , o r H e -
b r e w b o o k scrolls a n d G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w e r e necessarily made
t h r o u g h diphtherai o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . F o r a m u c h later
c o n t a c t t h e S e p t u a g i n t is a m e m o r a b l e piece o f evidence, and
even t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n o f t h e Ahiqar n o v e l w h i c h appears i n t h e
L i f e o f A e s o p was p r o b a b l y p r o d u c e d i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s . 3 3
The
m e r c h a n t s a n d c r a f t s m e n at Ischia w e r e h a r d l y m u c h c o n c e r n e d
w i t h b o o k s i n t h e l i t e r a r y s e n s e — a n d yet the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the
N e s t o r c u p e v i d e n t l y was m a d e b y s o m e o n e w h o k n e w w h a t a
b o o k o f G r e e k verse l o o k e d l i k e . I n any event, the fashionable
c l a i m t h a t t h e G r e e k s a d o p t e d o n l y t h e alphabet f r o m so-called
P h o e n i c i a n s a n d created all the f u r t h e r achievements o f their
w r i t t e n culture o n their o w n 3 4
s h o u l d be a p p r o a c h e d w i t h c a u -
t i o n . W r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls at the v e r y least came
w i t h t h e s c r i p t a n d m o l d e d t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d the c o n c e p t o f
the b o o k . T h e r e was n o tabula rasa. So m u c h o f S e m i t i c w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e has been c o m p l e t e l y l o s t t h a t general p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d
suggest r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e w e r e far m o r e n u m e r o u s , richer, and
denser c o n n e c t i o n s t h a n can be d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e m e a g e r r e -
m a i n s available. I n fact e v e r y n e w f i n d this c e n t u r y , w h e t h e r
f r o m E l e p h a n t i n e o r Q u m r a n , f r o m K a r a t e p e o r D e i r A U a , has
c
b r o u g h t to light n e w and often unexpected connections. 35
The Problem oj"Loan-Words
T h e clearest a n d m o s t e n d u r i n g e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l influences
is e m b o d i e d i n l a n g u a g e . What Christianity, Roman civiliza-
t i o n , a n d G r e e k i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a r t i s t i c c u l t u r e have m e a n t f o r
the West s t i l l speaks t o us f r o m o u r present l a n g u a g e . T h e d i f -
ferent p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e — t h e i m p r e s s i o n
of indigenous purity untroubled by external influences—is
used, w i t h s o m e a p p a r e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n , as an a r g u m e n t against
33
the existence o f p r o f o u n d eastern influences: C l o s e c u l t u r a l c o n -

tacts w i t h the S e m i t i c East, i t is a r g u e d , w o u l d be b e t r a y e d i n an
a b u n d a n c e o f f o r e i g n a n d b o r r o w e d S e m i t i c w o r d s . T h e lack o f
1
S e m i t i c b o r r o w i n g s i n G r e e k is offered as p r o o f o f t h e lack o f
any s u c h c o n t a c t .
B u t t h e s i t u a t i o n is n o t so clear-cut. T h e r e are at least some
recognized Semitic loan-words i n pre-Hellenistic Greek, i n c l u d -
i n g such i m p o r t a n t ones as mnea/mna, m i n a , the basic u n i t o f
w e i g h t a n d hence o f c u r r e n c y ; kanon, m e a s u r i n g r o d , hence
r u l e r a n d s t a n d a r d i n general; deltas, w r i t i n g t a b l e t , w i t h its w a x ,
malthe. T h e y p r o v i d e the clearest e v i d e n c e one c o u l d w a n t f o r
the traffic o f t r a d e , c r a f t s m e n , a n d w r i t i n g i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
period.
G r e e k l i n g u i s t i c s has been t h e d o m a i n o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n i s t s
f o r n e a r l y t w o c e n t u r i e s ; yet its success threatens t o d i s t o r t r e a l -
i t y . I n all t h e s t a n d a r d l e x i c o n s , t o g i v e the e t y m o l o g y o f a
G r e e k w o r d means per definitionem t o g i v e an I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t -
y m o l o g y . E v e n t h e r e m o t e s t references—say, t o A r m e n i a n o r
L i t h u a n i a n — a r e f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d ; possible b o r r o w i n g s f r o m
the S e m i t i c , h o w e v e r , are j u d g e d u n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d e i t h e r d i s -
c a r d e d o r m e n t i o n e d o n l y i n passing, w i t h o u t adequate d o c u -
m e n t a t i o n . I t is w e l l k n o w n that a l a r g e p a r t o f the G r e e k v o c a b -
u l a r y lacks a n y adequate I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y ; b u t i t has
become a fashion to prefer connections w i t h a putative Aegean
s u b s t r a t u m o r w i t h A n a t o l i a n parallels, w h i c h i n v o l v e s d e a l i n g
w i t h l a r g e l y u n k n o w n spheres, i n s t e a d o f p u r s u i n g c o n n e c t i o n s
t o t h e w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . B e l o c h even w a n t e d t o
2
separate t h e R h o d i a n Z e u s A t a b y r i o s f r o m M o u n t A t a b y r i o n =
T a b o r , the m o u n t a i n i n Palestine, i n favor o f v a g u e A n a t o l i a n
r e s o n a n c e s . A n t i - S e m i t i s m was m a n i f e s t i n this case; elsewhere
3
i t was o f t e n o p e r a t i n g o n an unseen l e v e l . E v e n f i r s t - r a n k I n d o -
E u r o p e a n i s t s have m a d e a s t o n i s h i n g m i s j u d g m e n t s : T h e n u m -
b e r o f S e m i t i c l o a n - w o r d s i n t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e is " q u i t e i n s i g -
n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l " ( D e b r u n n e r ) ; " i n d e e d t h e y d o n ' t even reach
d o u b l e f i g u r e s " ( M e i l l e t ) . T h e y seem t o have f o r g o t t e n even the
4
fifteen S e m i t i c l e t t e r n a m e s . E m i l i e M a s s o n , i n h e r h i g h l y r e -
s t r i c t i v e c r i t i c a l w o r k (1967), has nevertheless established t h i r t y -
34
" W H O A R U P U B L I C W O R K E R S "
seven d e f i n i t e a n d t w e l v e possible S e m i t i c w o r d s i n the Greek

language; u s i n g less r i g i d parameters O s w a l d S z e m e r e n y i was
able t o add a n o t h e r d o z e n ; there is n o s h o r t a g e o f f u r t h e r a t -
t e m p t s . S o m e o f this m a t e r i a l requires careful c h e c k i n g ; b u t a d -
5
d i t i o n a l f i n d i n g s also are b y n o means t o be e x c l u d e d . This

m u c h is c e r t a i n : T h e r e is a m a r k e d presence o f S e m i t i c l o a n -
w o r d s in Greek.
It is t r u e t h a t d i l e t t a n t e s eager t o m a k e n e w discoveries have
been g u i l t y o f carelessness a n d rash s p e c u l a t i o n i n this f i e l d ,
w h i l e t h e n e g a t i v e statements o f critics e n j o y t h e advantage o f
s e e m i n g c a u t i o n a n d s t r i c t m e t h o d o l o g y : L i n g u i s t s can keep t o
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n a closed sys-
t e m , whereas b o r r o w i n g s are m o s t l y i n f e r r e d f r o m s i m i l a r i t i e s
o f s o u n d s t h a t m a y be f o r t u i t o u s . B u t i t is precisely m e t h o d o l -
o g y w h i c h is the p r o b l e m . G r e e k language, at any rate the l i t -
erary Greek t h a t w e k n o w , a b s o l u t e l y rejects the use o f u n -
adapted foreign words; t h e y are accepted o n l y i n perfectly
a s s i m i l a t e d f o r m as t o p h o n e t i c s and i n f l e x i o n . T h u s there can
be n o m e t h o d t o discover b o r r o w e d w o r d s : T h e y i m i t a t e and g o
i n t o h i d i n g , a d a p t i n g themselves t o the r o o t s a n d suffixes o f n a -
tive Greek. I n g e n e r a l , l o a n - w o r d s can be established defini-
t i v e l y o n l y o n t h e basis o f d e t a i l e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n f r o m both
sides. T h e w o r d hammock,
6
derived f r o m some A m e r i c a n Indian
language, has b e c o m e Hängematte, hanging mat, in German,
w h i c h l o o k s p e r f e c t l y i n d i g e n o u s — u n t i l w i t h a second o r t h i r d
l o o k o n e m a y realize t h a t there is n o t , i n fact, a m a t w h i c h is
h a n g i n g . P o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y plays its r o l e i n m e t a m o r p h o s i s ;
n o rules o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n can be established. E v e n the c o r -
respondence o f m e a n i n g is s e l d o m perfect; p a r t i a l m i s u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g s take place all t h e t i m e . T h u s the s i t u a t i o n as far as the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . is c o n c e r n e d appears t o be hopeless: Greek
documentation is sparse, limited almost exclusively t o the
h i g h l y specialized sphere o f G r e e k epic d i c t i o n . T h e n e i g h b o r -
i n g languages, A r a m a i c a n d P h o e n i c i a n , are k n o w n m a i n l y
t h r o u g h casual i n s c r i p t i o n s ; the rest o f t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n is
l o s t . F o r a c o n s c i e n t i o u s j u d g e , a c q u i t t a l b y lack o f evidence w i l l
be t h e r e s u l t again a n d a g a i n — a n d yet the o u t c o m e o f m i n i m a l -
35
i s m , a r r i v e d at i n this f a s h i o n , m u s t be a b s o l u t e l y false, as a
general c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s w i l l show. The under-
w o r l d o f l o a n - w o r d s is s t i l l t h e r e , c a m o u f l a g e d b u t i n f l u e n t i a l .
We can a t t e m p t t o penetrate b e y o n d r h y m i n g games w i t h e x -
t e r n a l assonances b y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s
e i t h e r b e t w e e n n a m e s a n d concrete objects a n d s k i l l s , o r b e -
tween groups o f terms w h i c h belong together. I n a d d i t i o n , very
specific, particularly m u l t i s y l l a b i c phonetic units and specific
s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g are i n d i c a t i v e o f c u l t u r a l transfer, even i f
m o r e c o n t e x t c a n n o t be p r o d u c e d , because t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
coincidental h o m o n y m y becomes exceedingly small.
I f we l o o k over the list o f recognized Semitic l o a n - w o r d s i n
the G r e e k l a n g u a g e , a n o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e m a k e s its appearance:
T h e S e m i t i c o r i g i n o f c e r t a i n t e r m s o f trade a n d t r a d e d g o o d s is
gladly conceded, 7
f o l l o w i n g , i t is t o be suspected, t h a t o n c e -
prevalent n o t i o n o f " t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h " activities; w h a t remain
o b l i t e r a t e d are t h e areas o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p , w a r f a r e , a n d w r i t t e n
culture, although, given historical circumstances, these are
l i k e l y t o have been n o less i m p o r t a n t .
T h e list o f t r a d e d g o o d s w i t h S e m i t i c n a m e s is i m p r e s s i v e i n -
deed. 8
Chrysos, g o l d , a n d chiton, g a r m e n t (related t o t h e w o r d
cotton), are t h e t w o i m p o r t a n t b o r r o w i n g s w h i c h are already i n
evidence i n the Mycenaean Linear B documents and w h i c h there-
f o r e offer p r o o f o f business traffic i n the B r o n z e A g e . Other
k i n d s o f f a b r i c , s u c h as sindon, othone, bussos, s i m i l a r l y pene-
t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k as, n a t u r a l l y , d i d A r a b i a n specialties such as
libanos a n d murra, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h , a n d o t h e r spices such
as nardos, kasia, kannabis, kinnamomon, m i n e r a l s such as naphtha
a n d nitron, a n d p l a n t s such as krokos a n d sasamon, crocus and
sesame. The expression lipa aleiphesthai, " t o anoint oneself
r i c h l y w i t h o i l , " m a y easily g o w i t h nitron. 9
The Akkadian word
f o r f i n e l y g r o u n d flour, samidu, b e c a m e semidalis i n G r e e k a n d is
still current i n m o d e r n G r e e k . 1 0
I n a d d i t i o n there are t h e names
o f c o n t a i n e r s a n d vessels such as kados, sipye, a n d — q u i t e a fre-
quent word—lekane, corresponding to Aramaean laqna; here
p o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y has p r o d u c e d t h e m i r a g e o f a suffix i n c u r -
r e n t use i n G r e e k , -ane. n
I f alabastron b e l o n g s t o g e t h e r w i t h the
36
A k k a d i a n algameshu a n d t h e H e b r a i c dlgabish, there is o n l y v e r y

partial correspondence; w i t h smaragdos, s m a r a g d , w h i c h is bar-
raqtu i n A k k a d i a n , pa-ra-ku i n Mycenaean, bar'qa in Aramaic,
and marakatam i n S a n s k r i t , i t seems pointless t o t r y t o f o l l o w the
p a t h o f the w o r d t h r o u g h t h e o r i e n t a l b a z a a r s . 12
More clear
seems t o be kalche f o r a f o r m o f p u r p l e , w h i c h p o i n t s t o crafts-
m a n s h i p as w e l l as t o t r a d i n g ; b y c o n t r a s t kuanos,
1 3
a blue sub-
stance used f o r c o l o u r i n g , is traced t o H i t t i t e kuwanna. u
How
c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s can be is s h o w n i n t h e case o f kaunakas,
w o o l l e n r o b e : t h e w o r d is Persian a n d passed i n t o A k k a d i a n as
w e l l as i n t o G r e e k i n w h i c h the resonances o f nakos, sheepskin,
m a y w e l l have p l a y e d a p a r t . 1 5
F r o m t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f traders w e find, next to the c o m m o n

w o r d gaulos, s h i p , also t h e irreplaceable sakkos, sack; the m a r k e t ,
makellon; 16
a n d above all t h e u n i t o f w e i g h t a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ,
t h e m i n a — A k k a d i a n mana, G r e e k mnea, mna; 17
h a r d l y less i m -
p o r t a n t is t h e t e r m f o r d o w n p a y m e n t o r deposit, arrabon,
n o w attested b y a c o m m e r c i a l l e t t e r ( S E G 38, 1036) f r o m the
fifth century. T h e m i n a became one o f the m o s t c o m m o n l y
used G r e e k n a m e s f o r w e i g h t a n d c u r r e n c y w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e
s t a m p o f its M e s o p o t a m i a n o r i g i n s : I t is here a n d , f o r the archaic
p e r i o d , o n l y here t h a t the B a b y l o n i a n sexagesimal s y s t e m was
a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s , as s i x t y m i n a s m a k e u p one talent. T h i s
t e r m f o r the h i g h e r u n i t , t h e t a l e n t (talantori), has an ancient
G r e e k a n d i n fact I n d o - E u r o p e a n n a m e ; at least i n d i r e c t l y i t is
attested i n M y c e n a e a n . Yet there is n o trace o f the m i n a and the
sexagesimal s y s t e m i n t h e w e l l - k n o w n M y c e n a e a n system of
w e i g h t s a n d measures. T h u s w e m a y be c o n f i d e n t t h a t i n this
case w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p o s t - M y c e n a e a n b o r r o w i n g o n the
trading route f r o m Carchemish o n the Euphrates to North
S y r i a , r e a c h i n g t h e L u w i a n s a n d finally the Greeks.
P r e s u m a b l y t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach f u r t h e r t h a n can s t r i c t l y be
p r o v e d . T h e m i n a was, above a l l , the u n i t o f w e i g h t used for
m e a s u r i n g silver. T h e r e are silver i n g o t s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m Z i n -
c i r l i , m i n a s o f a p p a r e n t l y s t a n d a r d i z e d w e i g h t w h i c h bear the
incised name o f K i n g B a r r a k i b o f S a m ' a l - Z i n c i r l i (732-72o); 1R
these are n o t e w o r t h y antecedents o f m i n t e d m o n e y , w h i c h came
37
i n t o use a b o u t o n e c e n t u r y later. T o scratch, t o incise, is harasu

i n A k k a d i a n , charaxai in Greek. 1 9
T h i s then became the t e r m for
the m i n t i n g o f G r e e k c o i n s , a l t h o u g h i n t h a t case i t was n o t
actually the c o i n b u t rather the m o l d , n o w called charaktet;
w h i c h was i n c i s e d d i r e c t l y . T h e t e r m scratcher seems t o p o i n t
back t o a practice w h i c h precedes t h e s t r i k i n g o f coins, a practice
w h i c h is s h o w n m o s t c l e a r l y i n t h e talents o f Z i n c i r l i . B o r r o w -
i n g o r coincidence? A k k a d i a n uses the same r o o t t o designate
e n t r e n c h m e n t s f o r t i f i e d w i t h palisades, harisu, w h i l e t h e palisade
w a l l o r even t h e i n d i v i d u a l palisades are called charax i n G r e e k .
T h a t t h e same r o o t is used t w i c e i n t w o n o t n a t u r a l l y n e i g h b o r -
i n g areas o f m e a n i n g i n t w o d i f f e r e n t languages is s t r i k i n g . A n -
o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n w o r t h a d d i n g here is t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e use
o f t h e G r e e k p r e p o s i t i o n ana i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h n u m b e r s , ana
dyo, " t w o each," seems s o m e w h a t r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l
m e a n i n g o f this p r e p o s i t i o n , " u p w a r d s , " b u t c o r r e s p o n d s ex-
a c t l y t o the A k k a d i a n p r e p o s i t i o n ana. 20
Is t h i s a k i n d o f S y r i a n
business slang, s i m i l a r t o t h e F r e n c h a used i n a s i m i l a r sense i n
G e r m a n accounting?
T o r e t u r n t o w h a t is d e f i n i t e a n d g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d : I n the
sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n the w o r d kanon appears as t h e clearest
e x a m p l e o f b o r r o w i n g . O f c o u r s e t h e general w o r d f o r reed o r
cane, canna, is c u r r e n t i n the w h o l e o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d ;
b u t t h e specialized use o f t h i s t e r m f o r m e a s u r i n g s t i c k , qan min-
dati i n A k k a d i a n , q'neh hammiddah i n H e b r e w , is less n a t u r a l , b u t
so w e l l attested t h a t n o o n e w i l l h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e G r e e k s h i t
u p o n this use o f " r e e d s " e n t i r e l y o n t h e i r o w n . 2 1
T h e appearance
o f the t e r m i n G r e e k , h o w e v e r , means t h a t a basic t o o l a n d c o n -
cept o f b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n has been i m p o r t e d . I n a d d i t i o n
there are t h e t e r m s titanos, l i m e , 2 2
andgypson, plaster, 23
b u t above
all even t h e clay b r i c k , plinthos, w h i c h seems t o c o m e f r o m the
A k k a d i a n *Hbintu, libittu. 24
T h u s t h e basic t e r m o f M e s o p o t a -
m i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e has m a d e its w a y t o Greece. Just as the G e r -
mans a p p a r e n t l y first l e a r n t h o w t o b u i l d a s o l i d w a l l f r o m the
R o m a n s , Mauer d e r i v e d f r o m L a t i n mums, as o p p o s e d t o a loose
p a r t i t i o n , Wand, m a d e f r o m w a n d s , so the Greeks l e a r n t the art
o f b u i l d i n g w a l l s t o m e a s u r e f r o m b r i c k s , l i m e , a n d plaster f r o m
38
the eastern c r a f t s m e n . E v e n the w o r d f o r axe, axine, coincides

w i t h A k k a d i a n hassinnu; 25
a n d t h a t w o r d f o r b o o t h , barracks, o r
tent w h i c h was t o have a b r i l l i a n t career, skana/skene—hence
scene—is m o s t p r o b a b l y an A s s y r i a n - A r a m a i c maskanu 2b
from
the m o s t c o m m o n r o o t sakanu, " t o set u p " ; w h e t h e r t h e w o r d
was i n t r o d u c e d i n the sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n o r t h e soldier r e -
m a i n s i n q u e s t i o n . A s t o c r a f t s m e n , the characteristic expression
"sons o f c r a f t s m e n " c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r c o m m o n e l e m e n t . 27
I t is
also possible t h a t t h e n o b l e - s o u n d i n g w o r d cheironax f o r the
craftsman, literally " l o r d o f hands," is b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y ,
being translated f r o m H i t t i t e . 2 8
T h e n a m e solos f o r the m e t a l i n -
got points in a similar direction, to "Late Hittites" o f C i l i c i a . 2 9
T h u s i n t h e sphere o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p a p i c t u r e arises even f r o m

l i n g u i s t i c data w h i c h ties i n w i t h the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y demon-
strable i n f l u x o f o r i e n t a l skills a n d p r o d u c t s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n -
t u r y . F o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o r i e n t a l i c o n o g r a p h y o n e s h o u l d bear
i n m i n d t h a t n o t o n l y the l i o n — l i s — b e a r s a S e m i t i c n a m e , b u t
3 0
also t h e b u l l — t a u r o s — h a s a clear S e m i t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 31
Still
the e x a m p l e plinthos-libittu shows h o w m u c h transformation,
even b o w d l e r i z a t i o n can o c c u r w i t h l o a n - w o r d s : I t is the o b j e c t
r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h o n e t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h makes the b o r -
r o w i n g p l a u s i b l e . M u c h r e m a i n s i n the gray area o f the u n p r o v -
able, especially as t h e t e c h n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y o f early c r a f t s m e n is
o n l y p a t c h i l y k n o w n t o us even i n G r e e k .
T h e same is t r u e o f a n o t h e r area i n w h i c h there w e r e p r o -
l o n g e d a n d close contacts: the m i l i t a r y sphere o f mercenaries. I n
the p e r t i n e n t v o c a b u l a r y there are a n u m b e r o f suggestive reso-
nances, b u t n o n e o f the s u p p o s e d b o r r o w e d w o r d s has m e t w i t h
general r e c o g n i t i o n . O n e c o u l d n a m e the w o r d f o r s c i m i t a r ,
harpe, n e x t t o t h e A r a m a i c harba, s w o r d ; 3 2
o r perhaps skylon for
l o o t e d w e a p o n a n d sylan for l o o t i n g , 3 3
o r even macha, battle,
w i t h machessasthai, " t o f i g h t , " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e general Se-
m i t i c w o r d f o r " t o h i t , " mahasu i n A k k a d i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h A r -
a m a i c maha, b a t t l e : T h e h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r o o t ,
i r r e g u l a r f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f the G r e e k , c o u l d i n d i c a t e
external influences. 34
I n a d d i t i o n the G r e e k w a r c r y alala c o u l d be
c a t e g o r i z e d w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g A k k a d i a n c r y o f alala—and
39
f i n a l l y even w i t h H a l l e l u j a h . 3 5
T h e s e are serious p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t
t h e y w i l l g e n e r a l l y m e e t w i t h d e r i s i o n ; f o r m a n y i t w o u l d be
unacceptable t o t h i n k o f H e l l e n i c w a r r i o r s d e p e n d i n g o n S e m i t i c
p r o t o t y p e s even i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e . S t i l l , f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t
o f view, the m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f the Assyrians preceded the Greek
polis, a n d , as far as t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f w e a p o n r y is c o n c e r n e d , i n
p a r t i c u l a r t h e h o p l i t e s h i e l d , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e East is o b -
vious. 3 6
T h e search f o r o r i e n t a l b o r r o w i n g s i n n a m e s f r o m Greek
m y t h stands, as is t o be e x p e c t e d , o n particularly uncertain
ground. 3 7
G r e a t c a u t i o n s h o u l d also be e x e r c i s e d w i t h t h e t e r -
m i n o l o g y o f r i t u a l practice. References t o possible b o r r o w i n g s
i n t h i s f i e l d w i l l be g i v e n i n t h e n e x t chapter as s u g g e s t i v e p o s -
s i b i l i t i e s , f o r the sake o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , as i t w e r e ; t h e y c a n n o t be
used as i n d e p e n d e n t a r g u m e n t s . 3 8
T h e r e r e m a i n unclear rela-
t i o n s h i p s , such as G r e e k pallake, c o n c u b i n e , n e x t t o H e b r e w pi-
Idgds, A r a m a i c palqta. 39
I n a n y case, the k i n d o f m i n i m a l i s m t h a t
rejects a l l c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e S e m i t i c w h i c h are n o t c r y s t a l
clear r e m a i n s , o n t h e w h o l e , t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f possible h y -
potheses.
40
C H A P T E R T W O
"A SEER O R A HEALER"

Magic and Medicine from East to West
"Craftsmen of the Sacred": Mobility and Family Structure
Seers a n d d o c t o r s are t h e first e n u m e r a t e d b y H o m e r as m i g r a n t

"craftsmen," i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m a c o m m u n i t y w o u l d be c o n -
cerned t o a t t r a c t . T h e y are specialists o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d , h a v -
i n g t h e i r a r t — t e c h n e — w h i c h n o o n e else can master. Seers and
d o c t o r s appear closely c o n n e c t e d , at least i n t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d -
i n g t h e " H i p p o c r a t i c " era. T h e change is d o c u m e n t e d i n the
fifth-century treatise On the Sacred Disease a t t r i b u t e d t o H i p p o c -
rates, w h i c h scorns t h e c a t h a r t i c healer i n the n a m e o f n a t u r e ;
before t h a t caesura, seer a n d healer m i g h t even be i d e n t i c a l , as
the c o n c e p t o f a life characterized b y i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n ,
telestikos kai mantikos bios, i n d i c a t e s . 1
A modern-day prejudice
against all charlatans s h o u l d n o t o b s c u r e the i m p o r t a n c e i n a n -
cient societies o f therapies based o n r i t u a l and r e l i g i o n . E v e n
t o d a y i t is h a r d l y d i s p u t e d t h a t , i n i n d i v i d u a l cases, a s t o u n d i n g
success can be achieved b y such means, a n d seers w i t h a v a r i e t y
o f technai e n j o y g o o d business.
" H e w h o m a k e s the sacred his craft [techne]" is the m e m o r a b l e
d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n i n t h e D e r v e n i p a p y r u s o f p e o p l e w h o special-
ize i n p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i o n s . I n a s i m i l a r v e i n S t r a b o refers t o " t h e
D i o n y s i a c a n d O r p h i c crafts," whereas for t h e H i p p o c r a t i c p o -
l e m i c i s t such a t e c h n i c i a n is r a t h e r " b a n a u s i c . " 2
B u t even this
4i
a u t h o r a d m i t s t h a t m i g r a n t seers a n d healers pose as bearers o f

s o m e special k n o w l e d g e . I n fact successful c h a r i s m a t i c special-
ists b e c a m e , as t h e y can t o d a y , w i d e l y s o u g h t - a f t e r personalities;
t h e y c o u l d cross f r o n t i e r s even m o r e easily a n d m o r e o f t e n t h a n
o t h e r c r a f t s m e n w i t h s i m p l e r s k i l l s . B e i n g t h e m o b i l e bearers o f
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s deserve p a r -
t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n as t o c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s . 3
I n fact t h e y represent
the i n t e l l e c t u a l elite o f t h e t i m e w i t h a chance t o achieve i n t e r -
n a t i o n a l status.
T h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f t h e m o b i l i t y o f m a g i c - w i e l d i n g seers a l -
ready i n the ancient O r i e n t . T h e k i n g o f M o a b s u m m o n e d B i -
l e a m f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s t o c o m e a n d t o curse Israel, b u t t h e
s p i r i t o f G o d w h i c h c a m e u p o n the seer m a d e h i m p r o n o u n c e
blessings i n s t e a d . 4
I n the A m a r n a correspondence b o t h p h y s i -
cians a n d seers are requested t o be sent, b y t h e k i n g o f U g a r i t as
w e l l as b y t h e k i n g o f t h e H i t t i t e s ; one k i n g o f Alasia-Cyprus
has need o f an " e a g l e - d i v i n e r , " a b i r d a u g u r f r o m E g y p t . 5
King
Muwatallis o f Hattusa ordered a conjurer f r o m B a b y l o n . 6
I n the
m o r e m a r g i n a l r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e p o w e r o f t h e k i n g s was less,
the i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e seer was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y enhanced. H e
c o u l d t r a v e l freely o n his o w n i n i t i a t i v e , as is seen i n b o t h Greece
a n d I s r a e l . A s was t h e case w i t h l o c a l c r a f t s m e n , free e n t e r p r i s e
7
d e v e l o p e d i n t h e G r e e k w o r l d i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e special status a
seer c o u l d achieve i n a c i t y is i m p r e s s i v e l y s h o w n i n the case o f
Teisamenos, w h o c l a i m e d descent f r o m t h e m y t h i c a l seer M e -
l a m p u s : H e c o u l d enforce his c o n d i t i o n s o n Sparta even against
ancestral c u s t o m — a n d was f i n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e " v i c t o r " i n the
b a t t l e o f Plataea (479 B . C . ) . 8
P l a t o , b y c o n t r a s t , speaks i n tones
o f c o n t e m p t o f those " b e g g a r - p r i e s t s and seers" w h o t e n d e r e d
t h e i r sevices " a t t h e d o o r s o f t h e r i c h " ; a n d yet he reveals t h a t
t h e y c o u l d c o n v i n c e " w h o l e c i t i e s . " I n a b o u t 600 B . C . A t h e n s
9
s u m m o n e d Epimenides the C r e t a n d i v i n e r to purge the city o f

the C y l o n i a n s a c r i l e g e ; 10
s i m i l a r l y after 466 Sparta s u m m o n e d
n e c r o m a n c e r s f r o m P h i g a l i a because the i n a u s p i c i o u s d e a t h o f
Pausanias h a d p o l l u t e d t h e p r e c i n c t o f A t h e n a . 1 1
Already around
670 Thaletas o f G o r t y n h a d d e l i v e r e d Sparta f r o m a p l a g u e . 1 2
H i s teacher O n o m a k r i t o s the L o k r i a n , w e are t o l d , h a d w a n -
42
" A S E E R O R A H E A L E R "
dered as far as C r e t e , " s t a y i n g there o n a c c o u n t o f his m a n t i c

c r a f t " — t h e t e r m f o r a t e m p o r a r y s o j o u r n , epidemia,
1 3
typically
used o f m i g r a n t p h y s i c i a n s , can e q u a l l y be a p p l i e d t o seers. A c -
c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , D i o t i m a came t o A t h e n s f r o m M a n t i n e a a n d ,
" f o r those w h o m a d e sacrifices as she d i r e c t e d , she achieved a
delay o f the a d v e n t o f t h e p l a g u e f o r t e n y e a r s . " 14
I n the p u r i f i -
c a t i o n p o e m o f E m p e d o c l e s t h e m i g r a n t life o f the seer is g i v e n
a basic e x i s t e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n : " B a n i s h e d from t h e gods and
w a n d e r i n g a b o u t , " t h i s is E m p e d o c l e s ' o w n s i t u a t i o n , a n d j u s t
f o r t h i s reason he can pose as a g o d . 1 5
E v e r y o n e w h o chose t o take u p a career o f i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v -

i n a t i o n d i d so o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d at his o w n r i s k . T h e r e
was n o m o n a s t i c i s m , there w e r e n o r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s . A n d yet
these p e o p l e e n j o y e d a c e r t a i n status r e c o g n i z e d b y t r a d i t i o n ;
t h e y also c l a i m e d t o r e l y o n s o m e d e f i n i t e filiation o f doctrine
o r t e c h n i q u e : E a c h o f t h e m i g r a n t charismatics has his " f a t h e r , "
be i t his n a t u r a l father o r his teacher w h o , t h r o u g h t h e a p p r e n -
t i c e s h i p , has m a d e h i m his s o n , i n d e e d , w h o o f t e n f o r m a l l y
a d o p t e d h i m . G r e e k seers t e n d t o present themselves i n f a m i l y
groups. T h e m o s t famous were the M e l a m p o d i d a e , to w h o m
T e i s a m e n o s was r e l a t e d . 1 6
T h e I a m i d a e f r o m O l y m p i a and the
K l y t i a d a e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m w e r e n o less p r o u d o f t h e i r a n -
cestry, a n d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s lasted f o r centuries. T h e Telmissians
i n K a r i a , t o o , w e r e a " m a n t i c f a m i l y " (genos)." Even more en-
d u r i n g was t h e success o f t h e p r i e s t - f a m i l i e s i n Eleusis, t h e E u -
m o l p i d a e a n d t h e K e r y k e s , w h o o f f i c i a t e d f o r a b o u t one m i l l e n -
n i u m u n t i l the mysteries were finally o u t l a w e d b y the C h r i s t i a n
emperor. 1 8
I t was possible f o r a m e m b e r o f t h e f a m i l y t o t u r n t o
t r a v e l l i n g a n d t o b e c o m e successful i n f o r e i g n parts as a special-
ist i n sacred m a t t e r s , as T i m o t h e o s d i d w i t h t h e first P t o l e m y i n
Alexandria. 1 9
B u t w e see f a m i l y lines d e v e l o p i n g even o u t s i d e
the established clans. A f e w details are s u p p l i e d b y t h e t r i a l
speech Aiginetikos o f Isocrates: 20
Polemainetos t h e successful
seer—"Praised i n War," a telling n a m e ? — h i m s e l f childless,
chose T h r a s y l l o s t o be his successor a n d b e q u e a t h e d h i m his
" a r t , " his b o o k s , a n d his m o n e y . T h r a s y l l o s " m a d e use o f the
a r t , " b e c a m e v e r y h i g h l y r e g a r d e d , a n d amassed such a large
43
fortune t h a t the c h i l d r e n f r o m his v a r i o u s m a r r i a g e s c o n t i n u e d

t o l i t i g a t e over i t l o n g after his d e a t h . H e h a d m a r r i e d i n t o a
n o b l e f a m i l y o n S i p h n o s , a n d t h i s was a p p a r e n t l y t h e e n d o f t h e
seer t r a d i t i o n i n his l i n e . B u t s u c h an art c o u l d be r e v i v e d w h e n
necessary: T h e m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s t h e o r a t o r , c a r i c a t u r e d b y
his b i t t e r e n e m y D e m o s t h e n e s as a w i t c h l i k e priestess o f arcane
m y s t e r i e s , was, a c c o r d i n g t o an i n s c r i p t i o n , descended f r o m a
f a m i l y o f seers i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f A m p h i a r a o s ; b o t h father a n d
b r o t h e r s w e r e p r a c t i c i n g seers, and e v i d e n t l y she h e r s e l f d i d
w h a t she c o u l d t o s u p p o r t t h e f a m i l y f i n a n c i a l l y t h r o u g h her
special " c r a f t . " 2 1
A decree o f K i n g P t o l e m y P h i l o p a t o r a r o u n d
210 B . C . s u m m o n e d a l l those w h o p r a c t i c e d t h e D i o n y s i a c m y s -
teries i n E g y p t t o r e g i s t e r i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d t o declare "from
w h o m t h e y have received t h e sacred t h i n g s , u p t o three g e n e r a -
tions." 2 2
We see t h a t a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e telestic craft n o t o n l y
h a d t o l e g i t i m a t e h i m s e l f b y g i v i n g t h e n a m e o f his i m m e d i a t e
teacher, b u t also h a d t o k n o w w h o his s p i r i t u a l g r a n d f a t h e r and
g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r w e r e . O n e m a y also c o m p a r e t h e fact t h a t t h e
c i t y M a g n e s i a o n t h e M a e a n d e r s u m m o n e d three maenads f r o m
T h e b e s , f r o m t h e f a m i l y o f I n o — t h a t is, a c c o r d i n g t o m y t h , t h e
o r i g i n a l maenads w h o h a d t e n d e d D i o n y s u s — t o o r g a n i z e t h e
new Dionysian mysteries. 2 3
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t secret k n o w l e d g e be passed o n o n l y t o
an actual s o n appears i n a l c h e m i c a l w r i t i n g s a n d i n t h e m a g i c a l
papyri. 2 4
H o w e v e r , t h i s m a n d a t e already a p p l i e d t o t h e o r g a n i -
z a t i o n s o f t h e e a r l y G r e e k p h y s i c i a n s . B e s t k n o w n is the " f a m -
i l y " o f the Asclepiads, 25
a l t h o u g h i t was h a r d l y u n i q u e . T h e fa-
m o u s H i p p o c r a t i c O a t h has o b l i g a t i o n s f o r t h e p u p i l w h i c h are
the e q u i v a l e n t o f a de facto a d o p t i o n . 2 6
N o less s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the
H i p p o c r a t i c nomos m a k e s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the k n o w l e d g e an
i n i t i a t i o n i n t o m y s t e r i e s : " H o l y t h i n g s are s h o w n t o h o l y m e n ;
s u c h t h i n g s are n o t p e r m i t t e d f o r t h e p r o f a n e u n t i l t h e y are i n i -
t i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e rites o f k n o w l e d g e . " 2 7
Precisely t h i s c o n n e c t i o n o f sacred s k i l l s w i t h f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n
a n d t h e m a n d a t e o f e s o t e r i c i s m can already be f o u n d i n c u n e i -
f o r m documents. These c o n t a i n extensive i n f o r m a t i o n about
m a n y k i n d s o f seers a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m a g i c . E v e n i n the o r -
44
" A S E E R OR A H E A L E R "
d i n a r y crafts the s o n takes o v e r the art f r o m the father so that

the t r u e c r a f t s m a n is called t h e " s o n o f the master craftsman"
(mar ummani); the C o d e x H a m m u r a p i makes the l e a r n i n g o f a
craft a de facto a d o p t i o n . 2 8
O n the T y s k i e w i c z b o w l f o u n d i n
Italy, P h o e n i c i a n artists s i g n as "sons o f the f o u n d r y m e n . " 2 9
Cor-
respondingly, a t r u e seer is a " s o n o f a seer"; i n his i n c a n t a t i o n
he presents h i m s e l f as " t h e k n o w i n g o n e , son o f the master
craftsman." 3 0
" T h e secrets o f asipu-zvt, the k n o w i n g one shall
s h o w t h e m t o the k n o w i n g one; he w h o does n o t k n o w does
n o t see t h e m ; t o y o u r son w h o m y o u l o v e , m a k e h i m p r o n o u n c e
the n a m e o f g o d A s a l l u h i a n d g o d N i n u r t a , a n d s h o w h i m " : this
is the p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f esoteric w i s d o m i n i n c a n -
tation texts; 31
or, i n o t h e r w o r d s : " T h e w i s e one makes his son
. . . take the o a t h ; he m a k e s h i m l e a r n . " 3 2
T h u s the peculiar
practice o f t a k i n g an o a t h t o ensure t h a t k n o w l e d g e remains
w i t h i n the f a m i l y is c o m m o n t o the B a b y l o n i a n m a g i c i a n s a n d
t o the H i p p o c r a t i c s . D i o d o r u s r e p o r t s t h a t w i t h the Chaldaeans,
t o o , the secret art o f a s t r o l o g y is r e g u l a r l y a c q u i r e d b y the son
f r o m the f a t h e r . 33
A s i m i l a r craft is f o u n d i n the West i n w h i c h the father-son

l i n e was p r e s e r v e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r zeal even w h e n s p r e a d i n g t o
f o r e i g n areas, a n d this was p a r t o f its success: t h a t o f E t r u s c a n
haruspices. 34
I n R o m e this art was always left t o the specialists
f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g E t r u r i a . Tacitus states e x p r e s s l y that the n o b l e
E t r u s c a n families reserved t h i s k n o w l e d g e f o r themselves and
passed i t o n o n l y w i t h i n the f a m i l y ; already C i c e r o takes t h i s for
granted. 3 5
I t c a n n o t s e r i o u s l y be d o u b t e d , even i n the absence o f
d i r e c t d o c u m e n t a t i o n , t h a t t h i s practice goes back t o the great
p e r i o d o f E t r u r i a — t h a t is, back t o the archaic p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g
t o the R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s , the haruspices officiated even i n the age
o f the k i n g s ; t h e y t e l l h o w A t t u s N a v i u s t o o k an apprenticeship
w i t h the E t r u s c a n s . 36
T h i s u l t i m a t e l y leads back t o the o r i e n t a l -
izing period o f Etruria.
I t is t r u e t h a t such f a m i l y - b a s e d practice can c o m e i n t o b e i n g
i n m a n y places a n d cultures w i t h o u t contacts o r dependence.
Similar ties within the "family" are reported for Egyptian
priests as w e l l as f o r I r a n i a n magi b u t m a y also easily be f o u n d
45
elsewhere. 37
N e v e r t h e l e s s there is a l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t y t h a t a p -
pears t o p o i n t t o a n a r r o w e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S e m i t i c a n d
G r e e k usage: I n t h e r e a l m o f c r a f t s m e n a n d o f seers, o f healers
a n d p h y s i c i a n s , t h e r e appears i n A k k a d i a n , P h o e n i c i a n , a n d H e -
b r e w o n the one hand and i n Greek o n the other, the expression
" s o n s o f . . ." t o designate t h e c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p : 3 8
"sons o f Ascle-
p i u s " b u t also " s o n s o f p a i n t e r s " i n P l a t o ; 3 9
"sons o f p h i l o s o -
p h e r s " b e c a m e a c o m m o n , s l i g h t l y i r o n i c e x p r e s s i o n later o n .
T h a t the agreement between the Semitic and the Greek idio-
m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n is n o t j u s t n a t u r a l b u t s i g n i f i c a n t can be m e a -
s u r e d b y t h e fact t h a t an e x p r e s s i o n such as " t h e c h i l d r e n o f
I s r a e l " w i l l s t i l l be r e c o g n i z a b l e as a S e m i t i s m . I t is t r u e t h a t w e
also f i n d " s o n s o f t h e A c h a e a n s " i n H o m e r , hence also "sons o f
the L y d i a n s " a n d s i m i l a r t e r m s i n H e r o d o t u s a n d later t o d e s i g -
nate n a t i o n s . T h i s t o o is f u l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o eastern p r a c t i c e . 40
T h e Christian Gnostics b o r r o w e d a corresponding expression

afresh f r o m t h e S e m i t i c s i d e . 41
We have m u c h less d i r e c t e v i -
dence f o r t h e earlier p e r i o d s ; b u t t h e general s i t u a t i o n s t r e n g t h -
ens t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f c u l t u r a l transfer even at t h a t t i m e .
Hepatoscopy
T h a t the E t r u s c a n disciplina o f t a k i n g o m e n s f r o m l i v e r inspec-

t i o n (hepatoscopy, haruspicina) s h o w s r e m a r k a b l y close c o r r e s p o n -
dence t o t h e f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a a n d
t h a t this can best be e x p l a i n e d as t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a " s c h o o l "
f r o m B a b y l o n t o E t r u r i a has been established since t h e d e c i -
pherment o f cuneiform. 1
However, this correspondence has
b a r e l y been discussed w i t h i n t h e general f r a m e w o r k o f a c u l t u r a l
e x c h a n g e . T h e r e are i n d e e d specific p r o b l e m s o f c o m p a r i s o n
even here: T h e c u n e i f o r m m a t e r i a l is o v e r a b u n d a n t , b u t m u c h
o f i t s t i l l lacks d e f i n i t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e E t r u s c a n m a t e r i a l , o n
2
the o t h e r h a n d , is l o s t a n d can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y piecemeal

f r o m L a t i n and Greek texts. T h e correspondence between E t r u s -
can a n d A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y became e v i d e n t as s o o n as t h e
E t r u s c a n b r o n z e l i v e r f o u n d at Piacenza was c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
3
A s s y r i a n clay m o d e l o f a l i v e r i n t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( F i g u r e 3 ) ; 4
46
A S E E R OR A H E A L E R "
Figure 3. TOP: Liver model in clay, with cuneiform inscription, from

Mesopotamia, eighteenth century B. C. B O T T O M : Liver model in bronze,
with Etruscan inscription, from Piacenza, third century B. C.
47
f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s have s u b s e q u e n t l y c o m e t o l i g h t . T h e a g e - o l d
practice o f a n i m a l s l a u g h t e r b r i n g s w i t h i t m a n y unforeseeable
a n d u n c a n n y details; t h e l i v e r i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h its c o m p l i c a t e d
a n d c h a n g i n g f o r m , seems t o i n v i t e a t t e m p t s at o r a c u l a r i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h i s reason t h e d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r i -
e n t a l a n d E t r u s c a n l o r e has been b r o u g h t i n t o d o u b t a g a i n . 5
And
yet t o b u i l d a s y s t e m s p e c i f i c a l l y o n t h e s l a u g h t e r o f sheep, t o
m a n u f a c t u r e d e m o n s t r a t i o n m o d e l s o f sheep l i v e r s f r o m clay
a n d m e t a l a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s f o r t h e sake o f
e x p l a n a t i o n , is s o m e t h i n g p e c u l i a r f o u n d precisely along the
c o r r i d o r f r o m the Euphrates via Syria and C y p r u s to E t r u r i a . I t
can even be s h o w n t h a t b o t h t h e A s s y r i a n a n d t h e Etruscan
models diverge f r o m nature i n a similar way; 6
t h a t is, t h e y are
derived n o t directly f r o m observation but f r o m c o m m o n tradi-
tional lore.
M o d e l s o f l i v e r s are t h e c o n c r e t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r
the d i f f u s i o n o f M e s o p o t a m i a n hepatoscopy. Besides M e s o p o -
t a m i a such m o d e l s have been f o u n d since t h e B r o n z e A g e w i t h
the H i t t i t e s o f A s i a M i n o r ; i n A l a l a k h , T e l l el H a j j , a n d U g a r i t
i n S y r i a ; i n H a z o r a n d M e g i d d o i n Palestine; a n d also o n Cy-
p r u s . A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y was p r a c t i c e d at Tarsos i n C i l i c i a i n
the t i m e o f t h e A s s y r i a n s . 7
B y contrast, the Etruscan examples,
so far as is k n o w n , date f r o m t h e t h i r d a n d second centuries B . C .
T h u s , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h contacts i n H e l -
l e n i s t i c t i m e s c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
8
the balance o f
p r o b a b i l i t i e s speaks against i t : A t t h a t t i m e , the g o l d e n age o f
E t r u r i a lay far i n t h e past. B u t t h e i n t e r n a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e E t r u s -
can disciplinae goes b a c k t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y , as is seen f r o m
t h e i r s y s t e m o f saecula —that
9
is, t o precisely t h a t p e r i o d w h o s e
g l o r y is reflected i n so m a n y o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s . 1 0
The esoteric
f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n o f t h e haruspices guaranteed the preservation o f
the k n o w l e d g e u n a l t e r e d . I f t h a t k n o w l e d g e ever a r r i v e d f r o m
elsewhere, i t m u s t have d o n e so at an early p e r i o d w h i c h was
s t i l l r e c e p t i v e , before t h e discipline! became fixed.
T h i s fact is c o n f i r m e d f r o m t h e G r e e k side. I t seems t h a t h e p -

a t o s c o p y h a d n o place i n the o l d e r strata o f H o m e r i c epic, b u t i t
m a k e s its appearance i n t h e final v e r s i o n w e have, d a t i n g t o
48
A S E E R OR A H E A L E R
a r o u n d 700 B . C . : C a l c h a s , A g a m e m n o n ' s seer, is t h e best o f t h e

" b i r d - d i v i n e r s , " a n d b y v i r t u e o f t h i s art he has " l e d " t h e a r m y . "
B u t a " s a c r i f i c e - d i v i n e r " (thyoskoos) is m e n t i o n e d i n the t w e n t y -
f o u r t h b o o k o f t h e Iliad a n d has his r o l e i n t h e Odyssey. 12
Of
course there are v a r i o u s w a y s t o practice d i v i n a t i o n at sacrifice,
b u t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e l i v e r is b y far t h e m o s t p r e d o m i n a n t ;
the n a m e o f t h e E t r u s c a n s , T u s c i , was s u b s e q u e n t l y derived
from thyoskoos by Greek speculation. 1 3
Greek iconography
s h o w s t h e seer e x a m i n i n g the l i v e r f r o m a b o u t 530 B . C . ; 1 4
after
the Persian Wars G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e has h e p a t o s c o p y f u l l y d e v e l -
o p e d as the d o m i n a n t f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n . F r o m P l a t o w e learn
that h e p a t o s c o p y e n j o y e d greater prestige t h a n b i r d a u g u r y . 1 5
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g e n o u g h t h a t there is a special t r a d i t i o n w h i c h
p o i n t s t o C i l i c i a a n d C y p r u s : T h e priest clan o f t h e T a m i r a d a e
at Paphos c l a i m e d t o have b r o u g h t this art w i t h t h e m f r o m C i -
l i c i a , a n d t o have passed i t o n t o t h e C i n y r a d a e t h e r e . 1 6
W i t h the
oracle priests o f C a r i a n Telmessos l i v e r a u g u r y e n j o y e d a special
status; 17
this t o o m a y p o i n t t o t h a t e p o c h w h e n C a r i a n m e r c e n -
aries w e n t t o t h e O r i e n t , j u s t as Greeks w o u l d d o s o o n after
them.
F o r a l l w e k n o w , l i v e r m o d e l s d i d n o t get as far as Greece
itself. B u t a n o t h e r c u r i o u s o b j e c t related t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f
entrails is the " H u m b a b a face," a g r o t e s q u e h u m a n visage that
can be m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m l e n g t h s o f i n t e s t i n e . 1 8
I t is f a m i l i a r
f r o m finds, m a d e i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t a characteristic e x a m p l e
has also been u n e a r t h e d at t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n , i n a s a n c t u -
a r y w h e r e t h e presence o f o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m e n a n d seers i n the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y is e v i d e n t f r o m the a r c h i t e c t u r e as w e l l as f r o m
the relics o f f o u n d a t i o n s a c r i f i c e s . 19
T h e H u m b a b a face is also
i m i t a t e d i n s o m e o f the g r o t e s q u e masks f r o m t h e O r t h e i a sanc-
t u a r y at Sparta, c o n f i r m i n g t h e spread o f p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f t h e
eastern art o f d i v i n a t i o n t o the West.
W h a t is m o r e , t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
the B a b y l o n i a n a n d t h e w e s t e r n t e r m i n o l o g y o f hepatoscopy.
T h e E t r u s c a n l a n g u a g e has been l o s t , so f o r us, G r e e k a n d L a t i n
m u s t take its place. T h e systems are n o t e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l : T h e r e
is a s t r i c t o r d e r o f e x a m i n a t i o n o f t e n parts o f the l i v e r i n the
49
Assyrian s c h o o l 2 0
w h i c h has n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e West. H o w e v e r , a
w h o l e s t r i n g o f Greek terms looks like a translation f r o m the
A k k a d i a n . H e r e as t h e r e , the l i v e r has a " g a t e , " a " h e a d , " a
" p a t h , " and a " r i v e r . " 2 1
I f o n e l o o k s at t h e n a m i n g o f t h e v a r i -
o u s l y shaped lobes o f t h e l i v e r as a k i n d o f R o h r s c h a c h test, the
m o s t divergent projections and interpretations m i g h t come to
the fore: T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n East a n d West can h a r d l y
be a c c i d e n t a l . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a special b i n a r y l o g i c i n the
s y s t e m w h i c h can be s h o w n t o exist i n t h e A k k a d i a n as w e l l as
i n t h e G r e e k , a n d above all i n t h e E t r u s c a n - L a t i n b r a n c h o f t h e
science: T h e r e are " a u s p i c i o u s " a n d " h o s t i l e " sections o f the
l i v e r a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e i m p o r t o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s alters:
w h a t is n o r m a l is g o o d i n t h e a u s p i c i o u s s e c t i o n a n d d a n g e r o u s
i n t h e h o s t i l e s e c t i o n ; m a l f o r m a t i o n i n the h o s t i l e section is
g o o d , and vice v e r s a . 22
Less t e l l i n g p r o o f s f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s
are general i m a g i n a t i v e associations, such as a m i s s i n g "head,"
indicating catastrophe o f leader, king, or country; or two
" h e a d s " i n d i c a t i n g t w o r i v a l p o w e r s . E v e n t h i s p a r a l l e l connects
the factual M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p o r t s t o fantastic scenes e l a b o r a t e d
by Roman poets. 2 3
W h a t w o u l d seem t o be t h e s t r o n g e s t a r g u m e n t f o r t h e A s -
s y r i a n - E t r u s c a n axis is, i n fact, t h e m o s t u n c e r t a i n : t h a t o f l i n -
g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g . A l f r e d Boissier, w h o was t h e first t o w o r k
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o n B a b y l o n i a n l i v e r - o m e n t e x t s , saw that liver i n
these texts was c o n s i s t e n t l y w r i t t e n w i t h the S u m e r i a n ideo-
g r a m HAR; and he at once c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s was t h e e t y m o l -
o g y f o r t h e L a t i n w o r d haruspex, t h e first p a r t o f w h i c h h a d
always defied e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l e t h e second p a r t m u s t mean
"seer o f " ; "seer o f l i v e r " w o u l d p e r f e c t l y m a t c h its use i n refer-
ence t o those E t r u s c a n specialists o f f i c i a t i n g i n R o m e . 2 4
T h i s is
as s u g g e s t i v e as i t is s u r p r i s i n g ; b u t serious d o u b t s m u s t r e m a i n .
E v e n i f the transmission o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a to
E t r u r i a seems t o be b e y o n d d i s p u t e , there was n o t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f c u n e i f o r m s c r i p t a n y w h e r e i n t h e West. I n o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n ,
however, s o m e t h i n g s u c h as HAR was m o s t u n l i k e l y t o have
been p r o n o u n c e d . T h e s i g n HAR is used as an i d e o g r a m for
w h a t , i n A k k a d i a n , s h o u l d s o u n d amutu. 25
M o r e o v e r the E t r u s -
50
cans, t h e actual specialists, h a d t h e i r o w n , c o m p l e t e l y different

w o r d f o r this t y p e o f seer, netsvis 26
H o w s h o u l d the R o m a n s
c o m e b y a S u m e r i a n n a m e f o r s o m e t h i n g w h i c h was p r a c t i c e d
b y t h e Etruscans? O n e is t h u s f o r c e d t o take Boissier's e t y m o l -
o g y as an e x a m p l e o f h o w a c o i n c i d e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c h o m o n -
y m y can lead us astray. I t is perhaps n o less suggestive t h a t t h e
s i g n w h i c h t h e seer h a d t o i n t e r p r e t is called tertu i n A k k a d i a n ;
its p l u r a l , teretu, s o u n d s r e m a r k a b l y l i k e the terata/teirata with
w h i c h a seer such as Teiresias was t o d e a l . 27
B u t even here a
c u r i o u s c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t .
Cicero w r i t e s t h a t i t is u n t h i n k a b l e that E t r u s c a n , Greek,
E g y p t i a n , and Punic diviners should meet for consultation and
reach a c o m m o n consensus i n p r o b l e m s o f h e p a t o s c o p y ; they
w o u l d never agree, because " t h e r e is n o t a single science f o r all
o f t h e m , " b u t o n l y d i v e r g i n g sectarian v i e w s . 2 8
Skeptics c o u l d
d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e w h o l e t h i n g was nonsense; the h i s -
t o r i a n , h o w e v e r , f i n d s t h e clearest evidence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n
precisely i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s o f details t h a t seem m o s t absurd
a n d u n n a t u r a l , a n d hence least l i k e l y t o be a r r i v e d at i n d e p e n -
d e n t l y . I t is o n l y t o be e x p e c t e d that i n d i v i d u a l a b e r r a t i o n s w i l l
creep i n , a n d o f c o u r s e i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t e n d t o adapt t h e m -
selves t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . T h u s G r e e k d i v i n a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y proceeds far m o r e f r o m a visual-associative ba-
sis, w i t h o u t t h e a l m o s t s c h o l a r l y ballast o f the E t r u s c a n disci-
plina, w h i c h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , has preserved m o r e o f its east-
ern origins. T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s are nevertheless i n d i c a t i v e o f a
c o m m o n source, o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h b i n d s all
the i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t o g e t h e r . T h e spread o f h e p a t o s c o p y is one
o f t h e clearest e x a m p l e s o f c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
p e r i o d . I t m u s t have been a case o f East-West u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n
a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , t e c h n i c a l level. T h e m o b i l i t y o f m i g r a n t char-
i s m a t i c s is t h e n a t u r a l p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r this d i f f u s i o n , the i n t e r -
n a t i o n a l r o l e o f s o u g h t - a f t e r specialists, w h o w e r e , as far as t h e i r
art was c o n c e r n e d , nevertheless b o u n d t o t h e i r father-teachers.
We c a n n o t e x p e c t t o f i n d m a n y archaeologically identifiable
traces o f such p e o p l e , o t h e r t h a n s o m e e x c e p t i o n a l instances: a
m o d e l l i v e r o r a H u m b a b a face.
5i
Still the m i g r a n t d i v i n e r s have left their m a r k i n Greek

m y t h o l o g y . O n e n a m e w h i c h l i n k s t h e O r i e n t a n d Greece is t h a t
o f t h e seer M o p s o s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n , w h i c h was
f i x e d above a l l i n t h e H e s i o d i c M e l a m p o d i a , 2 9
he was a n e p h e w
o f Teiresias; he f i r s t f o u n d e d t h e o r a c l e o f C l a r o s a n d e v e n t u a l l y
e m i g r a t e d t o C i l i c i a , w h e r e the c i t y o f M o p s u e s t i a carried his
n a m e . S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e n a m e M o p s o s appears i n a H i t t i t e r e -
p o r t , as Muksus; 30
i n a d d i t i o n , the f a m o u s b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n
f r o m Karatepe i n Cilicia f r o m the eighth c e n t u r y introduces a
K i n g Azitawadda from the "house o f M o p s o s " ; 3 1
the h i e r o -
g l y p h i c L u w i a n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h e n a m e t o be Moxos, a name
p r e s e r v e d also i n L y d i a n t r a d i t i o n , 3 2
whereas the Phoenician ver-
s i o n has Mopsos (mps). H o w these t e s t i m o n i a s h o u l d be c o m -
b i n e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e real h i s t o r y o f o n e K i n g M o p s o s a n d
his p r o g e n y i n A s i a M i n o r is a p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n n o t be d i s -
cussed here. I t suffices t o state t h a t a n a m e f r o m t h e H i t t i t e -
C i l i c i a n t r a d i t i o n is used i n G r e e k m y t h t o i d e n t i f y o n e o f t h e
great seers w h o w a s , i n t h e G r e e k v i e w , c o n n e c t e d w i t h C i l i c i a .
T h e C i l i c i a n o r i g i n s o f t h e seers o f Paphos s h o u l d n o t be f o r -
g o t t e n . N e x t t o M o p s o s t h e r e stands, w i t h a p u r e G r e e k n a m e ,
A m p h i l o c h o s , the son o f A m p h i a r a o s . M o p s o s and A m p h i l o -
chos t o g e t h e r are h o n o r e d as t h e f o u n d i n g heroes o f t h e f a m o u s
oracle o f M a l l o s i n C i l i c i a , a place w h e r e , once m o r e , o r i e n t a l
a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n s m e e t i n a special w a y . 3 3
I n a n y case, G r e e k
m y t h establishes a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n Greece a n d C i l i c i a p r e -
cisely a r o u n d t h e f i g u r e o f t h e m i g r a n t seer. N o t t o o far a w a y is
Tarsos, w h e r e G r e e k c e r a m i c s as w e l l as c u n e i f o r m d o c u m e n t s
w i t h d i v i n a t o r y c o n t e n t s have been f o u n d . T h e " H e s i o d i c " t e x t
a b o u t M o p s o s m a y c o m e close i n t i m e t o t h e K a r a t e p e i n s c r i p -
t i o n , t h a t is, t o t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d . T h e spread o f t h e a r t o f the
seer f r o m the E u p h r a t e s t o Greece a n d t h e E t r u s c a n s as i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e o t h e r e v i d e n c e presents t h e p l a u s i b l e b a c k g r o u n d f o r the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e M o p s o s m y t h . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e G r e e k n a r -
r a t i v e has reversed t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , as the G r e e k M o p s o s is
m a d e t o e m i g r a t e t o C i l i c i a , a l t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o the l o c a l
d o c u m e n t s his " h o u s e " h a d been established t h e r e a n d n o t i n
Greece. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e m y t h has M o p s o s defeat C a l -
52
chas " t h e best b i r d a u g u r " i n a contest o f seers; the f o r e i g n o r i -

g i n o f t h e art is, h o w e v e r , suppressed.
L e t us n o t f o r g e t t h a t a w h o l e range o f o t h e r f o r m s o f d i v i -
n a t i o n are c o m m o n t o the H i t t i t e a n d S e m i t i c O r i e n t a n d the
Greeks; n e x t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n y o t h e r p o r t e n t s , 3 4
bird
augury played a notable role i n B a b y l o n . Different kinds o f le-
c a n o m a n c y also c o n s t i t u t e d a special a r t , w h e t h e r i n the p o u r i n g
o f o i l o n t o w a t e r o r t h e s p r i n k l i n g o f flour o n t o l i q u i d . 3 5
"To
p o u r v i n e g a r a n d flour i n t o the same glass" a n d t o w a t c h t h e i r
m o v e m e n t s is m e n t i o n e d once b y A e s c h y l u s ; F a r n e l l t o o k this
t o be a clear e x a m p l e o f M e s o p o t a m i a n i n f l u e n c e . 36
Such p r a c -
tices d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e as p r o m i n e n t as l i v e r a u g u r y .
T h e fact t h a t lekane is an A r a m a i c w o r d is p r o b a b l y j u s t a n o t h e r
coincidence.
Foundation Deposits
T o m a k e o f f e r i n g s o n t h e occasion o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d -
ings o n the v e r y s p o t is a w i d e s p r e a d practice, w e l l k n o w n t o
b o t h e t h n o l o g i s t s a n d f o l k l o r i s t s . H o w e v e r , there are c u l t u r a l l y
specific f o r m s w h i c h can d e v e l o p i n t o f i x e d t r a d i t i o n s . I n the
N e a r East, w h e r e t h e r e are p e r t i n e n t texts as w e l l as a r c h a e o l o g -
ical f i n d s , v a r i o u s f o r m s e m e r g e a c c o r d i n g t o place a n d p e r i o d .
T h e r e are g u a r d i a n f i g u r e s w h i c h are i n t e r r e d u n d e r the b u i l d -
i n g ; t h e r e are stone tablets w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s b u r i e d l i k e w i s e .
T h e r e are also less specific sacrificial r i t u a l s i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l
sacrifice a n d l i b a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n there is t h e p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e A s s y r i a n s , o f i n t e r r i n g valuable o b -
jects, different k i n d s o f precious m e t a l and p r e c i o u s stones,
u n d e r t e m p l e s o r palaces. O n e r e l e v a n t r i t u a l t e x t f o r the erec-
1
t i o n o f a n e w h o u s e has been preserved i n H i t t i t e ; i t specifies

h o w g o l d , silver, a n d b r o n z e a n d o t h e r objects are t o be d e p o s -
i t e d i n specific places t o t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f p r a y e r s . 2
T h e r e are c o m p a r a b l e albeit n o t i d e n t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n offerings

i n t h e M i n o a n w o r l d : c o l o r e d pebbles f r o m the sea, s m a l l ves-
sels, seals, e v e n , i n o n e case, a n i m a l bones, b u r i e d u n d e r the
floor o r t h e t h r e s h o l d o f a sacred r o o m . A d e p o s i t o f eastern
3
S3
style, c o n s i s t i n g o f b r o n z e objects d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e r r e d , has

c o m e to l i g h t under the Late B r o n z e A g e T e m p l e I V i n K i t i o n
o n C y p r u s ; t h e e x c a v a t o r s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m i n d e d o f the
M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , a l t h o u g h the i n h a b i t a n t s o f K i t i o n at
t h a t t i m e m a y have been M y c e n a e a n Greeks. 4
T h e n e x t f i n d , closer t o Greece p r o p e r , dates f r o m a r o u n d 800

on Crete: A family o f goldsmiths w h i c h had i m m i g r a t e d f r o m
S y r i a b u r i e d a d e p o s i t o f g o l d n u g g e t s , h a l f - w o r k e d pieces, a n d
o t h e r j e w e l r y i n a r e - u s e d t h o l o s t o m b at K n o s s o s , r e d e d i c a t i n g
it for their o w n use. T h u s w e f i n d religious practice directly
5
i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e East a l o n g w i t h the s k i l l e d craft o f f o r e i g n

specialists.
From t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d , t w o r i c h deposits excavated
u n d e r t w o f a m o u s t e m p l e s have a t t r a c t e d a great deal o f a t t e n -
t i o n . O n e was f o u n d at the w a l l and p a r t l y u n d e r the w a l l o f t h e
earliest t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s o n D e l o s a n d is d a t e d a r o u n d 700:
Small Mycenaean a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y valuables, already p a r t l y
f r a g m e n t e d , h a d been i n t e r r e d t o g e t h e r ; a p i t c o n t a i n i n g s o m e
a n i m a l bones a n d c h a r c o a l , traces o f sacrifice, is closely con-
n e c t e d . T h e o t h e r d e p o s i t , w h i c h b e l o n g s t o the t e m p l e o f A r -
6
t e m i s at E p h e s o s , is p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h , c o n s i s t i n g o f a b o u t a t h o u -
sand objects; i t has l o n g been f a m o u s a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l , since its
date is t i e d i n w i t h t h e d a t i n g o f t h e oldest e l e c t r o n coins. The
o p t i o n s used t o fluctuate b e t w e e n 6 5 0 - 6 3 0 a n d 600. Yet recent
excavations y i e l d e d t h e result t h a t i t b e l o n g s t o t h e t e m p l e b u i l t
b y C r o e s u s , a b o u t 560 B . C . S i m i l a r deposits o f valuables are
k n o w n f r o m o n e o f t h e t e m p l e s at Perachora, f r o m t h e t e m p l e
o f Poseidon at I s t h m i a , a n d f r o m the t e m p l e o f A t h e n a i n
Priene. 7
T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s w h i c h w e r e d i s c o v e r e d at t h e t e m p l e
o n t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n are s i m p l e r a n d o f a different t y p e :
t w o p i t s h a d been d u g n e x t t o t h e t e m p l e w a l l i n w h i c h there
w e r e the r e m a i n s o f a n i m a l bones, o f s o m e k i n d o f l i b a t i o n i n
the f o r m o f a vegetable paste a n d v a r i o u s s m a l l vessels; the
w h o l e h a d been c a r e f u l l y c o v e r e d w i t h stone slabs o n w h i c h a
fire h a d been l i t . H e r e w e have sacrificial r i t u a l i n a f o r m f a m i l -
8
iar f r o m later G r e e k a n d L a t i n texts: F i r s t , sacrifice is m a d e " i n t o
54
the p i t " (bothros); t h e n t h i s is covered over a n d a p e r m a n e n t

m a r k e r , a b o u n d a r y s t o n e , o r a g o d is erected above i t . A p i t 9
w i t h f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s , c a r e f u l l y covered before t h e e r e c t i o n
o f the b u i l d i n g , has also been i d e n t i f i e d u n d e r one o f t h e t r e a -
s u r i e s — p r e v i o u s l y called T e m p l e D — i n the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o f
Samos; i t is d a t e d t o 5 1 0 - 5 0 0 B . C . 1 0
I n t h e earlier case, at G o r -
t y n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w h o excavated the t e m p l e f o u n d the ar-
c h i t e c t u r e — d a t e d b y t h e m t o a r o u n d 8 0 0 — s i m i l a r t o Late H i t -
tite t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e y i n d i c a t e d a s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e f o r t h e
f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s . A n i m a l sacrifices and l i b a t i o n s are attested
as c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f e r i n g s i n M e s o p o t a m i a , t o o , t h o u g h i n a less
specific f o r m . 1 1
The i n t e r m e n t o f s m a l l valuables, i n p a r t i c u l a r pieces o f

m e t a l , p r o v i d e s m o r e specific evidence o f the spread o f a M e s -
o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , w i t h the decisive leap across the A e g e a n
l i n k e d t o the e m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o C r e t e a r o u n d 800. A d -
m i t t e d l y this p r a c t i c e w o u l d n o t have b r o u g h t m u c h o f a s p i r i -
t u a l w o r l d w i t h i t : n o p a n t h e o n , n o m y t h s ; the practice i t s e l f is
n o t even e x p l a i n e d i n t h e eastern t e x t s . 1 2
W h a t seems t o suffice
is t h e c o n v i c t i o n , i n h e r e n t i n the act, t h a t v a l u a b l e offerings w i l l
ensure t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d u n d i s t u r b e d possession a n d safety o f
the b u i l d i n g . O n e t h i n g , h o w e v e r , is stated e x p l i c i t l y b y t h e
eastern t e x t s : H o w e v e r m u c h the b u i l d e r m a y w i s h t o c o m e t o
the f o r e , the f o u n d a t i o n succeeds " a c c o r d i n g t o the message o f
the art o f the c o n j u r e r " ; t h e c h a r i s m a t i c specialist c o u l d n o t be
left o u t . 1 3
O n e is l e d t o i m a g i n e t h a t , even at the b u i l d i n g i n
G o r t y n , w h e r e w o r k e r s f r o m N o r t h Syria w e r e p r o b a b l y i n -
v o l v e d , a n d n o less at t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t e m p l e b u i l d i n g o n D e -
los o r i n E p h e s o s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e masons a n d carpenters there
h a d also been a c r a f t s m a n o f t h e o t h e r k i n d , a m i g r a n t seer, i n
attendance.
Purification
Although the correspondence between Mesopotamian and

E t r u s c a n h e p a t o s c o p y has l o n g been a subject o f d i s c u s s i o n , the
n o less s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n eastern m a g i c a n d the ca-
55
t h a r t i c r i t u a l s o f t h e G r e e k s have r a r e l y been c o n s i d e r e d i n d e -
t a i l . T h e s i t u a t i o n is p a r a l l e l , t h o u g h , insofar as t h e p r a c t i c e o f
p u r i f i c a t i o n w h i c h is c o m m o n i n later p e r i o d s does n o t yet a p -
pear i n H o m e r - — a fact n o t i c e d already b y t h e a n c i e n t c o m m e n -
tators o n H o m e r . B u t t h e c y c l i c epic Aithiopis narrated the p u -
rification o f A c h i l l e s after he h a d k i l l e d T h e r s i t e s . 1
This is
g e n e r a l l y t a k e n t o represent a m o r e recent stage i n t h e d e v e l o p -
m e n t o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n : C o n c e r n a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n appears
t o be characteristic o f t h e archaic p e r i o d . I t is t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d
2
t h a t t h e influence o f t h e oracle o f D e l p h i was o p e r a t i v e i n this

g r o w i n g c o n c e r n . Possible contacts w i t h S c y t h i a n shamanism
have also a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n since the w o r k o f K a r l M e u l i . 3
The
r o l e o f B a b y l o n was s c r u t i n i z e d b y L e w i s R i c h a r d F a r n e l l a l o n e ,
w h o f o u n d such s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n East a n d West
t h a t t h e c a t h a r t i c s y s t e m o f t h e G r e e k s c o u l d n o t have been b o r -
r o w e d f r o m B a b y l o n ; at least F a r n e l l insisted t h a t c e r t a i n b o r -
r o w i n g s c o u l d n o t antedate H o m e r . 4
T h i s has h a d a s o o t h i n g
effect o n H e l l e n i s t s — a l t h o u g h o n e s h o u l d realize t h a t F a r n e l l
d a t e d H o m e r t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e r e b y left t h e e i g h t h
a n d seventh centuries o p e n t o all sorts o f " i n f l u e n c e s " ; i n d e e d i n
s o m e cases he was t h e first t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r existence.
A s t o t h e sources available, t h e s i t u a t i o n is s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f
hepatoscopy: O n t h e G r e e k side w e are d e p e n d e n t o n i s o l a t e d
allusions a n d b r i e f references a n d o f t e n have t o r e l y u p o n later
r e p o r t s . A k k a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e , i n c o n t r a s t , has a w h o l e c o r p u s o f
m a g i c - r i t u a l t e x t s w h i c h have been k n o w n f o r a l o n g t i m e , a l -
t h o u g h d e f i n i t i v e e d i t i o n s are s t i l l l a c k i n g i n q u i t e a f e w cases. 5
T h e s e are often bilingual, Sumerian-Akkadian texts, a fact

w h i c h speaks f o r t h e i r age; t h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c
w a y i n t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l . D e r i v a t i v e s reached as far as
Tarsos. 6
A m o n g t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e r i t u a l s t h e r e are t w o
m a i n t y p e s : the seer (baru), w h o was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i v i n a t i o n ;
a n d t h e actual m a g i c i a n - p r i e s t (asipu), w h o s e m a i n task was t h e
h e a l i n g o f t h e s i c k . T h e l a t t e r is t h e focus o f d i s c u s s i o n here.
7
T h e c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e o f t h e G r e e k s appears t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n
the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f m u r d e r e r s f r o m b l o o d g u i l t : b l o o d is p u r i f i e d
t h r o u g h b l o o d . T h e s t a n d a r d e x a m p l e is t h a t o f O r e s t e s ,
8
al-
56
t h o u g h A e s c h y l u s does present I x i o n as t h e o r i g i n a l p a r a d i g m . 9
I n t h e case o f O r e s t e s , A e s c h y l u s gives us m o r e g r a p h i c i n d i c a -
t i o n s o f h o w t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e was c a r r i e d o u t : I n o r d e r t o
" w a s h a w a y t h e s t a i n , " a p i g l e t m u s t be s l a u g h t e r e d i n such a
w a y t h a t its b l o o d p o u r s over t h e p o l l u t e d m a n ; t h e b l o o d is then
w a s h e d o f f w i t h r u n n i n g w a t e r ; i n t h i s w a y t h e p o l l u t i o n "has
been d r i v e n o u t b y p i g l e t - k i l l i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n s . " 1 0
We already
k n o w f r o m t h e Iliad t h a t t h e d i r t y w a t e r (lymata) m u s t t h e n be
disposed o f i n t u r n . 1 1
A n A p u l i a n b e l l krater i n t h e L o u v r e has
an i m p r e s s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f Orestes i n -
s p i r e d d i r e c t l y b y t h e A e s c h y l e a n t e x t . A p o l l o h i m s e l f is h o l d i n g
the p i g l e t d i r e c t l y over t h e head o f Orestes, w h o is seated; its
b l o o d w i l l f l o w d i r e c t l y over his head. B u t t h e n i t can be m a d e
t o disappear: G u i l t " c a n be w a s h e d a w a y . " 1 2
T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e i n B a b y l o n i a f o r this k i n d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n
o f b l o o d t h r o u g h b l o o d , as F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o s t a t e . 13
How-
ever, t h e v e r y r i t u a l w i t h t h e sacrificial p i g l e t b e i n g h e l d over t h e
head o f a p e r s o n , t o be s l a u g h t e r e d a n d t o d r e n c h t h e p a t i e n t
w i t h b l o o d , is r e p r e s e n t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n a n o t h e r vase p a i n t i n g ,
o n a krater f o u n d at C a n i c a t t i n i ; yet t h e o b j e c t i v e i n this case is
n o t t o p u r i f y a m u r d e r e r , b u t t o cure t h e d a u g h t e r s o f Proetus
o f their "madness." 1 4
T h i s madness h a d been caused b y s o m e
r i t u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n b y t h e g i r l s w h i c h varies i n d i f f e r e n t versions
o f t h e m y t h ; t h e c u r e is d i r e c t e d against t h e m a n i f e s t sufferings
w h i c h have r e s u l t e d f r o m i t . C o m p a r e d w i t h this even t h e case
o f Orestes takes o n a d o u b l e m e a n i n g : Orestes t o o has b e c o m e
m a d ; he is m a n i f e s t l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m his illness. So is i t a t o n e -
m e n t o r j u s t h e a l i n g t h a t has t o be p r o c u r e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t -
ual? T o raise t h e q u e s t i o n is t o see t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f this d i s t i n c -
tion. That social and physio-psychic ills were n o t clearly
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n archaic societies, t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e
a n d h e a l i n g can be seen t o fuse, has o f t e n been b r o u g h t o u t a n d
discussed i n m o r e recent a n t h r o p o l o g y . A n offense is t h e source
o f illness, illness is t h e result o f an offense, be i t i n t h e p e r s o n a l ,
the s o c i a l , o r t h e r e l i g i o u s sphere. E v e n i n G r e e k t h e w o r d nosos,
illness, embraces b o t h , t h e p h y s i c a l a n d t h e social d i s t u r b a n c e s ,
ailments and sufferings. 15
T h e effect o f t h e t h e r a p y w h i c h t h e
57
" k n o w i n g " specialist is able t o a p p l y is n o less b r o a d . I n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f O r e s t e s c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l be u n d e r -
s t o o d as the h e a l i n g o f an illness, even before E u r i p i d e s b r o u g h t
this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n s t a g e i n his t r a g e d y Orestes. Orestes was
b o t h m a d a n d g u i l t y a n d h a d t o be c u r e d at b o t h levels. T h e n ,
h o w e v e r , t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the B a b y l o n i a n a n d the G r e e k
b e c o m e s m u c h less d i s t i n c t .
A b i l i n g u a l ritual text f r o m the collection " E v i l D e m o n s of
I l l n e s s " (Asakki marsuti) has t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the
e x o r c i s t — i t is presented as a c o m m a n d issued f r o m t h e s k y g o d
A n u t o his s o n M a r d u k :
[Take] a s u c k l i n g p i g [and . . . at] the head o f the sick m a n

[ p u t i t (?) and] take o u t its heart and above the heart o f the
sick m a n [ p u t i t ] , [ s p r i n k l e ] its b l o o d on the sides o f the bed,
[and] d i v i d e the p i g over his l i m b s and spread i t o n the sick
m a n ; then cleanse that m a n w i t h pure water f r o m the Deep
[/lp5«] and wash h i m clean and b r i n g near h i m a censer [and]
a t o r c h , place t w i c e seven loaves c o o k e d i n the ashes against
the outer door, and give the p i g as his substitute, and give the
flesh and the b l o o d as his b l o o d : they [the d e m o n s ] shall take
i t ; the heart w h i c h t h o u hast placed u p o n his heart, as his heart
give i t : they shall take i t . [lacuna] [that the] p i g may be his
substitute . . . M a y the e v i l spirit, the e v i l d e m o n stand aside!
M a y the k i n d l y s p i r i t , the k i n d l y d e m o n be present! 16
T h i s r i t u a l is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h the o n e w e are t o envisage f o r

Orestes a n d t h e P r o e t i d s f r o m t h e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , but
the s i m i l a r i t y is u n d e n i a b l e : t h e c o n d i t i o n o f sickness, the
k n o w l e d g e a b l e specialist, t h e sacrificial p i g l e t , slaughter, c o n t a c t
w i t h b l o o d , a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t cleansing w i t h water. T h e t o r c h
a n d t h e incense b o w l b e l o n g t o t h e apparatus o f G r e e k p u r i f i c a -
t i o n priests, t o o . 1 7
W h a t is p e c u l i a r i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n t e x t is t h e e m p h a s i s o n
s u b s t i t u t i o n , t o w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n . I n this respect i t m o s t
closely resembles a r i t u a l described b y O v i d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
the R o m a n festival C a r m e n t a l i a , a r i t u a l against m a g i c a l b i r d s ,
striges, said t o feed o n babies at n i g h t — t h a t is, de facto against
58
A S E E R O R A H E A L E R
children's disease. O n c e m o r e t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g o c -

curs, p e r f o r m e d b y t h e goddess C a r m e n t a h e r s e l f as a m y t h i c a l
m o d e l , w i t h t h e e x p l i c i t f o r m u l a o f s u b s t i t u t i o n : " T a k e the heart
f o r the h e a r t , the i n t e s t i n e s f o r the intestines, w e g i v e this life
for a better o n e . " 1 8
Is t h i s a case o f a spontaneous parallel a r i s i n g
f r o m general " e l e m e n t a r y ideas" o f the h u m a n m i n d , o r is i t
s i m p l y t h e case t h a t i n t h e l o w e r r e a l m o f w i t c h e s a n d m a g i c the
c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s are m o r e p e r m e a b l e t h a n at t h e level o f h i g h e r
literature?
I f o n e regards Orestes as a case o f sickness («0505), then sick-
ness appears p e r s o n i f i e d t o a r e m a r k a b l e degree: I t is described
as an attack b y d e m o n s . T h e E r i n y e s are i m a g i n e d as beasts o f
prey, " d o g s " w h o w a n t t o suck his b l o o d , leech t h e l i f e - f o r c e
f r o m h i m . R e m a r k a b l y e n o u g h , already i n H o m e r sickness is
once d e s c r i b e d as an " a t t a c k b y a hateful d e m o n . " 1 9
The magi-
cians r i d i c u l e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f t h e H i p p o c r a t i c treatise On the
Sacred Disease also speak o f attacks (ephodoi) o f d e m o n s o r gods.
T h e c o n c e p t o f savage, rapacious, carnivorous demons who
cause sickness is c o m m o n i f n o t f u n d a m e n t a l i n M e s o p o t a m i a n
h e a l i n g m a g i c . B u t there is also the less p e r s o n a l i z e d concept o f
the curse o f m u r d e r , w h i c h has t o be e l i m i n a t e d b y a ritual i n
the " w a s h house." 2 0
I n spite o f these s i m i l a r i t i e s , h o w e v e r , i t is clear t h a t the p e -

c u l i a r f u n c t i o n o f a t o n e m e n t f o r m u r d e r f o r w h i c h Orestes is a
m o d e l case, the s y s t e m o f p u r i f i c a t i o n c u r r e n t i n archaic Greece,
is n o t j u s t s o m e B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t . F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o t h a t
e x t e n t . B u t t h i s does n o t r u l e o u t c u l t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n s ; o n the
c o n t r a r y . I n M e s o p o t a m i a b l o o d g u i l t had been r e g u l a t e d b y
state l a w f r o m e a r l y t i m e s , as t h e l a w codes attest; there was n o
p r o b l e m left. U n a f f e c t e d b y l a w , h o w e v e r , w e r e i n d i v i d u a l suf-
ferings, those r e c u r r i n g sicknesses s u r m i s e d t o be caused b y
s o m e g u i l t w h i c h c o u l d n o t be d e f i n e d i n legal t e r m s , o r s o m e
d e m o n g o i n g astray. T h i s was t h e sphere o f t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s ,
the p r i e s t - e x o r c i s t s . I n archaic Greece, i n fact, the c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g practice w o u l d n o t o n l y m e e t p r i v a t e needs o f m a n i f e s t suf-
ferings, b u t also f i l l a v a c u u m c o v e r i n g " s o c i a l i l l n e s s " — d i s r u p -
t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h m u r d e r , t h r o u g h the shedding
59
o f b l o o d . W r i t t e n l a w s w e r e t o appear o n l y g r a d u a l l y w i t h t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e polis, a n d w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o enforce. I n t h e
m e a n t i m e m a g i c " t h e r a p y " h a d a chance t o g a i n p u b l i c s i g n i f i -
cance t o a degree w h i c h was u n t h i n k a b l e i n t h e sphere o f eastern
g o v e r n m e n t a l bureaucracy. T h e Greeks lacked s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m o n a r c h i c p o w e r a n d law, u n c e r t a i n t y b e i n g t h e
t o u c h s t o n e o f f r e e d o m . T h u s " s i c k n e s s " m i g h t i n v o l v e an e n t i r e
c i t y w h i c h needed h e a l i n g a t o n e m e n t : A f t e r t h e C y l o n i a n s a c r i -
lege, A t h e n s s u m m o n e d E p i m e n i d e s f r o m C r e t e , a n d he r e -
stored order t h r o u g h r i t u a l . 2 1
T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e eastern
c i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d Greece c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e specific levels o f c u l -
t u r e a t t a i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . T h i s does n o t o b v i a t e i n f l u -
ence, transfer, o r a d o p t i o n ; b u t a n y i m p o r t w o u l d w i n a n e w
f u n c t i o n a n d t h u s d e v e l o p s o m e n e w f o r m s i n its n e w c o n t e x t .
T h e ritual p r a c t i c e i t s e l f as i t h a d f o r a l o n g t i m e been c o n d u c t e d
b y eastern e x o r c i s t s , t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g , h a r d l y h a d
to change.
T o keep t h e m s e l v e s " c l e a n " is an e l e m e n t a r y need o f h u m a n
beings; n o w o n d e r c l e a n s i n g c e r e m o n i e s play t h e i r r o l e w o r l d -
w i d e i n p r o f a n e as w e l l as i n r e l i g i o u s varieties. S i m i l a r p r o c e -
dures a n d s i m i l a r f o r m u l a s are t o be e x p e c t e d : " B e g o n e , E v i l !
C o m e i n , W e l l b e i n g ! " is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n e x h o r t a t i o n s .
I t is s t i l l r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i t is attested b o t h i n M e s o p o t a m i a , as a
c o m m o n inscription o n magical figurines, and i n Greek apotro-
paic r i t u a l . 2 2
I n b o t h c u l t u r e s , t o o , m e r e c o n t a c t w i t h an u n c l e a n
p e r s o n o r u n c l e a n m a t t e r is t o be feared. " H e has c o m e into
c o n t a c t w i t h a w o m a n o f u n c l e a n hands . . . o r he has c o m e i n t o
contact w i t h a m a n o f u n c l e a n hands ... o r his h a n d has
t o u c h e d o n e o f u n c l e a n b o d y " : these are s o m e o f t h e conjectures
m a d e b y t h e e x o r c i s t w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f sickness. O n e
s h o u l d n o t t a l k t o a m a n w h o is c a r r y i n g g u i l t , n o r eat a n d d r i n k
w i t h h i m , t h e A k k a d i a n p r e s c r i p t i o n w a r n s ; t h e same w a r n i n g
applies t o d e a l i n g w i t h a m u r d e r e r i n Greece: o n l y after O r e s t e s '
p u r i f i c a t i o n was " c o n t a c t w i t h o u t d a m a g e " p o s s i b l e . 23
B r a n c h e s also are o f special use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n s , alongside

p i g l e t b l o o d , t o r c h e s , a n d w a t e r f r o m t h e sea. I n t h e A k k a d i a n
p o e m J Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom t h e m a n c e l e b r a t i n g his
60
healing portrays a d r e a m o f hope: " A n d i n [ m y dream] I [saw] a

r e m a r k a b l e y o u n g [ m a n . . . ] h o l d i n g i n his h a n d a t a m a r i s k
r o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n . . . t h e w a t e r he was c a r r y i n g he t h r e w over
m e , p r o n o u n c e d t h e l i f e - g i v i n g i n c a n t a t i o n , and r u b b e d [ m y
body]," Compare t h e l e g e n d o f the o r i g i n o f A p o l l o ' s c u l t at
D i d y m a : B r a n c h o s , t h e A p o l l o n i a n seer, freed t h e M i l e s i a n s o f
the p l a g u e : " h e s p r i n k l e d t h e p e o p l e w i t h l a u r e l branches . .
the p e o p l e s p o k e t h e responses"; C a l l i m a c h u s has Branchos
speak a f o r m u l a t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s w h i c h t h e p e o p l e d o n o t
understand. 2 4
Is t h e r e a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e d here? O n e
t e m p t i n g association: hranchia means g i l l s o f fish i n G r e e k ; B r a n -
c h i d a i is the n a m e o f t h e " f a m i l y " o f priests w h o r a n t h e sanc-
t u a r y o f D i d y m a d o w n t o the Persian era. N o w , a characteristic
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f M e s o p o t a m i a n h e a l i n g m a g i c is
a m a n w i t h t h e head o f a fish, w o r n l i k e a m a s k over his head,
c a r r y i n g an i n s t r u m e n t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n i n his r i g h t h a n d a n d a
w a t e r b u c k e t i n his left; t h e figure can be i d e n t i f i e d as represent-
i n g an apkallu, a " w i s e m a n " f r o m o l d e n t i m e s . Figures o f this
k i n d d e f i n i t e l y reached n o r t h e r n S y r i a . 2 5
D i d s o m e healer b r i n g
this r e q u i s i t e as far as D i d y m a , t h u s causing the n i c k n a m e B r a n -
c h i d a i , " g i l l s f a m i l y , " t o be g i v e n t o his clan?
A n o t h e r , drastic p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e is t h a t o f " w i p i n g o f f "
(apomattein). D e m o s t h e n e s uses t h e t e r m i n his i n v e c t i v e against
the m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s , t h e priestess o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s a n d i n i t i a -
t i o n s ; t h e c o m m e n t a r y says t h a t t h e p e r s o n t o be p u r i f i e d was
plastered all over w i t h m u d a n d c h a f f w h i c h was t h e n scraped
off. A " p u r i f i e r o f t h e a r m y , t h e one w h o k n o w s the t h i n g s f o r
w i p i n g o f f " is m e n t i o n e d i n S o p h o c l e s . 26
Wiping off (kuppuru),
generally with f l o u r paste (Hsu), is, however, also a well-
d o c u m e n t e d p r a c t i c e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n priests i n M e s o p o t a m i a . 2 7
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the practice is reflected i n the fact t h a t t h e

r o o t o f this w o r d c a m e t o m e a n p u r i f i c a t i o n i n general i n H e -
b r e w , even w i t h o u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g practice: Y o m K i p p u r is
the " D a y o f P u r i f i c a t i o n , " T h e practice i t s e l f l i n k s the A k k a d i a n
w i t h t h e G r e e k . A p u r i f y i n g substance w h i c h is o f t e n m e n t i o n e d
i n eastern texts is asphalt (kupru i n A k k a d i a n ) ; asphaltos, how-
ever, is also o n e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s used b y the w i t c h e s o f S o p h r o n ,
• 61 •
or b y M e l a m p u s i n the comic's p a r o d y . 2 8
Even m o r e surprising
is t h e use o f o n i o n s f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n . A k k a d i a n t e x t s describe the
p r o c e d u r e i n d e t a i l — t h e o n i o n is peeled layer b y layer, until
n o t h i n g is left; i n G r e e k w e f i n d j u s t the passing m e n t i o n o f the
m a g i c a l o n i o n s ; o n e s o r t o f o n i o n is specifically n a m e d after
Epimenides the famous p u r i f i e r . 2 9
A n y t h i n g left over f r o m t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n m u s t be c a r e f u l l y d i s -
posed of: " T h e y t h r e w t h e lymata i n t o t h e sea," t h e Iliad says
(1.314). T h e B a b y l o n i a n e x o r c i s t s m a y t h r o w a w a y the w a t e r
w i t h " a l l the e v i l " ; 3 0
t h e n o t h e r persons s h o u l d take care n o t t o
c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h i t . B e t t e r s t i l l t o use a p o t i n w h i c h
everything, including previously manufactured magic figurines,
can be securely e n c l o s e d . 31
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , i n Greece a p o t
called apharmake w o u l d be m a d e available for " t h o s e w h o p u r i f y
the c i t i e s . " 3 2
I n M e s o p o t a m i a t h e r e m a i n s , i n c l u d i n g the cinders
f r o m t h e sacrificial f i r e , are " t h r o w n o n t o a b a r r e n place," " b u r -
ied i n a b a n d o n e d w a s t e l a n d s , " " d e p o s i t e d i n t h e steppe u n d e r a
thornbush." 3 3
T h e H i p p o c r a t i c t e x t On the Sacred Disease reports
o n the m a g i c a l healers: " A n d t h e y h i d e the r e m a i n s o f the p u r i -
f i c a t i o n s p a r t l y i n the e a r t h , p a r t t h e y cast i n t o t h e sea, p a r t t h e y
c a r r y a w a y t o t h e m o u n t a i n s w h e r e n o o n e can t o u c h t h e m o r
step o n t h e m . " 3 4
I n M e s o p o t a m i a , p u t t i n g one's f o o t " i n s o m e
unclean w a t e r , " the residue o f s o m e p u r i f i c a t i o n c e r e m o n y , was
t h o u g h t t o be o n e o f t h e possible causes o f illness; i t was n o t
different i n the West even i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l t i m e s : " I n w h i c h
residue from purification d i d y o u step at the crossroads at
n i g h t ? " suffering Encolpius is asked i n P e t r o n i u s ' romance.
W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f m u c h o l d e r R o m a n r i t u a l , the r i t u a l o f
devotio, a s u b s t i t u t e i m a g e was b u r i e d , a n d i n consequence " n o
R o m a n o f f i c i a l was a l l o w e d t o get t o t h a t p l a c e . " 35
I t w o u l d be
s t i l l b e t t e r t o let b i r d s c a r r y o f f t h e e v i l plague; this was d o n e i n
Thessaly, b u t also i n t h e M o s a i c l a w . 3 6
A n o t h e r s t r i k i n g d e t a i l : E p i m e n i d e s , the m o s t f a m o u s priest
o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , received a m i r a c u l o u s f o o d f r o m t h e n y m p h s
w h i c h a l l o w e d h i m t o get b y w i t h o u t o r d i n a r y sustenance, a n o -
h u n g e r d r u g (alimon). H e k e p t i t i n a cow's h o o f — a s 3 7
i f ordi-
n a r y c o n t a i n e r s w e r e n o t able t o h o l d i t . T h e t e x t o f an A k k a -
62
d i a n e x o r c i s m prescribes: " Y o u fill a cow's h o o f w i t h water,

t h r o w i n b i t t e r c o r n m e a l , s t r i k e i t w i t h a reed i n face o f the sun
g o d , y o u p o u r i t o u t : t h e dead w i l l be k e p t a w a y . " 3 8
T h e effect
is d i f f e r e n t , b u t t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n is clearly r e l a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o
the Alexander romance, the poison o f A n t i p a t e r w h i c h b r o u g h t
a b o u t t h e d e a t h o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n B a b y l o n was c a r r i e d
in a mule's h o o f . 3 9
Skeptics can s t i l l d o u b t t h e existence o f d i r e c t c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t

and insist o n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f s p o n t a n e o u s parallels r i s i n g again
a n d again w i t h i n g e n e r a l f o r m s o f " s u p e r s t i t i o n . " Yet i t is p r e -
cisely w i t h t h e n a m e E p i m e n i d e s t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l h o r i z o n o f
the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d comes i n t o play. I t is archaic Crete
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k t e x t s , is the h o m e o f " c a t h a r t i c "
k n o w l e d g e . E p i m e n i d e s i n p a r t i c u l a r is c o n n e c t e d w i t h the c u l t
caves o f C r e t e , w i t h a cave o f Z e u s — t r a d i t i o n varies as t o w h i c h
o f t h e f a m o u s caves was c o n c e r n e d — w h e r e he e x p e r i e n c e d his
i n i t i a t i o n i n a sleep t h a t lasted f o r decades. H e assumes the f u n c -
t i o n o f i n i t i a t o r i n t u r n at t h e cave o f Z e u s o n M o u n t I d a . 4 0
If
the h i s t o r i c a l E p i m e n i d e s ever d i d seek o u t this cave he w o u l d
have s t o o d face t o face w i t h t h e A s s y r i a n - s t y l e t y m p a n o n there
w h i c h was p r o b a b l y m a d e f o r t h e c u l t o f Z e u s b y eastern crafts-
men. 4 1
E v e n b e f o r e E p i m e n i d e s , T h a l e t a s o f G o r t y n had been
active as a c h a r i s m a t i c m u s i c i a n ; he c u r e d a p l a g u e i n S p a r t a . 42
G o r t y n was n o less a center o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g c r a f t s m a n s h i p . We

are led back i n t o t h e r e a l m o f m y t h w i t h K a r m a n o r o f C r e t e ,
the p r i e s t w h o p u r i f i e d even A p o l l o after the g o d h a d slain the
Delphic dragon. 4 3
T h e n a m e does n o t appear t o be G r e e k . I n
a n y e v e n t , C r e t e is n o t o n l y t h e ancient center o f M i n o a n c u l t u r e
b u t a l s o — a f t e r C y p r u s — t h e area m o s t closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the S e m i t i c East i n t h e g e o m e t r i c a n d early o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d .
T h e r e are strange r i t u a l c o n n e c t i o n s o f A p o l l o h i m s e l f w i t h Se-
m i t i c c u l t u r e , above all i n the celebrations o f the day o f the n e w
m o o n a n d o f the seventh day o f the m o n t h . 4 4
I n this l i g h t the
a s s u m p t i o n o f p u r e c o i n c i d e n c e becomes t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f
hypotheses.
T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s w h e t h e r l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s can p r o -
v i d e k e y p r o o f f o r c u l t u r a l ties w i t h t h e East. T h e r e is l i t t l e t o
63
be g a i n e d f r o m n o n - G r e e k p r o p e r names such as K a r m a n o r o r
even B r a n c h o s and Rhakios. 4 5
I t carries m o r e w e i g h t t h a t the
r o o t kathar, t o c l e a n / t o p u r i f y , has n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y
b u t ties i n w i t h a S e m i t i c r o o t i n t h e sphere o f p u r i f i c a t i o n : qatar,
to f u m i g a t e . 4 6
O n e cleansing substance i n t h i s c o n t e x t is s u l -
p h u r : F u m i g a t i o n w i t h s u l p h u r is used i n H o m e r f o r b o t h p r a c -
tical a n d r i t u a l m e a n s . N o less suggestive is the s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e
s o u n d o f the A k k a d i a n w o r d f o r " d i r t y , p o l l u t e d " a n d " t o s t a i n ,
t o p o l l u t e , " lu"u o r luwwu, 47
t o t h e w o r d f o r t h e d i r t t o be
cleansed i n G r e e k r i t u a l , lymata o r lythron. Here we encounter a
w o r d root without Indo-European etymology provided w i t h
t w o a l t e r n a t i v e G r e e k suffixes. T h e G r e e k s w o u l d s o m e h o w as-
sociate t h i s w o r d w i t h e i t h e r lyein, t o solve, o r r a t h e r with
louein, t o w a s h , b u t t h e rules o f n o r m a l w o r d f o r m a t i o n d o n o t
p e r m i t t h e o n e , a n d t h e y a l l o w the o t h e r o n l y w i t h difficulty.
T h e r e are s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e L a t i n w o r d lustrum i n t h e
c o n t e x t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s , w h i c h the R o m a n s w o u l d t e n d t o as-
sociate w i t h lux, l i g h t . I t is t r u e t h a t b o t h w o r d g r o u p s , lymata
a n d kathairein, appear i n H o m e r . Kathairein a n d katharos are q u i t e
common: They h a d risen above the status o f f o r e i g n w o r d s .
S u c h a c l a i m w o u l d a p p l y even m o r e t o a t h i r d h o m o n y m y i n
this sphere: ara m e a n s p r a y e r a n d curse; i t is C h r y s e s the areter
w h o can s u m m o n u p a p l a g u e w i t h his p r a y e r o r r a t h e r curse
the G r e e k s a n d b a n i s h t h e p l a g u e again. I n A k k a d i a n the w o r d
" t o c u r s e " is araru; the order given t o B i l e a m b y the k i n g o f
M o a b is, i n H e b r e w , ara!, " c u r s e ! " A G r e e k w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y
have u n d e r s t o o d t h i s w o r d i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , i f n o t g r a m m a t i c a l l y
t h e n at least its m e a n i n g i n c o n t e x t . W h a t creates d i f f i c u l t i e s is
the fact t h a t t h e G r e e k w o r d o r i g i n a l l y h a d t h e f o r m arwa, as its
d e r i v a t i v e s i n t h e v a r i o u s dialects i n d i c a t e . 48
T h i s does n o t g o
t o g e t h e r w i t h araru, w h i c h has n o w i n its r o o t .
T o s u m u p , t h e r e are s u g g e s t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t n o i n c o n t r o -
v e r t i b l e p r o o f s o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g i n the sphere o f p u r i f i -
cation ceremonies. I t w o u l d , h o w e v e r , be n o less b o l d t o d e n y
t h e i r existence a l t o g e t h e r . T h e c o n t i n u u m f r o m t h e M e s o p o t a -
m i a n c u l t u r e t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e r e .
64
Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic
T h e e v i l forces against w h i c h p u r i f i c a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o assist

are c o n c e i v e d o f as m a l e v o l e n t , c a r n i v o r o u s d e m o n s . 1
N e x t to
the v a r i o u s fantastical names w h i c h are i n v o k e d i n this c o n n e c -
t i o n , the s p i r i t o f t h e dead, etemmu, plays an unpleasant r o l e ,
too. 2
S p i r i t s o f t h e dead are r e g a r d e d w i t h fear even i n Greece,
as E r w i n R o h d e i n p a r t i c u l a r has b r o u g h t t o a t t e n t i o n . 3
In
H o m e r this k i n d o f d r e a d is suppressed r a t h e r t h a n n o t yet
known.
T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a n i m i s m as a u n i v e r s a l stage i n the e v o l u -
tion o f h u m a n civilization, w h i c h influenced Rohde, precluded
r a t h e r t h a n e n c o u r a g e d c u l t u r a l l y specific c o m p a r i s o n s . Never-
theless, the e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c c o n c e p t o f Hades c o r -
r e s p o n d s t o t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n is s t r i k i n g : a r e a l m o f m u d and
darkness t h a t leaves n o h o p e f o r m o r t a l s . I t is described i n a
f a m o u s scene o f Gilgamesh w h e n t h e g h o s t o f E n k i d u meets his
f r i e n d , a scene w h i c h m a y have l i n k s w i t h H o m e r even o n a
l i t e r a r y l e v e l . R i t u a l appeasement o f the dead is achieved i n v e r y
4
s i m i l a r ways b y Mesopotamians and by Greeks, preferably

t h r o u g h v a r i o u s k i n d s o f l i b a t i o n : " w a t e r , beer, roasted c o r n ,
m i l k , h o n e y , c r e a m , o i l " i n M e s o p o t a m i a ; " m i l k , h o n e y , water,
5
wine, and o i l " i n Aeschylus. 6

E v e n m o r e p e c u l i a r is the i m p o r -
tance o f p u r e w a t e r as an o f f e r i n g t o the dead: " c o o l w a t e r , "
"pure water." 7
T h e i n s e r t i o n o f pipes i n t o a grave f o r precisely
this p u r p o s e is u n u s u a l i n G r e e c e , 8
b u t there is d i r e c t l i t e r a r y
evidence o f the practice i n M e s o p o t a m i a . 9
T h o s e dead w h o s h o w themselves capable o f affecting t h e l i v -

i n g are called heroes i n Greek. A fragment o f Aristophanes
shows i n a particularly lively and entertaining way j u s t h o w
these heroes have t h e p o w e r t o b r i n g d o w n all m a n n e r o f i l l -
nesses o n t h e l i v i n g i f t h e y are n o t a p p e a s e d . 10
The Akkadian
etemmu can e q u a l l y be the cause o f m a n y k i n d s o f sickness, so he
is m e t w i t h s i m i l a r fears. A g a i n w e have extensive Sumero-
A k k a d i a n i n c a n t a t i o n texts for d o c u m e n t a t i o n : 1 1
" W h e n the
s p i r i t o f a dead p e r s o n has t a k e n possession o f a m a n , " o r " t h e
65
hand o f a spirit o f the d e a d , " 1 2

t h e n e x o r c i s m is due. T h e sick
p e r s o n believes h i m s e l f t o feel this g r i p , a n d he prays: " I f i t is
the s p i r i t o f a m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y o r m y h o u s e h o l d o r the
s p i r i t o f one slain i n b a t t l e o r a w a n d e r i n g s p i r i t . . . " 1 3
I t is i n -
d i c a t i v e o f t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s i n v o l v e d i n sickness t h a t
the s p i r i t s o f closely related persons are especially t o be feared:
" T h e h a n d o f t h e s p i r i t s o f his father a n d his m o t h e r has seized
him.' M 4
N o less d r e a d e d is t h e anger o f those w h o have n o t m e t
w i t h a n a t u r a l d e a t h , the biaiothanatoi, as t h e G r e e k s w o u l d say:
T h e o n e " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " a n d t h e u n b u r i e d " w h o lies i n t h e
w i l d e r n e s s w i t h o u t t h e c o v e r i n g o f the e a r t h , " " w h o s e b o d y was
t h r o w n o n t o t h e steppe . . . : his s p i r i t w a n d e r s restlessly over
the e a r t h . " 1 3
Even a "foreign spirit," "whose name no one
k n o w s , " can be t h e active cause b e h i n d the t o r m e n t s o f t h e
sick. 1 6
T h e G r e e k t e r m f o r this w r a t h o f the dead is menima. I t ap-

pears i n a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e x t as early as i n H o m e r : Hector,
d y i n g , threatens A c h i l l e s , w h o is t o refuse h i m a p r o p e r b u r i a l ,
s a y i n g t h a t he c o u l d b e c o m e a "cause o f w r a t h [menima] o f the
g o d s " f o r h i m , o n t h a t day w h e n A c h i l l e s w i l l be k i l l e d h i m s e l f .
I n a less d r a m a t i c way, deceased E l p e n o r , m e e t i n g O d y s s e u s i n
the u n d e r w o r l d , d e m a n d s a decent b u r i a l so t h a t he w i l l n o t
b e c o m e a menima. 17
T h e s e are the c r i t i c a l , dangerous cases,
s o m e b o d y " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " o r else u n b u r i e d a n d hence restlessly
w a n d e r i n g a b o u t . P l a t o states e x p r e s s l y t h a t " a n c i e n t menimata"
m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n " g r e a t s u f f e r i n g s " w h i c h affect " p a r t i c u -
lar f a m i l i e s , " a r i s i n g " o u t o f o l d , uncleansed wrongdoings";
t h e y are t o be c u r e d w i t h c e r e m o n i e s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d i n i t i a -
tion involving madness. 18
I n his Laws, Plato wants to emphasize
the m o r a l factor, b u t he c a n n o t h e l p b u t m e n t i o n p u r i f i c a t i o n s .
A g a i n t h e o l d a n d r e n o w n e d specialist i n t h i s t y p e o f p u r i f i c a -
t i o n is E p i m e n i d e s , w h o p r o p h e s i e d " n o t over t h a t w h i c h was
t o c o m e , b u t o v e r t h a t w h i c h was p a s t . " 1 9
T h e r e was, o f course, n o lack o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e w i l l i n g t o

m a k e use o f t h e w r a t h o f t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e dead i n o r d e r t o d i r e c t
it against p e r s o n a l e n e m i e s , t h r o u g h b l a c k m a g i c . T h e m o s t d i -
rect practice, w e l l k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t a n t i q u i t y , is t o m a k e an
66
i m a g e o f t h e p e r s o n t o be h a r m e d and t o b u r y i t i n a grave. I n
this w a y t h e v i c t i m w i l l fall p r e y t o the dead a n d t o the gods o f
the u n d e r w o r l d . S u c h f i g u r i n e s are u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " v o o -
d o o d o l l s " t o d a y — a n i n d i c a t i o n that the same practice m a y o c -
c u r i n w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Such a v o o d o o d o l l from
the Periclean era has been f o u n d i n t h e K e r a m e i k o s c e m e t e r y at
Athens. But t h e same practice was also e m p l o y e d b y evil
w i t c h e s i n B a b y l o n i a . T h u s t h e sick p e r s o n c o m p l a i n s : " Y o u
have h a n d e d f i g u r i n e s o f m e t o a c o r p s e , " " m y i m a g e has been
placed i n a t o m b " ; " i f f i g u r i n e s o f a m a n have been e n t r u s t e d t o
a dead m a n b e h i n d h i m , " the m a n w i l l experience a loss o f v i t a l -
i t y . " M a g i c c o u n t e r c h a r m s are c o n t a i n e d above all i n t h e
2
Maqlu
collection.
T h i s is n o t t h e o n l y f o r m o f b l a c k m a g i c t o appear i n b o t h
Greece a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e " m a k i n g o f an i m a g e , " " t a k i n g
saliva, hair, t h e h e m o f a r o b e , footprints," 2 1
may well be
t h o u g h t s i m p l y t o represent u n i v e r s a l f o r m s o f m a g i c . The
" h e m o f t h e r o b e " is also used i n the Pharmakeutria o f Theocri-
tus. 2 2
T h e r e are also A k k a d i a n l o v e c h a r m s w h i c h use figu-
rines. 2 3
T h e Pharmakeutria refers specifically t o a " f o r e i g n e r f r o m
Assyria" w h o supplied a particularly potent substance. 24
T h i s is
H e l l e n i s t i c ; b u t a l r e a d y P l a t o p o r t r a y s t h e u n c a n n y effect o n the
citizens o f a t o w n " w h e n t h e y catch s i g h t o f w a x m o d e l s o u t s i d e
a d o o r o r at a crossroads o r o n a t o m b , perhaps t h a t o f t h e i r
o w n parents": 2 5
T h e s e m a g i c a l practices have already been w i t h
the G r e e k s f o r a l o n g t i m e . I n the same w a y i n B a b y l o n people
are f r i g h t e n e d b y " f a b r i c a t i o n s w h i c h s h o w u p , " i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
" l i f e has been c u t " b y s o m e o n e . 2 6
C o u n t e r m a g i c is u r g e n t l y nec-
essary i n such a case.
A p o w e r f u l r i t e o f a n n i h i l a t i o n is t o m e l t d o w n w a x effigies.
T h i s is d o n e b y t h e sorceress i n T h e o c r i t u s as i t is p r a c t i c e d i n
M e s o p o t a m i a . I n E g y p t t h e use o f w a x figures i n m a g i c is a t -
tested as early as t h e t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m . 2 7
F r o m the e i g h t h c e n -
t u r y w e have a r e l e v a n t A r a m a i c t e x t , the t r e a t y t e x t o f S f i r e — a
rare o p p o r t u n i t y t o d o c u m e n t w h a t lay i n b e t w e e n B a b y l o n i a
a n d Greece. T h i s is an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r a c t c o n c l u d e d b y s o l -
e m n oaths and curses; i n this c o n t e x t i t is said: " A s this w a x is
67
c o n s u m e d b y fire, t h u s . . . ( N . N . ) shall be c o n s u m e d b y fire."

I n the seventh c e n t u r y t h e same f o r m u l a appears i n a c o n t r a c t
made between the Assyrian k i n g Esarhaddon a n d his vassals;
m u c h earlier i t is f o u n d i n a H i t t i t e s o l d i e r s ' o a t h . 2 8
It corre-
s p o n d s t o the o a t h o f the C y r e n e a n s as set o u t i n t h e i r f o u n d a -
t i o n decree, t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n ;
w h e t h e r this is an a u t h e n t i c d o c u m e n t f r o m the seventh c e n t u r y
remains controversial: " T h e y f o r m e d w a x images and b u r n e d
t h e m w h i l e p r a y i n g that anyone w h o d i d n o t keep the oath b u t
f l o u t e d i t m i g h t m e l t a n d f l o w a w a y l i k e the i m a g e s . " 2 9
A t any
rate the practice is w e l l attested f o r the archaic p e r i o d t h r o u g h
the parallel f r o m Sfire, a n d o a t h - t a k i n g r i t u a l s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
character have the best chances t o cross c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s .
T h e r e is o n e n a m e i n the sphere o f b l a c k m a g i c w h i c h d e f i -
nitely travelled f r o m Sumer i n t o Hellenistic E g y p t and o n to
C a r t h a g e : E r e s h k i g a l is t h e S u m e r i a n n a m e o f the t e r r i b l e g o d -
dess o f the u n d e r w o r l d , a n d E r e s k h i g a l is the n a m e o f an i n f e r -
nal goddess w h i c h c o m m o n l y appears i n later G r e e k defixions
and m a g i c a l p a p y r i . 3 0
T h i s is o n e o f the m o s t exact t r a n s c r i p -
tions f r o m Sumerian i n t o Greek: Coincidental h o m o n y m y i n
the case o f such a sequence o f syllables is o u t o f the q u e s t i o n . So
far o n l y texts f r o m the i m p e r i a l era w i t h this n a m e seem t o have
been p u b l i s h e d . B u t g i v e n t h a t the influence o f B a b y l o n had
l o n g since ceased a n d c u n e i f o r m h a d been f o r g o t t e n , the p e r i o d
o f b o r r o w i n g m a y w e l l be m u c h earlier. I n t h e r e a l m o f m a g i c ,
t h o u g h , exact c h r o n o l o g y may be less i m p o r t a n t t h a n else-
where. I n any case the n a m e E r e s h k i g a l is p r o o f o f the far-
r e a c h i n g influence o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c , as is the " A s s y r i a n "
in Theocritus.
A n o t h e r t e x t f r o m C y r e n e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c o n -
t e x t : I n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . an e x t e n s i v e sacred l a w o n p u r i -
fication rites as s a n c t i o n e d b y the D e l p h i c oracle was recorded
at C y r e n e ; t o j u d g e f r o m the c o n t e n t s , i t c o u l d be m u c h o l d e r . 31
We are c o n c e r n e d here w i t h the s e c t i o n headed Hikesion. The

w o r d hikesios is b e l i e v e d t o be w e l l u n d e r s t o o d , m e a n i n g "he
w h o has r e a c h e d " i n the sense o f s u p p l i a n t ; so the first c o m m e n -
t a t o r s h a d n o d o u b t t h a t i t is the t r e a t m e n t o f s u p p l i a n t s n o r -
68
m a l l y called hiketai w h i c h is b e i n g dealt w i t h here. Yet u n d e r

this a s s u m p t i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s m a d e i n t h e t e x t
m u s t seem h i g h l y abstruse. I t is n o c o i n c i d e n c e that J o h n G o u l d ,
i n his e x e m p l a r y t r e a t m e n t o f hiketeia, d i d n o t consider the C y -
renean t e x t . 3 2
T h r e e cases are set apart i n the sacred l a w f r o m
C y r e n e : first a hikesios " s e n t f r o m e l s e w h e r e , " epaktos. T h e m a i n
problem with t h i s f e l l o w seems t o be t o establish w h o has
sent h i m :
I f he has been sent t o the house, i f [the o w n e r ] k n o w s f r o m

w h o m he has c o m e o n h i m , he w i l l call his name, p r o n o u n c -
i n g i t three times a day; i f he has died i n the c o u n t r y o r was
lost elsewhere, i f he k n o w s the name, he w i l l p r o n o u n c e h i m
b y name; i f he does n o t k n o w [he w i l l p r o n o u n c e ] : " O h y o u
m a n , w h e t h e r y o u are m a n o r w o m a n " ; he w i l l make effigies,
[one] male and [one] female, f r o m w o o d o r clay; he w i l l re-
ceive t h e m [ i n his house] and present [ t h e m ] w i t h a p o r t i o n
o f e v e r y t h i n g . W h e n y o u have done w h a t is customary, then
take t h e m i n t o an u n c u l t i v a t e d w o o d and cast t h e m i n t o the
g r o u n d , the effigies and their p o r t i o n s [ o f the m e a l ] . 3 3
I t is strange that t h i s r i t u a l c o u l d ever have been h e l d t o be the

p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t : N o one is seen t o care
f o r s u c h a p e r s o n w h o s h o u l d be present and i n need o f p r o t e c -
t i o n ; t h e c o n c e r n is a b o u t s o m e i n d i v i d u a l , k n o w n o r u n k n o w n ,
w h o is c l e a r l y absent b u t is p r e s u m e d t o have sent the hikesios;
a n d o n e o b v i o u s l y w i s h e s u r g e n t l y t o get r i d o f this again. I f
one l o o k s f o r a c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h i s practice as d e s c r i b e d i n the
passage q u o t e d , t h e closest p a r a l l e l is p r o v i d e d b y A k k a d i a n
m a g i c l i t e r a t u r e . H e r e , o n c e m o r e f o r the h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r -
s o n , an effigy o f " e v e r y t h i n g e v i l " is p r o d u c e d , placed o n the
r o o f n e x t t o t h e s i c k b e d , a n d t e n d e d f o r three days. T h e n , t o the
a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f i n c a n t a t i o n s , the effigy is enclosed i n a p o t ,
t a k e n away, a n d b u r i e d i n " a n a b a n d o n e d w i l d e r n e s s . " 3 4
The
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the p r o c e d u r e s — t h e m a k i n g o f a fig-
u r i n e , t h e t e n d i n g o f i t , its disposal i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s — i s perfect;
and thus the w o r d "sent" i n the Greek t e x t becomes clear:
" S e n d i n g u p o n " (epagoge) is a w e l l - k n o w n t e r m o f b l a c k m a g i c ;
69
i n P l a t o i t ranks d i r e c t l y n e x t t o the defixio. i5

A sorcerer " s e n d s "
e v i l " o n t o the h e a d " o f his e n e m i e s . T h a t is w h y i t is so i m p o r -
t a n t t o f i n d o u t w h o is b e h i n d i t i n o r d e r t o s t r i k e at t h e r o o t o f
the e v i l , o r rather, i n t h e sense o f appeasement, t o c o m e t o s o m e
solution b y agreement. F o r this reason t h e effigy o f e v e r y t h i n g
e v i l is f i r s t fed a n d t h e n e n e r g e t i c a l l y disposed of. T h e c o n c l u -
s i o n is t h a t , i n C y r e n e , hikesios does n o t m e a n s u p p l i a n t , b u t an
evil spirit w h o "comes u p o n " a house or p e r s o n . 3 6
T h e h y p o t h e s i s m u s t s t a n d o r fall i n the l i g h t o f t h e o t h e r t w o
p a r a g r a p h s i n A p o l l o ' s sacred l a w f o r C y r e n e , covering other
cases o f hikesioi a n d h o w t o deal w i t h t h e m . 3 7
T h e second s e c t i o n
is p r e s e r v e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i n t a c t , b u t its u n d e r s t a n d i n g is
m a d e d i f f i c u l t b y t h e u n c l e a r m e a n i n g o f three t e r m s , a p p l i e d
here i n a special, t e c h n i c a l w a y u n k n o w n f r o m o t h e r d o c u m e n t s :
teliskesthai, ateles/tetelesmenos, a n d propheresthai. I n a d d i t i o n , the
archaic style o f t e n does n o t i d e n t i f y the subject o f t h e v e r b ; n o r
d o w e k n o w w h a t the " p u b l i c s h r i n e " (damosion hierori) o f C y -
rene was. T h e f o l l o w i n g analysis a t t e m p t s t o r e n d e r the s t r u c -
ture o f the l a w w i t h o u t the benefit o f m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n , t a k i n g
telein i n the general sense o f " p e r f o r m a n c e of a ritual." 3 8
The
" o t h e r " hikesios, either w i t h or w i t h o u t performance o f ritual,
has " t a k e n his seat at t h e p u b l i c s h r i n e " ; i f t h e r e is a " p r o n o u n c e -
m e n t , " t h e n r i t u a l is t o be p e r f o r m e d o n t h e t e r m s p r o n o u n c e d ;
i f there is n o p r o n o u n c e m e n t , t h e n an a n n u a l o f f e r i n g o f f r u i t s
o f t h e field a c c o m p a n i e d b y l i b a t i o n has t o be m a d e i n p e r p e t u -
ity. I f o n e s h o u l d f o r g e t t h a t , d o u b l e offerings are d u e t h e n e x t
year; i f a descendant s h o u l d o m i t i t , f o r g e t t i n g i t , a n d there is a
p r o n o u n c e m e n t f o r h i m , he w i l l pay t o t h e g o d a n d sacrifice
w h a t e v e r w i l l be revealed t o h i m b y the o r a c l e — i f he k n o w s , t o
the father's g o d ; o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle is t o be c o n s u l t e d .
I t is clear t h a t t h i s t e x t is a b o u t s e t t i n g u p a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a
c u l t . I n t e r p r e t e r s w h o take this t o refer t o a h u m a n s u p p l i a n t
m u s t m a k e three a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s : I t is d e a l i n g w i t h t h e
case o f a m u r d e r e r — a l t h o u g h o n l y t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the l a w
speaks o f k i l l i n g ; t h e c u l t is f o r the b e n e f i t o f t h e v i c t i m o f m u r -
der; t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t is m a d e b y a priest: " [ t h e p r i e s t ] lays
d o w n , " a n d " p e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l " means acceptance t o c i t i -
70
zenship, " t o be i n i t i a t e d . " 3 9

B u t w i t h these a s s u m p t i o n s , the
v e r y first l i n e o f t h e t e x t w o u l d be a b s u r d : t h e r i t u a l can " e i t h e r
be p e r f o r m e d o r n o t , " a n d i t seems t h a t i t can be repeated. Fur-
ther, the p r i e s t w o u l d be free e i t h e r t o set the t e r m s o r n o t as
capriciously as he w i s h e s ; precisely i f he(?) "does n o t p r o -
n o u n c e , " sacrifices shall be m a d e i n p e r p e t u i t y , whereas i n t h e
o t h e r case the a t o n e m e n t is m a d e once and forever. A b o v e a l l , i f
a p r o b l e m arises i n a s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n , w h y s h o u l d first a
priest a n d t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n , an oracle " e s t a b l i s h " t h e sacrifice?
T h e d i r e c t i v e s are d i f f e r e n t a n d m u c h clearer i n d e e d i f one de-
cides t o i m a g i n e t h a t s o m e p o w e r f u l s p i r i t is asserting himself,
w h e t h e r i n a d r e a m o r i n the f o r m o f v i s i o n s o r a u d i t i o n s ; u n d e r
these c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e r e w i l l be a r e l i g i o u s p r o c e d u r e , " a c c o r d -
i n g t o c o m m a n d " (kat' epitagen), as i t is so o f t e n expressed i n
i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e t e r m pronouncement (propheresthai) then recov-
ers its w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g o f " t o r e p r o a c h , t o c o m p l a i n " :
it means t h e same as " t o express a menima"; i t is also close t o the
t e r m " t o g i v e a s i g n o f d i v i n e w i l l , " episemainein. I f there is n o
precise m a n i f e s t a t i o n , i f the s p i r i t has o n l y i n f l i c t e d wordless
h o r r o r o n p e o p l e , t h e n t h e usual f o r m o f appeasing sacrifice f o r
the dead applies: f r u i t s o f t h e earth a n d l i b a t i o n s f o r t h e dead.
C h i l d r e n a n d c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n are affected insofar as t h e c u l t
o f t h e dead is m o s t l y a c u l t o f ancestors. T h u s a f o r g o t t e n ances-
t o r can express his displeasure a n d " c o m p l a i n " : " T h e s p i r i t o f a
m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y has l a i d h o l d of m e , " as an A k k a d i a n t e x t
w o u l d p u t i t . I n case o f d o u b t o n e m u s t c o n s u l t an oracle t o f i n d
o u t t h e c o r r e c t offerings t o be m a d e . T h e s e s h o u l d be m a d e t o
the f a m i l y g o d i f he is k n o w n — " t h e y m a k e t h e i r sacrifices t o
Z e u s K a r i o s , " states H e r o d o t u s o f t h e f a m i l y o f Isagoras i n A t h -
ens; 40
o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle w i l l also establish w h o this s h o u l d
be. T h u s t h e t e x t m a k e s sense, i f o n l y i n the sense o f w h a t w e
call s u p e r s t i t i o n . Teliskesthai t h e n means the r i t u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f a c u l t . T h a t the p u b l i c sanctuary o f C y r e n e s h o u l d have been
p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f heroes is an a t t r a c t i v e
assumption.
T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n i n t h e l a w o f C y r e n e is unclear as t o the
decisive t e r m c o n c e r n i n g the t h i r d v a r i e t y ofhikesios, autophonos:
7i
" o n e w h o k i l l e d w i t h his o w n h a n d s " o r " o n e w h o k i l l e d h i m -

s e l f " ? H e r e t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e o n e w h o " c a m e o n " is m e t b y a
c o u n t e r - r i t e o f " m a k i n g h i m w h o arrives g o , " aphiketeuein.^
This vocabulary m a k e s i t clear a g a i n t h a t w e are n o t d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t r a t h e r
w i t h s o m e o n e o n e desires t o get r i d of. T h e t e x t has s o m e l a -
cunae, h o w e v e r , supplements o f w h i c h remain doubtful. The
p e r s o n affected has t o " a n n o u n c e " t h e r i t u a l ; he makes s o m e -
b o d y sit o n a fleece o n t h e t h r e s h o l d 4 2
a n d a n o i n t s h i m . T h e n he
w i l l g o o u t w i t h a t t e n d a n t s o n t o t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y w h i l e all
w h o m e e t h i m k e e p s i l e n t , r e c e i v i n g the h a r b i n g e r , u n t i l — t h e r e
is a gap here; t h a t "sacrifices a n d o t h e r " (rites?) take place is s t i l l
legible. I f this text were dealing w i t h the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f one
stained w i t h m u r d e r , t h e n a f i n a l act o f i n t e g r a t i o n , w i t h a d m i s -
s i o n t o t h e city's shrines, w o u l d have t o be assumed; e d i t o r s have
proposed their supplements accordingly. T h e part o f the text
w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , speaks o f l e a d i n g " a w a y , " " g o i n g
o u t , " "passing b y " ; and it mentions a marginal region where
" t h r e e tribes m e e t " (triphylia); 43
silence is a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e pres-
ence o f " m o r e p o w e r f u l b e i n g s " ; 4 4
t h i s is a r i t u a l n o t o f i n t e g r a -
t i o n b u t o f r i d d a n c e , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y i n v o l v i n g d e m o n s rather
than living people. 4 5
T h e c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e w o r d hikesios i n s o m e
o t h e r G r e e k texts c l e a r l y carries the m e a n i n g " s u p p l i a n t , " a n d
never else o c c u r s w i t h t h e m e a n i n g " h a u n t i n g s p i r i t . " H o w e v e r ,
t h e r e is an exact p a r a l l e l i n the d u a l m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d prostro-
paios, m e a n i n g l i t e r a l l y " h e w h o t u r n s t o s o m e b o d y . " Since A e s -
c h y l u s w e f i n d t h i s w o r d i n use n o t o n l y f o r a s u p p l i a n t b u t also
f o r a d e m o n w h o attaches h i m s e l f t o o n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s this
m e a n i n g has o f t e n been m i s t a k e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e L i d d e l l -
Scott l e x i c o n , e v e n t h o u g h expressions such as " t h e prostropaios
o f M y r t i l u s [ m u r d e r e d t r e a c h e r o u s l y ] f o l l o w e d h i m " i n Pausa-
nias o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f prostropaios w i t h " E r i n y e s a n d sp rits
o f v e n g e a n c e " i n P o l y b i u s is clear e n o u g h . 4 6
The threatening . in-
v o c a t i o n s o f the prostropaios o f t h e dead i n A n t i p h o n t h e oic'.jt
a n d already i n A e s c h y l u s are t o be u n d e r s t o o d correspond-
ingly. 4 7
T h e " o n e w h o a p p r o a c h e s " can be an u n c l e a n p e r s o n o r
72
A S E E R OR A H E A L E R
an e v i l s p i r i t o f t h e dead; t h e same a m b i v a l e n c e is peculiar t o

b o t h G r e e k w o r d s . I t is t r u e t h a t i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n the d o c -
u m e n t f r o m C y r e n e shows A p o l l o n i a n r e l i g i o n m o r e deeply i n -
v o l v e d i n " s u p e r s t i t i o n " t h a n s o m e H e l l e n i s t s have been w i l l i n g
t o accept. T h e y w i l l h a r d l y be d e l i g h t e d at t h e fact t h a t a parallel
f r o m a M e s o p o t a m i a n r i t u a l t e x t is f o u n d h e l p f u l f o r e s t a b l i s h -
i n g the m e a n i n g o f a p u r e l y Greek w o r d . T h e borderlines be-
t w e e n t h e eastern a n d t h e G r e e k are seen t o m e l t away.
Substitute Sacrifice
I n a s i t u a t i o n o f p u r s u i t , seized b y p a n i c , h u m a n beings are n a t -

u r a l l y r e l i e v e d i f a n o t h e r creature suffers t h a t fate i n t h e i r place.
S u b s t i t u t e sacrifices are w i d e s p r e a d . 1
They were particularly
c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a because basic anxieties w e r e c o n v e n -
t i o n a l l y g i v e n shape t h e r e i n t h e f o r m s o f d e m o n i c c a r n i v o r e s . 2
T h i s was less c o m m o n i n Greece. A l l t h e m o r e n o t a b l e , t h e n , is

one particular account, a cult legend f r o m the sanctuary o f A r -
t e m i s o f M u n i c h i a at A t h e n s .
O n c e again i t is a pestilence i n w h i c h t h e anger o f the goddess
is m a d e m a n i f e s t . T h e cause is said t o be t h e k i l l i n g o f a sacred
bear. F o r a t o n e m e n t , t h e goddess d e m a n d s t h e sacrifice o f a
y o u n g g i r l . " E m b a r o s p r o m i s e d to do this on the c o n d i t i o n that
his f a m i l y w o u l d be g r a n t e d t h e office o f priest f o r t h e i r l i f e t i m e .
H e dressed u p his d a u g h t e r , b u t h i d her i n the t e m p l e , dressed
u p a g o a t w i t h a g a r m e n t as his d a u g h t e r , a n d sacrificed t h a t . "
T h i s is t h e t e x t o f Pausanias the A t t i c i s t ; t h e v e r s i o n i n the c o l -
l e c t i o n o f p r o v e r b s o f Z e n o b i u s is v e r y s i m i l a r . E m b a r o s was
m e n t i o n e d i n the comedies o f M e n a n d e r . 3
I t is clear t h a t t h i s anecdote describes a r i t u a l , a s u b s t i t u t e sac-

rifice p e r f o r m e d i n t h e c u l t o f A r t e m i s f o r t h e l i f t i n g o f a p e s t i -
lence. T h e m y t h o f I p h i g e n i a ' s sacrifice at A u l i s o b t r u d e s i t s e l f
as a p a r a l l e l , w h e r e the goddess h e r s e l f is said t o have f i n a l l y
substituted a h i n d for the v i r g i n . B u t the M u n i c h i a legend p o r -
trays t h e a c t u a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s m u c h m o r e g r a p h i c a l l y . T o w h a t
e x t e n t t h i s can be t a k e n as evidence f o r actual c u l t is b y n o
means c e r t a i n , t h o u g h . T h e r e is n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a
73
family o f E m b a r o s or a p r i e s t h o o d o f E m b a r i d s i n the A t t i c p r o -
s o p o g r a p h y . B u t t o assume t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p u r e i n v e n -
t i o n w o u l d m a k e t h e p r o v e r b i a l status o f E m b a r o s even less e x -
plicable.
T h e r e are w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d r i t u a l s elsewhere i n w h i c h an a n -
i m a l is s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a h u m a n b e i n g ; a r e m a r k a b l e instance is
the p r o v i s i o n i n t h e o l d L a w o f the T w e l v e Tables i n R o m e : aries
subicitur, "a r a m is s u b s t i t u t e d . " T h e closest p a r a l l e l , h o w e v e r ,
4
is p r o v i d e d b y a M e s o p o t a m i a n i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t .
T h i s t e x t deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r s o n . I t bears t h e
t i t l e " S u b s t i t u t i o n o f a M a n f o r E r e s h k i g a l . " E r e s h k i g a l is the
S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n goddess o f the u n d e r w o r l d . T h e s u b s t i t u t e
is an " u n m a t e d g o a t . " I t is p u t i n t o bed w i t h the sick p e r s o n and
is s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d the n i g h t w i t h h i m . A t d a w n the c o n j u r e r
arrives, t h r o w s t h e g o a t a n d the sick p e r s o n o u t o f t h e bed o n t o
the floor, touches t h e t h r o a t o f t h e sick p e r s o n w i t h a w o o d e n
k n i f e , a n d t h e n cuts the t h r o a t o f t h e g o a t w i t h a real k n i f e . T h e
s l a u g h t e r e d g o a t is t h e n stuffed w i t h spices, i t is dressed i n a
r o b e a n d g i v e n shoes, its eyes are a d o r n e d , t h e headgear o f the
sick p e r s o n is w o u n d r o u n d its head, a n d i t is t e n d e d "as i f i t
w e r e a dead m a n " w h i l e t h e sick p e r s o n leaves the house. The
c o n j u r e r speaks an i n c a n t a t i o n , raises the l a m e n t a t i o n f o r t h e
dead over t h e b o d y , b r i n g s offerings f o r t h e dead, makes l i b a -
t i o n s o f water, beer, r o a s t e d c o r n , m i l k , honey, c r e a m , a n d o i l ;
finally, w i t h offerings f o r t h e " s p i r i t o f t h e dead o f t h e f a m i l y "
a n d t h e g o a t , he b u r i e s t h e a n i m a l . I n this w a y t h e sick p e r s o n is
delivered. 5
T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o r i t u a l s s h o u l d n o t be o v e r -
l o o k e d . I n M u n i c h i a a sacrifice at the altar o f a s a n c t u a r y is d e -
s c r i b e d , w h e r e a s , i n t h e East, d y i n g at h o m e i n b e d is acted o u t .
T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e charade, w h i c h i n b o t h cases has a s a c r i f i -
cial g o a t dressed u p i n h u m a n c l o t h e s , is s t r i k i n g nevertheless;
a n d t h e M u n i c h i a l e g e n d is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the h e a l i n g o f s i c k -
ness, t o o . G e l l i u s states t h a t i n the R o m a n c u l t o f Veiovis a g o a t
is sacrificed ritu humano; this m a y w e l l p o i n t to a s o m e w h a t s i m -
ilar f o r m o f r i t u a l . O n Tenedos, i n the c u l t o f D i o n y s u s A n t h r o -
6
porraistes t h e " S m a s h e r o f M e n " — o n c e m o r e w i t h i n the i d e o l -
74
ogy of human sacrifice—the c a l f sacrificed to the god is

p r o v i d e d w i t h b u s k i n s , w h i l e t h e b u t c h e r has t o flee. 7
We see t h e r e is n o lack o f parallels. D i r e c t c o n t a c t c o u l d be

p r o v e d b y l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b u t , nevertheless, it remains a
"perhaps." T h e name Embaros—with the l o n g a—does not
s o u n d G r e e k , at least n o t A t t i c . Pausanias a n d subsequently
o t h e r l e x i c o n s g i v e the n a m e B a r o s as a v a r i a n t . T h i s sounds
even m o r e e x o t i c b u t c o r r e s p o n d s precisely t o the A k k a d i a n
w o r d f o r seer, baru. 8
O n e c o u l d assume t h a t there lies b e h i n d the
l e g e n d an actual event w h e n a seer o f eastern o r i g i n e m p l o y e d a
s u b s t i t u t e sacrifice t o l i f t a pestilence w i t h a p p a r e n t success. T h e
c u l t a n d s h r i n e o f A r t e m i s at M u n i c h i a is l i n k e d t o the m o n t h
M u n i c h i o n i n t h e A t t i c calendar a n d , l i k e o t h e r festivals o f A r -
t e m i s , has t h e aura o f G r e e k g i r l s ' i n i t i a t i o n s ; this can h a r d l y be
an o r i e n t a l i m p o r t i n its e n t i r e t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , the evidence f o r
the f o r m Baros is w e a k : T h e M e n a n d e r t e x t s , w h i c h are the o l d -
est d o c u m e n t s w e have a n d o n w h i c h the l e x i c o n s rely, clearly
have Embaros. H o w e v e r , a d d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s are n o t e x c l u d e d even
i n established c u l t s , a n d a l l sorts o f accidents m a y befall i m -
p o r t e d w o r d s . E v e n i f t h e exact p a t h o f t r a d i t i o n c a n n o t be es-
t a b l i s h e d , t h e East-West parallel o f r i t u a l s u b s t i t u t e deserves n o -
tice.
Asdepius and Asgelatas
T h r e e s m a l l b r o n z e statuettes f r o m t h e H e r a sanctuary o n Sa-

mos p r o v i d e the strongest evidence o f B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t s to
Greece as regards sickness d e m o n s and h e a l i n g g o d s . T w o o f
t h e m , first p u b l i s h e d i n 1979, w e r e excavated f r o m levels dated
t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 4 ) . ' These b r o n z e s represent a
m a n s t a n d i n g at p r a y e r w i t h a large d o g . A s c o n f i r m e d b y s i m -
ilar f i n d s f r o m B a b y l o n i a a n d also b y c u n e i f o r m t e x t s , these f i g -
ures are c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e B a b y l o n i a n goddess o f h e a l i n g ,
G u l a o f I s i n , t h e " g r e a t p h y s i c i a n , " azugallatu. D o g s w e r e sacri-
ficed i n her c u l t : A w h o l e series o f d o g b u r i a l s has c o m e t o l i g h t
at her s h r i n e at I s i n . 2
I f several f i g u r i n e s o f this t y p e w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o H e r a o n Sa-
75
Figure 4. Babylonian bronze figurine, "dog and dog-leader," from the

cult of the Babylonian healing goddess Cu/a, found in the Hera
sanctuary at Samos .
. 76 .
m o s , t h e y c a n n o t be m e r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l s o u v e n i r s . I t is m o r e
l i k e l y t h a t H e r a is b e i n g a p p r o a c h e d as a goddess o f h e a l i n g , t o o ;
such assistance was requested f r o m p r a c t i c a l l y all the gods b u t
especially f r o m t h e goddesses. W h e t h e r t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f these
b r o n z e s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h eastern m e r c h a n t s w h o h a d reached Sa-
m o s o r w h e t h e r t h e y h a d been b r o u g h t f r o m the East b y Greeks
such as A l c a e u s ' b r o t h e r A n t i m e n i d a s , w h o — s o m e w h a t l a t e r —
served as a m e r c e n a r y at B a b y l o n , c a n n o t be established. W h a t
sickness means can easily be u n d e r s t o o d across t h e language
b a r r i e r s ; a n d i f a p a r t i c u l a r t a l i s m a n seems t o be efficacious
against i t , this w i l l be accepted w i t h e q u a l ease.
B u t this is n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y . We are led t o g o f u r t h e r b y
the s t r i k i n g r o l e o f t h e d o g i n the c u l t o f t h e m a i n G r e e k g o d o f
h e a l i n g , A s c l e p i u s . A d o g was s t a n d i n g n e x t t o t h e chrysele-
p h a n t i n e statue o f A s c l e p i u s i n his t e m p l e at E p i d a u r u s ; a d e d i -
c a t o r y r e l i e f f r o m t h e r e has d o g s a l o n g s i d e the sons o f A s c l e -
pius. 3
M y t h relates t h a t as a c h i l d A s c l e p i u s was exposed on
Mount Kynortion, w h e r e he was n o u r i s h e d b y a b i t c h a n d
found by huntsmen w i t h dogs —kynegetai,
4
dog-leaders, in
G r e e k ; i n a d d i t i o n , a c t u a l c u l t c o m e s t o the fore w i t h the r e -
q u i r e m e n t o f a lex sacra f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus:
W h o seeks h e a l i n g , i t is stated, m u s t m a k e p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice
o f t h r e e cakes to M a l e a t a s , A p o l l o , H e r m e s , Iaso, A k e s o , and
Panakeia, a n d finally t o " d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , " t h a t is, h u n t s -
men. 5
T h e s e d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s can be e x p l a i n e d b y reference t o
m y t h ; b u t the b r o n z e s f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f H e r a present a m u c h
m o r e d i r e c t a n d g r a p h i c e x p l a n a t i o n : H e r e dogs a n d dog-leaders
are seen i n effigy. O n e can easily assume t h a t figures o f this t y p e
w e r e also t o be seen at t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus; t h e y
w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h respect, j u s t l i k e t h e o t h e r g o d s a n d p o w e r s i n
the r e t i n u e o f A s c l e p i u s , a n d t h u s h a d t h e i r p a r t i n the r i t u a l .
D o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s as r e c i p i e n t s o f a p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice also
appear i n a g r o t e s q u e p a r o d y o f c u l t i n a piece b y the c o m i c p o e t
Plato. 6
T h i s , t h e r e f o r e , was a w e l l - k n o w n , s o m e h o w r e m a r k -
able d e t a i l o f a c e r t a i n c u l t . I t becomes c o m p r e h e n s i b l e as s o o n
as o n e considers the statues o f the S a m i a n H e r a sanctuary: By
77
t h e i r v e r y existence, t h e y i n d i c a t e a p e c u l i a r East-West u n d e r -
standing i n the r e a l m o f healing gods.
F r o m a n o t h e r place w e are i n d u c e d t o a leap f o r w a r d i n t o t h e
l i n g u i s t i c evidence. G u l a , t h e goddess o f h e a l i n g , patroness of
d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , is called azugallatu, " t h e great p h y s i c i a n , "
i n A k k a d i a n . O n the C y c l a d i c i s l a n d A n a p h e near T h e r a , h o w -
7
ever, a n d o n l y t h e r e , A p o l l o is w o r s h i p p e d as Asgelatas a n d c e l -
ebrated w i t h a f e s t i v a l , A s g e l a i a . 8
T h e n a m e , w h i c h does n o t
s o u n d G r e e k , has repeatedly attracted attention, particularly
as i t has a r i n g n o t t o o d i s s i m i l a r f r o m t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o ' s
son Asklapios/Asclepius, w h i c h equally defies explanation. 9
Az(u)gallat(u) a n d Asgelat(as) s o u n d p e r f e c t l y i d e n t i c a l , i f the

variable m o r p h e m e s are o m i t t e d ; the sequence o f syllables is
complicated enough to exclude sheer c o i n c i d e n c e , and the
m e a n i n g fits: B e i n g a p h y s i c i a n is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
h o n o r s o f A p o l l o , w h o is e x p r e s s l y called p h y s i c i a n (ietros) i n
other cults. 1 0
I t is t r u e t h a t i n consequence t h e n a m e o f the fes-
t i v a l , A s g e l a i a , m u s t be secondary, r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m the n a m e
Asgelatas as i f t h i s h a d t h e n o r m a l G r e e k suffix -tas, -tes. I f the
equation Azugallatu/Asgelatas is accepted, i t f o l l o w s that t h e r e
m u s t o n c e have been a healer o n this i s l a n d w h o i n v o k e d t h e
n a m e o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n azugallatu against a pestilence and
o s t e n s i b l y succeeded i n d r i v i n g t h e disease away. F r o m t h a t t i m e
A p o l l o Asgelatas was w o r s h i p p e d t h e r e , as A p o l l o E p i k u r i o s at
Bassae was c r e d i t e d w i t h s u c c o r i n g at the great p l a g u e — o r 1 1
as
Santa M a r i a della Salute was t o receive w o r s h i p m u c h later at
Venice. A p o l l o A s g e l a t a s , t h e n , p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t d i r e c t p r o o f
o f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e eastern t r a -
d i t i o n i n t o archaic Greece, p a r a l l e l t o the G u l a bronzes f o u n d o n
Samos.
T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e absorbs a n d suppresses
these f o r e i g n t e r m s is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n this case. T h e d e -
c e p t i v e l y s i m i l a r f o r m Aiglatas is attested q u i t e early o n A n a p h e ,
" A p o l l o o f t h e r a d i a n t s k y " ; this e p i t h e t has also m a d e its w a y
i n t o t h e m y t h o f t h e A r g o n a u t s ; i t appears i n d e d i c a t i o n s as early
as the fifth c e n t u r y B . C . 1 2
W h o c o u l d guess at t h e existence o f
A k k a d i a n b e h i n d such crystal-clear G r e e k ? I t is a l u c k y chance
78
A S E E R O R A H E A L E R "
t h a t t h e strange b u t official names o f the c u l t a n d the festival

have been p r e s e r v e d i n a f e w e p i g r a p h i c d o c u m e n t s . I t is e v i d e n t
t h a t Asgelatas is t h e lectio difficilior, hence o l d e r t h a n A i g l a t a s .
T h e n a m e Asgelatas is, t h e r e f o r e , a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e archaic e p -
o c h at t h e latest. T h u s t h e e x t e r n a l evidence leads close t o the
o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , t o w h i c h t h e S a m i a n dog-leaders b e l o n g .
O n e f u r t h e r reference t o a w o r d f r o m the sphere o f A s c l e p i u s
the p h y s i c i a n : O n e w o r d for headache o r dizziness attested since
the A r i s t o t e l i a n Problems is karos. I t has n o G r e e k etymology.
B u t i n A k k a d i a n kdru means " t o be d i z z y , " and i n A r a m a i c
karah, " t o be i l l . " 1 3
C o i n c i d e n c e is q u i t e possible w i t h such a
s i m p l e sequence o f p h o n e m e s , b u t o n e can as w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t
the t e r m came t o t h e G r e e k s w i t h t h e eastern b a n q u e t i n g fash-
i o n s , especially t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f couches o n w h i c h t o recline
(klinai) i n place o f chairs, w h i c h is d i s t i n c t i v e o f the G r e e k s y m -
p o s i u m since the e n d o f the seventh c e n t u r y b u t first m a k e s its
appearance w i t h A s h u r b a n i p a l . T h e r e m a y be m o r e l o a n - w o r d s
o f t h e k i n d i n m e d i c a l v o c a b u l a r y ; w h a t is u n u s u a l is t h a t karos
escaped c a m o u f l a g e .
Ecstatic Divination
D i v i n a t i o n is a strange art w h i c h o n l y specialists can practice

successfully u n d e r p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S o m e t i m e s stress is
l a i d o n the o u t w a r d l y t e c h n i c a l , a c q u i r e d apparatus o f the d i -
v i n e r , w h i c h seems easy t o l e a r n ; s o m e t i m e s i t is t h e p a r t i c u l a r
state o f m i n d t h a t is seen t o be a l l - i m p o r t a n t , be i t called posses-
s i o n , t r a n c e , o r madness. W i t h the G r e e k s , the " r a v i n g " seer
first appears o n s t a g e i n A e s c h y l u s ' Agamemnon, i n the great
scene o f Cassandra. B u t already earlier H e r a c l i t u s h a d s p o k e n o f
the S i b y l p r o p h e s y i n g " w i t h r a v i n g m o u t h , " and H e r o d o t u s
presupposes ecstatic p r o p h e c y at the P t o o n oracle b y 4 8 0 . 1
Then
P l a t o discusses d i v i n a t o r y madness at a h i g h l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l
level; i n this c o n t e x t he c l e a r l y c o n f i r m s t h a t the m o s t f a m o u s
seer i n Greece, t h e P y t h i a at D e l p h i , used t o p r o p h e s y i n a state
o f ecstasy. M u c h later t h e Pythia's seance was described i n s o m e
2
d e t a i l b y P l u t a r c h i n his w r i t i n g s o n D e l p h i , a f i r s t h a n d w i t n e s s
3
79
since he served f o r years t h e r e as a priest. A l t h o u g h t h e r a t i o n -

alizing hypothesis about volcanic vapors rising f r o m the g r o u n d
b e n e a t h t h e t r i p o d i n t h e t e m p l e at D e l p h i a n d t h u s c h e m i c a l l y
" i n s p i r i n g " the P y t h i a has been g e o l o g i c a l l y r e f u t e d , t h i s s h o u l d
n o t serve t o d i s p r o v e t h e ecstatic state characteristic o f A p o l l o ' s
p r o n o u n c e m e n t s at t h e place. A m e d i u m does n o t need c h e m -
istry. H o w ecstasy m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n i n d i v i d u a l cases m a y have
v a r i e d f r o m p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g i n the
fact t h a t a s u i t a b l e peasant g i r l c o u l d be chosen, as P l u t a r c h af-
f i r m s — a l t h o u g h s o m e scholars have f o u n d t h i s d i s c o n c e r t i n g .
Ecstatic p r o p h e c y is a specific g i f t w h i c h c a n n o t be a n t i c i p a t e d
and o n l y partially manipulated.
F a r n e l l w r o t e i n 1911 t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t t o Greece, ecstatic
p r o p h e c y d i d n o t exist i n B a b y l o n ; 4
b u t t h i s has l o n g since been
r e f u t e d . Ecstatic priests a n d priestesses (mahhu, mahhutu) w e r e i n
fact c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e evidence has
appeared i n M a r i ; b u t W e n - A m o n ' s r e p o r t has a case i n B y b l o s ,
too. 5
I n t h e t i m e o f E s a r h a d d o n ecstatic w o m e n w e r e active i n
A s s y r i a ; i n p a r t i c u l a r , t e m p l e a t t e n d a n t s o f Ishtar o f A r b e l a r e -
p o r t e d t h e d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e goddess t o t h e k i n g .
The d e i t y was speaking d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the m o u t h of a
w o m a n , i n t h e first p e r s o n : " I , Ishtar . . . " 6
T h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e S i b y l o r S i b y l s reaches f r o m B a b y l o n t o
C u m a e w i t h a center o f g r a v i t y i n A s i a M i n o r . 7
Admittedly
w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t ideas a b o u t date a n d l i f e t i m e o f S i b y l s were
c u r r e n t i n a n t i q u i t y , a n d i t is d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o l d e r
t r a d i t i o n s o u t o f t h e later sources. H e r a c l i t u s , o u r oldest w i t -
ness, refers t o t h e S i b y l a n d h e r ecstasy, as she u t t e r s unpleasant
p r o p h e c i e s " w i t h r a v i n g m o u t h , " c o v e r i n g " 1 , 0 0 0 years." T r a -
d i t i o n dates t h e S i b y l o f M a r p e s s a before t h e T r o j a n War, b u t t h e
S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e t o t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; t h e S i b y l o f C u m a e is
8
made a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Tarquinius Superbus i n R o m e . 9

This
c h r o n o l o g y s h o u l d be g i v e n c r e d i t insofar as t h e C u m a e t r a d i -
t i o n m u s t extend back b e y o n d the conquest o f the city b y the
Oscans i n the fifth c e n t u r y .
E a s t e r n o r i g i n s o f t h e S i b y l have been c o n s i d e r e d since a n -

t i q u i t y . T o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e S i b y l l i n e b o o k s o f late H e l l e n i s t i c
80
" A S E E R OR A H E A L E R
and i m p e r i a l t i m e s i n c o r p o r a t e the " e a s t e r n " opposition to

R o m e w i t h s t r o n g J e w i s h elements. B u t i n v i e w o f the w i d e -
spread a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m e d i u m i s t i c talents and p r o p h e c i e s , o n l y
specific details o r the n a m e S i b y l i t s e l f c o u l d p r o v i d e clear e v i -
dence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n i n a n c i e n t t i m e s . T h e r e is a " B a b y l o -
n i a n S i b y l " ; b u t t o l i n k t h e n a m e S i b y l l a d i r e c t l y t o S i d u r i the
ale w i f e , sabitu, 10
w h o appears i n the epic Gilgamesh—her r o l e is
t o s h o w G i l g a m e s h t h e w a y t o U t n a p i s h t i m , the h e r o o f the
flood—is f r i v o l o u s . O n c e the special n a m e S a m b e t h e is r e p o r t e d
f o r the B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l , a n d she is said t o have been present i n
the a r k as one o f N o a h ' s d a u g h t e r s - i n - l a w ; 1 1
this m i g h t i n ear-
nest reflect t h e sabitu o f Gilgamesh. T h e B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l has
also been c o n n e c t e d w i t h Berossos, w h i c h indicates a d a t i n g i n
the H e l l e n i s t i c e p o c h .
A s f o r the archaic p e r i o d , i t s h o u l d g i v e us pause that i n q u i t e
a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , t h a t o f a s t r o n o m y a n d calendar m a k i n g , c o n -
n e c t i o n s appear t o r u n f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a specifically t o D e l -
p h i . T h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n was w o r k e d o u t b y M a r t i n N i l s s o n . 1 2
Al-
ready the early Greek calendar system with its i n t e r c a l a r y
m o n t h s seems t o f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f the B a b y l o n i a n O k t a e -
teris. T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f " p e n t e t e r i c " games, i n p a r t i c u l a r the
O l y m p i a d s , presupposes that the calendar h a d been f i x e d ac-
c o r d i n g t o s u c h an e i g h t - y e a r p e r i o d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l date o f the
first O l y m p i a d is 776 B . C . ; the great rise o f the D e l p h i c s a n c t u -
ary begins a r o u n d this t i m e . H o w m a n y u n c e r t a i n factors are
present i n s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n s h a r d l y needs t o be stressed: E v e n
i f the e a r l y list o f O l y m p i c v i c t o r s is t a k e n t o be a u t h e n t i c , the
t i m e t a b l e o f t h e e a r l y games r e m a i n s i n d o u b t — i t has r e c e n t l y
been a r g u e d t h a t t h e games started o n l y i n a b o u t 700 B . C . — 1 3
and t h e r e l a t i o n s t o D e l p h i are n o t v e r y clear. Nevertheless the

perspective i n t r o d u c e d b y N i l s s o n remains i n t r i g u i n g , espe-
c i a l l y i f those c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i n p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d h e a l i n g r i t u a l s
are added w h i c h N i l s s o n d i d n o t take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
T h u s t h e ecstatic p r o p h e c y o f t h e P y t h i a can w e l l be seen i n a
s i m i l a r c o n t e x t . I n fact even the special r i t u a l i n w h i c h , before a
seance o f t h e P y t h i a , a g o a t was s p r i n k l e d w i t h w a t e r a n d its
r e a c t i o n o b s e r v e d , has its parallel i n M e s o p o t a m i a . 1 4
I t seems
Hi
t h a t , p a r a l l e l t o t h e spread o f l i v e r a u g u r y , t h e m o r e d i r e c t art o f
m e d i u m i s t i c p r o p h e c y also c a m e t o supersede o l d e r a n d s i m p l e r
m e t h o d s o f a u g u r y a n d b i r d o b s e r v a t i o n . D i d this establish D e l -
phi's f a m e ? 15
O n e s h o u l d s t i l l resist the t e m p t a t i o n t o g o so far
as t o d e r i v e t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o f r o m B a b y l o n . 1 6
Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo
N o t o n l y r i t u a l s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t s b u t also a m u l e t s b e l o n g
t o the sphere o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c i a n s . T h e r e are s i m p l e ,
s m a l l c y l i n d e r s as w e l l as beads w i t h p e r t i n e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , b u t
1
also fantastic i m a g e s s u c h as t h e Pazuzu heads 2

and the La-
m a s h t u t a b l e t s . A s w i t h the m o d e l livers o f h e p a t o s c o p y ,
3
these
are spread as far as N o r t h S y r i a , U g a r i t , a n d C y p r u s . A n d as
the H u m b a b a face reached G o r t y n and t h e d o g - l e a d e r f i g u r i n e s
reached S a m o s , reflexes o f L a m a s h t u i c o n o g r a p h y t r a v e l l e d as
far as I t a l y . 4
I t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Greeks o f t h e archaic p e r i o d
o c c a s i o n a l l y saw s u c h f i g u r e s ; t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n d e m o n s d i d ,
i n fact, leave v a r i o u s traces o f themselves.
T h e h o r r i f y i n g f i g u r e o f G e l l o , an o b j e c t o f t e r r o r f o r c h i l -
d r e n , is m e n t i o n e d as e a r l y as t h e w o r k o f S a p p h o ; G e l l o was
said t o steal a n d eat l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . Traces o f t h i s f i g u r e have
persisted t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y . 5
G r e e k s w i l l associate t h e n a m e
G e l l o w i t h e v i l g r i n n i n g , gelan, b u t n e i t h e r t h e s p e l l i n g o f the
w o r d n o r its m e a n i n g p r o p e r l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h i s . G a l l u is, o n
the o t h e r h a n d , o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n
n a m e s f o r an e v i l s p i r i t . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e has l o n g been
p o i n t e d o u t b y A s s y r i o l o g i s t s a n d i n t e r p r e t e d as a b o r r o w i n g
from Mesopotamia; 6
t h e t e s t i m o n y o f S a p p h o w o u l d place i t i n
t h e seventh c e n t u r y at t h e latest. T h a t a is r e p r o d u c e d as e has a
parallel i n Azugallatu/Asgelatas a n d i n the n a m e o f the l e t t e r
delta.1
A n even m o r e p o p u l a r h o r r o r f i g u r e t h a n G e l l o is L a m i a . She
is already m e n t i o n e d i n t h e archaic p e r i o d b y S t e s i c h o r o s 8
and
has also persisted i n m o d e r n f o l k l o r e . L a m i a is g r o t e s q u e ,
9
re-
p u l s i v e , a n d h i d e o u s b e y o n d measure; h o w e v e r , there is n o u n -
d i s p u t e d G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f her. T h e m a i n characteristic o f
82
L a m i a is t h a t she steals c h i l d r e n , perhaps even f r o m t h e i r m o t h -

ers' b o d i e s .
I n this especially L a m i a resembles L a m a s h t u the demoness;
the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the names was c l o u d e d f o r a w h i l e
b y the earlier r e a d i n g o f h e r n a m e as Labartu."' Lamashtu was
feared b y p r e g n a n t w o m e n , b y w o m e n g i v i n g b i r t h , and b y
m o t h e r s . T h e y p r o t e c t e d themselves against her w i t h m a g i c : A n
ass o r a s h i p was s u p p o s e d t o c a r r y her away. A m u l e t tablets
t h e r e f o r e w e r e f a b r i c a t e d w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g images, t o offer
direct p r o t e c t i o n against Lamashtu. Such tablets have been
f o u n d far b e y o n d M e s o p o t a m i a , i n U g a r i t , B o g h a z k o y , Car-
c h c m i s h , a n d Z i n c i r l i . " T h e w e s t e r n c o n n e c t i o n s are stressed i f
o n a seal w e f i n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an A s s y r i a n d e m o n c o m -
b i n e d w i t h a P h o e n i c i a n i n s c r i p t i o n ; a n d at least one a m u l e t
with a Lamashtu-like representation comes from seventh-
century Italy. 1 2
D e m o n s s i m i l a r t o L a m a s h t u also appear i n later
Syrian magical beliefs: 13
T h e r e is n o gap b e t w e e n B a b y l o n and
Greece. O n e G r e e k t e x t states t h a t L a m i a is a d a u g h t e r o f the
P h o e n i c i a n B e l o s , t h e r e b y c r e d i t i n g the demoness w i t h S e m i t i c
origins. 1 4
L a m a s h t u has a p a r t i c u l a r i c o n o g r a p h y w h i c h is k n o w n b o t h
f r o m the a m u l e t tablets a n d f r o m related texts: She is n a k e d ; she
has a lion's h e a d , d a n g l i n g breasts, a n d the feet o f a b i r d o f p r e y ;
she lets a p i g and a d o g suck at her breasts; she o f t e n h o l d s a
snake i n each h a n d ; o f t e n she is represented w i t h one knee b e n t ,
i n Knielauf p o s i t i o n , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y is m e a n t t o represent
swift flight. T h e r e is u s u a l l y an ass u n d e r n e a t h her a n d beneath
t h a t a s h i p , all d e s i g n e d t o c a r r y her a w a y ( F i g u r e 5). S o m e t i m e s
the a n i m a l s appear separated f r o m the m a i n f i g u r e , g r o u p e d t o
the r i g h t and left i n t h e M i s t r e s s o f A n i m a l s s c h e m a . 15
A s has o f t e n been discussed, L a m a s h t u shares a w h o l e range

o f characteristics w i t h t h e G r e e k G o r g o n . 1 6
I t is n o t so m u c h t h e
actual face o f t h e G o r g o n t h a t is s i m i l a r ; the G o r g o n face does
i n c o r p o r a t e l i o n features, yet the l e o n i n e is o n l y one o f t h e ele-
m e n t s , a n d the G o r g o n is always represented en face, whereas
L a m a s h t u is always represented i n p r o f i l e . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a
s t r i k i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the d a n g l i n g breasts, the schema o f
83
Figure 5. Bronze plate from Carchemish: Lamashtu. Demoness with

lion's head, bird's talons, standing on a donkey, wielding snakes,
and suckling a pig and a dog.
Knielauf a n d , above a l l , t h e i c o n o g r a p h i e p a r a p h e r n a l i a . We
m a y take as an e x a m p l e t h e f a m o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the G o r -
g o n f r o m t h e t e m p l e i n C o r f u : She appears i n Knielauf between
t w o " l i o n s " w h i c h are beasts o f fantasy r a t h e r t h a n z o o l o g y ; t w o
snakes f o r m h e r b e l t , w h i l e a horse a n d a h u m a n , Pegasos a n d
C h r y s a o r h e r " c h i l d r e n , " t o u c h her r i g h t a n d left hands. N e a r l y
84
all these e l e m e n t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the h u m a n C h r y s a o r ,

have t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e i m a g e o f L a m a s h t u , T h e r e m a y be
a horse at her side, a n d b o t h the G o r g o n a n d L a m a s h t u are o c -
casionally d e p i c t e d h o l d i n g t w o snakes. A n d yet, all these ele-
m e n t s have been shaken u p , t a k e n o u t o f t h e i r c o n t e x t , and
placed i n a n e w o r d e r . T h e basic c o n c e p t r e m a i n s the same: the
fleeing m o n s t e r — b u t t h e G r e e k m y t h has d e v e l o p e d a w h o l e
n e w s y s t e m w i t h t h e m y t h o f Perseus, Pegasos, C h r y s a o r . The
steed a n d the w a r r i o r are i n d i c a t i v e o f a t r i a l o f i n i t i a t i o n : I t is
the a r m e d h e r o a n d n o t m a g i c t h a t o v e r c o m e s the d e m o n a n d
p e t r i f y i n g fear. I t c a n n o t be d o u b t e d t h a t s o m e artists w h o cre-
ated G o r g o n c o m p o s i t i o n s o f this k i n d h a d seen L a m a s h t u t a b -
lets, b u t t h e y t o o k o n l y t h e images and used t h e m t o c o n s t r u c t
s o m e t h i n g closer t o t h e i r o w n t r a d i t i o n s . 1 7
T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the P e r s e u s - G o r g o n m y t h a n d the
S e m i t i c East is even m o r e c o m p l e x . O n the o n e h a n d the A n -
d r o m e d a m y t h is l o c a t e d i n Ioppe-Jaffa; 18
o n t h e other, Perseus
has a r e m a r k a b l e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h T a r s o s . 19
Iconographic m o d -
els f o r Perseus' f i g h t w i t h the m a r i n e m o n s t e r (ketos) appear o n
s o m e eastern seals; 20
i n M e s o p o t a m i a even t h e s l a y i n g o f a o n e -
eyed female monster b y a youthful hero occurs. 21
However,
f i n d i n g names f o r t h e scenes i n o r i e n t a l seal art is b y n o means
s i m p l e ; t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e epic texts such as Gilgamesh can
be established o n l y i n rare cases. O n e o f these is t h e s l a y i n g o f
H u m b a b a b y G i l g a m e s h and E n k i d u , a scene w h i c h i n t u r n is
one o f the m o d e l s f o r representations o f Perseus k i l l i n g the G o r -
g o n ( F i g u r e 6).
A strange o r i e n t a l seal, n o w i n B e r l i n , is p a r t i c u l a r l y w o r t h y
of note. 2 2
I t depicts an o v e r s i z e d , d e m o n i c creature s h o w n en face
a n d i n Knielauf position. I t has been seized b y a y o u n g h e r o w h o
is h o l d i n g u p a s c i m i t a r , a harpe, i n his r i g h t h a n d , a n d , i n d o i n g
so, he has a p p a r e n t l y t u r n e d his face a w a y f r o m his o p p o n e n t .
H e is w e a r i n g w i n g e d shoes; b e h i n d h i m is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
a large fish. T h i s p i c t u r e was r e p r o d u c e d i n Roscher's Dictionary
of Mythology as a clear i l l u s t r a t i o n o f Perseus f i g h t i n g the G o r -
gon. 2 3
Pierre A m i e t is n o less d e c i d e d a b o u t t h e f r a m e w o r k o f
eastern m y t h o l o g y f o r t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , r e c a l l i n g the U g a r i t i c
«5
Figure 6. TOP LEFT: Seal impression from Nuzi, about 1450 B.C.:
Gilgamesh and Enkidu struggling with Humbaba. From the left, a
goddess is handing a weapon to the champion, T O P R I G H T : Shield
strap, Olympia, about560B.C.: Perseus killing the Gorgon, with the
help of Athena, turning his face from the petrifying monster.
B O T T O M : Seal from Baghdad, seventh to sixth century B.C.: Perseus
fighting the Gorgon?
86
m y t h o f t h e fight b e t w e e n t h e goddess A n a t a n d M o t , w i t h n o
m e n t i o n o f Perseus a n d t h e G o r g o n , 2 4
I n c o n t r a s t t o the G o r -
g o n , t h e m o n s t e r has b i r d ' s c l a w s , w h i c h is r a t h e r r e m i n i s c e n t
o f L a m a s h t u . T h e r e is n o t m u c h p o i n t i n a r g u i n g a b o u t t h e i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n : E v e n t h e date o f t h e seal is unclear; i t m a y already
be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G r e e k i c o n o g r a p h y ; s t i l l less c o u l d w e h o p e
t o find adequate texts f o r e x p l a n a t i o n . E v e n so, this p i c t u r e is
an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
o f G r e e k and o r i e n t a l i n t h e archaic p e r i o d . I m a g e s a n d p o s s i b l y
even n a r r a t i v e m o t i f s b e c o m e a m b i g u o u s i n t h e sphere o f i n t e r -
c u l t u r a l contacts; t h e y are u n d e r s t o o d i n different ways f r o m d i f -
ferent sides; t h e y f o r m n e w c o n s t e l l a t i o n s . C r e a t i v e misunder-
s t a n d i n g m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t o be m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n the
t r a n s m i s s i o n i t s e l f i n s u c h cases. B u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r e m a i n s a
fact; t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c p a t t e r n s r e m a i n preserved, i n the i n -
stances o f the c o m b a t s o f Perseus as i n t h e case o f L a m a s h t u a n d
the G o r g o n .
O n e difference is s t r i k i n g i n d e e d : F o r t h e Greeks these d e -
m o n s are n o t r e a l l y d e m o n i c ; t h e y d o n o t c a r r y the association
o f s o m e mysterium tremendum. A t best t h e y are apt t o f r i g h t e n
l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . F o r G r e e k m e n Perseus has set an e x a m p l e o f h o w
t o deal w i t h such creatures, w e a p o n i n h a n d , even i f an e l e m e n t
o f m a g i c and s o m e h e l p f r o m t h e g o d s is n o t l a c k i n g . A s i m i l a r
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n can be established i n s t i l l a n o t h e r instance, i n t h e
i m a g e o f t h e snake strangler. T h i s is q u i t e an o l d a n d a p p a r e n t l y
i m p o r t a n t i m a g e i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p e r t o i r e : a master o f
a n i m a l s , a s h a m a n i s t i c f i g u r e , w h o has seized t w o large snakes
i n his hands; t h i s t y p e p r o b a b l y has an a p o t r o p a i c function. 2 5
T h e G r e e k s m a d e this t h e first a d v e n t u r e o f t h e i r H e r a k l e s , the

h e r o i c deed a b a b y p e r f o r m e d i n his c r a d l e . 26
I n e v e r y d a y life o f
course H e r a k l e s is t h e averter o f e v i l , alexikakos, w h o s e amulets
are used f o r p r o t e c t i o n . 2 7
B u t i n m y t h , o r r a t h e r i n t h e accepted
a n d representative f o r m o f G r e e k p o e t r y , t h e fear o f d e m o n s has
been e l i m i n a t e d . T h e G r e e k h e r o is represented as t r u s t i n g i n his
o w n s t r e n g t h , g o d l i k e even i f i n t h e s h a d o w o f d e a t h . 2 8
Magical
figurines are transformed into practical robots, not awe-
i n s p i r i n g b u t s i m p l y a source o f w o n d e r . 2 9
87
C H A P T E R T H R E E
'OR A L S O A G O D L Y SINGER"
Akkadian and Early Greek Literature
From A t r a h a s i s to the "Deception of Zeus"
Since t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f the A k k a d i a n epics a n d o f Gilgamesh in

p a r t i c u l a r , there has been n o s h o r t a g e o f associations between
m o t i f s i n these a n d i n t h e H o m e r i c epics, especially the Odyssey. 1
T h e s e m o t i f s can be h i g h l i g h t e d a n d used t o s u r p r i s e , b u t h a r d l y
t o p r o v e a n y t h i n g : A p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same m o t i f s a n d t h e m e s
w i l l be f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e . Instead o f i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s , t h e r e -
f o r e , w e m u s t focus o n m o r e c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e s , w h e r e sheer
c o i n c i d e n c e is less l i k e l y : a s y s t e m o f deities and a basic c o s m o -
l o g i c a l idea, t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a w h o l e scene, decrees o f
the g o d s a b o u t m a n k i n d , o r a v e r y special c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a t -
tack a n d defense. O n c e t h e h i s t o r i c a l l i n k , t h e fact o f t r a n s m i s -
s i o n , has been established, t h e n f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g
l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b e c o m e m o r e l i k e l y , even i f these alone
d o n o t suffice t o c a r r y t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f .
N o t u n t i l 1969 was t h e t e x t o f an A k k a d i a n epic p u b l i s h e d f o r
the first t i m e i n a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g its e n t i r e t y : T h e s t o r y o f
Atrahasis " o u t s t a n d i n g i n w i s d o m " — a telling name i n A k k a -
d i a n — o r r a t h e r a " S t o r y o f M a n k i n d " b e g i n n i n g , as the o p e n -
i n g l i n e says, w i t h t h e p a r a d o x i c a l p r i m o r d i a l s i t u a t i o n " w h e n
gods were i n the ways o f m e n . " 2
U p u n t i l t h e n i t h a d been
k n o w n o n l y f r o m a f e w n o t v e r y characteristic f r a g m e n t s . T h e
88
" O R A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R "
first v e r s i o n i n three b o o k s is d a t e d t o t h e t i m e o f A m m i s a d u q a ,
a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s after H a m m u r a p i , i n the seventeenth c e n t u r y
B . C . V a r i o u s O l d B a b y l o n i a n e x a m p l e s have s u r v i v e d i n f r a g -
m e n t a r y f o r m ; t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l also c o n t a i n e d other,
s l i g h t l y v a r y i n g e d i t i o n s . A f r a g m e n t o f a n o t h e r recension has
been f o u n d i n U g a r i t . We are t h e r e f o r e d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t
w h i c h h a d been i n c i r c u l a t i o n a n d p o p u l a r f o r over a t h o u s a n d
years, a t e x t a s t o n i s h i n g l y o r i g i n a l i n c o n c e p t i o n . " W h e n gods
w e r e i n t h e ways o f m e n " and there w e r e n o h u m a n s yet i n ex-
istence, t h e g o d s h a d t o d o all the w o r k themselves; this led t o a
r e b e l l i o n b y t h e y o u n g e r g o d s against the senior g o d s a n d espe-
c i a l l y E n l i l , t h e a c t i n g chief. F o r t u n a t e l y E n k i the c u n n i n g g o d
c a m e t o t h e i r a i d , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h the m o t h e r goddess he cre-
ated m e n t o act as r o b o t s f o r t h e m : T h e y s h o u l d bear the b u r d e n
o f the w o r k . B u t s o o n , " a f t e r 600 [and?] 600 years," these crea-
tures b e c a m e t o o n u m e r o u s a n d a nuisance t o t h e e a r t h , and so
the g o d s t r i e d t o d e s t r o y t h e m . T h e y m a d e three a t t e m p t s , ap-
p a r e n t l y at f o r m u l a i c i n t e r v a l s o f 1,200 years, b y s e n d i n g first a
p l a g u e , t h e n a f a m i n e , a n d f i n a l l y t h e great f l o o d . H o w e v e r , the
c u n n i n g g o d o f t h e deep, E n k i , i n league w i t h the m a n " o u t -
standing i n w i s d o m , " Atrahasis, f r u s t r a t e d these attacks. He
played the g o d s o f f against o n e another, a n d f i n a l l y h a d A t r a -
hasis b u i l d his a r k . T h e final p a r t o f the t e x t , as can n o w be seen,
is an o l d e r p a r a l l e l v e r s i o n t o the f a m o u s Tablet X I o f the Cil-
gamesh epic, t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y o f t h e f l o o d , w h i c h i n t u r n
3
i n f l u e n c e d t h e s t o r y o f N o a h i n t h e first b o o k o f M o s e s . The
Atrahasis t e x t , h o w e v e r , far f r o m b e i n g an e x a m p l e o f O l d Tes-
t a m e n t piety, is i m b u e d w i t h a r e m a r k a b l y h u m a n , i f n o t a
s l i g h t l y c y n i c a l o p t i m i s m : W h e t h e r f o r o r against t h e g o d s ,
m a n k i n d , f o r all the h a r d w o r k a n d all the afflictions i t has t o
bear, is i n d e s t r u c t i b l e . " H o w d i d m a n s u r v i v e i n the d e s t r u c -
t i o n ? " t h e great g o d E n l i l f i n a l l y asks, baffled as he is ( I I I v i 10).
B e y o n d d o u b t , s u r v i v e he d i d .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e Atrahasis t e x t , the B a b y l o n i a n p a n -
t h e o n is i n t r o d u c e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y : " A n u , t h e i r father, was the
k i n g ; t h e i r c o u n s e l l o r was t h e w a r r i o r E n l i l ; t h e i r c h a m b e r l a i n
was N i n u r t a ; a n d t h e i r s h e r i f f E n n u g i . " These verses are c o p i e d
89
i n the Gilgamesh epic, b u t n o t t h e f o l l o w i n g lines: " T h e y grasped

the flask o f lots b y the neck, t h e y cast t h e l o t s ; t h e g o d s
m a d e the d i v i s i o n : A n u w e n t u p t o h e a v e n . " A second g o d —
there is a lacuna i n t h e t e x t h e r e — - " t o o k t h e e a r t h , f o r his s u b -
j e c t s " ; a n d " t h e b o l t s , t h e bar o f t h e sea, w e r e set f o r E n k i , the
far-sighted." 4
E n l i l , t h e m o s t active o f t h e g o d s , s u r e l y belongs
i n t h e lacuna, w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e usual t r i n i t y o f A n u , E n l i l ,
a n d E n k i : t h e s k y g o d , t h e w i n d g o d , the w a t e r g o d . T h e Atra-
hasis t e x t r e t u r n s r e p e a t e d l y t o t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o
the three parts g i v e n o v e r t o t h e d i f f e r e n t g o d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
w h e n E n l i l undertakes a total blockade o f the h u m a n w o r l d
w h i l e sending the f a m i n e . 5
A different version, Tablet X , has
A n u and A d a d — s k y g o d a n d w i n d g o d — f o r t h e heavens, S i n
a n d N e r g a l — m o o n g o d a n d g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d — f o r the
e a r t h . T h e u n d e r w o r l d is c l e a r l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f the
e a r t h . T h e r e a l m o f E n k i , t h e L o r d o f t h e D e e p , is f i x e d , n o t as
the salt sea, b u t t h e p o t a b l e g r o u n d a n d s p r i n g w a t e r s — t h e s e
are also t h e r e a l m o f P o s e i d o n i n Greece.
I n H o m e r ' s Iliad, h o w e v e r , t h e r e are those f a m o u s , o f t - q u o t e d
verses i n w h i c h t h e w o r l d is d i v i d e d a m o n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e H o -
meric gods; Poseidon speaks: " F o r w h e n w e t h r e w t h e l o t s I
received t h e g r e y sea as m y p e r m a n e n t abode, H a d e s d r e w t h e
m u r k y darkness, Z e u s , h o w e v e r , d r e w t h e w i d e s k y o f b r i g h t -
ness a n d c l o u d s ; t h e e a r t h is c o m m o n t o a l l , a n d spacious O l y m -
pus." 6
T h i s differs f r o m t h e s y s t e m o f Atrahasis i n t h a t the e a r t h t o -

g e t h e r w i t h t h e g o d s ' m o u n t a i n is declared t o be u n d e r j o i n t
d o m i n i o n ; P o s e i d o n insists o n his r i g h t t o b e c o m e active o n t h e
p l a i n o f T r o y . S t i l l t h e basic s t r u c t u r e o f b o t h texts is a s t o n i s h -
i n g l y s i m i l a r : T h e r e are t h r e e d i s t i n c t areas o f t h e c o s m o s —
heaven, t h e d e p t h s o f t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e w a t e r s — a n d these three
areas are assigned t o t h e t h r e e h i g h e s t g o d s o f t h e p a n t h e o n — a l l
o f w h i c h are m a l e . A n d i n b o t h instances t h e d i v i s i o n is said t o
have been m a d e b y d r a w i n g l o t s . T h i s is n o t n o r m a l l y t h e p r a c -
tice a m o n g G r e e k g o d s : a c c o r d i n g t o H e s i o d , Z e u s d e t h r o n e d
his p r e d e c e s s o r — w h o was also his f a t h e r — b y f o r c e , a n d t h e n
the o t h e r g o d s asked h i m t o b e c o m e t h e i r k i n g . 7
F r o m another
90
p o i n t o f v i e w , t o o , t h i s passage, w h e n l o o k e d at i n m o r e d e t a i l ,
is u n i q u e i n G r e e k m y t h : I n o t h e r passages o f the o l d epic, w h e n
the parts o f the c o s m o s are b e i n g e n u m e r a t e d , there is either
a trinity o f heaven-earth-underworld o r o f heaven-sea-earth,
or even a combination to make four, heaven-earth-sea-
u n d e r w o r l d , but n o t heaven-sea-underworld as assigned t o the
three b r o t h e r s . 8
F u r t h e r m o r e , the t r i n i t y o f the sons o f K r o n o s
and their realms does n o t have any f u r t h e r p a r t t o play i n
H o m e r , n o r is i t r o o t e d i n any G r e e k c u l t . B y c o n t r a s t , the c o r -
r e s p o n d i n g passage i n the Atrahasis t e x t is f u n d a m e n t a l t o the
n a r r a t i v e a n d is r e f e r r e d t o repeatedly.
T h e r e is h a r d l y a n o t h e r passage i n H o m e r w h i c h comes so
close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f an A k k a d i a n epic. I n fact i t is n o t
so m u c h a t r a n s l a t i o n as a r e s e t t i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h the f o r e i g n
f r a m e w o r k s t i l l s h o w s . O n e m a y s t i l l believe this t o be a m i s -
l e a d i n g c o i n c i d e n c e . H o w e v e r , the passage stands i n a v e r y spe-
cial c o n t e x t i n r e l a t i o n t o the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f the Iliad. The
scene b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c t i o n w h i c h the ancients called the " D e -
c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " (Dios Apate). Its p e c u l i a r i t i e s have o f t e n been
c o m m e n t e d u p o n i n H o m e r i c studies. A l b r e c h t D i h l e l i s t e d l i n -
g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s a n d f o u n d so m a n y d e v i a t i o n s f r o m the n o r -
m a l , t r a d i t i o n a l use o f H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s t h a t he c o n c l u d e d t h a t
t h i s section o f the Iliad c o u l d n o t b e l o n g t o the phase o f o r a l
t r a d i t i o n , b u t was a w r i t t e n c o m p o s i t i o n . 9
T h i s r e s u l t has n o t
been g e n e r a l l y accepted; b u t i t m u s t be a c k n o w l e d g e d that i n
t h i s p a r t o f t h e Iliad w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t w h i c h is l i n g u i s -
tically unusual, i s o l a t e d i n its c o n t e n t , a n d , i n a way, quite
"modern."
T h e r e is, above a l l , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f c o n t e n t w h i c h was n o t e d
even b y P l a t o a n d m a y also have been n o t i c e d a n d e x p l o i t e d
before P l a t o b y t h e p r e - S o c r a t i c s : 10
T h i s is the o n l y passage i n
the H o m e r i c c a n o n w h e r e , q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d l y , a cosmogonic
t h e m e c o m e s t o t h e f o r e . H e r a , i n her d e c e p t i o n speech, says she
w a n t s t o g o t o O c e a n u s , " o r i g i n o f the g o d s , " a n d Tethys the
" m o t h e r " ; O c e a n u s is also called " t h e o r i g i n o f a l l " i n a n o t h e r
verse. O c e a n u s a n d T e t h y s , the p r i m e v a l c o u p l e , have w i t h h e l d
t h e i r c o n j u g a l r i g h t s f r o m each o t h e r f o r a l o n g t i m e , separated
91
as a r e s u l t o f s t r i f e , neikea. u
T h i s sounds l i k e an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f
t h e E m p e d o c l e a n Neikos c o s m o g o n y . T h e genesis o f the gods
has c o m e t o an e n d . I t is t r u e t h a t i n the I l i a d i c n a r r a t i v e all this
is m a d e u p b y H e r a , a patent l i e , as i t were; b u t t h e m o t i f s used
radiate b e y o n d those speeches. T h e v e r y c l i m a x o f this s o n g o f
H o m e r — Z e u s a n d H e r a m a k i n g love w i t h i n a g o l d e n c l o u d o n
the s u m m i t o f M o u n t I d a , f r o m w h i c h r e s p l e n d e n t d r o p s are
f a l l i n g — s h o w s d i v i n i t y i n a n a t u r a l i s t i c , c o s m i c s e t t i n g w h i c h is
n o t o t h e r w i s e a feature o f H o m e r i c a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m . T h u s
the d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o three parts i n Poseidon's speech
s o m e w h a t later, w h e n Z e u s has r e a w a k e n e d , is t h e t h i r d m o t i f
w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e g o d s i n the o r i g i n and f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l
cosmos.
A r i s t o t l e , f o l l o w i n g Plato, f o u n d in the Oceanus cosmogony
o f H o m e r the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , the i n s p i -
r a t i o n for T h a l e s , u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e first p h i l o s o p h e r . M o d -
e r n research has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o antecedents o f T h a l e s ' w a t e r
cosmogony a m o n g the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and, n o t
least, t h e B a b y l o n i a n epic o f c r e a t i o n , t h e Enuma Elish. 12
The
B a b y l o n i a n epic b e g i n s : " W h e n a b o v e " the heavens d i d n o t yet
exist n o r t h e e a r t h b e l o w , A p s u was there, t h e f r e s h w a t e r ocean,
" t h e f i r s t , the b e g e t t e r , " a n d w i t h h i m T i a m a t , the s a l t w a t e r sea,
"she w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e y " w e r e m i x i n g t h e i r w a t e r s . " 1 3
T h i s c a m e t o an e n d w h e n A p s u was p u t t o sleep a n d k i l l e d b y
Ea, a n d T i a m a t was v a n q u i s h e d b y M a r d u k i n a d r a m a t i c f i g h t .
T h e n M a r d u k established the c o s m o s as i t n o w exists.
T h u s Hera's i n c i d e n t a l i n v e n t i o n s closely c o r r e s p o n d t o the
b e g i n n i n g of Enuma Elish. A p s u a n d T i a m a t equal O c e a n u s a n d
T e t h y s as the o r i g i n a l p a r e n t a l c o u p l e . B u t T e t h y s is i n n o w a y
an active f i g u r e i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . I n c o n t r a s t t o the sea g o d -
dess T h e t i s ( w i t h w h o m she was s o m e t i m e s confused even i n
a n t i q u i t y ) , she has n o established c u l t s , a n d n o o n e h a d a n y t h i n g
f u r t h e r t o t e l l a b o u t her. She a p p a r e n t l y exists o n l y b y v i r t u e o f
the H o m e r i c passage; h o w she came t o achieve the h o n o r e d p o -
s i t i o n o f the m o t h e r o f all r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y . B u t n o w the
" r h y m i n g o f t h e n a m e s " f i n a l l y comes i n t o play. Ti-amat is the
f o r m n o r m a l l y w r i t t e n i n t h e t e x t of Enuma Elish f o r the m o t h e r
92
" O R A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R
" w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d w h i c h lies b e h i n d

t h i s , h o w e v e r , is j u s t tiamtu or tdmtu, the n o r m a l w o r d f o r the
sea. T h e n a m e can also be w r i t t e n i n this m o r e p h o n e t i c o r t h o g -
r a p h y ; b u t i n the Enuma Elish w e also f i n d the f o r m taw(a)tu. * 1
If
o n e proceeds f r o m Tomtit, t h e n Tethys is an exact t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
T h e different r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f the dentals, t a n d th, m i g h t d i s -
t u r b the p u r i s t ; b u t S o p h i l o s w r o t e Thethys, which, in normal
Greek orthography, w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y y i e l d Tethys. I n fact
the Enuma Elish b e c a m e k n o w n t o E u d e m o s , the p u p i l o f A r i s -
totle, i n translation; 1 5
here w e f i n d T i a m a t t r a n s c r i b e d as Tauthe,
w h i c h is s t i l l closer t o the r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m Tawtu. T h a t the
l o n g v o w e l a is c h a n g e d t o e i n the I o n i a n dialect even i n b o r -
r o w e d w o r d s has parallels i n Kubaha b e c o m i n g Kybebe, Baal be-
c o m i n g Belos, a n d Mada k n o w n as Medes.' 6
Thus the p r o o f
seems c o m p l e t e t h a t here, r i g h t i n the m i d d l e o f the Iliad, the
influence o f t w o A k k a d i a n classics can be detected d o w n to a
m y t h i c a l name.
T h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f B r o n z e A g e b o r r o w i n g i n this
case. We are r a t h e r d e a l i n g , i n the w o r d s o f M a r t i n West, w i t h a
" n e o - o r i e n t a l e l e m e n t . " F o u r h u n d r e d years o f o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n
Greece w o u l d have l e d t o s t r o n g e r d i s t o r t i o n s i n the process o f
a s s i m i l a t i o n ; a n d i t is n o t at all clear w h e t h e r the Enuma Elish
can be g i v e n s u c h an early d a t e . 17
T h i s a r g u m e n t accords w i t h
Albrecht Dihle's observations from the other side o n the
" y o u n g " character o f this H o m e r i c piece.
O n c e an o r i e n t a l i z i n g b a c k g r o u n d is established f o r the " D e -
c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s are b o u n d t o f o l l o w .
A p h r o d i t e has her S e m i t i c c o n n e c t i o n s a n y h o w , b u t the e m b r o i -
dered g i r d l e (kestos) b o r r o w e d i r o m her as a love c h a r m b y H e r a
seems to be o r i e n t a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r way. The catalogue of
w o m e n once l o v e d b y Z e u s — a t h e t i z e d b y ancient commenta-
t o r s — h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t i n G i l g a m e s h ' s e n u m e r a t i o n o f the l o v -
ers o f I s h t a r . 18
T h e f a m o u s o a t h o f the gods w h i c h H e r a is m a d e
t o swear, e n d i n g " b y the R i v e r S t y x , " is, i n tact, a c o s m i c o a t h :
heaven, e a r t h , a n d the w a t e r s o f the u n d e r w o r l d are called u p o n
t o bear w i t n e s s . I t is p r e c i s e l y such a c o s m i c f o r m u l a w h i c h c o n -
cludes the e n u m e r a t i o n o f d i v i n e witnesses i n the o n l y A r a m a i c
93
t r e a t y t e x t w h i c h has s u r v i v e d f r o m t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y : " H e a v e n
a n d e a r t h , t h e deep a n d t h e s p r i n g s , day a n d n i g h t . " 1 9
Z e u s t h e w e a t h e r g o d m a k e s l o v e t o his w i f e at t h e t o p o f t h e
m o u n t a i n w i t h i n the t h u n d e r s t o r m ; the weather g o d together
w i t h his w i f e u n v e i l i n g h e r s e l f o n t h e i r s t o r m d r a g o n s is a m o t i f
frequently represented o n eastern seals, a n d t h e m a r r i a g e of
heaven a n d e a r t h is a m y t h i c a l t h e m e set o u t e x p l i c i t l y i n A k k a -
dian literature. 2 0
B u t e v e n a f a m o u s w o o d e n statuette o f Z e u s
e m b r a c i n g H e r a f r o m the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o n S a m o s , a represen-
t a t i o n m o s t p r o b a b l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e t e x t o f t h e Iliad, is i c o n o -
g r a p h i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n eastern p r o t o t y p e s . 2 1
M o r e specific is t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e T i t a n s . O f the five H o -

m e r i c passages i n w h i c h t h e p r e v i o u s g o d s , h e l d p r i s o n e r i n t h e
u n d e r w o r l d , are m e n t i o n e d , t h r e e b e l o n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f the
"Deception o f Zeus." The o t h e r t w o also b e l o n g t o d i v i n e
scenes, b e i n g p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f Z e u s , t h e father o f t h e g o d s . 2 2
Since t h e Kumarbi discovery i t has been w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e

c o n c e p t o f a n c i e n t , fallen g o d s connects G r e e k m y t h o l o g y w i t h
the H i t t i t e s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , a n d the B a b y l o n i a n s . T h e details
o f t h e evidence, however, remain more c o m p l i c a t e d i n the
G r e e k as w e l l as i n t h e eastern settings. I n G r e e k t r a d i t i o n the
c o n c e p t o f t h e T i t a n s as a c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p is n o t easily r e c o n -
c i l e d w i t h t h e v e r y special p e r s o n a l i t y o f K r o n o s ; o n the o t h e r
side w e f i n d , besides K u m a r b i t h e h e r o o f t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e
m y t h o f succession, a p p a r e n t l y o t h e r " a n c i e n t g o d s , " always
m e n t i o n e d c o l l e c t i v e l y i n t h e p l u r a l . We l e a r n t h a t t h e w e a t h e r
g o d — w h o corresponds t o Z e u s — b a n i s h e d t h e m t o the u n d e r -
world. 2 3
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g deities i n M e s o p o t a m i a are the " d e -
f e a t e d " o r " f e t t e r e d g o d s , " Hani kamiiti. 24
T h e y , t o o , have been
b a n i s h e d beneath t h e e a r t h b y t h e v i c t o r i o u s g o d o r g o d s . I n t h e
Enuma Elish these have been t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f T i a m a t ; i n o t h e r
texts t h e y are the e v i l " S e v e n " w h o have been b o u n d b y t h e g o d
o f the heavens. N o t e t h a t i n O r p h i c t r a d i t i o n t h e T i t a n s , sons o f
H e a v e n a n d E a r t h b u t " b o u n d " i n t h e n e t h e r w o r l d , are precisely
seven i n n u m b e r . 2 5
T h e e v i l Seven b e l o n g above all i n t h e r e a l m o f e x o r c i s m a n d

p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c . T h i s fact leads t o a f u r t h e r possible connec-
94
d o n : I n protective magic, figurines—some friendly, but m o s t l y

hostile—are often fabricated b u t then destroyed. The most
c o m m o n m a t e r i a l is clay, A k k a d i a n titu. This w o r d reached
G r e e k as titanos, p l a s t e r . 26
L a t e r G r e e k a u t h o r s have t a k e n p r e -
cisely t h i s w o r d t o p r o v i d e an e t y m o l o g y f o r t h e n a m e o f the
T i t a n s : W h e n t h e T i t a n s a t t a c k e d the c h i l d D i o n y s u s t h e y d i s -
g u i s e d t h e i r faces w i t h plaster; hence t h e i r n a m e . 2 7
I n the Greek
l a n g u a g e , h o w e v e r , t h i s e t y m o l o g y fails as a r e s u l t o f t h e fact
t h a t t h e i o f Titanes/Titenes is l o n g , whereas t h a t o f titanos is
s h o r t . T h e S e m i t i c base w o r d , h o w e v e r , has a l o n g i, so t h a t
w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g the ancient e t y m o l o g y be-
c o m e s p l a u s i b l e a g a i n . A r i t u a l c o n t e x t t h e n w o u l d be possible:
T h e T i t a n s bear t h e i r n a m e o f f/f-people 28
because eastern m a g i -
cians used t o fabricate clay f i g u r e s — s a l m e tit i n A k k a d i a n — t o 2 9
represent the defeated gods w h o w e r e used f o r p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c

o r as witnesses i n oaths. T h i s d a r i n g h y p o t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , lacks
specific m a t e r i a l f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n ; o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s r e m a i n o p e n .
A h y p o t h e s i s o f l i t e r a r y t r a n s m i s s i o n is perhaps preferable.
B o t h passages w h i c h resonate so n o t a b l y i n t h e " D e c e p t i o n o f
Zeus"—Apsu a n d T i a m a t m i n g l i n g t h e i r w a t e r s , a n d the three
gods c a s t i n g l o t s f o r the p a r t i t i o n o f the u n i v e r s e — c o m e from
the v e r y b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e respective texts, Enuma Elish and
Atrahasis, m y t h o l o g i c a l texts which were particularly well
k n o w n a n d f r e q u e n t l y used. I t is attested t h a t these texts w e r e
used i n s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a i n p a r t i c u l a r . 30
I n such a s i t u a t i o n the
emphasis falls n a t u r a l l y o n t h e o p e n i n g s e c t i o n : M a n y w i l l recall
arma virumque cano, b u t n o t m u c h m o r e o f V i r g i l f r o m their
schooldays. A G r e e k desirous o f e d u c a t i o n m i g h t w e l l have been
e x p o s e d t o p r e c i s e l y these sections o f "classical" eastern l i t e r a -
t u r e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r p o s s i b l y i n d i r e c t l y via A r a m a i c versions,
even i f he d i d n o t progress v e r y far w i t h his studies. A scholastic
t r a d i t i o n , i f o n l y o n an e l e m e n t a r y level, is i n h e r e n t i n the t r a n s -
mission o f the alphabet to Greece. 31
A n y h o w , the various chan-
nels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n t o be considered—-the r i t u a l , the i c o n o -
g r a p h i c , a n d t h e l i t e r a r y — a r e i n n o w a y m u t u a l l y exclusive, b u t
m a y have o v e r l a p p e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d o n e a n o t h e r i n m a n y d i f f e r -
ent w a y s . B e t h a t as i t may, the c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t H o m e r ' s Iliad
95
bears the m a r k , at least at one p r o b a b l y " l a t e " stage, o f the o r -

ientalizing i m p a c t . 3 2
Complaint in Heaven: Ishtar and Aphrodite
T h e " a p p a r a t u s o f the g o d s " w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s the sequence

o f events n a r r a t e d i n the Iliad a n d , i n a m o d i f i e d f o r m , i n the
Odyssey has m o r e t h a n o n c e been called a " l a t e " e l e m e n t i n the
t r a d i t i o n o f G r e e k h e r o i c e p i c . T h e r e has also been an awareness
1
o f o r i e n t a l parallels w i t h precisely these scenes i n v o l v i n g the

gods. 2
I t is t r u e t h a t the d o u b l e stage o f d i v i n e a n d h u m a n ac-
t i o n s , w h i c h is h a n d l e d so m a s t e r f u l l y b y the c o m p o s e r o f the
Iliad, is n o t f o u n d i n t h i s e x t e n s i v e f o r m i n the Mesopotamia!!
epics. S t i l l , Atrahasis a n d Gilgamesh repeatedly i n t r o d u c e the
g o d s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h the deeds a n d sufferings o f m e n ; a n d k i n g s
are m a d e t o w i n t h e i r h e r o i c battles i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r
protective gods.
I n Gilgamesh i n p a r t i c u l a r , there is a f a m o u s m e e t i n g b e t w e e n
deity and man: W h e n Gilgamesh has killed Humbaba and
cleansed h i m s e l f o f t h e g r i m e o f b a t t l e , Ishtar " r a i s e d an eye at
the b e a u t y o f G i l g a m e s h " : " D o b u t g r a n t m e o f y o u r f r u i t ! " she
says, a n d she offers fabulous goods for h i m . B u t Gilgamesh
s c o r n f u l l y rejects her, r e c i t i n g the catalogue o f all her p a r t n e r s
w h o m she once "has l o v e d " o n l y t o d e s t r o y o r t o t r a n s f o r m
subsequently. " I f y o u w o u l d l o v e m e , y o u w o u l d [treat m e ] l i k e
them." Whereupon
Ishtar, w h e n h e a r i n g this,
Ishtar was enraged and [ w e n t u p ] to heaven.
[ F o r t h w e n t Ishtar before A n u , her father;
before A n t u m , her m o t h e r [her tears were f l o w i n g ] :
[ " O h m y father! G i l g a m e s h has heaped insults u p o n me!
G i l g a m e s h has recounted m y insults,
m y insults and m y curses."
A n u opened his m o u t h to speak,
he said to g l o r i o u s Ishtar:
" S u r e l y y o u have p r o v o k e d [the K i n g o f U r u k ] ,
96
.. 0 R A1 S 0 AGO D I. Y SIN G £ R
and (thus) Gilgal11esh recountcd your insults,

your insults and your curses." J
Compare this with a scene from the Iliad:" Trying to protect
Aeneas, Aphrodite has been wounded by Diomedes; her blood
is flowing. "But she. beside herself. went away. she felt horrible
pain." With (he help ofIris and Ares she reaches Olympus. "But
she, glorious Aphrodite. fell into the lap of Dione. her mother;
but she took her daughter in her arms, stroked her with her
hand, spoke the word and said: Who has done such things to
you, dear child?" Aphrodite replies: "Wounded has Illt" the son
of Tydeus, high-minded Diomedes." Mother sets OUt to com-
fort her with mythical examples: Athena her sister, less sympa-
thetic, makes a scornful comment; but Zeus the father smiles:
"He called golden Aphrodite and said to her: 'My child. not for
you are the works of war! But you should pursue the tender
offices of marriage .. .' .. In otht"r words: It's partly your own
fault.
The two scenes parallel each other in structure, narrative
form, and ethos to an astonishing degree. ~ A goddess. injured
by a human, goes up to heaven to complain to her father and
mother. and she carns a mild rebuke from her father.
Of course this may be called a universal scenario from the
realm of children's stories. The scene repeats itself with varia-
tions in the battle of the gods later in the Iliad. 6 Artemis, after
being beaten by Hera, climbs weeping onto the knees of father
Zeus. He pulls her to him and asks, laughing: "Who did this to
you?" And she replies: "Your wife beat me." The scene from the
Diomedes book is simpler in that both parents appear as a ref-
uge, the stepmother being left out, with the father taking the
stance of slightly distant superiority. This corresponds exactly
to the Gilgamesh scene.
But what is more: The persons involved in both scenes are, in
fact. identical. the sky god and his wife. and their common
daughter the goddess of love. Aphrodite is in general the equiv-
alent of Ishtar; she has offered herself to a mortal man. Anchises
the father of Aeneas, and Allchises suffered some strange fate as
. 97 .
a result of his contact with the goddess-another case of what

Gilgamesh is blaming on [shtar. It is possible that the name
Aphrodite itself is a Greek form of western Semitic Ashtorith.
who in turn is identical with lshtar.' And by force of an even
more special parallelism. Aphrodite has a mother who appar-
ently lives in Olympus as Zeus's wife, Dione; Hera seems to be
forgotten for a moment. Dione at Olympus makes her appear-
ance in the context of the Diomedes scene, and only there. The
contrast with Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth from the
sea, after Uranos had been castrated, has been found disconcert-
ing since antiquity. Dione is attested in the cult of Dodona;
scholars have also referred to the Mycenaean goddess Diwija. 8
In any event. the mother of Aphrodite is given here a name
which is crystal clear in Greek. being just the feminine form of
Zeus. Such a system of naming is unique in the Homeric family
of gods, where couples enjoy complicated private names. But it
is this very detail which has its counterpart in the Akkadian text:
Antu mother of Ishtar is the usual. obviously feminine form of
AmI, Heaven. This divine couple, Mr. and Mrs. Heaven, is
firmly established in the worship and mythology of Mesopota-
mia. Homer proves to be dependent on Gilgamesh even at the
linguistic level, forming the name Dione as a calque on Antu
when recasting an impressive scene among the gods. This may
be seen as a counterpart to the relation Tethys/Tawtu, though
rather at the level of narrative structure and divine characters
than of cosmic mythology.
A few observations may be added about Diomedes in relation
to the Aphrodite scene. Diomedes belongs to Argos, as the cat-
alogue of ships has it; it is at Argos that we find a ritual corre-
sponding to the lIiadic narrative, the shield of Diomedes carried
in a procession with the image of Pallas Athena on a chariot. 9
But Diomedes also belongs to Salamis on Cyprus; it is said that
there was human sacrifice for Diomedes and Agraulos, per-
formed in the sanctuary of which Athena had her share, in the
month of Aphrodisios; the victim was killed with a spear and
burnt.lO Thus we find Diomedes, Athena, and Aphrodite in
strange company combined with spear-killing; some have found
the C y p r i o t e h o l o c a u s t r e m i n i s c e n t o f S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e . " A t any

rate an aspect o f t h e D i o m e d e s l e g e n d , w h i c h seems s o m e h o w
t o tie i n w i t h t h e A p h r o d i t e scene i n H o m e r , p o i n t s t o t h a t i s -
l a n d w h e r e H e l l a s a n d t h e S e m i t i c East e n j o y e d t h e i r closest
c o n t a c t and w h e r e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e H o m e r i c p e r i o d t h e A s s y r i a n
kings c o m m e m o r a t e d their power i n i n s c r i p t i o n s . 1 2
I n this p e r -
spective t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e H o m e r i c a n d the A k k a d i a n
epic h a r d l y appears a s t o n i s h i n g any m o r e .
S t i l l , a m o n g all the s i m i l a r i t i e s i t is i m p o r t a n t t o keep s i g h t o f
the differences. Ishtar's m e e t i n g w i t h G i l g a m e s h is f i r m l y a n -
c h o r e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Gilgamesh epic; i t c o n s t i t u t e s the
n a r r a t i v e l i n k f r o m t h e H u m b a b a t h e m e t o the n e x t h e r o i c deed,
the v a n q u i s h i n g o f t h e b u l l o f heaven. G l o r i o u s Ishtar, i n her
r e v e n g e , has t h e b u l l o f heaven m a k e his attack, t h u s g i v i n g G i l -
g a m e s h a n d E n k i d u t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o v e r c o m e the b u l l a n d
thus establish sacrifice. T h e r i t u a l b a c k g r o u n d is clear even i n
details. G i l g a m e s h ' s r e j e c t i o n o f I s h t a r c o r r e s p o n d s t o the h u n t -
ers' t a b o o : I t is sexual r e s t r a i n t t h a t ensures a successful h u n t .
H e n c e t h e d e n i a l o f l o v e causes the b u l l t o a p p e a r . 13
A l s o the
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f Ishtar's lovers as r e p o r t e d i n G i l g a m e s h ' s cat-
a l o g u e have t h e i r special m e a n i n g a n d f u n c t i o n , b e i n g basically
m y t h s a b o u t t h e i n s t a l l m e n t o f c u l t u r e : I n this w a y the horse was
bridled. 1 4
W h a t has r e m a i n e d i n H o r n e r is t h e n a r r a t i v e t h r e a d
o f a g e n r e scene, all t h e m o r e c a r e f u l l y presented because i t is,
o n t h e w h o l e , f u n c t i o n l e s s . I t has its o w n c h a r m a n d aesthetic
m e r i t i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f the Iliad, b u t i t does n o t c a r r y the
same w e i g h t e i t h e r i n t h e n a r r a t i v e o r i n t e r m s o f r i t u a l b a c k -
g r o u n d as i n t h e A k k a d i a n epic. T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h A k k a d i a n
d e m o n s have been t u r n e d i n t o fantastic m o n s t e r s , m o r e a m u s -
ing than frightening—Lamashtu transformed into the Gor-
g o n — h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t o n the level o f epic p o e t r y a b o u t t h e
gods.
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f Gilgamesh m a y also be detected i n a scene

f r o m t h e Odyssey. T h e Odyssey once describes a f o r m o f prayer
w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s o f r e l i g i o n have f o u n d c o n f u s i n g : W h e n Penel-
ope learns a b o u t t h e r i s k y j o u r n e y u n d e r t a k e n b y Telemachos
a n d the s u i t o r s ' p l o t t o k i l l h i m , she first bursts i n t o tears and
99
l a m e n t s . T h e n , c a l m i n g d o w n , she washes a n d dresses i n clean

c l o t h e s , goes t o t h e u p p e r s t o r y w i t h her m a i d s , t a k i n g b a r l e y
i n a basket, a n d prays t o A t h e n a f o r t h e safe r e t u r n o f T e l e m a -
chos; she ends w i t h an i n a r t i c u l a t e a n d s h r i e k i n g c r y . 1 5
B o t h the
basket w i t h b a r l e y a n d t h e c r y (ololyge) have t h e i r p r o p e r place
i n b l o o d sacrifice; t h e i r use i n t h i s scene is u n p a r a l l e l e d else-
w h e r e . So scholars e i t h e r s p o k e o f an " a b b r e v i a t i o n o f sacrifice"
o r o f an o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n r i t u a l o f bloodless o f f e r i n g o r o f an
i n v e n t i o n o f t h e p o e t , i f n o t i n c o m p e t e n c e o f the " r e d a c t o r . " 1 6
B u t l o o k at Gilgamesh: W h e n Gilgamesh together w i t h E n k i d u

is l e a v i n g his c i t y t o f i g h t H u m b a b a , his m o t h e r " N i n s u n enters
her c h a m b e r , she takes a . . . [special h e r b ] , she p u t s o n a g a r -
m e n t as befits her b o d y , she p u t s o n an o r n a m e n t as befits h e r
breast . . . she s p r i n k l e s w a t e r f r o m a b o w l o n e a r t h a n d dust.
She w e n t u p t h e stairs, m o u n t e d t h e u p p e r storey, she c l i m b e d
the r o o f , t o S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ] she offered incense, she
b r o u g h t t h e o f f e r i n g a n d raised her hands before S h a m a s h " ; t h u s
she prays, f u l l o f distress a n d s o r r o w , f o r a safe r e t u r n o f her
son. 1 7
T h e s i t u a t i o n , m o t h e r p r a y i n g f o r an a d v e n t u r o u s s o n , is
n o t a special o n e . Yet i n its details t h e scene f r o m t h e Odyssey
c o m e s close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f Gilgamesh; i n fact i t is closer
t o the Gilgamesh t e x t t h a n t o t h e c o m p a r a b l e scene o f A c h i l l e s '
prayer i n t h e Iliad. 16
W h e r e a s t h e r i t u a l is o d d i n the Odyssey,
n o n e o f these o d d i t i e s is f o u n d i n the passage o f Gilgamesh:
B u r n i n g incense o n the r o o f is a w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e , 1 9
a n d i t is especially a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n t u r n i n g t o t h e s u n g o d .
C e r e m o n i a l prayer i n the women's u p p e r s t o r y is otherwise
u n h e a r d - o f i n Greece. I t seems t h e p o e t k n e w t h a t b u r n i n g i n -
cense was o u t o f place i n t h e h e r o i c w o r l d , so he t o o k as a s u b -
s t i t u t e t h e female p a r t i n n o r m a l sacrifice, t h a t is, t h r o w i n g o f
b a r l e y (oulochytai) a n d ololyge. E v e n the use o f r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l as
an effective m o t i f i n epic n a r r a t i v e has its antecedent i n the o r i -
ental t r a d i t i o n .
The Overpopulated Earth
T h e basic c o n c e p t o f t h e a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a n Atrahasis epic is

almost disconcertingly m o d e r n . H u m a n s multiply, the l a n d
ioo
feels oppressed b y t h e i r m u l t i t u d e , the o u t c o m e can o n l y be ca-

t a s t r o p h e t o a n n i h i l a t e m a n k i n d ; yet m a n s u r v i v e s the a t t e m p t s
at d e s t r u c t i o n ; a n d so, u l t i m a t e l y , the o n l y effective m e t h o d is
f o u n d : b i r t h c o n t r o l . T o achieve t h i s , t h o u g h , the p o e m has o n l y
o n e m e t h o d t o offer: the i n s t i t u t i o n o f priestesses w h o are n o t
a l l o w e d t o bear c h i l d r e n . 1
T h e s u f f e r i n g o f the e a r t h is expressed i n verses w h i c h recur

at the b e g i n n i n g o f each n e w act o f Atrahasis: "Twelve hundred
years h a d n o t yet passed, w h e n the l a n d e x t e n d e d and the
peoples m u l t i p l i e d . T h e l a n d was b e l l o w i n g l i k e a b u l l . The
g o d s g o t d i s t u r b e d w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r . E n l i l h e a r d t h e i r noise and
he addressed t h e great g o d s : ' T h e noise o f m a n k i n d has b e c o m e
t o o intense f o r m e , w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r I a m d e p r i v e d o f sleep
. . .' " 2
H e n c e he proceeds t o orchestrate the catastrophes o f
plague, famine, and flood.
T h i s c a n n o t b u t r e m i n d o f a passage o f G r e e k epic, o f an e x -
t r e m e l y p r o m i n e n t t e x t i n fact, the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the T r o j a n
c y c l e , w h i c h tells a b o u t the u l t i m a t e cause o f the T r o j a n War.
T h i s is the o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria, an epic t h a t was s t i l l q u i t e w e l l
k n o w n i n the classical p e r i o d b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y fell i n t o d i s r e -
g a r d a n d g o t l o s t ; a l r e a d y H e r o d o t u s d o u b t e d the a u t h o r s h i p o f
Homer, w h i c h P i n d a r s t i l l accepted. T h e o p e n i n g lines have
been p r e s e r v e d as a f r a g m e n t , albeit i n a c o r r u p t t e x t u a l f o r m .
T h e y are q u o t e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " m e n -
t i o n e d r i g h t at the b e g i n n i n g o f the Iliad.
T h e Cypria b e g a n i n the style o f a f a i r y tale:
O n c e u p o n a t i m e , w h e n countless people m o v e d o n the face

o f the earth . . .
[lacuna; they oppressed?] the breadth o f the deep-chested
earth.
Zeus saw this and t o o k p i t y and deep i n his heart
H e decided to relieve the a l l - n o u r i s h i n g earth o f m a n k i n d
b y setting alight the great conflict o f the Ilian War. 3
I n the same scholia t h e r e is also a prose n a r r a t i v e : 4
E a r t h , being oppressed b y the m u l t i t u d e o f m e n , since there

was n o p i e t y o f m e n , asked Zeus to be lightened o f this b u r -
den. A n d first Zeus caused at once the T h e b a n War b y w h i c h
101
he destroyed m a n y m e n t h o r o u g h l y . A f t e r w a r d s he caused
again the T r o j a n War, c o n s u l t i n g w i t h M o m o s — t h i s is called
the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " b y H o m e r ; he c o u l d have destroyed
t h e m all w i t h bolts o f l i g h t n i n g or floods, b u t M o m o s pre-
vented this and suggested rather t w o measures t o h i m , t o
m a r r y T h e t i s t o a h u m a n and t o generate a beautiful daughter.
T h u s A c h i l l e s a n d H e l e n are b o r n a n d , w i t h t h e m , t h e seeds o f
the T r o j a n War.
T h e t w o t e x t s c a n n o t d i r e c t l y be c o m b i n e d . I n t h e verses
q u o t e d , Z e u s reacts d i r e c t l y t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e e a r t h ,
" s e e i n g " a n d f e e l i n g p i t y at h e r p l i g h t , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y plans
the T r o j a n War. A s t h e excerpts f r o m t h e Cypria i n Proklos i n -
d i c a t e , Z e u s discussed f u r t h e r details w i t h T h e m i s . I n the prose
5
v e r s i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e a r t h is n o t a d u m b o b j e c t o f p i t y , b u t a
s p e a k i n g p a r t n e r . T h e d e c i s i o n i n v o l v e s first the T h e b a n War,
a n d t h i s is f o l l o w e d b y a r e m a r k a b l e d i s c u s s i o n w i t h M o m o s .
We are c l e a r l y d e a l i n g w i t h t w o c o m p e t i n g v e r s i o n s . I n fact a
t h i r d v e r s i o n c o m e s f r o m t h e e n d o f the H e s i o d i c Catalogues,
H e r e Z e u s m a k e s his d e c i s i o n all alone w h i c h t h e o t h e r s " d i d
n o t yet f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d . " H i s a i m is t o b r i n g an e n d t o t h e
c o n f u s i o n o f the h u m a n a n d d i v i n e spheres a n d t h e r e b y t o b r i n g
the age o f heroes t o a close. " H e s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y t h e greater
part o f m a n k i n d " t h r o u g h the catastrophe o f w a r . A c c o r d i n g to
6
H e s i o d ' s Erga i t was b o t h t h e T h e b a n and t h e T r o j a n w a r s t h a t

m a r k the e n d o f t h e age o f heroes (163-165). T h e t e x t o f the
Catalogues is so b a d l y p r e s e r v e d i n this s e c t i o n t h a t i t is n o t f u l l y
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ; b u t i t is clear t h a t the catastrophe is l i n k e d t o
Helen.
H e r e are, t h e r e f o r e , three v a r i a t i o n s o n the basic c o n c e p t o f a

c a t a s t r o p h e affecting m a n k i n d t h r o u g h the d e c i s i o n o f the r u l i n g
g o d . B o t h t h e Cypria a n d t h e Catalogues, even i f w e c a n n o t g i v e
t h e m an exact date, m u s t b e l o n g t o the archaic p e r i o d , whereas
the s o u r c e o f t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n can h a r d l y be f i x e d i n t i m e . Yet
i t is p r e c i s e l y t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n w h i c h has a p a r t i c u l a r a f f i n i t y
w i t h t h e Atrahasis t e x t . H e r e plans f o r different catastrophes,
t h o u g h n o t c a r r i e d o u t , are s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c fash-
102
" O R A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R *
i o n , a n d , s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t is the flood w h i c h appears

as the m o s t r a d i c a l m e a s u r e . W h a t is strange is the r o l e o f M o -
m o s , the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f R e p r o a c h , as i t seems; he is i n t r o -
d u c e d o n l y here as an a d v i s o r o f Z e u s t o reject t w o sugges-
t i o n s — m u c h p o e t i c i n v e s t m e n t w i t h l i t t l e effect. O r is i t his r o l e
t o r e p r o a c h m a n k i n d ? W h a t is even m o r e c u r i o u s is t h a t , at the
b e g i n n i n g o f Enuma Elish, A p s u , " t h e f i r s t o n e , the begetter,"
distressed b y t h e n o i s e o f the y o u n g e r g o d s , w h o are d e p r i v i n g
h i m o f his sleep, m a k e s plans t o k i l l t h e m a l l , and d o i n g so he
has an advisor, M u m m u , " g i v i n g counsel t o A p s u . " 7
Is M o m o s
the same as M u m m u ? I f so, the G r e e k t e x t w o u l d present a c o n -
t a m i n a t i o n o f m o t i f s f r o m Atrahasis and Enuma Elish, as appears
t o be the case i n the c o n t e x t o f the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " t o o .
T h i s possible c o n n e c t i o n s t i l l does n o t a l l o w us t o place this t e x t
s e c u r e l y w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e . I n the case
o f Typhon-Typhoeus, t o take a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , a prose t e x t p r e -
served i n the l i b r a r y o f A p o l l o d o r u s p r o v i d e s the m o s t s t r i k i n g
p a r a l l e l w i t h the H i t t i t e m y t h o f I l l u y a n k a s the d r a g o n ; i t m a y
come f r o m a Hellenistic source. 8
A s regards the Cypria, the Atrahasis t e x t s h o w s i n any case

t h a t the m o t i f o f the o p p r e s s i o n o f the e a r t h a n d the p l a n o f
d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a n k i n d b y the h i g h e s t o f the g o d s , the weather
g o d , is e x t r e m e l y o l d . T h i s discourages one f r o m s i m p l y f i n d -
i n g s o m e " p o s t - H o m e r i c i n v e n t i o n " i n the o p e n i n g o f the Cy-
pria. 9
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a reference t o the East even f r o m the
G r e e k side: T h e r e m a r k a b l e t i t l e Cypria can be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y
as a reference t o the i s l a n d o f C y p r u s , 1 0
h o w e v e r skeptical we
m a y be a b o u t t h e later i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m a k e s Stasinus o f C y -
prus the a u t h o r o f the p o e m . A n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t at least the m a i n
c o n t e n t s o f the Cypria w e r e k n o w n a r o u n d 650 B . C , is p r o v i d e d
b y the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the J u d g m e n t o f Paris o n the C h i g i
vase. 11
H o w e v e r , these o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t t h e n p o i n t t o that e p -
o c h w h e n C y p r u s , t h o u g h r i c h a n d p o w e r f u l , was s t i l l f o r m a l l y
u n d e r A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n . T h e flavor o f this p e r i o d o n C y p r u s
appears t o be a m i x t u r e o f eastern l u x u r y and H o m e r i c life style.
T h e b u r i a l s are as l a v i s h as t h a t o f P a t r o k l o s ; i n the chamber
t o m b s there is elaborate eastern f u r n i t u r e ; before t h e i r entrances
103
horses w e r e sacrificed a n d i n t e r r e d a l o n g w i t h t h e i r c h a r i o t s ;
even a s w o r d w i t h silver nails, as k n o w n f r o m H o m e r i c d i c t i o n ,
has been f o u n d . 1 2
T h i s does n o t e x p l a i n w h y i t was t h e H o m e r i c
t h e m e o f the T r o j a n W a r w h i c h c a u g h t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f C y -
prians t o result i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f " t h e C y p r i a n e p i c . " B u t i t
is a fact, e v i d e n c e d b y t h e c u r r e n t t i t l e Cypria. N o less clear t h a n
the H o m e r i c c o n n e c t i o n s o f C y p r u s at t h e t i m e w e r e those t o
S y r i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ; t h e c o m m e m o r a t i v e steles o f A s s y r i a n
k i n g s w e r e erected i n the cities o f C y p r u s .
A m o n g t h e s p l e n d i d objects o f art p r o d u c e d o n C y p r u s i n t h i s
p e r i o d are t w o silver b o w l s w i t h r e l i e f d e c o r a t i o n , u n i q u e i n s o -
far as t h e o u t e r b a n d o f reliefs e v i d e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e s a c o n t i n u o u s
s t o r y : A p r i n c e i n his c h a r i o t leaves t h e c i t y t o g o o u t h u n t i n g ;
he a l i g h t s f r o m his c h a r i o t a n d kneels d o w n t o s h o o t at a stag;
he f o l l o w s the b l e e d i n g a n i m a l ; he flays the corpse; he m a k e s
offerings t o his g o d , represented as a w i n g e d s u n d i s k above the
scene; a w i l d m a n f r o m t h e w o o d s attacks the p r i n c e w i t h a
stone; b u t a w i n g e d f e m a l e d i v i n i t y lifts t h e p r i n c e u p w i t h h e r
a r m s a n d saves h i m ; t h e p r i n c e m o u n t s his c h a r i o t a n d pursues
the w i l d m a n ; t h e p r i n c e k i l l s t h e w i l d m a n w i t h his axe; t h e
p r i n c e r e t u r n s t o his c i t y . O n e o f these b o w l s reached Italy
t h r o u g h trade a n d was f o u n d i n the lavish B e r n a r d i n i t o m b at
Praeneste/Palestrina ( F i g u r e 7); the o t h e r is preserved in only
f r a g m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n . I t has been p r o p o s e d t h a t w o r k s o f art
1 3
l i k e this p r o v i d e d t h e G r e e k s w i t h the i n c e n t i v e f o r i n v e n t i n g
their o w n m y t h o l o g y . 1 4
Today t h e reverse h y p o t h e s i s seems
m o r e a t t r a c t i v e : T h e artists w h o d e c o r a t e d these pieces, P h o e n i -
cians o n C y p r u s o r G r e e k s t r a i n e d b y P h o e n i c i a n s , w e r e i l l u s -
t r a t i n g a G r e e k tale, a " s o n g " c u r r e n t o n C y p r u s . 1 5
I t is clear
h o w easily t h e tale w h o s e c o n t e n t s w e can f o l l o w i n t h e frieze
c o u l d be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o H o m e r i c h e x a m e t e r s , especially the
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e d i v i n i t y t o save h e r p r o t e g e : "And here
A i n e i a s , p r i n c e o f m e n , c o u l d w e l l have p e r i s h e d , h a d n o t t h e
d a u g h t e r o f Z e u s s h a r p l y n o t i c e d this . . . " 1 6
I n this perspective
the Praeneste b o w l a n d its c o u n t e r p a r t a l l o w the n o t i o n o f H o -
m e r i c p o e t r y o n C y p r u s a r o u n d 700 B . C .
A n o t h e r possible r e f l e c t i o n o f Atrahasis i n the Iliad s h o u l d be
• 104 •
Figure 7. Cypriote silver bowl, about 700 B.C., found in the
Bernardini tomb, Praeneste: a hunting adventure,
including a fight with a wild man.
m e n t i o n e d : O n e o f t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c episodes r i g h t at the be-

g i n n i n g o f the B a b y l o n i a n p o e m is t h e attack o f the l o w e r gods
o n E n l i l , t h e i r chief. T h e y are t i r e d o f d o i n g all t h e t o i l s o m e
w o r k o f d i g g i n g dikes; so t h e y b u r n t h e i r i m p l e m e n t s a n d that
n i g h t t h e y g a t h e r i n f r o n t o f the h o u s e — t h e t e m p l e — o f E n l i l i n
105
o r d e r t o start a r e v o l t . E n l i l b e c o m e s a l a r m e d a n d q u i c k l y sends
a messenger t o A n u i n t h e heavens and t o E n k i i n the depths o f
the w a t e r s . B o t h c o m e at his call a n d g i v e t h e i r a d v i c e , t h e o u t -
come being the creation o f the h u m a n r o b o t s . 1 7
I n t h e first b o o k
o f t h e Iliad, T h e t i s tells a s t o r y w h i c h does n o t o t h e r w i s e appear
a n y w h e r e else, " h o w t h e o t h e r g o d s o f O l y m p u s w a n t e d t o b i n d
Zeus"—there is n o reason g i v e n f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h i s i n -
stance T h e t i s acted as messenger a n d f e t c h e d f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f
the sea t h e p o w e r f u l B r i a r e o s - A i g a i o n , w h o sat d o w n at Zeus's
side a n d w i t h his f e r o c i o u s aspect scared t h e o t h e r g o d s a w a y . 18
T h e correspondence w i t h Atrahasis is n o t v e r y d e t a i l e d ; stories

o f disputes a m o n g t h e g o d s are n o t u n u s u a l . Yet i f c o n n e c t i o n s
b e t w e e n eastern a n d G r e e k epic texts are established already,
t h e y a l l o w us t o take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e eastern m o d e l even
i n t h i s case. O n c e m o r e w e f i n d w h a t h a d been an i n t e g r a l ele-
m e n t o f t h e m a i n s t o r y i n Atrahasis d e v o l v e d i n t o a casual m o t i f ,
an u n c o n n e c t e d improvisation without precedent or conse-
quence.
F u r t h e r threads lead f r o m c u n n i n g A t r a h a s i s t o t h e P r o m e -
theus m y t h . B u t these are less specific w h e n set i n t h e c o n t e x t
o f the very c o m m o n trickster f i g u r e . 1 9
Seven against Thebes
H i s t o r y is, t o a great e x t e n t , t h e h i s t o r y o f w a r ; a n d w a r s g i v e
the i m p r e s s i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h e w a r o f t h e " S e v e n against T h e b e s "
is u s u a l l y accepted as an actual h i s t o r i c a l event o f t h e Late
B r o n z e A g e ; this seems even less c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h a n t h e h i s t o -
r i c i t y o f t h e T r o j a n War, w h i c h s h o u l d have h a p p e n e d o n e g e n -
e r a t i o n later: " T h e r e is n o reason t o suppose t h a t the tale was
n o t based o n h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . " 1
A d e s t r u c t i o n level at T h e b e s t o -
w a r d s t h e e n d o f L a t e H e l l a d i c I I I B — t h a t is, i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y — h a s been established a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h its e x -
act c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e fall o f P y l o s a n d M y -
cenae a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y V I I A is d i s p u t e d . A t T h e b e s
2
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w o u l d be l i n k e d t o t h e attack b y t h e E p i g o n e s ,
106
who b e l o n g t o t h e same g e n e r a t i o n as the heroes w h o f o u g h t at

T r o y , I n t h e c a t a l o g u e o f ships i n t h e Iliad i t is p r e s u p p o s e d t h a t
T h e b e s has been d e s t r o y e d a n d o n l y s o m e s m a l l Hypothebai has
been l e f t . 3
O n e u s u a l l y assumes t h a t T h e b e s lay i n r u i n s s t i l l i n
the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h a t its rise t o h e g e m o n i c p o w e r i n
Boeotia occurred later. 4
No a r c h a e o l o g i c a l trace can be e x p e c t e d o f the w a r o f t h e

Seven against T h e b e s , w h i c h e n j o y e d far greater l i t e r a r y fame
t h a n t h a t o f t h e E p i g o n e s . T h e seven gates a n d the w a l l s o f
T h e b e s w e r e n o t s t o r m e d at this t i m e , t r a d i t i o n says; o n the c o n -
t r a r y , t h e attack p r o v e d disastrous f o r the assailants. T h e epic
p o e m w h i c h dealt w i t h these events e v i d e n t l y was t h e core o f
the T h e b a n c y c l e . Its c o n t e n t s are p r e s u p p o s e d i n m o r e t h a n one
passage o f t h e Iliad. I n particular, the f o r m u l a "seven-gated
T h e b e s " c o u l d have been t a k e n f r o m the T h e b a n e p i c . 5
Yet i t is here t h a t the p r o b l e m o f r e a l i t y arises. I t is d i f f i c u l t t o

i m a g i n e a seven-gated c i t y i n t h e B r o n z e " A g e ; i t is nonsense t o
t h i n k o f a f o r t i f i e d palace i n the s t y l e o f M y c e n a e w i t h seven
gates. I n 1891 W i l a m o w i t z c a l m l y declared t h a t the seven gates
e x i s t e d f o r the sake o f t h e seven assailants i n t h e saga o n l y : a
n a r r a t i v e s y m m e t r y w h i c h b o r e n o r e l a t i o n t o reality. T h e later
G r e e k c i t y e x t e n d e d s o m e distance over the p l a i n a n d was c o r -
r e s p o n d i n g l y w a l l e d . I n fact t h e h i l l u p o n w h i c h the c u r r e n t c i t y
o f T h e b e s lies a n d w h e r e , i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n , finds f r o m the
M y c e n a e a n palace have c o m e t o l i g h t , is large e n o u g h f o r a c i t y
o f that p e r i o d . L o c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , i n t h e i r m a p s , have l o n g p u t
the seven gates o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h a t h i l l . 6
A s a result o f
c o n s t a n t o v e r b u i l d i n g , t h e r e are n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g a r c h a e o l o g i -
cal finds. O t h e r s have i n s i s t e d t h a t the h i l l always h a d a n d s t i l l
has t h r e e a n d n o t seven n a t u r a l approaches. Sarantis S y m e o n -
o g l o u , i n his recent a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f T h e b a n
t o p o g r a p h y , agrees t h a t t h e Late B r o n z e A g e c i t y can have h a d
o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r g a t e s — h e decides o n f o u r — b u t t h e n a t t r i -
butes t h e seven gates t o the smaller, earlier settlement: o f the
M i d d l e B r o n z e A g e , f i n d i n g c o n f i r m a t i o n i n w h a t Pausanias
w r o t e s o m e 1,600 years later, u n d a u n t e d b y the consequence
107
t h a t , i f he w e r e r i g h t , t h e p u t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l " S e v e n " o f t h e Late

B r o n z e A g e c o u l d n e v e r have f o u n d t h e i r p r o p e r seven gates.
This paradox finally should vindicate W i l a m o w i t z ' skepticism.
T h e Seven themselves are a strange g r o u p . T h e i r n a m e s v a r y
i n different v e r s i o n s , a n d i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t the o l d -
est o n e w i t h a n y c e r t a i n t y . I t is n o t even clear w h e t h e r t h e leader,
Adrastos, and the instigator o f the enterprise, Polyneikes the
e x i l e d k i n g o f T h e b e s , s h o u l d be c o u n t e d i n w i t h t h e m . 7
Some
o f the heroes, as w e k n o w t h e m f r o m A e s c h y l u s , have a s t o r y
a n d hence s o m e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e i r o w n , i n c l u d i n g A m p h i -
araos t h e seer, w h o h a d his s a n c t u a r y and his c u l t a f t e r w a r d s , 8
a n d T y d e u s , father o f the i m m o r t a l D i o m e d e s . O t h e r s appear as

s t o c k figures t o f i l l o u t t h e l i s t . T o call o n e o f t h e m E t e o k l o s ,
v i s - a - v i s E t e o k l e s the b r o t h e r o f P o l y n e i k e s , appears t o be the
a l m o s t desperate i n v e n t i o n o f a f a l t e r i n g p o e t . B u t seven t h e y
w e r e . P o l y n e i k e s a n d E t e o k l e s have t e l l i n g n a m e s w h i c h refer t o
p r e c i s e l y t h i s w a r : " m u c h s t r i f e " against " t r u e g l o r y , " the assail-
ant against t h e p r o t e c t o r o f t h e c i t y . I t is a b s o l u t e l y impossible
t h a t b o t h t h e w a r a n d the names o f the c o m m a n d e r s s h o u l d be
h i s t o r i c a l , t h a t is, c o i n c i d e n t a l . These names are i n v e n t i o n s t o f i t
a specific c o n c e p t .
T h i s a n d s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d E r n s t H o w a l d t o a radical
thesis presented i n 1 9 3 9 — w h i c h has, since t h e n , f o u n d h a r d l y
any echo. H e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e tale o f t h e seven e v i l assailants
w h o are f o r t u n a t e l y r e p u l s e d , l e d b y A d r a s t o s t h e " i n e s c a p a b l e "
o n his m a g i c h o r s e , is p u r e m y t h i n its essence: O r i g i n a l l y these
w e r e seven d e m o n s , an " o u t b r e a k f r o m H e l l . " A d r a s t o s betrays
his i n f e r n a l status even t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c choruses b y w h i c h he
was h o n o r e d at S i k y o n , as w e are t o l d b y H e r o d o t u s ; his horse
A r i o n , b o r n o f E r i n y s , is an i n f e r n a l steed; A d r a s t o s ' followers
are seven d e m o n s f r o m the u n d e r w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g T y d e u s w i t h
his c a n n i b a l i s t i c d e s i r e s . L a t e r a n d s e c o n d a r i l y t h e u n d e r w o r l d
9
m y t h was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a h e r o i c epic l i n k e d t o t h e actual c i t y

o f T h e b e s . T h i s has created " h i s t o r y , " accepted as such r i g h t u p
t o The Cambridge Ancient History.
W h a t H o w a l d d i d n o t k n o w was t h a t the s t o r y o f t h e attack
o f t h e e v i l Seven f r o m t h e u n d e r w o r l d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f a
108
t e r r i f y i n g g o d exists i n fact, i n the f o r m o f an A k k a d i a n epic

t e x t : t h e s t o r y o f E r r a , the p l a g u e g o d . I t was first p u b l i s h e d i n
a v i r t u a l l y c o m p l e t e f o r m i n 1956, w i t h an i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n
appearing in 1969. 10
I t is u n i q u e insofar as i t is the w o r k o f an
individual poet n a m e d Kabti-Ilani-Marduk, who introduces
h i m s e l f at the e n d o f t h e t e x t . T h e g o d E r r a h i m s e l f , he says,
revealed the c o m p l e t e t e x t t o h i m i n a d r e a m . I n c o n t r a s t t o
Atrahasis, t h i s w o r k is r e l a t i v e l y " y o u n g . " I t has been d a t e d t o
the n i n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . 1 1
K a b t i - I l a n i - M a r d u k i n t r o d u c e s the Seven (Sibitti) as t h e sons

o f heaven a n d e a r t h , " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t p e e r " — t h i s e x p r e s -
s i o n is used as a f o r m u l a — a n d a b s o l u t e l y t e r r i f y i n g ; each o f
t h e m is assigned his special d e s t r u c t i v e " f a t e " b y father A n u .
T h e y call o n t h e g o d E r r a , the g o d o f w a r a n d p l a g u e , t o d e s t r o y
mankind. Marduk, the h i g h e s t god o f Babylon, leaves his
t h r o n e and abandons the w o r l d t o its d e s t r u c t i o n . Foreign
peoples b e g i n t o i n v a d e B a b y l o n i a , o n l y t o be themselves at-
t a c k e d b y t h e Seven. T h e c r y goes u p o n every side: " E r r a has
k i l l e d . " B u t t h e n t h e g o d , w h o has d e m o n s t r a t e d his p o w e r so
i r r e s i s t i b l y , calms d o w n , a n d , before m a n k i n d is c o m p l e t e l y d e -
s t r o y e d , he w i t h d r a w s t o g e t h e r w i t h his Seven. T h e epic c o n -
cludes w i t h a blessing f o r t h e l a n d o f A k k a d a n d praise f o r the
powerful god.
T h i s is a v e r y s h o r t s u m m a r y o f a c o m p l i c a t e d c o m p o s i t i o n .
I t c a n n o t be c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s t e x t is s i m p l y a n d d i r e c t l y the
o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n as p o s t u l a t e d b y H o w a l d . T h e r e are, n e v e r t h e -
less, r e m a r k a b l e parallels: t h e seven " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t peer,"
w h o s e n u m b e r is used as t h e i r v e r y n a m e i n this t e x t , w i t h an
i n e l u c t a b l e g o d at t h e i r head; an attack and great danger; a n d
then, finally, the retreat w h i c h means s a l v a t i o n f o r those u n d e r
t h r e a t . A s i g n i f i c a n t difference b e t w e e n the G r e e k and B a b y l o -
n i a n versions is t h a t t h e G r e e k saga concentrates o n the c i t y o f
T h e b e s w h i l e i n the o t h e r t h e a c t i o n is set i n a w o r l d w i d e f r a m e -
w o r k ; a n d whereas t h e B a b y l o n i a n poet c o m b i n e s plague and
war, t h e G r e e k s t o r y p o r t r a y s p u r e h e r o i c b a t t l e .
Erra is an u n u s u a l epic i n t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s o o n came t o
assume m a g i c f u n c t i o n s . I t appeared s u i t e d t o serve as a m y t h i -
109
cal m o d e l t o reverse t h e attacks o f t h a t v e r y p l a g u e g o d a n d

t h e r e b y t o act as a f o r m o f e x o r c i s m . T h e t e x t , o r parts thereof,
w e r e w r i t t e n o n a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against s i c k n e s s . 12
I n fact t h e e v i l Seven are w e l l k n o w n i n a w h o l e range o f

A k k a d i a n incantation texts, f r o m different c o l l e c t i o n s . 1 3
Occa-
s i o n a l l y t h e y are l i s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d g i v e n v a r i o u s d e m o n i c
n a m e s , such as asakku, namtaru, utukku, alu, etemmu, gallu, ilu
limnu ( e v i l g o d ) , 1 4
b u t also S o u t h W i n d , G r e a t D r a g o n , Panther,
Snake, S l i m e Beast, W h i r l w i n d , Evil Wind. 1 5
What remains
c o n s t a n t is t h e i r n u m b e r , w h i c h is repeated almost c o m p u l -
sively: " T h e y are seven, t h e y are seven." T h e y l i v e i n t h e depths
o f t h e e a r t h , t h e y rise u p f r o m t h e e a r t h ; 1 6
they " k i l l , " they b r i n g
diseases o f all k i n d s ; i t is t h e y w h o a t t a c k the m o o n g o d a n d
thus cause t h e eclipses o f t h e m o o n . F o r t u n a t e l y the e x o r c i s t
p r i e s t has g o o d , s t r o n g h e l p i n g s p i r i t s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e i r i n f l u -
ence.
A m o n g t h e texts i n w h i c h t h e Seven appear is an i n c a n t a t i o n
t e x t f r o m t h e series Bit meseri, " t h e house s u r r o u n d e d b y p r o -
tecting spirits." 1 7
T h i s also deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f sickness.
T h e e v i l p o w e r s o f disease are represented b y the Seven, the
" S e v e n w i t h t e r r i b l e w i n g s . " I n t h e r i t u a l t h e y are represented i n
effigy, perhaps e v e n d r a w n o n t h e w a l l . " I placed t h e p i c t u r e o f
N e r g a l at t h e i r heads." N e r g a l is the g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d and
o f p l a g u e w h o is v e r y close t o E r r a i n f u n c t i o n . B u t t h e n u n -
usual figures o f t w i n s are n a m e d : t w o i m a g e s o f " t w i n s b r o u g h t
t o g e t h e r " at t h e head o f t h e sick t o t h e r i g h t a n d t h e left, " t w i n s
f i g h t i n g each o t h e r m a d e o f p l a s t e r " i n t h e center o f t h e d o o r -
way, s i m i l a r t w i n s m a d e o f asphalt o n the d o o r frames t o the
r i g h t a n d t o t h e left. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e g o d s Ea a n d M a r d u k are
placed as g u a r d i a n s t o t h e r i g h t a n d left i n t h e center o f the d o o r .
T h e use o f f i g u r i n e s , p r o d u c e d ad h o c a n d t h e n d e s t r o y e d , is n o t
an u n c o m m o n feature i n t h e practice o f e x o r c i s m , 1 8
b u t the
t w i n s appear o n l y i n this p a r t i c u l a r t e x t . T h e r e f o l l o w s an i n c a n -
t a t i o n o f t h e " S e v e n before w h o m there stands t h e i m a g e o f
N e r g a l " ; b u t then the exorcist turns to other "Seven gods w h o
c a r r y w e a p o n s " a n d calls u p o n t h e m t o d e s t r o y enemies a n d e v i l
forces a n d t o g r a n t l i f e .
I 10
Seven t e r r i b l e b e i n g s t h e r e f o r e are present, w i t h the g o d o f

p l a g u e a n d d e a t h at t h e i r head; seven d i v i n e c o m b a t a n t s are s u p -
posed t o o v e r c o m e t h e e v i l ; a n d i n a d d i t i o n there are the t w i n s
f i g h t i n g each o t h e r i n t h e d o o r w a y . 1 9
T h e s i t u a t i o n is u n c a n n i l y
close t o t h a t o f the Seven against Thebes as k n o w n f r o m A e s c h y -
lus: Seven e v i l a n d f r i g h t f u l assailants are e n u m e r a t e d , l e d b y
one w h o s e n a m e is " i n e s c a p a b l e " ; seven a r m e d heroes are p i t t e d
against t h e m ; a n d t h e decisive b a t t l e is b e t w e e n t h e t w o b r o t h e r s
w h o are t o f i g h t a n d k i l l each o t h e r at t h e seventh gate.
I n a d d i t i o n there is a r e m a r k a b l e i c o n o g r a p h i c b r i d g e from
East t o West. A m o n g t h e o r t h o s t a t e reliefs f r o m the palace o f
T e l l H a l a f i w h i c h , a l o n g w i t h C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n c i r l i , are i m -
p o r t a n t e x a m p l e s o f Late H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t a l a r t , there appears
side b y side w i t h l i o n s and g r i f f i n s a c o u p l e o f a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l
m e n , t w i n s , w h o have seized each o t h e r b y the f o r e l o c k and are
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r u n n i n g each o t h e r t h r o u g h w i t h t h e i r s w o r d s
( F i g u r e 8). T h i s is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y parallel t o t h e representa-
t i o n s o f E t e o k l e s a n d P o l y n e i k e s i n m u t u a l f r a t r i c i d e as became
p o p u l a r i n E t r u r i a f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 o n w a r d . 2 0
T h e r e are
n o k n o w n i n t e r m e d i a r y l i n k s ; a p o s s i b i l i t y w o u l d be l o s t m e t a l
reliefs. Instead o f i m a g e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a t e x t f r o m Palestine
t o fill t h e gap, f r o m t h e s e c o n d b o o k o f S a m u e l : D u r i n g the c i v i l
w a r b e t w e e n Saul's successor a n d D a v i d , events lead t o a t o u r -
n a m e n t b e t w e e n t w e l v e h a n d - p i c k e d w a r r i o r s f r o m each side.
" B u t each seized his o p p o n e n t b y the f o r e l o c k a n d t h r u s t his
s w o r d i n t o his side so t h a t all fell t o g e t h e r . " 21
T h i s episode has
also been c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e fight o f t h e H o r a t i i a n d the C u r i a t i i
in Roman tradition. 2 2
I n G r e e k m y t h there appear t h e t w o p o w -
erful b r o t h e r s , O t o s a n d E p h i a l t e s , t h e A l o a d a e , who would
have been i n v i n c i b l e h a d t h e y n o t a c c i d e n t l y s h o t each o t h e r
w h e n a i m i n g at a d o e w h i c h leaped b e t w e e n t h e m . 2 3
Mytholog-
ical i m a g i n a t i o n s t u b b o r n l y keeps p o r t r a y i n g w h a t , i n reality,
w o u l d be t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y event. T h i s seems t o be t h e ideal o f
absolute a n d a u t o g e n o u s a n n i h i l a t i o n ; n o o u t s i d e r s are i n v o l v e d ,
a n d the c o n f l i c t e l i m i n a t e s itself. Perhaps i t is f o r t h i s reason that
the Etruscans f o u n d i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o use this i m a g e so o f t e n as
a reference t o d e a t h , again and again d e c o r a t i n g t h e i r f u n e r a r y
111
Figure 8. 01'thostate relieffrom the palace at Cuzana- Tell HalaJ, ninth

century B. c.: twins killing each other.
urns with the fight of Eteokles and Polyneikes. But the apotro-
paic function which the Tell Halaf relief must have possessed can
well be understood in this sense, too, and finally also the mini-
ature figurines used by the magicians officiating in the Bit meseri
ritual fall into place. The conflict eliminates itself, after which
harmony and health will return.
More perplexing is the question of what an exorcism of this
type can possibly have to do with an epic about Boeotian
Thebes. Yet several answers come to mind. Boeotia had its ori-
. 112 .
OR A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R
e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t o o ; i t lies close e n o u g h t o E u b o e a , the center

o f East-West t r a d e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . B o e o t i a n f i b u l a e f r o m
a r o u n d 700 B . C . have t h e earliest m y t h o l o g i c a l representations
w e k n o w i n Greece, i n c l u d i n g t h e T r o j a n horse b u t also H e r -
akles f i g h t i n g the seven-headed snake. T h i s m o t i f clearly has t o
d o w i t h the S e m i t i c East, as does the l i o n f i g h t . 2 4
Thebes, h o w -
ever, lay i n r u i n s a n d h a d been replaced b y H y p o t h e b a i , i f the
catalogue o f ships can be t a k e n as evidence o f the g e o m e t r i c o r
early archaic p e r i o d . T h e K a d m e a n h i l l h a d been l a i d t o waste
u n t i l the r e b u i l d i n g b e g a n , w h i c h s t i l l a l l o w e d s o m e o f the M y -
cenaean r u i n s t o s t a n d as sacred relics, such as the " H o u s e o f
K a d m o s . " I t can be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t seers w e r e i n v o l v e d i n
such a n e w b e g i n n i n g . T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n and
the occasional o c c u r r e n c e o f f o u n d a t i o n deposits s h o w t h a t spe-
cialists f r o m t h e East k n e w h o w t o o u t d o the n a t i v e bird-
diviners. 2 5
T h u s all t h e elements are there t o a l l o w us t o e n t e r -
t a i n t h e idea t h a t , t o avert e v i l forces f r o m the n e w f o u n d a t i o n ,
a m i g r a n t p r a c t i t i o n e r c a r r i e d o u t s o m e f o r m o f hit meseri r i t u a l ;
a n d t h a t a p o e t , i n s p i r e d w i t h m a n y ways o f s o n g b y t h e g o d ,
t o o k t h e p l o t o f t h e seven e v i l assailants a n d the seven p r o t e c t o r s
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t w i n s as represented i n the f i g u r i n e s t o m a k e
it t h e c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f an epic s o n g : I t was this c i t y o f T h e b e s
w h i c h , i n o l d e n t i m e s , once was a t t a c k e d b y t h e d r e a d f u l seven
b u t successfully rebuffed t h e m a l l , even t h o u g h t h e r o y a l b r o t h -
ers k i l l e d each o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y at t h e gate. T h a t details o f
l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s u c h as A m p h i a r a o s and Tydeus a n d , m o s t i m -
p o r t a n t o f a l l , O e d i p u s , the u n c a n n y father o f f r a t r i c i d e s , w e r e
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e w e b o f p o e t r y is n o t t o o a s t o n i s h i n g .
T h e r e is also a second p o s s i b i l i t y . Disease is a u n i v e r s a l p r o b -

l e m ; e p i d e m i c s d o n o t pause at l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s . I t has been
a r g u e d t h a t there was a c a t a s t r o p h i c d r o u g h t i n Greece t o w a r d
the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; 2 6
b u t t h i s is far f r o m c e r t a i n . Fa-
m i n e a n d pestilence w o u l d easily go hand i n hand—reason
e n o u g h t o seek o u t even u n f a m i l i a r , f o r e i g n remedies, p r o v i d i n g
an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s . S i m i l a r l y t o t h e w a y
i n w h i c h Asgelatas reached A n a p h e , s o m e after-effects o f M e s -
o p o t a m i a n m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e m a y have r e m a i n e d i n B o e o t i a , a d -
113
m i l t e d l y t r a n s f o r m e d a l m o s t b e y o n d r e c o g n i t i o n i n t o the f o r m
o f a h e r o i c s o n g . I t has been asked w h y , j u d g i n g b y t h e archaic
i m a g e r y , t h e tale o f T h e b e s was so m u c h m o r e p o p u l a r w i t h t h e
E t r u s c a n s t h a n i t was i n Greece, a n d the a n s w e r g i v e n has been
t h a t this was because o f t h e special r o l e g i v e n t o t h e seers and t o
d i v i n a t i o n i n this e p i c . 2 7
Perhaps the lost Thebaid bore more
traces o f such interests t h a n the f e w f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d allow
us t o r e c o g n i z e .
I f t h e p o e m o f t h e Seven against Thebes is an i n v e n t i o n o f the
o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , i t m u s t s t i l l have been q u i t e a success a n d
spread r a p i d l y . E v e n i n p r i m i t i v e t i m e s this w o u l d n o t have
t a k e n m o r e t h a n a f e w years, and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the T r o -
j a n theme, w i t h Tydeus/Diomedes above a l l , c o u l d also have
o c c u r r e d v e r y q u i c k l y . T h e Iliad presupposes t h e existence o f t h e
T h e b a n t h e m e i f n o t necessarily t h e w r i t t e n t e x t w h i c h later
c a m e t o t h e A l e x a n d r i a n l i b r a r y . I t seems t h a t t o w a r d s the e n d
o f t h e g e o m e t r i c p e r i o d a m o r e a n c i e n t t o m b was d i s c o v e r e d at
Eleusis a n d f i t t e d o u t afresh f o r a c u l t o f heroes. T h i s p r e s u m -
a b l y is t h e grave w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y was called t h e T o m b o f t h e
Seven, even t h o u g h n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e has been f o u n d t o i d e n -
tify that t o m b . 2 8
I t fits i n w i t h o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f h e r o i c c u l t
established u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e epic since t h e e i g h t h c e n -
tury. 2 9
T h i s gives a t e r m i n a l date f o r t h e fame o f t h e T h e b e s
t h e m e . T h e t e x t o f o u r Iliad m a y w e l l c o m e f r o m t h e first h a l f
o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y . 3 0
M u c h r e m a i n s o b s c u r e a n d u n c e r t a i n f o r us even after the e n d

o f t h e " d a r k ages." A l l t h e m o r e reason, t h e n , t o d r a w o n all the
i n d i c a t i o n s w h i c h p o i n t t o l i k e l y c o n n e c t i o n s . W h o e v e r resists
t h e idea t h a t t h e Seven against T h e b e s have t o s o m e e x t e n t a
M e s o p o t a m i a n p e d i g r e e s h o u l d nevertheless n o t o v e r l o o k t h a t a
s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e m u s t be accepted f o r the seven-headed H y -
d r a as w e l l as f o r t h e Seven Sages. 31
Seven g o d s o r d e m o n s were
also k n o w n a m o n g t h e A r a m a e a n s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . 3 2
Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic
E v e r since the m y t h o l o g i c a l texts f r o m H a t t u s a a n d U g a r i t have

a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classicists, parallels f r o m H e s i o d a n d
114
H o m e r i n m o t i f s a n d n a r r a t i v e techniques have been c o l l e c t e d ,

occasionally also t o u c h i n g o n M e s o p o t a m i a n materials. Re-
cently, L u i g i a A c h i l l e a Stella has presented an extensive cata-
logue o f correspondences. 1
She pleads d e c i s i v e l y f o r t h e B r o n z e
Age cultural bridge. B u t comparisons b y themselves do not
p r o v i d e specific i n d i c a t o r s f o r e i t h e r an earlier o r a later b o r r o w -
i n g , i n d e e d f o r a n y b o r r o w i n g at all i n c o n t r a s t t o the chances
o f p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n a n y case, u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t t h e date
o f " i n f l u e n c e " s h o u l d n o t d i s t r a c t us f r o m a c k n o w l e d g i n g h o w
extensive these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s are.
I n a sense, o f course, G r e e k epic is a v e r y self-sufficient flow-
ering. T h e formulaic system, w h i c h M i l m a n Parry discovered
a n d e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f its necessary f u n c t i o n w i t h i n an o r a l
t r a d i t i o n , is t i e d t o t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e . 2
F r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w
H o m e r has b e c o m e t h e m o d e l e x a m p l e o f an o r a l t r a d i t i o n . 3
By
c o n t r a s t , t h e eastern epic, at least i n M e s o p o t a m i a , is based i n a
fixed t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g a n d schools o f scribes s p a n n i n g m o r e
t h a n t w o m i l l e n n i a . W i t h i n this t r a d i t i o n tablets are c o p i e d and
r e c o p i e d again a n d a g a i n , a n d s o m e t i m e s also translated w i t h i n
the c u n e i f o r m systems.
O n e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e r e f o r e t o e n c o u n t e r q u i t e different p r i n -
ciples o f style i n the East a n d i n the West. Yet a n y o n e w h o cares
t o c o n s i d e r b o t h sides w i l l be s t r u c k b y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f these have been i n d i c a t e d l o n g ago; a p a r t i a l
listing follows.
I n b o t h cases " e p i c " means n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y w h i c h e m p l o y s ,
i n f o r m , a l o n g verse w h i c h repeats i t s e l f i n d e f i n i t e l y , w i t h o u t
s t r o p h i c d i v i s i o n . A s t o c o n t e n t , t h e tale is a b o u t g o d s and great
m e n f r o m the past, o f t e n i n t e r a c t i n g . M a i n characteristics o f
style are t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s , t h e f o r m u l a i c verses, the r e p e t i -
t i o n o f verses, t h e t y p i c a l scenes.
E p i t h e t s have always appeared t o be a special characteristic o f
H o m e r i c s t y l e . We are f a m i l i a r w i t h " c l o u d - g a t h e r i n g Z e u s , "
" O d y s s e u s o f m a n y counsels," " O d y s s e u s o f m a n y sufferings."
B u t i n A k k a d i a n epic, t o o , t h e c h i e f characters have character-
istic e p i t h e t s . T h e c h i e f g o d , E n l i l , o f t e n appears as " t h e h e r o
Enlil," 4
the h e r o o f t h e flood is " U t n a p i s h t i m the far-away," 5
and t h e d a n g e r o u s Seven i n t h e E r r a epic are " c h a m p i o n s w i t h -
• us •
o u t p e e r . " S i m i l a r l y t h e U g a r i t i c epics have

6
fixed formulas such
as B a a l " t h e r i d e r o f c l o u d s , " " t h e V i r g i n A n a t , " a n d " D a n e l t h e
Rephaite." 7
W h a t s o u n d s even m o r e H o m e r i c is t h e d e s i g n a t i o n
o f a c o m b a t a n t as " k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n b a t t l e . " I t is less clear w h y
8
the " m i s t r e s s o f t h e g o d s " is " g o o d i n s h o u t i n g , " b u t i t was also

9
unclear even t o G r e e k s w h y K a l y p s o as w e l l as K i r k e s h o u l d be
"a f r i g h t f u l goddess u s i n g speech," dane theos audeessa. B e that
as i t may, an epic p o e t c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t e p i t h e t s : T h e e a r t h is
"the broad e a r t h , " 1 0
a n d a g o d o f heavens can be called " f a t h e r
o f gods and m e n . " 1 1
T h e e p i t h e t s are d e c o r a t i v e insofar as t h e y
are n e i t h e r essential t o t h e actual c o n t e x t o f t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n
n o r m o d e l e d s p e c i a l l y f o r i t . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e y are e x -
t r e m e l y h e l p f u l t o fill o u t a half-verse.
I n f o r m u l a i c verse w h a t is m o s t s t r i k i n g is the c o m p l i c a t e d
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech. T h e l a v i s h use o f d i r e c t speech,
the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w h o l e scenes i n the f o r m o f d i a l o g u e is,
i n d e e d , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e genre. I n A k k a d i a n , t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y
f o r m u l a is, i n l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n : " H e set his m o u t h a n d s p o k e ,
to . . . he said [ t h e w o r d ] . " 1 2
T h e s i m p l e m e a n i n g o f speak is
expressed i n three s y n o n y m s — j u s t as w i t h the w e l l - k n o w n H o -
meric formula "he raised his voice and spoke the winged
w o r d s . " I t is perhaps even m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t h a t characters i n
Gilgamesh, r e f l e c t i n g o n a n e w s i t u a t i o n , "speak t o t h e i r o w n
h e a r t . " " C o n s u l t i n g w i t h her heart she s p o k e , i n d e e d she t o o k
c o u n s e l w i t h h e r s e l f " — d i r e c t speech f o l l o w s . 1 3
I n a similar way
H o m e r i c heroes speak t o t h e i r o w n " g r e a t - h e a r t e d thymos" or to
t h e i r " h e a r t . " W h e n G i l g a m e s h is t r a v e l l i n g , t h e n e w day is a l -
ways i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e same f o r m u l a : " B a r e l y a s h i m m e r o f
the m o r n i n g d a w n e d , " 1 4
reminiscent o f Homer's famous line
" B u t w h e n e a r l y - b o r n r o s y - f i n g e r e d Eos a p p e a r e d . " I t is n a t u r a l
f o r a n a r r a t i v e t o m o v e o n f r o m day t o day, b u t t o e m p l o y
s t e r e o t y p e d f o r m u l a s f o r sunrise a n d sunset, pause a n d a c t i o n is
a specific t e c h n i q u e used i n Gilgamesh as i n H o m e r .
Among the r e p e t i t i o n s w h i c h cover a w h o l e sequence o f

verses a s t r i k i n g feature is t h e exact v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e be-
tween c o m m a n d and performance, r e p o r t i n g and repetition o f
the r e p o r t . T h e M e s o p o t a m i a ! ! scribes, w e a r y o f w e d g e s , o c c a -
116
s i o n a l l y used a " r e p e a t " s i g n , w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c scribes d i d n o t

p e r m i t themselves.
A m o n g t y p i c a l scenes t h e assembly o f t h e g o d s is p r o m i n e n t .
A k k a d i a n has a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n f o r i t , puhur Hani; the designa-
t i o n is the same i n U g a r i t i c , and t h e respective scene is also f u l l y
e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e H i t t i t e Song of Ullikummi.* 5
T h a t i n the as-
s e m b l y o f t h e g o d s i t is o f t e n d e c i d e d t o send o u t a messenger is
natural and still w o r t h n o t i n g .
S i m i l e s are a p o p u l a r d e vic e i n the A k k a d i a n epic as i n related
p o e t r y ; details need n o t be g i v e n h e r e . ' 6
W h a t seems m o r e re-
m a r k a b l e is t h a t i n Gilgamesh, the longest and h i g h e s t - r a n k i n g
t e x t , m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d f o r m s o f n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e are b e i n g
t r i e d o u t , as is t h e case especially i n t h e Odyssey- I n t h e eleventh
tablet o f Gilgamesh a d i s t a n t b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y g r i p p i n g piece o f
a c t i o n , t h e great flood, is i n c o r p o r a t e d t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech b y
the m a i n p a r t i c i p a n t , U t n a p i s h t i m t h e far-away. T h e d u a l a c t i o n
at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e epic w h i c h has t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r E n k i d u
and G i l g a m e s h is set o u t i n such a w a y t h a t the n a r r a t i v e first
f o l l o w s E n k i d u ' s a d v e n t u r e s a n d his t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o c i v i l i z a -
t i o n a n d t h e n r e c o u n t s G i l g a m e s h ' s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r the m e e t i n g
t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech w h i c h t h e p r o s t i t u t e addresses t o E n k i d u
( I v 23— v i 24). T h u s even t h e n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f the poet o f
the Odyssey, w h o i n c o r p o r a t e s m o s t o f O d y s s e u s ' adventures i n
a first-person speech b y O d y s s e u s h i m s e l f t o the Phaeacians and
devises a d o u b l e p l o t t o b r i n g O d y s s e u s and Telemachos to-
gether, is n o t t o t a l l y i s o l a t e d . T h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e o p e n -
ings o f Gilgamesh a n d the Odyssey has s t r u c k readers t o o : A t t e n -
t i o n is called t o t h e h e r o w h o w a n d e r e d w i d e a n d saw many
t h i n g s w h i l e his n a m e is i n t e n t i o n a l l y w i t h h e l d . 1 7
F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e Iliad, as i t w e r e , Gilgamesh i n particular

e x h i b i t s a c e r t a i n ethos o f the m o r t a l i t y o f h u m a n beings. The
m a i n t h e m e o f t h e p o e m is, i n its o w n w o r d s , the "fates o f h u -
m a n i t y " (simatu awilutim), w h i c h means death, i n c o n t r a s t t o the
life o f t h e g o d s , w h i c h o n l y U t n a p i s h t i m succeeded i n w i n n i n g
f o r h i m s e l f . B e f o r e his fight w i t h H u m b a b a , G i l g a m e s h draws
the h e r o i c consequence: " T h e g o d s , w i t h S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ]
t h e y sit f o r e v e r ; as f o r m a n k i n d , n u m b e r e d are t h e i r days . . .
• 117 •
B u t y o u here, y o u fear death? . . . I w i l l g o ahead o f y o u . . . I f

I m y s e l f w e r e t o f a l l , let m e s t i l l set u p m y n a m e . " 1 8
Thus, pre-
cisely because m a n is d e n i e d e t e r n i t y , all t h a t r e m a i n s f o r h i m is
t o w i n f a m e t h r o u g h r i s k i n g d e a t h , fame w h i c h s u r v i v e s b e y o n d
d e a t h ; i m p e r i s h a b l e g l o r y (kleos aphthiton), i n contrast to m o r t a l
m e n , these are t h e concepts set o u t i n t h e Iliad i n G r e e k . "Yes,
dear f r i e n d ! If, h a v i n g escaped f r o m this w a r , w e w e r e t o l i v e
f o r e v e r ageless, i m m o r t a l , even I w o u l d n o t f i g h t a m o n g t h e
f r o n t r a n k s . . . B u t n o w , as t h e d e m o n s o f d e a t h s t a n d before
us a n y h o w . . . L e t us g o ! w h e t h e r w e b r i n g g l o r y t o a n o t h e r
m a n o r s o m e o n e gives g l o r y t o u s " — t h i s is H o m e r . 1 9
This i n -
s i g h t i n t o t h e l i m i t s o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n does n o t , h o w e v e r ,
lead t o c a u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e g o d s . Far f r o m i t , aggressive
o u t b u r s t s m a y o c c u r . E n k i d u t h r o w s the h i n d leg o f t h e b u l l o f
heaven t o I s h t a r a n d s h o u t s : " I f I c a u g h t y o u , l i k e this I w o u l d
do to y o u . " 2 0
" I n d e e d I w o u l d take revenge i f I o n l y h a d the
p o w e r , " cries A c h i l l e s t o A p o l l o , w h o has deceived h i m . 2 1
B u t m a n is w e a k a n d changeable. " O f such a k i n d is the i n -

s i g h t o f m o r t a l m e n , as t h e day w h i c h t h e father o f g o d s a n d
m e n b r i n g s o n " states o n e o f the m o s t f a m o u s passages o f the
Odyssey. 22
P r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l is a sentence a b o u t m o r t a l s f r o m
the A k k a d i a n c o m p o s i t i o n / Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom:
" T h e i r i n s i g h t changes l i k e day a n d n i g h t . W h e n s t a r v i n g , t h e y
b e c o m e corpses; w h e n replete, t h e y v i e w i t h t h e i r g o d s . " 2 3
Closer comparisons c o u l d also be made o f actual battle

scenes. One notable example is the E g y p t i a n poem about
Ramses I I i n t h e b a t t l e o f Q a d e s h . T h e h e r o finds h i m s e l f alone
a m i d s t t h e e n e m i e s , he prays t o his father t h e g o d , t h e g o d hears
h i m , w h e r e u p o n t h e h e r o attacks a n d k i l l s a l l t h e e n e m i e s . 24
An-
o t h e r s u g g e s t i v e t e x t is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the Annals of Sennacherib
and refers t o t h e b a t t l e o f H a l u l e i n 691 B . C . ; i t tells h o w t h e k i n g
takes u p his a r m o r , m o u n t s his c h a r i o t , a n d w i t h t h e assistance
o f his g o d k n o c k s d o w n t h e e n e m i e s ; so f i n a l l y " m y p r a n c i n g
steeds, harnessed f o r m y r i d i n g , p l u n g e d i n t o t h e streams o f
b l o o d as i n t o a r i v e r ; t h e w h e e l s o f m y c h a r i o t , w h i c h b r i n g s
d o w n t h e w i c k e d a n d the e v i l , w e r e bespattered w i t h b l o o d and
118
O R A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R
f i l t h " — n o t e t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s ; a n d j u s t l i k e Ramses the

2 5
E g y p t i a n , t h e A s s y r i a n k i n g , t o o , is represented f i g h t i n g from
his B r o n z e A g e c h a r i o t . We are i r r e s i s t i b l y r e m i n d e d o f t h e Iliad:
"Thus under greathearted Achilles his one-hoofed horses
stepped o n corpses a n d shields t o g e t h e r ; w i t h b l o o d the w h o l e
axle was b e s p a t t e r e d , a n d t h e rails a r o u n d t h e seat, w h i c h t h e
d r o p s f r o m t h e h o o f s o f t h e horses w e r e h i t t i n g . . ." C o n s i d e r -
i n g t h e date o f t h e A s s y r i a n t e x t , one m i g h t even t o y w i t h the
idea t h a t s o m e G r e e k singer h a d a r r i v e d i n A s s y r i a t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e m e r c e n a r i e s , a n d t h a t he c o m p o s e d this s o n g o n the b a t t l e
o f H a l u l e w h i c h so m u c h pleased t h e k i n g t h a t i t was i n c o r p o -
r a t e d i n the o f f i c i a l annals, w h e r e i t f o r m s a strange c o n t r a s t t o
the s t a n d a r d d r e a r y a n d d u l l list o f b a t t l e a n d p l u n d e r i n g . 2 6
But
m o r e systematic research i n t o this genre w o u l d be due. The
" S o n g o f D e b o r a h a n d B a r a k " s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n i n this
context; i t has, among other stirring events, a remarkable
" b a t t l e at the r i v e r . " 2 7
S o m e f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s i n d e t a i l b e t w e e n East a n d West,
t h o u g h s t r i k i n g , have r e m a i n e d a m y s t e r y . T h i s applies t o the
" W o r d o f Tree a n d S t o n e " as i t appears i n U g a r i t , i n J e r e m i a h ,
a n d i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d ; i t seems t o be c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m y t h
a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f m a n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d i n the Odyssey,
b u t is used as a less l u c i d s a y i n g i n U g a r i t as i n the Iliad a n d i n
Hesiod. 2 8
Less s u r p r i s i n g is t h a t t h e blessing o f t h e l a n d u n d e r the r u l e

o f a g o o d k i n g is established i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t i t also appears
i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d : T h e earth b r i n g s f o r t h her c r o p s , the
trees t h e i r f r u i t , t h e a n i m a l s t h r i v e , and " p e o p l e t h r i v e u n d e r
h i m " t h e g o o d k i n g ; c o m p a r e A s h u r b a n i p a l o n h i m s e l f i n his
o w n a c c o u n t : " S i n c e the g o d s . . . b e n i g n l y m a d e m e take m y
seat o n the t h r o n e o f m y father, m y begetter, A d a d released his
t o r r e n t s o f r a i n , Ea o p e n e d his s p r i n g s , the ears o f t h e crops
g r e w five ells h i g h . . . t h e f r u i t s o f t h e f i e l d f l o u r i s h e d . . . the
trees b r o u g h t t h e i r f r u i t s t o an a b u n d a n t g r o w t h , t h e cattle b r e d
successfully. D u r i n g m y r e i g n there was a b u n d a n c e , d u r i n g m y
years g o o d t h i n g s o v e r f l o w e d . " 2 9
119
E n o u g h o f parallels. S t y l e is h a r d l y separable f r o m c o n t e n t .
F o r s t y l i s t i c e l e m e n t s , d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e is h a r d t o p r o v e : E a c h
l a n g u a g e has its o w n l a w s and its o w n life. I n H o m e r w e c a n n o t
ascertain t h e presence o f " y o u n g e r , " a d d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s against
the o l d e r epic t r a d i t i o n i n the characteristics discussed so far, i n
c o n t r a s t t o the m y t h o l o g i c a l concepts f o u n d i n the c o n t e x t o f
the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria, o r the Seven
against Thebes. F o r t h e s t y l e o f b a t t l e scenes w e d e f i n i t e l y reach
the B r o n z e A g e w i t h R a m s e s ' a c c o u n t . S t i l l , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e fact
t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h s p a t i a l l y a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y l i n k e d
spheres o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n y h o w , t o insist o n c o m p l e t e l y separate
developments a n d p u r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l parallels is b e g g i n g the
q u e s t i o n . O n e has t o r e c k o n w i t h m u l t i p l e contacts, t o be set
against b o t h the general h u m a n b a c k g r o u n d a n d c o m m o n t e n -
dencies o f h i s t o r i c a l - s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . W h a t was i n fact a
h e r i t a g e o f t h e B r o n z e A g e c o u l d also be r e v i t a l i z e d b y new
i n c e n t i v e s . I t is p r o b a b l y s y m p t o m a t i c t h a t besides t h e t r a d i -
t i o n a l G r e e k l o a n - w o r d f o r l i o n , leon, a n o t h e r w o r d o f clearly
S e m i t i c - P a l e s t i n i a n p e d i g r e e , lis, has been a d o p t e d i n s o m e H o -
meric similes. 3 0
I n a n y event, t h e eastern e v i d e n c e offers such
closely related m a t e r i a l t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d i n the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H o m e r . T h i s f i n d i n g m u s t set c e r t a i n l i m i t s t o
assessments o f p u r e l y " I n d o - E u r o p e a n " h e r o i c t r a d i t i o n .
T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the first G r e e k l i b r a r y — t h e Iliad w r i t t e n
d o w n o n t w e n t y - f o u r ( P ) leather s c r o l l s — a n d o f t h e great l i b r a r y
o f A s h u r b a n i p a l at N i n e v e h , w h o r u l e d f r o m 668 t o 627, may
w e l l have t a k e n place at a b o u t t h e same t i m e . E v e n this m a y n o t
be t o t a l l y c o i n c i d e n t a l . T h e S e m i t i c East s t i l l h e l d the c u l t u r a l
lead u n t i l t h a t date.
Fables
T h e g e n r e o f t h e a n i m a l fable has m e t w i t h d i s d a i n since the e n d

o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; a n d yet i t is o n e o f the m o s t peculiar a n d
e n d u r i n g f o r m s o f f o l k l i t e r a t u r e . O n e m i g h t be t e m p t e d t o
1
relegate i t t o t h e l e v e l o f p o p u l a r tale a n d t h e r e b y t o s o m e f o r m
o f general a n d diffuse o r a l t r a d i t i o n . B u t m o r e d e t a i l e d research,
120
O R A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the area o f m e d i e v a l a n d early m o d e r n fables,

d e m o n s t r a t e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t i t was t h e w r i t t e n a n t h o l o g i e s , the
t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d selections o f A e s o p , a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n s
w h i c h w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d i f f u s i o n o f these stories. I t is
t r u e t h a t the fables e n t e r e d i n t o l i v i n g f o l k t r a d i t i o n t h r o u g h
children's e x p e r i e n c e at t h e level o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , so that
f i e l d w o r k e r s w o u l d r e d i s c o v e r t h e m as i f t h e y h a d always b e -
l o n g e d t o people's o r a l w i s d o m . B u t t h e i r l i t e r a r y c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
lies m u c h f u r t h e r b a c k .
A e s o p , the n a m e w i t h w h i c h t h e basic c o l l e c t i o n o f G r e e k
a n i m a l fables is c o n n e c t e d , is n o t the b e g i n n i n g . I t has l o n g been
k n o w n t h a t a n i m a l fables e x i s t e d n o t o n l y i n E g y p t i a n , b u t also
2
in Surnerian and A k k a d i a n 3
a n d , at least i n t h e g e n r e o f p l a n t
fables, i n H e b r e w . H e r m a n n D i e l s w r o t e o n " o r i e n t a l fables i n
4
G r e e k c l o t h i n g " as e a r l y as 1910; he was d e a l i n g w i t h the n e w l y

d i s c o v e r e d t e x t o f C a l l i m a c h u s , w h i c h presents the fable " T h e
L a u r e l a n d the O l i v e T r e e " as a tale o f " t h e a n c i e n t - L y d i a n s . " 5
B a b r i u s , w h o set d o w n t h e fables o f A e s o p i n verse, states e x -

pressly at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his second b o o k t h a t this t y p e o f
" m y t h " is an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t " S y r i a n s " f r o m t h e t i m e
o f N i n o s a n d B c l o s ; A e s o p was the first t o relate t h e m t o the
"sons o f t h e H e l l e n e s . " N i n o s (that is, N i n e v e h ) a n d B e l o s are
t e r m s used since t h e h i s t o r i e s o f Ktesias t o designate t h e A s s y r -
i a n era. B a b r i u s was w r i t i n g i n S y r i a o r C i l i c i a f o r s o m e m i n o r
p r i n c e . H e k n o w s w h a t he is t a l k i n g a b o u t , even i f w e are n o t
6
i n a p o s i t i o n t o p r o v e w h a t his sources w e r e f o r this thesis. F o r

c o n f i r m a t i o n t h e r e is t h e fact t h a t t h e s t o r y o f A h i q a r was t r a n s -
lated f r o m the A r a m a i c i n t o G r e e k a n d was m a d e a p a r t o f the
Life of Aesop—maybe j u s t at the t i m e o f B a b r i u s ; b u t C a l -
l i m a c h u s ' reference t o " t h e a n c i e n t L y d i a n s " w o u l d p o i n t t o o r i -
ental contacts i n t h e archaic p e r i o d . 7
F o r us G r e e k fable b e g i n s w i t h H e s i o d ' s ainos " t h e h a w k a n d

the n i g h t i n g a l e " (Erga 2 0 3 - 2 1 2 ) ; t h e n A r c h i l o c h u s presents his
fables w i t h m o r a l appeal i n a p o i g n a n t a n d aggressive f o r m . We
k n o w m o s t a b o u t his p o e m w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s " t h e eagle a n d t h e
f o x . " Its p o i n t is q u i t e clear: t o w a r n h i g h - r a n k i n g a n d i n s o l e n t
c r i m i n a l s o f t h e r e v e n g e w h i c h even the w e a k m a y take s o m e -
121
day. T h e f o x a n d the eagle e n t e r e d i n t o a pact, b u t o n e day the

eagle ate the fox's y o u n g a n d j e e r e d at h i m f r o m t h e inaccessible
h e i g h t s o f his nest. T h e f o x called o n Z e u s , the p o w e r f u l g u a r d -
i a n o f hybris a n d dike—a s e c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech i n the p o e m .
Retribution follows. 8
I t has l o n g been r e m a r k e d t h a t an A k k a -
d i a n t e x t has n e a r l y t h e same s t o r y . T h i s is n o t i t s e l f an i n d e p e n -
d e n t fable, b u t r a t h e r an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the m y t h o f E t a n a , w h o
flew u p t o heaven o n an eagle. I n this case i t is an eagle a n d a
snake w h o enter i n t o a pact a n d j o i n t l y gather f o o d , w h i c h t h e y
share u n t i l the eagle perpetrates the o u t r a g e a n d eats the snake's
y o u n g . T h e snake t u r n s t o S h a m a s h , the s u n g o d , a n d , i n d i r e c t
speech, calls o n h i m as the g u a r d i a n o f j u s t i c e . R e t r i b u t i o n f o l -
l o w s , t h a n k s t o the c u n n i n g o f the s n a k e . A d m i t t e d l y the f o r m
9
o f r e v e n g e is d i f f e r e n t i n the t w o texts, a n d a snake is i n v o l v e d

instead o f a f o x . T h e p o l a r i t y snake-eagle has a respectable s y m -
b o l i c t r a d i t i o n a n d may, t o t h a t e x t e n t , be the o r i g i n a l m o d e l . 1 0
A n y h o w w e are n o t d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f t r a n s l a t i o n . A n d yet

it is n o t j u s t the basic idea a n d the sequence o f the m o t i f s , the
strange pact, the t r a n s g r e s s i o n , the r e v e n g e , w h i c h the t w o texts
have i n c o m m o n , b u t also a l i t e r a r y d e v i c e , the d i r e c t speech i n
the p a t h e t i c appeal t o the h e a v e n l y g o d as a g u a r d i a n o f r i g h t
a n d p u n i s h e r o f those w h o transgress i t . A prayer o f t h i s n a t u r e
is n o t c o m m o n i n Greece at t h e t i m e o f A r c h i l o c h u s , as far as
w e k n o w , w h e r e a s f o r the Easterners the s u n g o d is p e r f o r m i n g
o n e o f his u s u a l f u n c t i o n s . T h a t the s o l e m n prayer is p u t i n the
m o u t h o f an a n i m a l has a g r o t e s q u e a n d m e m o r a b l e effect i n
b o t h the A k k a d i a n a n d the G r e e k t e x t s . B y the way, E t a n a b e i n g
c a r r i e d u p t o heaven o n t h e w i n g s o f an eagle is o f t e n r e p r e -
sented o n o r i e n t a l seals. I t m a y easily be p r e s u m e d t h a t the m y t h
o f the rape o f G a n y m e d e b y Z e u s i n the guise o f an eagle has
been i n f l u e n c e d b y s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . 11
T h i s s t i l l does n o t e x -
p l a i n h o w A r c h i l o c h u s c o u l d have h a d k n o w l e d g e o f a M e s o -
p o t a m i a n t e x t . B u t a f u r t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l i n k has surfaced f o r A r -
c h i l o c h u s : T h e n e w A r c h i l o c h u s p o e m c o n t a i n e d i n the C o l o g n e
p a p y r u s uses t h e adage o f the " h a s t y b i t c h w h o consequently
bears b l i n d p u p p i e s . " 1 2
A g o o d t h o u s a n d years before A r c h i l o -
chus t h i s p r o v e r b m a k e s its appearance i n a r o y a l letter f r o m
122
Mari. 1 3
T h i s m a y be called f o l k t r a d i t i o n e l a b o r a t i n g o n b i o l o g -
ical facts, b u t w e s h o u l d r a t h e r a c k n o w l e d g e a t r a d i t i o n o f w i s -
d o m w h i c h transcends l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s , especially
i n the f o r m o f the a n i m a l fable. I n the case o f the E t a n a t e x t ,
d i r e c t l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n is n o t at all r u l e d o u t . Archilochus
k n e w the leather scrolls o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c type. 1 4
A m u c h m o r e e n g a g i n g m o t i f appears t o be f o l k l o r i c a n d l i t -
e r a r y at the same t i m e , a n d i t is found i n b o t h A k k a d i a n l i t e r a -
t u r e a n d later i n a n c i e n t Greece: the s t o r y o f the h e r b o f r e j u v e -
n a t i o n , w h i c h has been l o s t t o m a n k i n d because i t was eaten b y
the snake. I n Gilgamesh this is the d r a m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n t o the
j o u r n e y t o U t n a p i s h t i m . T h e search t o evade death has been the
i n c e n t i v e f o r G i l g a m e s h ' s travels; f i n a l l y all has been i n v a i n . U t -
n a p i s h t i m h a d i n d i c a t e d h o w G i l g a m e s h c o u l d fetch the p l a n t o f
eternal y o u t h f r o m the d e p t h s o f the sea. G i l g a m e s h does so,
a n d he sets o f f f o r h o m e w i t h his p r e c i o u s f i n d ; b u t , w h i l e he is
b a t h i n g i n a c o o l s p r i n g , a snake c o m e s , attracted b y the a r o m a
o f the p l a n t , a n d eats i t . T h e snake t h e n sheds its o l d s k i n — t h i s
s k i n o f snakes was called geras, o l d age, b y the Greeks. Gilga-
m e s h can o n l y l a m e n t his l o s s . 1 5
I n the G r e e k v e r s i o n , Z e u s gave
m a n k i n d a d r u g against g r o w i n g o l d as a r e w a r d f o r h a v i n g i n -
f o r m e d against P r o m e t h e u s . T h e d r u g is l o a d e d o n t o an ass.
T h e ass arrives at a s p r i n g a n d w a n t s t o d r i n k , b u t a snake p r e -
vents h i m f r o m g e t t i n g t o the w a t e r u n t i l the ass gives over
w h a t e v e r he is c a r r y i n g o n his b a c k . T h u s , the snake is able t o
rejuvenate i t s e l f w h i l e m a n k i n d is left e m p t y - h a n d e d . I n w h a t
w e have o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e the s t o r y f i r s t appears i n the w o r k o f
Ibycus. 1 6
T h u s i t was k n o w n t o the Greeks i n the archaic p e r i o d .
O n e tends t o t h i n k o f o r a l n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s at t h i s p o i n t .
T h e basic t h o u g h t a n d general h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d the
s t o r y are d r a m a t i c a l l y i m p r e s s i v e a n d easy t o c o m p r e h e n d . The
s t r u c t u r e a n d the details i n I b y c u s differ f r o m those o f Gilga-
mesh: a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , a n o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n , a n o t h e r a n i m a l i n -
v o l v e d as bearer o f the m i r a c u l o u s substance. T h a t snakes shed
t h e i r s k i n is a b i o l o g i c a l fact, a n d snakes t e n d t o be close t o
w a t e r b o t h i n n a t u r e a n d i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . S t i l l , real snakes
d o n o t feed o n herbs o r d r u g s . I t c a n n o t be p r o v e d that the tale
• 123 •
migrated directly f r o m Gilgamesh to Ibycus. Yet the general

f r a m e w o r k o f the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d and the connections o f
the G r e e k w i t h t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n a n i m a l fable i n p a r t i c u l a r , this
tale o f l o s t i m m o r t a l i t y b e c o m e s yet a n o t h e r e l e m e n t i n t h e
shared c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n o f East a n d West.
Magic and Cosmogony
I t r e m a i n s t o reflect o n h o w m u c h t h e c o n n e c t i n g threads w h i c h
have been f o l l o w e d here intertwine: Images, practices, and
m y t h i c a l tales are all m u t u a l l y c o n n e c t e d . Seals, scarabs, a n d
a m u l e t s can be p u t t o p r o f a n e as w e l l as m a g i c a l use. R e i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n , h o w e v e r , can p r o d u c e a p u r e l y m y t h i c a l f i g u r e f r o m p r o -
t e c t i v e s y m b o l s : L a m a s h t u b e c o m e s the G o r g o n . 1
Mythical mo-
tifs can g r o w f r o m i m a g e s s u c h as the c o m b a t s w i t h t h e l i o n a n d
w i t h the seven-headed snake: T h e s e t u r n i n t o tales o f t h e a d v e n -
tures o f H e r a k l e s , l o c a l i z e d at N e m e a a n d L e r n a ; a n o t h e r b a t t l e
2
w i t h t h e m o n s t r o u s snake changes t o b e c o m e t h e deeds o f Per-

seus; a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f A g a m e m n o n c o n -
3
nects w i t h t h e H u m b a b a i m a g e s . 4
I n this way a system o f i n d i g -
enous m e a n i n g s is p r o j e c t e d o n f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s t o m o d i f y a n d
r e i n f o r c e G r e e k h e r o i c m y t h o l o g y ; m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n proves t o
be creative, b u t i t s t i l l f o l l o w s t h e lead o f t h e a d o p t e d f o r m s .
T h e fact t h a t m y t h a n d m a g i c r i t u a l can p r o f o u n d l y influence
each o t h e r is w e l l k n o w n . 5
M a g i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s t e n d t o use
m y t h i c a l stories as e x e m p l a r y precedents w h i c h p r e d i c t t h e o u t -
c o m e a n d t h u s assist i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r a i m . T h i s h o l d s t r u e
f r o m t h e Veda t o s o m e o l d G e r m a n c h a r m s , b u t i t is n o specialty
o f t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n ; M e s o p o t a m i a n texts p r o v i d e
e x a m p l e s w h i c h are n o less t e l l i n g . T h e r e is t h e m y t h o f A d a p a
the fisher, w h o b r o k e t h e S o u t h W i n d ' s w i n g s w i t h a c h a r m a n d
was s u m m o n e d t o heaven i n consequence; t h e A s s y r i a n v e r s i o n
o f t h i s m y t h t u r n s , i n t h e e n d , i n t o an e x o r c i s m against sickness
supposedly caused b y t h e S o u t h W i n d . T h e p o e m Erra ends
w i t h t h e g o d o f w a r a n d pestilence l u c k i l y appeased; t h e t e x t is
t h e r e f o r e w r i t t e n o n m a g i c a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against pesti-
l e n c e . T h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d i n Atrahasis
6
is also used
124
as a m a g i c a l t e x t t o h e l p at c h i l d b i r t h , a n d t h e tale o f h o w
d r o u g h t was o v e r c o m e , f r o m the same t e x t , becomes a r a i n -
making charm. 7
A n o t h e r incantation text recounts h o w the
m o o n g o d Sin couples w i t h a v i r g i n , she as a cow, he as a b u l l ;
the g o d begets c h i l d r e n i n t h i s w a y a n d t h e n lends a h e l p i n g
h a n d t o ease t h e b i r t h : T h i s is a t r a n s p a r e n t m a g i c rite o f c h i l d -
b i r t h , t o o . T h e s t o r y recalls t h e G r e e k m y t h o f Z e u s a n d I o ,
w h o has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a cow, a n d t h e b i r t h o f E p a p h o s
b y means o f t h e father's h e l p i n g t o u c h (epaphon). 9
T h e r e are also
c o s m o g o n i c a l texts w h i c h are used against headaches a n d t o o t h -
ache. 9
.
I t is i n this w a y t h a t s p e c u l a t i o n a n d practice m e e t i n the cos-
m o g o n i c perspective: A n e w a n d p r o p e r o r d e r has t o be created
o r recreated f r o m its v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s . S o m e t h i n g has gone
w r o n g , as sickness a n d p a i n i n d i c a t e ; so o n e s h o u l d b e g i n afresh
f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o s m o g o n i c epic Enuma Elish was o f -
f i c i a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e N e w Year's festival at B a b y l o n t o
r e b u i l d the j u s t a n d sacred order, i n c l u d i n g all t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f
the g o d a n d his c i t y . T h i s means t o act o u t the same idea w h i c h
1 0
a m a g i c i a n tries as he is g e t t i n g t o the r o o t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s i c k -
ness w i t h i n t h e h u g e l y e n l a r g e d f r a m e w o r k o f the c i t y at the
center o f t h e w o r l d . " H i g h " l i t e r a t u r e a n d p r a c t i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s
c o m e t o g e t h e r o n t h e same l e v e l , at any rate i n t h e East. I t is the
p r a c t i c i n g priests w h o also c o n t r o l t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s , as is s h o w n
b y the existence o f p r i e s t s ' l i b r a r i e s i n U g a r i t , E m a r , and S u l t a n -
tepe. ' 1
T u r n i n g f r o m this to Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n , we f i n d the double

aspect o f c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e a n d speculative m y t h o l o g y c o m b i n e d
in O r p h i s m i n p a r t i c u l a r : 1 2
T h e r e are the m i g r a n t , m e n d i c a n t
priests w i t h t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n s s c o r n e d b y P l a t o ; 1 3
there is the fa-
m o u s and controversial m y t h about the o r i g i n o f m a n k i n d f r o m
the ashes o f t h e T i t a n s w h o h a d t o r n apart D i o n y s u s — w h i c h is
w h y w e c a r r y the r e b e l l i o u s as w e l l as the d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n
ourselves. 14
T h e necessary l i n k b e t w e e n r i t u a l a n d a n t h r o p o -
g o n i c m y t h can be seen f r o m t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c
healers: T h e sick p e r s o n desperately asks w h a t t h e source o f the
affliction m i g h t be, " w h e n c e i t s p r a n g , w h a t the r o o t o f e v i l can
125
be, w h i c h g o d s t h e y s h o u l d appease w i t h sacrifice i n o r d e r t o

find relief f r o m their sufferings." 15
T h e answer m u s t lie some-
w h e r e i n t h e past: T h u s E p i m e n i d e s t h e seer " p r o p h e s i e d n o t
about the f u t u r e , b u t about the p a s t . " 1 6
B u t the m o s t general
a n s w e r w h i c h can be g i v e n , e x t e n d i n g far b e y o n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l
case, is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n existence as t h e consequence
o f an a n c i e n t c r i m e , as a p u n i s h m e n t g o i n g b a c k t o t h e o l d e s t
" w r a t h " o f great g o d s . E m p e d o c l e s , as late as t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y ,
is a m i g r a n t seer a n d healer h i m s e l f w h o i d e n t i f i e s his l i f e s t y l e
w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f h u m a n existence: H e r e I a m , "ban-
ished f r o m the gods and a w a n d e r e r . " 1 7
F o r classicists t h e fact t h a t t h e D i o n y s i a c - O r p h i c a n t h r o p o g -
o n y as an e x p l i c i t t e x t is f o u n d o n l y i n O l y m p i o d o r u s , t h a t is,
i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A . D . , has r e p e a t e d l y r o u s e d t h e s u s p i c i o n
t h a t t h i s is a " l a t e i n v e n t i o n . " I t is a l l the m o r e a s t o u n d i n g t h a t
the closest parallels are i n fact p r o v i d e d b y t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n
m y t h o l o g i c a l t e x t s , w h i c h g o b a c k w e l l i n t o t h e second m i l l e n -
n i u m B . C . T h e Enuma Elish depicts t h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d
f r o m the b l o o d o f a rebellious g o d c o n d e m n e d by the j u d g m e n t
o f the o t h e r g o d s . O t h e r texts offer v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e . 1 8
M o r e s t a r t l i n g is t h e v e r s i o n o f the c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d
i n Atrahasis: T h e flesh a n d b l o o d o f a g o d m u s t be m i x e d w i t h
clay (tit) " t h a t g o d a n d m a n m a y be t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d i n the
clay: . . . let t h e r e be a s p i r i t f r o m t h e god's flesh: L e t i t p r o c l a i m
l i v i n g [ m a n ] as its s i g n ; t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n , let there be a
spirit." 1 9
T h e w o r d t r a n s l a t e d as " s p i r i t " is etemmu, which oth-
e r w i s e refers t o a s p i r i t o f t h e dead, o f t e n subject t o e x o r c i s m s . 2 0
T h e Atrahasis passage e v i d e n t l y has a special, speculative p o i n t

t o m a k e , t h o u g h i t has p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t t o c a p t u r e i t . A possible
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t t h e " g o d ' s flesh" w i t h i n t h e clay is m e a n t
t o a c c o u n t b o t h f o r life i n the l i v i n g b e i n g a n d f o r the g h o s t w h o
is left after d e a t h , " t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n . " C o n t r a s t e d w i t h
" c l a y , " this s t i l l m a r k s t h e r u d i m e n t s o f a d u a l i s t i c a n t h r o p o l o g y
as e a r l y as a t h o u s a n d years before H o m e r : " G o d " g i v i n g rise t o
life a n d " s p i r i t " a m i d s t s o m e f o r m o f m a t t e r — t h i s c o n c e p t i o n
states t h e existence o f o p p o s i t e elements i n m a n , v i o l e n t l y yet
" t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d " i n t h e act o f c r e a t i o n . T h e r e is n o a n a c h -
126
OR A L S O A G O D L Y S I N G E R
r o n i s m at all i n a t t r i b u t i n g s i m i l a r l o r e t o O r p h i c s as early as the

archaic p e r i o d , the assertion o f s o m e d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n m a n left
f r o m the g o d w h o was k i l l e d at the p r i m o r d i a l act o f c r e a t i o n .
T h e r e m a y even have been d i r e c t l i n k s . ' O f course the O r p h i c
2
m y t h o f D i o n y s u s is n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m any eastern t e x t . B u t
w e m a y w e l l envisage the e v o l u t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s t r a d i t i o n
t h r o u g h those "families" o f w a n d e r i n g priests a n d seers f o r
w h o s e craft a m y t h o f t h i s t y p e was so p r a c t i c a l , nay almost
necessary. T h i s w o u l d p r o v e once m o r e t h a t the East-West c o n -
n e c t i o n s w e n t b e y o n d accidental contacts a n d b o r r o w i n g s and
o c c a s i o n a l l y reached the level o f basic a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ideas.
127
CONCLUSION
To s u m up a l o n g and often tortuous investigation: Emanating

f r o m the N e a r East, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n a n d
g r o w i n g economic activities, a cultural c o n t i n u u m i n c l u d i n g l i t -
eracy was created b y the e i g h t h c e n t u r y e x t e n d i n g over t h e e n -
t i r e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; i t i n v o l v e d g r o u p s o f Greeks w h o entered
i n t o intensive exchange w i t h the h i g h cultures o f the Semitic
East. C u l t u r a l p r e d o m i n a n c e r e m a i n e d f o r a w h i l e w i t h t h e O r i -
ent; b u t G r e e k s i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n d i s t i n c -
t i v e f o r m s o f c u l t u r e t h r o u g h an a s t o n i s h i n g a b i l i t y b o t h t o
a d o p t a n d t o t r a n s f o r m w h a t t h e y h a d received. S o o n Greece
was t o take over t h e l e a d i n g r o l e i n M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .
It is safe t o state t h a t t h e East-West c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h i s e p o c h
w e r e m o r e i n t e n s i v e t h a n t h e " A e g e a n koine" o f the B r o n z e A g e .
T h e r e w e r e t h e m i l i t a r y advances f r o m B a b y l o n i a t o C i l i c i a a n d
Cyprus i n v o l v i n g Greek merchants, Greek mercenaries, and
G r e e k cities; t h e r e w e r e t h e s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s on
C y p r u s a n d i n t h e West, o f t h e G r e e k s i n S y r i a a n d t h e n also i n
the West. T h e r e w e r e t h e massive i m p o r t s o f g o o d s , especially
metalwork, b u t also t h e transfer o f m a n u a l craft s k i l l s i n t o
Greece. W i t h b r o n z e reliefs, t e x t i l e s , seals, a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s ,
a w h o l e w o r l d o f eastern i m a g e s was o p e n e d u p w h i c h the
G r e e k s w e r e o n l y t o o eager t o a d o p t a n d t o adapt i n t h e course
o f an " o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n . " A l o n g w i t h o t h e r c r a f t s m e n ,
m i g r a n t seers a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n priests seem t o have a r r i v e d i n
G r e e k cities; l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n deposits, t h e practice
128
C O N C L U S I O N
o f c a t h a r t i c h e a l i n g m a g i c all bear t h e traces o f this influence.

O v e r and above all this t h e r e was the d i r e c t i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e as s h o w n b y t h e a l p h a b e t , the w r i t i n g tablet, the leather
s c r o l l , a n d t h e f o r m a t o f w r i t i n g b o o k s . T h i s i m p a c t is c o n -
f i r m e d b y e x t a n t passages o f early G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e that clearly
echo M e s o p o t a m i a n classics. H o m e r ' s decisive r o l e i n f o r m i n g
the w o r l d v i e w o f t h e G r e e k s f o r subsequent ages was achieved
b y t h e force o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e i n t o w h i c h the Greeks f i n a l l y
a l l o w e d themselves t o be d r a w n r i g h t at this p e r i o d . Just as i n
the case o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , the l i t e r a r y b o r r o w i n g s seem t o be-
l o n g o n l y t o t h e last phase o f G r e e k epic p o e t r y ; i t is p o s t -
B r o n z e A g e w o r k s such as Enuma Elish a n d Erra w h i c h have left
t h e i r m a r k . I t is p r e c i s e l y t h e H o m e r i c e p o c h o f Greece t h a t is
the e p o c h o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .
C u l t u r e is n o t a p l a n t s p r o u t i n g f r o m its seed i n i s o l a t i o n ; i t is
a c o n t i n u o u s process o f l e a r n i n g g u i d e d b y c u r i o s i t y a l o n g w i t h
p r a c t i c a l needs a n d interests. I t g r o w s especially t h r o u g h a w i l l -
ingness t o l e a r n f r o m w h a t is " o t h e r , " w h a t is strange and f o r -
e i g n . A r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d such as the o r i e n t a l i z i n g e p o c h
p r o v i d e d this v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . The
" m i r a c l e o f G r e e c e " is n o t m e r e l y the result o f a u n i q u e talent.
I t also owes its existence t o the s i m p l e p h e n o m e n o n t h a t the
G r e e k s are the m o s t easterly o f the Westerners. U n d e r the spe-
cial c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , t h e y c o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e
i n e v e r y d e v e l o p m e n t at t h e t i m e w i t h o u t f a l l i n g v i c t i m t o the
c o n c o m i t a n t m i l i t a r y devastations, as d i d t h e i r n e i g h b o r s i n
S y r i a a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a . T h e m i r a c l e d i d repeat i t s e l f once
again, w h e n t h e Persian E m p i r e reached b u t f i n a l l y spared the
G r e e k s . L a t e r t h e catastrophes w e r e t o c o m e f r o m b o t h t h e West
a n d t h e East. Greece has r e m a i n e d i n an uneasy i n t e r m e d i a r y
p o s i t i o n . H e l l a s is n o t H e s p e r i a .
129
ABBREVIATIONS
C o m m o n periodicals cited i n the notes are referred to b y standard

abbreviations. For f u l l titles o f classical w o r k s cited i n abbreviated
f o r m i n the notes, see The Oxford Classical Dictionary.
ABV J. D . Beazley, Attic Black-Figure Vase Painters ( O x -

f o r d 1956)
AHw W. v o n Soden, Akkadisches Handwörterbuch (Wiesba-
den 1965-1981)
ANEP J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., The Ancient Near East in Pictures
Relating to the Old Testament, 2d ed. w i t h supplement
(Princeton 1969)
ANET J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relat-
ing to the Old Testament, 3d ed. w i t h supplement
(Princeton 1969)
Atrahasis W. G. L a m b e r t and A . R. M i l l a r d , Atra-hasis, The
Babylonian Story of the Flood ( O x f o r d 1969)
W. v o n Soden, " D i e erste Tafel des altbabylonischen
A t r a m h a s i s - M y t h u s , ' H a u p t t e x t ' u n d Parallelver-
s i o n e n , " ZA 68 (1978) 5 0 - 9 4
Translations: B o t t e r o and K r a m e r (1989) 530-564;
D a l l e y (1989) 9 - 3 8
BM British Museum
CAD I . J. Gelb et a l . , eds., The Assyrian Dictionary of the
Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago
1956-)
CAH The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge-1924-)
131
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (Paris 1881—)

CT C u n e i f o r m texts f r o m B a b y l o n i a n tablets i n the
B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( L o n d o n 1896-)
Enuma Elish W. G . L a m b e r t and S. B. Parker, eds., Enuma Elis
( O x f o r d 1967) ( c u n e i f o r m text)
G. F. Steiner, Der Sukzessionsmythus in Hesiods
'Théogonie' und ihren orientalischen Parallelen (Diss.
H a m b u r g 1959) 7-35 ( t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f Tablets I - V I )
Translations: ANET 6 0 - 7 2 ; Labat et al. (1970) 3 6 -
70; B o t t é r o and K r a m e r (1989) 6 0 4 - 6 5 3 ; D a l l e y
(1989) 233-277
EPRO Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans
l'Empire romaine, ed. M . J. Vermaseren (Leiden
1961-)
Erra L. C a g n i , L'epopea di Erra ( R o m e 1969) ( t r a n s c r i p -
t i o n and Italian translation)
L. C a g n i , Das Erra-Epos ( R o m e 1970) ( c u n e i f o r m
text)
Translations: Labat et al. (1970) 114-137; B o t t é r o
and K r a m e r (1989) 681-707; D a l l e y (1989) 285-315
Gilgamesh R. C . T h o m p s o n , The Epic of Gilgamish. Text, Trans-
literation and Notes ( O x f o r d 1930)
Translations: ANET 7 2 - 9 9 ; Labat et al. (1970) 145-
226; A . Schott, Das Gilgamesch-Epos übersetzt und mit
Anmerkungen versehen, ed. W. v o n Soden (Stuttgart
1982); D a l l e y (1989) 50-153
HAL Hebräisches und Aramäisches Lexikon zum Alten Testa-
ment von L. Koehler und W. Baumgartner, ed. W.
B a u m g a r t n e r , 3d ed. (Leiden 1967-1990)
HKL R. Borger, Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur, vols. I—III
( B e r l i n 1967-1975)
KAI H . D o n n e r and W. R ö l l i g , Kanaanäische und ara-
mäische Inschriften, vols. I - I I I (Wiesbaden 1 9 6 6 -
1969 )2
KAR E. E b e l i n g , Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiösen Inhalts,

vols. I—II ( L e i p z i g 1915-1923)
KBo Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi, vols. I - V I (Leipzig
1916-23), V I I ff. ( B e r l i n 1954-)
132
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
KTU M . D i e t r i c h , O . L o r e t z , and J. Sanmartfn, Die Keil-

alphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit einschliesslich der keil-
alphabetischen Texte ausserhalb Ugarits, v o l . I (Keve-
laer 1976)
KUB Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi ( B e r l i n 1921-1944)
L1MC Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae ( Z u r i c h
1981-)
LSAM F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées de l'Asie Mineure (Paris
1955)
LSCG F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées des cités grecques (Paris
1969)
LSJ H . G . L i d d e l l , R. Scott, and H . S. Jones, A Greek-
English Lexicon ( O x f o r d 1925-1940)
LSS F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées des cités grecques, supple-
m e n t (Paris 1962)
Lugal-e J. Van D i j k , LUGAL UD ME-LAM-bi NIR-GAL,
Le récit épique et didactique des Travaux de Ninurta, du
Déluge et de la Nouvelle Création, v o l . I (Leiden 1983)
Translation: B o t t é r o and K r a m e r (1989) 340-368
Maqlû G . Meier, Die assyrische Beschwörungssammlung Maqlû
( B e r l i n 1937)
PGM K . Preisendanz, e d . , Papyri Graecae Magicae (Leipzig
1 9 2 8 - 3 1 , S t u t t g a r t 1973-74 )
1 2
RE Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissen-

schaft ( S t u t t g a r t 1894-1980)
RIA Reallexikon der Assyriologie ( B e r l i n 1932-)
RML W. H . Roscher, e d . , Ausführliches Lexikon der grie-
chischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig 1884-1937)
SAHG A . Falkenstein and W. v o n Soden, Sumerische und Ak-
kadische Hymnen und Gebete ( Z u r i c h 1953)
Shurpu E. Reiner, e d . , A Collection of Sumerian and Akkadian
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. 1985. The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women. Its Nature, Structure
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. 1988. " T h e Rise o f the Greek E p i c , " JHS 108 (1988) 151-
172.
W i l l i a m s , R. J. 1956. " T h e L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f a M e s o p o t a m i a n
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W i l s o n , J. R, 1986. " T h e Gilgamesh E p i c and the Iliad." EMC 30,

25-41,
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bia U n i v e r s i t y .
W i n t e r , U . 1983. Frau und Göttin. F r e i b u r g .
W i r t h , H . 1921. Homer und Babylon. Freiburg.
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JOAS 89, 392-398.
Woolley, L. 1953. A Forgotten Kingdom. H a r m o n d s w o r t h .
Z i m m e r n , H . 1901. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion.
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152
NOTES
Introduction
1. 2. 142.
2. See The Oxford English Dictionary V I I (1933) 199; E. Littré,
Dictionnaire de la tangue française V (1857) 1125; J . G r i m m , Deutsches
Wörterbuch V I I (1889) 1345. T h e antithesis oriens-occidens o r i g i n a t e d
i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and was taken u p i n C h r i s t i a n
L a t i n literature; see Thesaurus Linguae Latinae I X 2, 2004.52 ff. T h e
m o t t o " E x O r i e n t e L u x " is m o d e r n .
3. T h e e t y m o l o g y o f K a b e i r o i f r o m Semitic kabir, great, goes
back to J . J . Scaliger, Coniectanea in M. Terentium de Lingua I.atina
(1565) 146 ( I o w e this reference t o A . K u r m a n n ) ; see H e m b e r g
C 9 5 ° ) 318-320; contra,). Wackernagel p r o d u c e d an I n d i a n e t y m o l -
1
ogy, ZVS 41 (1907) 316-318, R K r e t s c h m e r another e t y m o l o g y

f r o m Asia M i n o r , ZVS 55 (1928) 8 2 - 8 8 . T h e idea o f " g r e a t " gods
expressed b y t h e Semitic r o o t kbr is n o w definitely attested f o r
N o r t h Syria i n the t h i r t e e n t h century B . C . : T h e n e w texts f r o m
E m a r have personal names such as Rasap-Kabar and Baal-Kabar,
"Reshep" o r " B a a l is great," A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 15, line 15; n o .
20, p. 23 f. T h e equation o f K a d m o s w i t h Semitic qdm, East, is
traced back t o 1646 b y E d w a r d s (1979) 58 n.6o; that o f Europa w i t h
rb, sunset, West, is ancient: ETJOU'OTÏ]- f| %(î)Qa xf\ç bvaewç,
c
Hsch.;
cf. E d w a r d s 78 f.; see also B u r k e r t (1991). O n lapetos see Chapter
i , " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 37.
4. R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850
(1976) 173 gives m o r e precise i n f o r m a t i o n ; see also E. Schröder,
" P h i l o l o g i a e studiosus," NJb 32 (1913) 168-171; E. J. Kenney, The
153
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2-3
Classical Text (1974) 98 n . 1; H . Lloyd-Jones, Blood for the Ghosts

(1982) 169 n.8.
5. T h e G e r m a n t e r m was Stammeskultur. See B u r k e r t (1980)
162-168 and the provocative s t u d y o f Bernal (1987), w h o is sharply
critical o f this a n t i - o r i e n t a l stance; see for discussion o f his p o s i t i o n :
" T h e Challenge o f ' B l a c k A t h e n a , ' " Arethusa special issue 1989.
K. O . M ü l l e r had challenged the Semitic e t y m o l o g y o f the name
K a d m o s : Orchomenos und die Minyer (1820) 113-122 and (1844 ) 2
107-116.
6. See L . P o l i a k o v , Le my the arien (1971), The Aryan Myth
(1974), A basic contrast between Greeks and Semites is stated, e.g.,
b y F. G . Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre I (1857) 116-118—a
scholar w h o was a n y t h i n g b u t n a r r o w - m i n d e d .
7. See, e . g . , K . Lehrs, Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Alterthum
(1856) v i i i ; cf. (1875 ) v i : "dass i c h unter Griechen dasjenige V o l k
2
verstehe, welches i n Griechenland w o h n t e u n d Griechen hiess,

durchaus keine N a t i o n a m Ganges oder H i m a l a y a . " See also i d e m ,
Kleine Schriften (1902) 388 f. K a r l Lehrs was b o r n a Jew, b u t assim-
ilated t o G e r m a n - C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e .
8. See also the arguments o f E. Zeller against the supposed
oriental " o r i g i n " o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y i n his Die griechische Philoso-
phie in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung I (1856) 18-34 2
d I (i9i9)
a n 6
21-52; H . Diels uses a sharper tone i n his r e v i e w o f G r u p p e (1887),

AGPh 2 (1889) 8 8 - 9 3 ; i d e m , "Thaies ein Semite?" i b i d . 165-170.
9. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Homerische Untersuchun-
gen (1884) 215: " d i e seit Jahrhunderten faulenden v ö l k e r u n d Staaten
der Semiten u n d A e g y p t e r , die den H e l l e n e n t r o t z ihrer alten c u l t u r
nichts hatten abgeben k ö n n e n als ein paar Handfertigkeiten u n d
techniken, abgeschmackte trachten u n d gerate, zopfige Ornamente,
w i d e r l i c h e fetische für n o c h w i d e r l i c h e r e g ö t z e n " ; i d e m , Hellenis-
tische Dichtung I (1924) 2: "aus d e m O r i e n t u n d ist d e m echten H e l -
l e n e n t u m t o d f e i n d " ; see also i d e m , Aus Kydathen (1880) 40; he also
w r o t e that Poseidonios is " d o c h schon orientalisch i n f i z i e r t " (Die
Kultur der Gegenwart [1910 ] 145), a l t h o u g h "eine N a t u r w i s s e n -
3
schaft w i e die des Poseidonios hat k e i n Semit i m A l t e r t u m auch

n u r v o n fern b e g r if f e n" (Der Glaube der Hellenen I I [1932] 403). Yet
he acknowledges the parallel o f H e s i o d and A m o s , Antigonos von
Karystos (1881) 314 f., and provides m o r e balanced j u d g m e n t s o n
the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d i n Der Glaube der Hellenen I (1931) 76, I I
154
(1932) 7. W i l a m o w i t z had learned H e b r e w at Schulpforta'—see his

Inwieweit befriedigen die Schlüsse der erhaltenen griechischen Trauer-
spiele? ed. W. M . Calder (1974) 116 f . — b u t he d i d n o t let this show
in his later p u b l i c a t i o n s .
10. As a y o u n g m a n W i l a m o w i t z r i d i c u l e d Schliemann; see his
Erinnerungen (1928) 148. T h e interrelations o f Mycenaean c i v i l i z a -
t i o n and H o m e r d r e w a t t e n t i o n esp. i n E n g l i s h scholarship; an i n -
fluential synthesis was given by M . P. N i l s s o n , Homer and Mycenae
(1933) ; see esp. 19-30 o n the h i s t o r y o f scholarship.
11. A . J e r e m i a s , Izdubar-Nimrod, eine altbabylonische Heldensage
(1891) and RML (1890/94) I I 773-823, r e p u d i a t i n g the reading
" G i l g a m e s h , " 774; " I z d u b a r " also i n H . Usener, Die Sintfluthsagen
(1899) 4 ff., w h o tries t o prove the independence o f the Greek m y t h
o f the flood f r o m the Semites. I n RE I A 1405 (Tkac, 1920) one
finds " G i s - d u b a r r u , auch G i b i l - g a m i s u n d N a m r u d u genannt." O n
the f o r m s o f spelling G i l g a m e s h i n c u n e i f o r m see H . Z i m m e r n i n
O b e r h u b e r (1977) 23.
12. See W i l a m o w i t z , Die Heimkehr des Odysseus (1927) v i ,
about " d i e A n f ä n g e der A s s y r i o l o g i e , die ich m i t e r l e b t habe": " a u f
d e m Nachbargebiet wartet man besser ab." T h e slogan " B a b e l u n d
B i b e l " was launched b y t w o lectures given i n the presence o f the
e m p e r o r b y E Delitzsch, published i n B e r l i n i n 1903; the designa-
t i o n " P a n b a b y l o n i s m u s " was used b y A . Jeremias i n his preface t o
Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients (1906 , 1930 ); see also 2 4
A . Jeremias, Die Panbabylonisten (1907); Handbuch der altorienta-

lischen Geisteskultur (1913, 1929 ); H . Winckler, Die
2
babylonische
Geisteskultur (1907, 1912 ); P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch-Epos
2
in der
Weltliteratur I / I I (1906/28); see also Jensen (1912/13) and (1924).
13. W i r t h (1921); see Chapter 3. As t o the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n ,
o n l y Farnell (1911) u n d e r t o o k m e t h o d i c a l discussion; see Chapter
2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n . "
14. E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums I (1884), P (1913); o r i -
ental h i s t o r y and classical h i s t o r y were also c o m b i n e d i n the w o r k
o f C. E L e h m a n n - H a u p t ; W. O t t o changed the title o f Handbuch der
klassischen Altertumswissenschaft t o Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft
i n 1920. M u c h earlier A . B o e c k h and E H u l t s c h had proved re-
m a r k a b l e connections between Greek and oriental c i v i l i z a t i o n i n
m e t r o l o g y , the system o f measures and weights.
15. J. Beloch, " D i e Phoeniker a m aegaeischen Meer," RhM 49
155
N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 - 5
(1894) m - 1 3 2 ; i d e m , Griechische Geschichte I (1893) 75 f., 167 f.

and I 2 (1913) 65-76. O n Julius B e l o c h see A . M o m i g l i a n o , Terzo
2
contribute alia storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (1966) 2 3 9 -
269; K . C h r i s t , Von Gibbon zu Rostovtzeff (1979) 2 4 8 - 2 8 5 . I n fact
even F. C . M o v e r s , Die Phönizier (1841/56), L e w y (1895), a n d
B r o w n (1898) had r e m a i n e d outsiders, as d i d B e r a r d (1902/03 and
m a n y later p u b l i c a t i o n s ) . For corrections o f Beloch's p i c t u r e o f the
Phoenicians see N i e m e y e r (1982), esp. the article b y C o l d s t r e a m .
16. H o g a r t h (1909) had concentrated o n Ionia. Poulsen (1912)
also dealt w i t h H o m e r (168-183). See also M ü l l e r (1929), B a r n e t t
(1956), A k u r g a l (1968), and S t r e m (1971); cf. C h a pt e r 1, " O r i e n t a l
Products i n Greece."
17. See Schefold (1967) 19: "Es ist also eine n i c h t sehr g l ü c k -
liche G e w o h n h e i t , die K u n s t des 7. Jahrhunderts 'orientalisierend'
zu n e n n e n . " T h e t e r m the orientalizing revolution is f r o m B o a r d m a n
(1990).
18. See his r e v i e w o f CAH i n Gnomon 7 (1931) 65-74.
19. F. B o l l and K . B e z o l d , Reflexe astrologischer Keilinschriften
bei griechischen Schriftstellern, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1911.7; i d e m ,
Zenit- und Aequatorialgestirne am babylonischen Fixsternhimmel, ibid.
1913.11; i d e m , " E i n e neue babylonisch-griechische Parallele," i n
Aufsätze zur Kultur- und Sprachgeschichte E. Kuhn gewidmet (1916)
226-235; i d e m , Sternglaube und Sterndeutung (1918, 1931 ); F. B o l l , 4
" Z u r b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " ZA 25 (1911) 372-377;

i d e m , " N e u e s zur b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " i b i d . 28 (1914)
3 4 0 - 3 5 1 ; i d e m , Antike Beobachtungen farbiger Sterne, A b h . M ü n c h e n
30 (1916). Boll's o b i t u a r y o f C a r l B e z o l d is i n F. B o l l , Kleine Schrif-
ten zur Sternkunde des Altertums (1950) 397-405; cf. i b i d . x x i i i f.; O .
Neugebauer, " Z u r Geschichte des P y t h a g o r ä i s c h e n Lehrsatzes,"
NGG math.-ph. Kl. (1928) 4 5 - 4 8 ; cf. B u r k e r t (1972) 429.
20. D o r n s e i f f (1933) 25-27, f o l l o w i n g E. H o n i g m a n n , RE I V
A (1932) 1577 s.v. Syria; and W. P o r z i g , " I l l u y a n k a s u n d T y p h o n , "
i n Kleinasiatische Forschungen I 3 (1930) 379-386. See f u r t h e r D o r n -
seiff (1934) and (1937).
21. H . G . G ü t e r b o c k , Kumarbi, Mythen vom churritischen
Kronos (1946) and The Song of Ullikummi (1952); Lesky (1950),
(1954), (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); H e u b e c k (1955); Steiner (1959);
Walcot (1966); West (1966); see already D o r n s e i f f (1937) = (1959)
55-
156
j
22. Lesky (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); G o r d o n (1955) w i t h the

r e v i e w o f Lesky Gnomon 29 (1957) 321-325; Webster (1956) and
(1958); H . H a a g , Homer, Ugarit und das Alte Testament (1962); g o i n g
t o o far was A s t o u r (1965), criticized b y j . B o a r d m a n , CR 16 (1966)
86-88.
23. Eissfeldt (1939), (1952); H e u b e c k (1955); see n o w B a u m -
garten (1981).
24. See G o r d o n (1955), Webster (1958), A s t o u r (1965) w i t h his
characteristic subtitle, H a r m a t t a (1968), Laroche (1973), Stella
(1978), D u c h e m i n (1980a) 848 f.; J. B o u z e k , The Aegean, Anatolia
and Europe: Cultural Interrelations in the 2nd Millennium B.C. (1985);
J. L. C r o w l e y , The Aegean and the East (1989); C. L a m b r o u -
P h i l i p p s o n , Hellenorientalia: The Near Eastern Presence in the Bronze
Age Aegean, ca. 3000-1100 B.C. (1990).
25. A . R e h m , Handbuch der Archäologie I (1939) 197 f.; cf. 194
f.: "lieber ins X . als ins I X . J a h r h u n d e r t " ; hence G. Klaffenbach,
Griechische Epigraphik (1957) 35, m o r e cautious (1966 ) 36; see also 2
W Schadewaldt, Von Homers Welt und Werk (1951 ) 26 and 94 n.4; 2
Heubeck (1955) 521 n.56: " A u f alle Fälle k o m m e n w i r beträchtlich

v o r die Epoche der 'orientalisierenden' K u n s t . " T h e early date for
Greek w r i t i n g was refuted b y j e f f e r y (1961); see Chapter 1, " W r i t -
i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y . "
26. See Chapter 1.
27. See alsojeffery (1976), M u r r a y (1980).
28. I t was H e u b e c k (1955) w h o argued for post-Mycenaean
transmission o f eastern, esp. H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g y ; see also F. Scha-
chermeyr, Die griechische Rückerinnerung im Lichte neuer Forschungen,
Sitzungsber. W i e n 404 (1983) 23.
29. Od. 17.383-385. See C o n t e n t s .
30. See esp. Walcot (1966) and West (1966), (1978b). A n i m -
p o r t a n t n e w parallel t o the a d o r n m e n t o f Pandora is W. R. Mayer
(1987).
31. T h e locus classicus for this thesis is already [Plat.] Epin.
987d; cf. O r i g . Cels. 1.2.
32. T h e a u t h o r is a Flellenist, n o t an orientalist, b u t he has
made some effort t o s t u d y the Semitic texts i n the o r i g i n a l .
33. Special fields are d r i f t i n g apart: T h e e x t r e m e l y useful ar-
ticle " G r i e c h e n " b y W. R ö l l i g in RIA I I I (1971) 6 4 3 - 6 4 7 ignores the
presence o f Greeks i n Syria and C i l i c i a d u r i n g the e i g h t h century,
'57
I
N O T E S T O P A G E S O - I I
hence j u d g e s the oldest c u n e i f o r m text about Greeks (see Chapter

i , " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 15) to be " q u i t e u n c e r t a i n " (643),
and states that there can be no question o f any direct influence o n
H o m e r ("dass etwa v o n e i n e m d i r e k t e n Einfluss a u f H o m e r . . .
keine Rede sein k a n n , " 646).
/. "Who Are Public Workers"

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1. For a historical survey see CAH I I I 3, i n c l u d i n g B r a u n

(1982a), (1982b); K l e n g e l (1980); M u r r a y (1980). A keen and i n t e r -
esting study b y M a z z a r i n o (1947) is n o w o u t d a t e d i n some respects;
see also A . M o m i g l i a n o , Quarto contribute alia storia degli studi classici
e del mondo antico (1969) 581-588. T h e names o f A s s y r i a n and B a b -
y l o n i a n kings usually appear i n f o u r variants i n o u r t r a d i t i o n , de-
p e n d i n g o n the H e b r e w B i b l e , the Greek B i b l e (Septuagint), the
L a t i n B i b l e , and technical t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f A k k a d i a n , respectively.
Here the (questionable) praxis o f CAH 2
is f o l l o w e d .
2. See Sendschitii I - V (the T u r k i s h name o f this site has been
spelled Z i n c i r l i since the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the L a t i n alphabet i n T u r -
k e y ) ; Landsberger (1948); m o r e recent special studies are W i n t e r
(1973), Genge (1979), and a survey i n van L o o n (1991) 1-15.
3. A bronze b o w l w i t h a Phoenician i n s c r i p t i o n was f o u n d i n
a t o m b at Knossos, dated about 900 B . C . : Arch.Rep. 1976/77, 11-
14; M . Sznycer, Kadmos 18 (1979) 8 9 - 9 3 ; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 263,
271, p i . 27. See also Stucky (1981), B l o m e (1982).
4. See O p p e n h e i m (1967/69), Wafler (1982), R ô l l i g (1982) 26.
5. See Chap te r 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n -
tury."
6. See V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Kition, Mycenaean and Phoenician
(1976); i d e m , Excavations at Kition I I I (1977) 7-10; N . C o l d s t r e a m ,
JHS 102 (1982) 288 f., i n his r e v i e w o f V. Karageorghis and J. Des
Gagniers, La céramique chypriote de style figuré (1974/79); C o l d -
stream, Archaeology in Cyprus (1985) 58. Cf. i n general S. F r a n k -
enstein, " T h e Phoenicians i n the Far West: A F u n c t i o n o f N e o -
A s s y r i a n I m p e r i a l i s m , " i n Power and Propaganda, ed. M . T r o l l e
Larsen (1979) 263-294.
7. See W o o l l e y (1953); M u r r a y (1980) 91-93; B o a r d m a n (1980)
35-54 and (1990); B r a u n (1982a) 7-11; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 262; Riis
(1982).
158
N O T E S T O P A G E 12
8. B o a r d m a n (1965) and (1980) 45 f.

9. Riis (1970), and (1982); R C o u r b i n , "Fragments d'amphores
p r o t o g é o m e t r i q u e s grecques à Bassit," i n Resurrecting the Past, ed.
P. M a t t h i a e , M . van L o o n , and FL Weiss (1990) 4 9 - 6 4 .
10. P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980); cf. Arch.Rep. 1984/
85 (relations t o A t h e n s and t o the O r i e n t ) and 1988/89, 117-129;
the F l e r o o n o f the t e n t h c e n t u r y : M . R. P o p h a m , " T h e H e r o o f
I . e f k a n d i , " Antiquity 51 (1982) 169-176. Euboea has made its i m -
pact o n H o m e r i c studies: West (1978a), (1978b) 29 f., (1988) 165-
169; P. Wathelet, " L a langue h o m é r i q u e et le rayonnement littéraire
de l ' E u b é e , " AC 50 (1981) 819-833; B l o m e (1984). West t h i n k s
(oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) that "farther than E u b o e a " i n the m o u t h o f
i m a g i n a r y Phaeacians (Od. 7.321) means that, e contrario, Euboea is
the center i n the real w o r l d .
11. T h e finds, m a i n l y due t o G i o r g i o B ü c h n e r , have never been
f u l l y published; the greatest sensation was created by the " c u p o f
N e s t o r " i n 1955. See G. B u c h n e r i n R i d g w a y and R i d g w a y (1979)
129-144 and (1982); B o a r d m a n (1980) 165-169; K o p e k e (1990)
i o i - n o ; o n E g y p t i a n objects H ö l b l (1979); o n the documents for
w r i t i n g see Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n -
tury."
12. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n -
tury."
13. O n solos see C h a p t e r 1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , "
note 29. For " C h a l k i s " see M . Meier, -id-. Zur Geschichte eines grie-
chischen Nominalsuffixes (1975) 52 f.; Tarsis, f o u n d r y (Assyrian ra-
sasu): W. F. A l b r i g h t , BASOR 81 (1941) 14 f.; i t is controversial
w h e t h e r Tarsis refers to Tarsos or t o some place i n Spain: M . K o c h ,
Tarschisch (1984).
14. Od. 1.184; the place-name m e n t i o n e d i n this verse was
controversial already i n a n t i q u i t y : T e u i o n v is the reading o f the
manuscripts and s h o u l d refer t o a place i n southern Italy, b u t
S t e p h . B y z . s.v. Tamasos attests T d j x a o o v , i.e., a c i t y i n C y p r u s ; cf.
B r a u n (1982a) 13; K . H a d j i i o a n n o u , AA 81 (1966) 205-210, sug-
gested EC T ' "Akaaiv, Alasia being the B r o n z e A g e name either o f
C y p r u s or o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c i t y o f C y p r u s ( E n k o m i ) .
15. H . W. Saggs, Iraq 25 (1963) 7 6 - 7 8 ; B r a u n (1982a) 15. T h e
bronze plaques o f K i n g Hazael, p i o u s l y dedicated t o Hera o f Samos
and A p o l l o o f Eretria i n consequence (see Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l
159
Products i n Greece," note 14), may w e l l have been l o o t e d at such

an occasion. E p h a l and N a v e h (1989) conclude f r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n
c
" W h a t H a d a d has g i v e n t o L o r d Hazael f r o m U m q i . . ." that H a -

zael h i m s e l f had t a k e n the pieces as b o o t y , b u t they d o n o t see such
a chance for Greeks (200).
16. B e l o c h (1913) I 2 67 f.; L. W. K i n g , JHS 30 (1910) 327-
2
335; L u c k e n b i l l (1933); M a z z a r i n o (1947) 112-130; B r a u n (1982a)

1-5. "Jawan" appears a m o n g the p r o g e n y o f N o a h i n the "table o f
n a t i o n s " i n Genesis 10:2-4; his " s o n s " seem t o refer t o C y p r u s ,
Tarsos, and Rhodes; see West (1985) 14 f.
17. A n i n s c r i p t i o n o f Essarhaddon has b o t h names, Iadnana
and lawan, and keeps t h e m d i s t i n c t ; see H i r s c h b e r g (1932) 68; B o r -
ger (1956) 86 § 57 line 10; cf. L u c k e n b i l l (1933), B r a u n (1982a) 3,
20; against B e l o c h and M a z z a r i n o , w h o identified b o t h names. A l l
the evidence about Iadnana and Iamani is i n S. Parpola, Neo-Assyrian
Toponyms (1970) 183, 186 f.
18. //. 13.685. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Die Mas und
Homer (1916) 227 n . i , w r o t e : " D i e I o n i e r sind m i t den A t h e n e r n
i d e n t i s c h " — f o r h i m , this is a " l a t e " i n t e r p o l a t i o n ; he was unaware
o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f Euboea and Athens i n the e i g h t h century. T h e
p r o b l e m about TdFoveg is that especially i n the A t t i c / I o n i a n dia-
lect F had disappeared early and c o n t r a c t i o n o c c u r r e d , r e s u l t i n g i n
Ttoveg. I t has been suggested that 'IdFoveg is m u c h older than the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; see J. C h a d w i c k i n Greece and the Eastern Mediter-
ranean in Ancient History and Prehistory, Studies Presented to F. Scha-
chermeyr (1977) 106-109: " A g r o u p o f the Mycenaean inhabitants
o f Greece called themselves T d F o v e g " (109). Yet i t is a fact that the
u n c o n t r a c t e d f o r m remained i n current use, and this is h a r d l y a
result o f the epic t r a d i t i o n : I t m u s t have been used b y n o n - I o n i a n s ,
i.e., D o r i a n s and C y p r i a n s ; Tarsos, C y p r u s , and Rhodes were
p r o m i n e n t i n the v i e w f r o m the East (see note 16 above); people
f r o m these places w i l l have referred to Euboeans and Athenians as
Iawones. For Persians speaking o f Iaones, see Aesch. Persae, A r i s -
t o p h . Ach. 104. Even the " l o n i a n s " o f Sicily do n o t stem f r o m Asia
M i n o r , b u t f r o m e i g h t h - c e n t u r y N a x o s . T h e " I o n i a n " sea seems t o
m a r k the E u b o e a n - N a x i a n r o u t e t o I t a l y and Sicily ( a l t h o u g h the
d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m * T a o v t o g t o T o v t o g is n o t w i t h o u t difficulty
either).
19. Stele o f K i t i o n : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 179-189; cf. §§ 70,
• 160 •
N O T E S T O P A G E S 1 3 - I 4
99; E l a y i and Cavigneau (1979). I a m a n i : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 30,

6 2 - 6 3 , 7 9 - 8 o , 294-295; ANET 285 f.; hailed b y H . B e n g t s o n ,
Griechische Geschichtc (1950) 21 and 69, (1977 ) 24 and 77, as the 5
first contact o f Greeks and Assyrians, H . T a d m o r , JCS 12 (1958)

80 n.219; E l a y i and C a v i g n e a u (1979) plead to understand Iamani as
a personal name o f local t y p e , n o t m e a n i n g " t h e Greek."
20. See Laminger-Pascher (1989) 16-25.
21. Berossos; FGrHist 680 F 7 p. 386; A b y d e n o s : FGrHist 685
F 5 § 6; Streck (1916) c c c x c i - i i i . T h e m o r e authentic t r a d i t i o n is to
be f o u n d w i t h A b y d e n o s ; see M o m i g l i a n o (1934); cf. M a z z a r i n o
(1947) 125 f., B o a r d m a n (1965).
22. B o r g e r (1956) 60; L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I § 690.
23. First m e n t i o n e d b y H d t . 2.150.3 and H e l l a n i k o s , FGrHist
4 F 63, i.e., before the histories o f Ktesias. See Streck (1916) I
c c c l x x x v i - c d v ; an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t is Streck I I 140 f , the p r i s m
o f A s h u r b a n i p a l c o n t a i n i n g a list o f kings o f C y p r u s ; cf. C. B a u -
r a i n , BCH 105 (1981) 366-370.
24. Hence G. Scheibner, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der
Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, gesellsch. u. sprachwiss., Reihe 15
( 965) 9 3 - 9 6 , t h i n k s this is a terminus ante quern for the H o m e r i c
T
poems w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e the riches o f Sidon; cf. B u r k e r t , WSt 89

(1976) 20.
25. For the various consecutive versions o f the contacts w i t h
L y d i a i n Ashurbanipal's Annals see C o g a n and T a d m o r (1977); the
final version is i n Streck (1916) I I 2 0 - 2 3 ; cf- L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§
849, 909 f.
26. H e r o d o t u s 5.49-53 describes the " R o y a l R o a d " w h i c h still
goes via G o r d i o n i n P h r y g i a ; i.e., i t presupposes the r o u t e P h r y g i a -
C i l i c i a - A s s y r i a , whereas X e n o p h o n i n the service o f C y r u s t o o k
the shorter r o u t e via K e l a i n a i - I k o n i o n . See R. W M a c a n , Herodotus
Books IV V VI (1895) I I 289-303; H a n f m a n n (1948). Before the
discoveries at Euboea and A l M i n a , scholars, f o l l o w i n g H o g a r t h
(1909), had overestimated the i m p o r t a n c e o f " I o n i a " i n Asia M i n o r
as to oriental contacts for the early p e r i o d . Barnett (1956) had as-
s u m e d another r o u t e f r o m U r a r t u t o Trapezunt at the Black Sea;
contra, Carter (1972) 41 w i t h n . 86. For a reassessment o f the de-
v e l o p m e n t o f Ionia see R. M . C o o k , " I o n i a and Greece i n the
E i g h t h and Seventh Centuries B . C . , " JHS 66 (1946) 6 7 - 9 8 .
161
N O T E S T O P A G E S I 5 - I 6
O R I E N T A L P R O D U C T S I N GREECE
1. See Poulsen (1912), D u n b a b i n (1957), A k u r g a l (1968),

H e r r m a n n (1975), H e l c k , (1979), B o a r d m a n (1980), B r a u n (1982a),
K o p e k e (1990); cf. also I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 16.
2. Barnett (1948), (1956); Greifenhagen (1965); B. Freyer-
Schauenburg, Elfenbeine aus dem samischen Heraion (1966); E . - L .
M a r a n g o u , Lakonische Elfenbein- und Beinschnitzereien (1969); I .
Winter, Iraq 38 (1976) 1-26; G. H e r r m a n n , Iraq 51 (1989) 85-109;
see also H e l c k (1979) 175 n.28; B o a r d m a n (1980) 62 f., w h o also
illustrates the remarkable i v o r y statuettes f r o m a t o m b at A t h e n s ,
t h i r d quarter o f the e i g h t h century.
3. E. D i e h l , AA 1965, 827-850; R. A . Stucky, Engraved Tri-
dacna Shells (1974); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71 f.; S. Boessneck and A .
v o n den D r i e s c h , MDAI (Athens) 98 (1983) 22-24.
4. //. 14.183; see C. Kardara, AJA 65 (1961) 6 2 - 6 4 ; f - E- L . c
S m i t h s o n , Hesperia 37 (1968) 77-116 w i t h p i . 33: a necklace f r o m a

t o m b at the A r e o p a g u s , A t h e n s , m i d - n m t h century; P o p h a m ,
Sackett, and T h e m e h s (1980) 221 p i . 2 3 i d ; cf. BSA 77 (1982) p i .
30b: i m p o r t and local i m i t a t i o n ; see further H e l c k (1979) 203 f.;
B o a r d m a n (1980) 76; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 266.
5. J. B o a r d m a n , Island Gems (1963) and Archaic Greek Gems
(1968); B o a r d m a n and Vbllenweider (1978); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71;
and AA 1990, 1-17; a deposit at the t e m p l e o f A p o l l o , Eretria: BCH
103 (1979) 597-599 and 104 (1980) 657 f. f i g . 156; Arch.Rep, 1980/
81, 8 f i g . 8.
6. B o a r d m a n and B ü c h n e r (1966); cf. P. Zazoff, Die antiken
Gemmen (1983) 59.
7. P o p h a m , Sackett, a n d T h e m e l i s (1980) pis. 233c, 2350-e;
C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 264 f.; C . B e r a r d , Eretria I I I : L'Heroon ä la Porte
de VOuest (1970) 14-16; M u r r a y (1980) 70.
8. A . F u r t w ä n g l e r , " D i e B r o n z e n u n d die ü b r i g e n kleineren
Funde v o n O l y m p i a , " i n Olympia I V (1890) 187; E. D i e h l , A A
1965, 823-827 (Samos); H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH
71/72 (1947/48) 240-243 f l g . 39 (Delos).
9. //. 23.741-745; Od.4. 615-619; f o r the shield o f Achilles, //.
18, see Fittschen (1973). T h e bronze and silver b o w l s have been
comprehensively treated b y M a r k o e (1985); earlier studies include
K. K u b i e r , Kerameikos V 1 (1954) 201-205; Canciani (1970); Carter
• 162 •
(1972); I m a i (1977); B o r e l l (1978) 7 4 - 9 2 . See, i n general, C u r t i s

(1988) , esp. G. Falsone, "Phoenicia as a B r o n z e w o r k i n g C e n t r e i n
the I r o n A g e , " 227-250.
10. O l y m p i a : F u r t w ä n g l e r (see above, note 8) 141 p i . 52; CIS
I I 112 (not i n K/47). B o w l f r o m Pontecagnano near Salerno, i n the
T y s k i e w i c z C o l l e c t i o n , Paris: B. D ' A g o s t i n o , Stud.Etr. 45 (1977)
51-58; G. G a r b i n i , i b i d . 5 8 - 6 2 . Praeneste, I ' o m b a B e r n a r d i n i : CIS
I 164; Guzzo A m a d a s i (1967) 157 f. Falerii: M . C r i s t o f a n i and P.
F r o n z a r d i , Stud.Etr. 39 (1971) 313-331. See also above, " H i s t o r i c a l
B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 40, on the Phoenician b o w l f r o m Knossos. Cf.
B o r e l l (1978) 8 0 - 8 2 .
11. To be p u b l i s h e d b y B. Seidel-Borell; cf. E. Kunze,
Arch.Delt. 17 B (1961/62) 115 f. pis. 129-130 and 19 B (1964) p i .
181 b - c ; A . M a l l w i t z and H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Funde aus Olympia
(1980) 53 f. pis. 23-24. For a Late H i t t i t e l i o n p r o t o m e f o u n d at
O l y m p i a ( f r o m a v o t i v e shield?), see Illustrated London News, 25
J u l y 1964, 121; H . V. H e r r m a n n , 10. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen
in Olympia (1981) 7 2 - 8 2 .
12. H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Kessel der orientalisierenden Zeit IUI
( O l y m p i s c h e Forschungen 6 and n ) (1966, 1979); cf. i d e m , Jdl 81
(1966) 7 9 - 1 4 1 ; H e r r m a n n (1975) 306 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 6 4 - 6 7 .
13. K u n z e (1931); C a n c i a n i (1970); H e r r m a n n , Olympische
Forschungen 6 (1966) 179-185 and (1975) 308, t h i n k s they are i m -
ports; H e l c k (1979) 191 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 5 8 - 6 0 ; H . V e r b r u g -
gen, Le Zeus cretois (1981) 71-99; B l o m e (1982) 15-23; K o p e k e
(1990) 111 t h i n k s o f a cult b y "Semites"; sec also at n . 38. For recent
excavations i n the Idaean cave see J. A . Sakellarakis i n H ä g g , M a -
rinatos, and N o r d q u i s t (1988) 173-193, esp. n.6.
14. H e r r m a n n (1975) 308 f.; H e l c k (1979) 187-190; B u r k e r t
(1979) 114-118; B o a r d m a n (1980) 69 f.; H . P h i l i p p , 10. Bericht über
die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1981) 91-108. Hazael's bronze plates:
C h a r b o n n e t (1986); K y r i e l e i s and R ö l l i g (1988); B r o n and Lemaire
(1989) ; D . Parayre, Rev. d'Ass. 83 (1989) 4 5 - 5 1 ; E p h a l and Naveh c
(1989); possibly l o o t e d first by Hazael, then b y Greeks (see " H i s -

torical B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 15).
15. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982) 268 f.; on B e l o c h , see I n t r o d u c -
t i o n at note 15 and below, note 37. T h e r e are Greek testimonies as
to Phoenicians at Rhodes ( A t h . 360 f. = Ergias, FGrHist 513 F 1;
Polyzelos, FGrHist 521 F 6), and Zeus A t a b y r i o s at Rhodes seems
•63
t o be the Baal f r o m T a b o r / A t a b y r i o n ; A . B . C o o k , Zeus I I 2 (1925)

9 2 2 - 9 2 5 ; O . Eissfeldt, Kleine Schriften I I (1963) 2 9 - 5 4 ; H e l c k
(1979) 160.
16. G. M . H a n f m a n n , Bibl.Or. 30 (1973) 199; and H . V. H e r r -
m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 401, i n their reviews o f Jantzen (1972); cf.
B ô r k e r - K l a h n (1973); Hazael's bronze plate, note 14, above.
17. See notes 4, 5, and 7 as to E r e tr ia and A t h e n s , notes n - 1 2
as t o O l y m p i a ; C. Rolley, " B r o n z e s g é o m é t r i q u e s et o r i e n t a u x à
D é l o s , " B C H s u p p l . 1 (1973) 523 f.
18. W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; S t r a m (1971); A . Rathje i n R i d g w a y
and R i d g w a y (1979) 145-183; Verzâr (1980); E. R i c h a r d s o n , Etrus-
can Votive Bronzes (1983).
19. Not.Scav. 1876, 282-295; C. D . C u r t i s , " T h e B e r n a r d i n i
T o m b , " Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 3 (1919) 9 - 9 0 ; G.
P r o i e t t i and M . P a l l o t t i n o , II Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia
(1980) nos. 363-379; Civiltà del Lazio primitivo (1976) 213-249; A .
B e d i n i , PP 32 (1977) 274-309.
20. See notes 2, 12, and 40.
21. See A h l b e r g (1967), (1971); B o r e l l (1978); H e l c k (1979)
192; B o a r d m a n (1980) 7 7 - 8 2 ; Stucky (1982).
22. O n the "mistress/master o f a n i m a l s " see B l o m e (1982) 6 5 -
76; B . Johnson, Lady of the Beasts (1988). T h e p a t t e r n is f o u n d at
M y c e n a e as w e l l as o n one o f the Cassite seals w h i c h came f r o m
M e s o p o t a m i a t o B r o n z e A g e Thebes (P. A m i e t , Orientalia 34 [1976]
28 f i g . 13; K. D e m a k o p o u l o u and D . K o n s o l a , Archaeological Mu-
seum of Thebes [1981] 52 f ) , b u t i t also appears again and again o n
objects i m p o r t e d d u r i n g the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . B o a r d m a n (1980)
78 finds i t " v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o demonstrate the t r a n s m i s s i o n "
i n such cases. For one line o f t r a d i t i o n w h i c h goes f r o m Syria t o
B o e o t i a see C o l d s t r e a m (1977) 13; cf. H e l c k (1971) 223-229, (1979)
210.
23. For some t i m e a g e o m e t r i c representation f r o m A t h e n s ,
m i d - e i g h t h century, was h e l d t o be the first example (Schefold
[1964] p i . 5a), u n t i l a n i n t h - c e n t u r y p i c t u r e appeared at Knossos;
H . Sackett, BSA 71 (1976) 123 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78. See i n g e n -
eral W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; G a b e l m a n n (1965); Carter (1972); B l o m e
(1982) 9 3 - 9 7 and AA 1988, 5 5 9 - 5 6 5 ; G. E. M a r k o e , ClAnt 8
(1989) 86-115. O n the e t y m o l o g y o f the w o r d lion see Ch a pt e r 1,
" T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 30.
164
N O T E S T O P A G E S 1 0 - 2 0
24. H e l c k (1979) 194-197; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78 f. O n the

s p h i n x , see Vermeille (1977) and H . D e m i s c h , Die Sphinx (1977)
7 7 - 8 2 . O n griffins, see A . D i e r i c h s , Das Bild des Greifen in der früh-
griechischen Flächenkunst (1981) 275-294.
25. " C h i m a e r a " o f C a r c h e m i s h : E. A k u r g a l , Die Kunst der Het-
hiter (197Ö ) p i . n o ; o f Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli I I I (1902) p l . 43; cf.
2
H e l c k (1979) 212 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 79.

26. O n fishmen, called kulilu i n A k k a d i a n (AHw 501), see E.
U n g e r , RIA I I I 70 f.; R i t t i g (1977) 9 4 - 9 6 ; H e l c k (1979) 219; R.
Stucky, e d . , Trésors du musée de Bagdad (1977) n o . 141. See also K .
Shepart, The Fish-tailed Monster (1940); H . R Isler, Acheloos (1970)
92-95-
27. A r e m a r k a b l e "tree o f l i f e " appears o n the "Cesnola hater';
R R Kahane, AK 16 (1973) 114-138; see further C . R Kardara,
" O r i e n t a l Influences o n R h o d i a n Vases," i n Les céramiques de la Grèce
de l'est et leur diffusion en occident, C o l l . internat, d u centre J . B é r a r d
(1976/78) 6 6 - 7 0 ; B o a r d m a n (1980) 81 f.
28. For prothesis see K . A . Sheedy, MDAI (Athens) 105 (1990)
117-151; f o r s y m p o s i u m scenes H . Kyrieleis, Thronen und Klinen
(1965); B . Fehr, Orientalische und griechische Gelage (1971); J . M .
Dentzer, Le motif du banquet couché et le monde grec du Vile au IVe
siècle avant J.-C. (1982) 143-153. A w e l l - k n o w n picture o f r e c l i n i n g
Herakles b y the A n d o k i d e s painter, LIMC Herakles n o . 1487 (cf.
i 4 8 6 ) , is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y a direct descendant o f "Ashurbanipal's
garden p a r t y , " Meissner (1920/25) Ifig.46.
29. E. K u n z e , A&A 2 (1946) 95-115; D . C o l l o n , " T h e S m i t i n g
G o d , " Levant 4 (1972) 111-134; B u r k e r t (1975); H e l c k (1979) 1 7 9 -
182; H . Seeden, The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant (1980);
H . Gallet de Santerre, "Les statuettes de bronze mycéniennes au
type d i t d u ' d i e u Rechef' dans leur contexte é g é e n , " BCH n i
(1987) 7-29; B l o m e (1990) nos. 12 and 16.
30. R Jacobsthal, Der Blitz in der orientalischen und griechischen
Kunst (1906); additions a n d corrections i n G . F u r l a n i , Stud.Etr, 5
(1931) 2 0 3 - 2 3 1 ; see also H . L . L o r i m e r , BSA 37 (1936-37), o n the
g o d w i t h t w o l i g h t n i n g s , Zeus D i p a l t o s .
31. See R J. Riis, Berytus 9 (1949) 6 9 - 9 0 and ( i 9 6 0 ) 193-198;
H e l c k (1971) 233 f. and (1979) 173-177; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.; U .
W i n t e r (1983); comprehensive treatment n o w i n B o e h m (1990).
32. F o r an A s s y r i a n image o f a goddess w i t h h i g h hat (polos)
165
N O T E S T O P A G E 20
at Samos, dated t o the r e i g n o f Sargon I I , seejantzen (1972) B 165

p i . 69; H e r r m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 398; H e l c k (1979) 184-186;
see also K r a n z (1972).
33. See A . L . O p p e n h e i m , " T h e G o l d e n G a r m e n t s o f the
G o d s , " JNES 8 ( i 9 4 9 ) 172-193; Fleischer (1973) 96 and ( o n the fil-
let, " R ü c k e n t a e n i e " ) 50 f.; B ö r k e r and K l ä h n (1973) 45. Ishtar is
said t o " h o l d keppe" (e.g., "Descent o f I s h t a r " 27, ANET 107);
a c c o r d i n g t o B . Landsberger, WZKM 56 ( i 9 6 0 ) 121-124 and 57
(1961) 23, this is a j u m p rope, " S p r i n g s e i l " (AHw 467); Landsber-
ger refers t o representations o f the goddess o n seals such as W. H .
Ward (1910) nos. 9 1 2 - 9 2 3 ; i n these the " r o p e " i n the hands o f the
goddess, t h o u g h , is meant t o be the seam o f her g a r m e n t lifted u p
b y her; cf. H e l c k (1971) 112 f. Still the s i m i l a r i t y to the r i b b o n s the
goddess is h o l d i n g at Ephesos and Samos (Fleischer 102-111) is
h i g h l y suggestive.
34. Samos: H . Walter, Das griechische Heiligtum. Heraion von
Samos (1965) 28. Sparta: R. M . D a w k i n s , " T h e Sanctuary o f A r -
temis O r t h i a , " JHS s u p p l . 5 (1929) 163-186 pls. 4 7 - 6 2 ; B o a r d m a n
(1980) 77; J. B . Carter, " T h e M a s k s o f O r t h e i a , " AJA 91 (1987)
355-383; her f u r t h e r suggestion ( i n H ä g g , M a r i n a t o s , and N o r d -
quist [1988] 8 9 - 9 8 ) that the masks were used i n a sacred marriage
r i t u a l i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A l k m a n ' s Partheneion w i l l h a r d l y f i n d
consent. O n M e s o p o t a m i a n and Syro-Phoenician masks, f o u n d i n
t o m b s , see R. D . B a r n e t t i n Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) 147 f.; A . Parrot, Uga-
ritica V I (1969) 4 0 9 - 4 1 8 ; S. M o s c a t i i n Near Eastern Studies in Hon-
our ojW. F. Albright (1971) 356 f., 362 f.; I L K ü h n e , Bagdader Mitt.
7 (1974) 101-110; E. Stern, Palestine Exploration Quart. 108 (1976)
109-118; S. M o s c a t i , ed., The Phoenicians (1988) 354-369; for three
Punic p r o t o m e s at B r a u r o n , see M . B e l l , Morgantina I (1981) 87;
see also Chapter 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 23, H u m b a b a mask f r o m
Gortyn.
35. H . Luschey, Die Phiale (1939); cf. H e r r m a n n (1975) 309;
B o a r d m a n (1980) 68. O n the use o f frankincense see K . Nielsen,
Incense in Ancient Israel (1986); D . M a r t i n e t z , K . L ö h s , and J. Jan-
zen, Weihrauch und Myrrhe (1989); W. Z w i c k e l , Räucherkult und Räu-
chergeräte (1990); cf. Chapter 1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " at
note 8.
36. See J. W. Shaw, Hesperia 51 (1982) 185-191 and AJA 93
(1989) 165-183; cf. B o a r d m a n (1990) 184; B l o m e (1991) 54L
• 166 •
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 I - 2 3
37. O n Phoenicians see D u n b a b i n (1957) 35-43; W. A , Ward

(1968); esp. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982); M u h l y (1970); Edwards
(1979) ; Bunnens (1979); N i e m e y e r (1982); B a m m e r (1985); G u b e l
and L i p i n s k i (1985); G e h r i g and N i e m e y e r (1990), esp. J. Latacz,
" D i e Phönizier bei H o m e r , " 11-20. T h e direct b u t late evidence o n
Phoenicians i n Greece is collected b y F. V a t t i o n i , " F e n i c i , Siri e
A r a b i e m i g r a t i i n area greca," AION 9/10 (1987/88) 91-124. See
also above, n o t e 15; " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " notes 3, 6; for B e -
l o c h , see I n t r o d u c t i o n at n o t e 15.
38. B o a r d m a n (1961) 150 f.; (1967) esp. 6 3 - 6 7 ; (1970) 14-25;
(1980) 5 6 - 6 2 ; see also B a r n e t t (1948) 6; P. Jacobsthal, J HS 71 (1951)
,91-93; D u n b a b i n (1957) 40 f.; Greifenhagen (1965) 127, 136;
C o l d s t r e a m (1968) 348 f.; van L o o n (1974); M u r r a y (1980) 71.
39. Greifenhagen (1965); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71; C o l d s t r e a m
(1982) 266.
40. Van L o o n (1974) 23; cf. B o a r d m a n (1980) 57 w i t h n.73:
"Techniques such as these cannot be learned b y o b s e r v a t i o n . "
41. D u n b a b i n (1957) 37, 59 n . 5 ; Riis ( i 9 6 0 ) 197; Rizza and
Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 212-245; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.;
B l o m e (1982) 2 8 - 3 6 ; B o e h m (1990) 7 3 - 8 6 .
42. H e r r m a n n prefers t o t h i n k the t y m p a n o n f o u n d i n the
Idaean cave (see note 13 above) was i m p o r t e d f r o m the East; (1975)
304; contra, B l o m e (1982) 16.
43. H e l c k (1979) 55, 226-228; cf. I . W i n t e r (1973) 477-482;
G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 664.
44. Plut. Sol. 24.4: (xexoLXLêaoai EJTL Tt%vr\i. See i n general F.
C o a r e l l i , Artisti e artigiani in Grecia (1980); L. Neesen, Demiurgoi
und Artifices. Studien zur Stellung freier Handwerker in antiken Städten
(1989). '
45. C o r i n t h : H d t . 2.167.2; Athens: D i o d . 11.43.3.
46. See J . B o a r d m a n , "Amasis: T h e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f H i s
N a m e , " i n Papers on the Amasis Painter and His World ( M a l i b u 1987),
141-152.
47. A r i s t . Polit. 127837: ÖO'ÖXQV TÖ ßdvauaov f\ ^ e v i x ö v , ö i ö -
JTEQ o i JT0XX.01 TOiouTOt x c d vuv. Slave w o m e n were " t a k e n " and
traded as weavers: II. 6.290 f., 23.263; Od. 15.418; cf. H e l c k (1979)
226 o n E g y p t . O n the "craftsmen's t a x " (xEiQtovd^tov, A r i s t . Oik.
I345b7) and its Persian b a c k g r o u n d see M . W ö r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979)
91 f.
167
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 3 - 2 5
48. o l LIETCUTOQEUÖLIEVOI TE/VÎTCU: M . W ö r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979)

83-
49. Sirac. 38.30, f o l l o w i n g t h e Syrian t e x t ; see E. Kautzsch,
Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments 1 (1900)
422.
50. S. K r o l l i n D . A h r e n s , e d . , Archäologie entdeckt Geschichte:
Urartu (1979) 53-
51. Strabo 5 p . 220: ETJJTOQICC onixiouoyorv X&V o"t)vaxoA.ou9r|-
odvTCüv OLXO8EV; P l i n . N.H. 35.152; cf. 12.5: Heiko ex Helvetiis ob
. . . fabrilem artem Romae commoratus.
52. I K i n g s 5:32, 15-25; cf. 5:20; R ö l l i g (1982) 22.
53. Ahiqar 16.3: F. N a u , Histoire et sagesse d'Ahikar l'Assyrien
(1909) 204; F. C . C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w -
is, The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian,
Ethiopie, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913) 115. 2
54. L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 100, 105.

55. Sasson (1968) 47.
56. Atrahasis p . 128 f.; Gilgamesh X I 85.
57. J . F r i e d r i c h , Staatsverträge des Hatti-Reiches (1930) 77 § 18
lines 65, 67 (restored); Sasson (1968) 51.
58. Sasson (1968) 48 f.
59. H d t . 3.125-137.
60. E. F. Weidner i n Mélanges Syriens offerts à R. Dussaud (1939)
I I 932 f.; ANET 308b; B o a r d m a n (1980) 52.
6 1 . G . M . A . Richter, AJA 50 (1946) 15-30; C . N y l a n d e r , Io-
nians at Pasargadae (1970); B o a r d m a n (1980) 102-105 and / H S 100
(1980) 204-206.
62. O n the i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e T y s k i e w i c z b o w l , see note 10,
above. C f . Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 29.
63. H d t . 2.152.
64. Alcaeus fr. 350; cf. 4 8 — t h e first m e n t i o n o f B a b y l o n and
A s k a l o n i n Greek literature; Sappho fr. 202 = H d t . 2.135. See also
A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions, e d . R. M e i g g s a n d D .
L e w i s (1969), n o . 7.
65. I I Sam. 8:18, 15:18, 20:7, 23; I K i n g s 1:38.
66. I I K i n g s 11:4; o n Carians i n E g y p t see H d t . 2.152; O . M a s -
son and J . Yoyotte, Objects pharaoniques à inscription carienne (1956);
O . M a s s o n , Carian Inscriptions from North Saqqara and Buhen (1978).
67. See " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 20, above.
168
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 5 - 2 6
68. O n A s s y r i a n and Urartaean p r o t o t y p e s o f the Greek h o p -

lite shield see A . Snodgrass, Early Greek Armour and Weapons (1964)
66 f.; G o r g o n shield f r o m C a r c h e m i s h : L . Woolley, Carchemish I I
(1921) 128; H . L . L o r i m e r , Homer and the Monuments (1950) 191 A
6; B o a r d m a n (1980) 51; G o r g o n shield f r o m O l y m p i a : E. K u n z e ,
5. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1956) 4 6 - 4 9 pis. 12-14;
f r o m D e l p h i : L . Lerat, BCH 104 (1980) 103-114. O n the shields
f r o m the Idaean cave see note 13, above.
W R I T I N G A N D LITERATURE I N THE EIGHTH CENTURY
1. T h e basic b o o k f r o m the Greek side is Jeffery (1961, 1990 ); 2
see also G u a r d u c c i (1967); U . H a u s m a n n , ed., " D i e Schrift u n d die

Schriftzeugnisse," i n Handbuch der Archäologie I (1969) 207-393; a
series o f articles w i t h the collective title " D a l sillabario miceneo a l -
l'alfabeto g r e c o , " PP 31 (1976) 1-102; I m m e r w a h r (1990); Powell
(1991); PHOINIKEIA GRAMM ATA. Lire et écrire en Méditerranée,
ed. C . B a u r a i n , C . B o n n e t , and V. K r i n g s (1991); an excellent ac-
c o u n t given b y H e u b e c k (1979) is already outdated i n some details.
H e d i d n o t yet k n o w the sensational alphabet f r o m Izbet Sartah,
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Palestine: M . K o c h a v i , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 1-13; A .
D e m s k y , i b i d . 14-27 and i n Izbet Sartah, " A n E a r l y I r o n Site near
c
Rosh H a ' a y i n , " Israel (1986) 186-197; J. N a v e h , Bibl. Archaeologist

43 (1980) 22-25 a n d (1982) 36 f.; K . Seybold i n j . v o n U n g e r n -
Sternberg and H . Reinau, eds., Vergangenheit in mündlicher Uberlie-
ferung (1988) 142; n o r a b o u t the Phoenician alphabet f r o m the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y : A . L e m a i r e , Semitica 28 (1978) 7-10; n o r about the
e i g h t h - c e n t u r y alphabet f r o m the A t h e n i a n agora: J o h n s t o n i n Jef-
fery (1990) 431 n o . 2a; I m m e r w a h r (1990) 8 f i g . 2. C f . also M .
Lejeune, RPh 57 (1983) 7-12.
2. See M . P. N i l s s o n , Opuscula Selecta I I (1952) 1029-56 ( o r i -
g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 1918); Jeffery (1961) 22; H e l c k (1979) 165-167. I t
m u s t still be stressed that the use o f aleph, jod, waw to indicate a, i,
u is c o m m o n i n A r a m a i c f r o m early times; i n f o r m , Greek Y is
almost identical w i t h Semitic w a w ; F is a variant o f it.
3. For the dependence o f the P h r y g i a n script o n the Greek, see
H e u b e c k (1979) 78 against R. S. Y o u n g , Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 107
(1963) 362-364. P h r y g i a n script seems t o be i n evidence since about
725 B . c . , a l t h o u g h a later d a t i n g was advocated b y A . M . S n o d -
grass, The Dark Age of Greece (1971) 349 f.; m o r e l i k e l y i t arrived
• 169 •
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 6 - 2 7
o n the r o u t e f r o m C i l i c i a t o G o r d i o n rather than f r o m either the

T r o a d o r Ionia; see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 26, above.
4. H d t . 5.58; JtoivtKaaxdg was the designation f o r a " w r i t e r , "
a secretary i n archaic Crete; L. H . Jeffery and A . M o r p u r g o Davies,
Kadmos 9 (1970) n 8-154 and SEG 27, n o . 6 3 1 .
5. Pride o f place remains for the D i p y l o n j u g at A t h e n s , w h i c h
for a l o n g t i m e was b y far the earliest d o c u m e n t , dated ca. 73 5—
725; IG I 919; Jeffery (1990) 68, 76 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979) 116-118;
2
B o a r d m a n (1980) 83; SEG 30 n o . 46, 38 n o . 34; Y. D u h o u x , Kad-

mos 30 (1991) 153-169. B u t an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m Ischia is n o w c o n -
sidered t o be older: B ü c h n e r (1978) 135-137 (ca. 7 5 0 - 7 3 0 ) ; cf.
J o h n s t o n (1983) and i n Jeffery (1990) 453 w i t h p i . 76. A g e o m e t r i c
sherd f r o m N a x o s w i t h a graffito has been dated t o 770 b y the
excavator: B . L a m b r i n o u d a k i s , BCH 106 (1982) 605, 604 f i g . 132;
SEG 33, 677; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466 A w i t h p i . 78; cf. graf-
fiti f r o m A n d r o s ( 7 5 0 - 7 2 0 ) , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466, 52a. F o r
L e f k a n d i , see Jeffery i n P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980) 8 9 -
92; f o r E r e t r i a , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 434 w i t h p i . 73; i n g e n -
eral, P o w e l l (1991) 123-180. Some material f r o m Euboea is still
u n p u b l i s h e d . O f special i m p o r t a n c e is the " c u p o f N e s t o r " f r o m
Ischia, dated t o 7 3 0 - 7 2 0 : Jeffery (1961) 235 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979)
109-116. I t e v i d e n t l y reflects a practice o f w r i t i n g b o o k s ; cf. I m -
m e r w a h r (1990) 18 f.
6. A t w o - l e t t e r graffito f r o m Ischia w i t h sidelong A , P. K .
M c C a r t e r , AJA 79 (1975) 140 f., is taken t o be Greek b y G u a r d u c c i
(1967) 225 a n d H e u b e c k (1979) 123, b u t as A r a m a i c b y G a r b i n i
(1978) and C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; cf. J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 454
f. A Greek and an A r a m a i c graffito occur o n the same sherd; J o h n -
ston (1983) 64 fig. 2. Graffito f r o m A l M i n a , O x f o r d : J . B o a r d m a n ,
Oxford Journal of Archaeology 1 (1982) 365-367; C ^ 4 H I I I : Plates
2
(1984) 291 f. n o . 3 i 6 e ; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 476 D .

7. See the recent discussions o f B . B . P o w e l l , " T h e O r i g i n o f
the P u z z l i n g Supplements c() x *K" TAPA 117 (1987) 1-20; and R.
Wächter, " Z u r Vorgeschichte des griechischen A l p h a b e t s , " Kadmos
28 (1989) 19-78; the " c o l o r s " t o characterize Greek alphabets were
i n t r o d u c e d b y A . K i r c h h o f f , Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen
Alphabets (1863; 1887 ). 4
8. V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , CRAI 1980, 122-136; E. and O . Masson

i n V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Ausgrabungen in Alt-Paphos aufCypern I I I (1983)
• 170 •
N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 7 - 3 0
411—415; for the role o f C y p r u s see also Heubeck (1979) 85-87; cf.
64-70; J o h n s t o n (1983).
9. See L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. For the v a r y i n g d i r e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g
i n C y p r i o t e linear script see O . Masson, Les inscriptions chypriotes
syllabiques (1983 ) 78.2
10. Jeffery (1961) 310-313; B o a r d m a n (1970) 18-23 and (1980)

60; for the Phoenician b o w l , see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 3,
above, and, i n general, Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece."
T h e earliest Greek w r i t i n g o n Crete so far is an owner's i n s c r i p t i o n
on a g e o m e t r i c pithos f r o m Phaistos (ca. 700?); Kret. Chron. 21
(1969) 153-170; H e u b e c k (1979) I 2 5 ; j o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 468
n o . 8a.
11. Jeffery (1961) 13-16.
12. Esp. J. Naveh, AJA 77 (1973) 1-8, (1982), and Kadmos 30
(1991) 143-152. H e is contradicted n o t o n l y b y specialists for
Greek—see M c C a r t e r (1975); B . S. Isserlin, Kadmos 22 (1983) 151-
163; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 426 f . — b u t also b y some Semitists:
A . D e m s k y , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 22 f.; L i p i n s k i (1988); Sass (1991).
L i p i n s k i and Sass still t h i n k the n i n t h century w o u l d be the latest
possible date.
13. A n i m p o r t a n t n e w d o c u m e n t f r o m the m i d - e i g h t h century
was published i n 1982: A . A b o u - A s s a f et a l . , La statue de Tell Fekhe-
rye et son inscription bilingue assyro-araméenne (1982); i t has some
s u r p r i s i n g l y "archaic" letter f o r m s ; see L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. T h e
relations between Greek and A r a m a i c script were stressed by S.
Segert, Klio 41 (1963) 3 8 - 5 7 ; for a balanced j u d g m e n t , see L i p i n s k i
(1988) 243 f.; cf. also C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery
(1990) 425. T h e role o f cursive f o r m s was discussed b y Johnstone
(1978).
14. U g a r i t i c alphabets: KTU 5.6; for earliest " P h o e n i c i a n " al-
phabets see note 1, above.
15. Lemaire (1981).
16. Ios. c.Ap. 1.28.
17. Z d v : Pindar fr. 70 b 3; cf. E. Schwyzer, Griechische Gram-
matik I (1939) 140 f ; R. Wachter, Kadmos 30 (1991) 4 9 - 8 0 .
18. G a l l i n g (1971); KTU 5.7; i n H e b r e w : Lachish I: The La-
chish Letters (1938) 79 f ; KAI n o . 194; A . Lemaire, Inscriptions Hé-
braïques I : Les ostraca (1977) 110 f ; KAI 43.12; cf. M a s s o n (1967)
64. T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d for w r i t i n g tablet is different, le'u, H e b r e w
171
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 O - 3 I
Iwh, A r a m a i c luha. For malthe see M . Stol, Phoenix 24 (1978) 11-

14; HAL 558.
19. For the w r e c k , see G. Bass, National Geographic 172 (1987)
633-733, esp. 731; i d e m et a l . , AJA 93 (1989) 1-29, esp. 10; for the
N i m r u d tablets, D . J. W i s e m a n , "Assyrian W r i t i n g - B o a r d s , " Iraq
7 ( 955)
l J I _ I
3 ; M . H o w a r d , "Technical D e s c r i p t i o n o f the I v o r y
W r i t i n g - B o a r d s f r o m N i m r u d , " i b i d . 14-20; H . T. Bossert, "Sie
schrieben a u f H o l z , " i n Minoica, Festschr. J. Sundwall (1958) 6 7 - 7 9 ;
H . H u n g e r , Babylonische und Assyrische Kolophone (1968) 7 f.; H e u -
beck (1979) 143 f
20. II. 6.119-211; B u r k e r t (1983c) 51-53. T h e "fatal l e t t e r "
m o t i f is n o w attested n o t o n l y i n the s t o r y o f U r i a h ( I I Sam. i r . i -
27) b u t already i n the Sumerian legend o f Sargon: B. L e w i s , The
Sargon Legend (1980); B. Alster, " A N o t e o n the U r i a h Letter i n the
Sumerian Sargon L e g e n d , " ZA 77 (1987) 169-173.
21. Aesch. Eum. 275, fr. 281a 21 Radt, Prom. 789 (overlooked
b y M a s s o n [1967] 62); btkxoi x o A x c t i : P o l l u x 8.128; cf. R. S t r o u d ,
Hesperia 32 (1963) 138-143.
22. O . M a s s o n , Les inscriptions chypriotes syllabiques (1983 ) n o . 2
217.26, cf. Masson (1967) 61-65.

23. Wendel (1949). For a n e w A k k a d i a n - A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t
f r o m Syria see n o t e 13, above. T h e A k k a d i a n t e r m for scroll scribe,
sepiru, is a l o a n - w o r d f r o m A r a m a i c ; cf. H e b r e w sefet; b o o k ; AHw
1036b. A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m E g y p t : G. R. D r i v e r , Aramaic
Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. (1954).
24. R. A . B o w m a n , Aramaic Ritual Texts from Persepolis (1970)
17-19; cf. Ktesias i n D i o d . 2.32.4.
25. A r c h i l o c h u s fr. 185 West; the m e a n i n g " l e t t e r " is contested
b y S. West, C Q 38 (1988) 4 2 - 4 9 .
26. H d t . 5.58; diphtherion: J. G. V i n o g r a d o v , "Olbia." Xenia,
Konstanzer althistorische Beiträge und Forschungen 1 (1981) 19; molib-
dion: SEG 26 n o . 845 rev.; cf. SEG 38 n o . 13. T h e use o f d i m i n u -
tives seems characteristic for w r i t i n g materials, as also i n deltion and
biblion.
27. Eur. fr. 627; there is a p r o v e r b " o l d e r than the leather
[ s c r o l l ] , " cxpxaiÖTEoa t r i g ötc^öegag, D i o g e n . 3.2 (Paroemiogr.Gr. I
214); cf. Z e n o b . 4.11; P o r p h y r y i n Schob B //. 1.175; H s c h . 8 1992
attests the t e r m ÖKfjÖEoaÔKJJÖg for C y p r u s (see note 8, above),
w h i c h sounds archaic and may refer t o the use o f leather scrolls.
172
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 2 - 3 3
28. See D . van B e r c h e m , MH 48 (1991) 129-145, esp. 140 f.;

for Guzana, see J. F r i e d r i c h , G. R. Meyer, A . U n g n a d , and E.
Weidner, Die Inschriften vom Tell Halaf (194.0) 47 (nos. 101-106) and
7 0 - 7 8 (nos. 1-5); on Tarsos see Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7
and " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " n o t e 6; O . R. Gurney, J. J. Finkelstein, and P.
H u l i n , The Sultantepe Tablets (1957-1964); cf. M . f l u t t e r , Altorien-
talische Vorstellungen von der Unterwelt (1985) 18-20; the tablets are
dated between 718 and 619 B . C .
29. Wendel (1949)-
30. F. C. C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w i s ,
The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian,
Ethiopic, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913 ; the first 2
e d i t i o n , 1898, d i d n o t yet have the A r a m a i c text); F. N a u , Histoire

et sagesse dAhikar l'Assyrien (1909); for the text f r o m Elephantine,
see E. Sachau, Aramäische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jüdischen
Militär-Kolonie zu Elephantine (1911) 147-182 pls. 4 0 - 5 0 ; A . U n g -
nad, Aramäische Papyrus aus Elephantine (1912); E. Meyer, Der Pa-
pyrusfund von Elephantine und seine Bedeutung (1912) 102-128; T.
N ö l d e k e , Untersuchungen zum Achiqar-Roman, A b h . G ö t t i n g e n N.F.
14.4 (1913); A . H a u s r a t h , Achiquar und Aesop, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l -
berg 1918.2; B. E. Perry, Aesopica (1952) 1-10; P. G r e l o t , Documents
arameens dEgypte (1972) 427-452; F. M . Fales, " L a tradizione A s -
sira ad Elefantina d ' E g i t t o , " Dialoghi di Archeologia I I I 5 (1987) 6 3 -
70; see also L i p i n s k i (1976) o n A k k a d i a n religious t r a d i t i o n a m o n g
Aramaeans. A h i q a r is m e n t i o n e d i n the b o o k T o b i t h 14.10.
31. Rev. Bibl. 52 (1985) 6 0 - 8 1 ; cf. Fales (note 30) 70.
32. GLGMS: J. T. M i l i k , The Books of Enoch (1976) 3'3; Gil-
gamos: A e l . Nat.An. 12.21.
33. R o d r i g u e z A d r a d o s (1979) 290-293, 674 f., 6 8 0 - 6 8 7 ;
i d e m , QUCC 30 (1979) 93-112. B u t ' A x i x a o o c , was k n o w n to
Theophrastus; D i o g . L a e r t . 5.50; still D c m o c r i t u s B 299 = C l e m .
Str. 1.69.4 is a p o c r y p h a l ; the reading o f Poseidonios fr. 133 Theiler
= Strab. 16 p. 762 is uncertain: ' A x c u x a o o c , (?) j r a p ä ß o a i t o -
gnvoCg.
34. J. G o o d y a n d j . Watt i n j . Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional
Societies (1968) 42; see Chapter 3.
35. For the " B i l e a m " text f r o m D e i r A l l a s e e j . H o f t i j z e r and
c
G. van der K o o i j , Aramaic Texts from Deir Alia (1976); J. A . H a c k -

c
ett, The Balaam Text from Deir Alla (1984); Der Königsweg (1988)
c
173
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 4 - 3 6
n o . 157 w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y ; B u r k e r t i n D . H e l l h o l m , e d . , Apocalyp-
ticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (1983) 246; for
M o p s o s and Karatepe see C h ap te r 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 31.
T H E PROBLEM OF L O A N - W O R D S
1. See, e.g., Vermeule (1971) 185 f.: " I f eastern influence had
been c o m p a r a t i v e l y recent, one m i g h t expect the seams t o show, or
names and terms t o have been m e r e l y transliterated f r o m another
language."
2. See I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 15. A local substrate is readily as-
sumed for characteristic M e d i t e r r a n e a n flora such as " w i n e " (Greek
woinos, A r a m a i c wajn, H e b r e w jain; see J. P. B r o w n [1969] 147-
151) and " r o s e " ( A r a b i c ward, A r a m a i c werad, Greek (w)rhodon;
J. P. B r o w n [1980] 11, 19 n . i ) .
3. RhM 49 (1894) 130, accepted b y H i l l e r v o n G ä r t r i n g e n , RE
I I 1887; see above, C h a p t e r i , " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note
15.
4. O . H o f f m a n n and A . D e b r u n n e r , Geschichte der griechischen
Sprache I (1953 ) 18: "ganz v e r s c h w i n d e n d g e r i n g " ; A . M e i l l e t ,
3
Aperçu d'une histoire de la langue grecque (1935 ) 56 = (1965 ) 59: 4 7
" n ' a t t e i n t sans d o u t pas la dizaine."

5. Masson (1967) has also a survey o f older studies; see also
H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970); Krause ( 1 9 7 0 ) — w i t h o u t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u -
tions; J. P. B r o w n (1965), (1968), (1969); Salonen (1974); Szeme-
rényi (1974); i d e m , Gnomon 53 (1981) 113-116; i d e m , o-o-pe-ro-si:
Festschr. E. Risch (1986) 425-450.
6. Cf. L. Deroy, L'emprunt linguistique (1965); R. S c h m i t t ,
Probleme der Eingliederung fremden Sprachguts in das grammatische Sys-
tem einer Sprache, I n n s b r u c k e r B e i t r ä g e zur Sprachwissenschaft 11
(1973); O t t i n g e r (1981). As an example for the m a n i f o l d levels and
p r o b l e m s of c u l t u r a l b o r r o w i n g s see H . Kahane and R. Kahane,
" B y z a n t i u m ' s I m p a c t o n the West: T h e L i n g u i s t i c Evidence," Illi-
nois Classical Studies 6 (1981) 389-415.
7. E . g . , E. Boisacq, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grec-
que (1916) V I I : "l'influence sémitique . . . bornée à l ' a d o p t i o n . . .
de quelques termes c o m m e r c i a u x " ; A . M e i l l e t , Aperçu (see note 4
above) 55; M a s s o n (1967) 114; she treats kanna, reed, p. 47 f. b u t
forgets kanon, m e a s u r i n g r o d .
'74
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 6 - 3 8
8. T h i s is f o l l o w i n g Masson (1967), a l t h o u g h the w o r d s

treated i n n n . 9-11, 16, 19, 21-26, 31-33, and 36 are missing i n her
collection.
9. A k k a d i a n lipû, accusative lipâ, fat, e m p l o y e d especially i n
magic; see AHw 555. I t is t r u e there are I n d o - E u r o p e a n compara-
tive materials for Greek lipa; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 642.
10. T h r o u g h L a t i n simila i t even reached G e r m a n , Semmel; see
S z e m e r é n y i (1974) 156; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 996.
I r. Salonen (1974) 143.
12. Cf. J. Tischler, Glotta 56 (1978) 60 f.; Chantraine (1968/80)
1026; for Mycenaean pa-ra-ku see E. Risch, Cahiers Ferdinand de
Saussure 41 (1987) 167.
13. T h e Semitic w o r d , however, is n o t d o c u m e n t e d b u t has
been i n f e r r e d ; G. G a r b i n i , Riv. di Studi Fenici 3 (1975) 15 f.
14. C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 594; already attested in Mycenaean.
15. I b i d . 212.
16. I b i d . 660.
17. Masson (1967) 32-34; N i e m e y e r (1984) 69. T h e standard
w e i g h t was the m i n a o f C a r c h e m i s h ; O p p e n h e i m (1967/69) 239
n. 8. T h e w o r d mana is also attested i n H i e r o g l y p h i c L u w i a n ; G. N e u -
m a n n , ZVS 98 (1985) 306; see also H . B u s i n g , " M e t r o l o g i s c h e Bei-
träge," Jdl 97 (1982) 1-45. O n talanton see C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80)
1089.
18. Sendschirli V 119 ff. w i t h p i . 58; specialists are still discuss-
ing to w h a t extent this s h o u l d be considered as a precursor or an
early f o r m o f m i n t e d m o n e y ; see M . S. B a l m u t h , AJA 67 (1963)
208 and i n D . G. M i t t e n et a l . , eds., Studies Presented to G . M. A.
Hanfmann (1971) 1-7; N . F. Parise, Dialoghi di Archeologia 7 (1973)
382-391.
19. T h e Semitic parallel is m e n t i o n e d i n LSJ, n o t i n Masson
(1967); " h y p o t h è s e . . . en t o u t cas aberrante": Chantraine (1968/
80) 1247. Semitic het is H i n the Greek alphabet, b u t A k k a d i a n hur-
asu corresponds to Greek %QXtoôç; the name H a m is XCXLI i n the
Septuagint; M o u n t H a z z i is. rendered K d o i o v OQOÇ (cf. H e m b e r g
[1950] 129, 320)—there are n o p h o n e t i c rules i n l o a n - w o r d s . Har-
asu is used i n the sense o f " w r i t i n g , " Gilgamesh I 1.8.
20. AHw 48a; o n d i s t r i b u t i v e ana i n Greek see T. H o r o v i t z ,
Vom Logos zur Analogie (1978) 137-144.
175
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 8 - 3 9
21. AHw 898; cf. 650. H . Kronasser, Kratylos 7 (1962) 163,

maintains that qanû was b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y , " h ö c h s t w a h r s c h e i n -
lich d u r c h mehrere anatolische Sprachen."
22. A k k a d i a n tidu: see AHw 1391.1: " z u m Bauen u n d Ver-
p u t z e n " ; H e b r e w tit; the Semitic parallels are n o t m e n t i o n e d i n the
e t y m o l o g i c a l lexicons o f Pîsacq, Frisk, and Chantraine, n o r i n
Masson (1967). O n a pc j l e association w i t h " T i t a n s " see C h a p -
ter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis to the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 .
23. A k k a d i a n g a s s u : AHw 282; Salonen (1974) 139.
24. AHw 522; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 182; S z e m e r é n y i (1974) 149.
T h e mirage o f an " A e g e a n " suffix -inthos created b y the adaptation
to Greek is n o a r g u m e n t against this d e r i v a t i o n ; see n o t e 11 above
on lekane.
25. AHw 332; H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970) 45; the axe (hassinnu) is
n o w attested as the s y m b o l o f the weather g o d carried i n procession
at B r o n z e A g e E m a r : A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 369 line 45. Salonen
(1974) also compares Greek sphen, wedge, w i t h A k k a d i a n suppinu;
but a c c o r d i n g to AHw 1060 the m e a n i n g o f this w o r d is unclear.
26. AHw 627: tent, also i n A r a m a i c ; S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon 53
(1981) 114; cf. H e b r e w miskan, abode.
27. See Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," notes 2 8 - 3 0 ,
36; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 62.
28. S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon 43 (1971) 647 and (1974) 156, referred
to A k k a d i a n bel qati, " L o r d o f H a n d , " w h i c h , however, means
" g u a r a n t o r " ; AHw 120; b u t i n H i t t i t e the same expression (always
w i t h S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n spelling, EN qati) means " c r a f t s m a n " ; J.
F r i e d r i c h , Hethitisches Wörterbuch (1952) 271. T h e H i t t i t e w o r d may
w e l l have been the m o d e l for cheironax, either d i r e c t l y or indirectly.
29. Laroche (1973); for Soloi as place-name see above, " O r i -
ental Products i n Greece," note 13.
30. Masson (1967) 86; lis occurs a few times i n H o m e r ; the
n o r m a l Greek w o r d , leon, seems t o come f r o m E g y p t ; see J. C.
B i l l i g m e i e r , Talanta 6 (1975) 1-6.
31. A r a m a i c tawr(u), H e b r e w sor; HAL 1346-48; J. P. B r o w n
(1969) 159-164. I n spite o f this close s i m i l a r i t y Chantraine (1968/
80) states: " I l n'y a pas lieu . . . d ' é v o q u e r les formes sémitiques."
32. H e b r e w häräb; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 178-182; the harpe is
specially used b y o r i e n t a l i z i n g Perseus; see Jameson (1990) 218. B u t
176
N O T E S T O P A G E S 3 9 - 4 1
there is a satisfactory I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y t o o : Chantraine

(1968/80) 114.
33. For onvkov see S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon 53 (1981) 115; for
avXâv A k k a d i a n salalu, t o l o o t , AHw 1142, w i t h i m p e r a t i v e Mia!
(cf. Zeus Syllanios and A t h a n a Syllania i n the Spartan Rhetra, Plut.
Lyc. 6?).
34. T h e r e is n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y f o r machomai, and
"la structure de \ia%éoaaoQai reste obscure"; Chantraine (1968/80)
674. For mahas/maha see HAL 541; 537.
35. See AHw 34 s.v. alalu, "a c r y used at w o r k . " O f course
exclamations can o r i g i n a t e spontaneously (Chantraine [1968/80]
530), b u t " H u r r a h ! " has b o t h its (Germanic) e t y m o l o g y and its d i f -
fusion i n E u r o p e a n warfare.
36. See above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 67.
37. A s t o u r (1965) w e n t furthest i n this sport. T h e r e remains
the o l d e q u a t i o n o f Iapetos, father o f Prometheus, w i t h j a p h e t , son
o f N o a h (see West [1966] 202 f . ) ; b u t also Nereus, g o d o f waters,
father o f the Nereids, is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o the Semitic w o r d for
river, A k k a d i a n nam, H e b r e w nahar. See for Asgelatas Chapter 2,
"Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8; f o r Tethys, Chapter 3, " F r o m
Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , ' " note 15; f o r L a m i a , Chapter
2, " L a m a s h t u , L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 10; f o r Titans, Chapter 3,
" F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 .
38. See f o r haruspex Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 24; f o r
kathairo, lyma, ara, C h ap te r 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " notes 4 6 - 4 8 ; for E m -
baros, Chapter 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice," note 8.
39. HAL 8 7 8 — n o t a Semitic w o r d i n o r i g i n ; cf. J. P. B r o w n
(1968) 166-169; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80), w i t h o u t presenting the Se-
m i t i c w o r d s , declares: " L ' h y p o t h è s e d ' u n e m p r u n t sémitique . . .
n'est acceptée par personne."
2. "A Seer or a Healer"

"CRAFTSMEN OF T H E SACRED"
1. T h e expression is used i n Plat. Phdr. 248a. For a m o d e r n

investigation i n t o the i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f magic and scientific medicine
see G . E. R. L l o y d , Magic, Reason and Experience (1979); o n "crafts-
m e n o f the sacred" see B u r k e r t (1982a) and (1987a) 31.
2. Papyrus o f D e r v e n i i n ZEE47 (1982) c o l . X V I 3 f.: ÔTÉxvnu
177
N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 2 - 4 3
JtoiotJuevog xct leget. Strab. 10.3.23 p. 474: TO (JHXOXEXVOV . . . TO

JIEQI Tag A i o v u o r c t x a g xe^vag x a t x ä g ' O o c j n x ä g . H i p p o c r .
Morb.Sacr. 18, V I 396 L i t t r e : ßavauoLT).
3. West (1971) 239-242 has stressed the i m p o r t a n c e o f m i g r a n t
magi for Iranian-Greek contacts i n the s i x t h century B . C .
4. N u m b e r s 22:5, 24. F o r the s u r p r i s i n g evidence about B i -
l e a m / B a a l a m i n the D e i r A l l a i n s c r i p t i o n see Ch a pt e r 1, " W r i t i n g
c c
and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y , " note 35.

5. H e l c k (1979) 226 f.; E. Edel, Ägyptische Ärzte und ägyptische
Medizin am hethitischen Königshof (1976); see K n u d t z o n (1915) n o .
49.22 f o r U g a r i t , n o . 35.26 f o r Alasia.
6. Meissner (1920/25) I I 198 (KBo I 10 Rs.42 f f . ) .
7. See G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) esp. 6 5 1 , 655 f., 664 f.
8. H d t . 9.33-36; o n the M e l a m p o d i d a e see I . Löfner, Die Me-
lampodie (1963); K e t t (1966) 9 4 - 9 6 .
9. Plat. Rep. 3Ö4b-e; cf. Leg. 909b.
10. FGrHist 475, esp. T 4b; B u r k e r t (1972) 15 f.
11. P l u t . De sera 56oe-f and fr. 126; Phigalia is a conjecture
( M i t t e l h a u s ) instead o f the t r a n s m i t t e d names Italia o r Thettalia. See
RE XIX 2084; B u r k e r t , RhM 105 (1962) 48 f.
12. P l u t . Mus. 4 2 . i i 4 6 b - c = Pratinas TGrF 4 F 9, P h i l o d e m .
Mus. 4 = Diogenes o f B a b y l o n SVFll 232; P l u t . Mus. 9 f., 1134b-
e f o l l o w i n g Glaukos o f R h e g i o n . T h e date is established b y the
connection w i t h the f o u n d i n g o f the festival G y m n o p a i d i a i n
Sparta; P l u t . Mus. 1134c; cf. Euseb. Chron. a.Ahr. 1348 = O l y m -
piad 27 = 6 7 2 - 6 6 8 B . C .
13. e j i i 8 r | i i o w x a xaxct xexvrrv i i a v x t x f j v : A r i s t . Polit.
1274325-28. O n the practice and concept o f epidemia see H . D i l l e r ,
Wanderarzt und Aitiologe (1934).
14. Plat. Symp. 20id-e.
15. Empedocles B 115.13; cf. B 112, w h e r e he introduces h i m -
self a r r i v i n g at Akragas as a seer and a healer.
16. See note 8, above.
17. P i n d . Ol. 6; H e p d i n g , RE I X 685-689 s.v. lamos; K e t t
(1966) 8 4 - 8 9 . Telmissos: A r r . Anab. 2.3.3 f.
18. See K . C l i n t o n , The Sacred Officials of the Eleusinian Myster-
ies (1974); B u r k e r t (1987a) 36 f.
19. P l u t . Is. 28.362a; Tac. Hist. 4.83 f.; A . Alföldi, Chiron 9
( 979) 554 f ; B u r k e r t (1987a) 37.
T
178
N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 3 - 4 5
20. Isoer. 19.5 f., 45; K e t t (1966) 49 f., 66 f . — w h o does n o t

realize that the activities o f Polemainetos as a seer must be dated
about fifty years before the trial. O n the legal issue u n d e r l y i n g the
speech see H . J. W o l f f Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1979.5, 15—34.
21. D e m o s t h . 19.249; 18.120; 259 f.; H . W a n k e l , Demosthenes,
Rede für Ktesiphon über den Kranz (1976) 710-712, 1132-49; a f a m i l y
o f seers: SEG 16 n o . 193, w i t h an e p i g r a m a l l u d i n g t o A m p h i a r a o s
(Thebais fr. 7 Davies = P i n d . Ol. 6.13).
22. W. Schubart, Amtliche Berichte aus den Kgl. Preussischen
Kunstsammlungen 38 (1916/17) 189 f.; see G . Z u n t z , Opuscula Selecta
(1972) 8 8 - 1 0 1 ; P. M . Fräser, Ptolemaic Alexandria I I (1972) 345 f.;
B u r k e r t (1987a) 33. C f . I I T i m o t h y 3:14 (and 2:1): " k n o w f r o m
w h o m y o u have learnt . . . "
23. O . K e r n , Die Inschriften von Magnesia (1900) n o . 215 a; cf.
A . H e n r i c h s , HSCP 82 (1978) 123-137.
24. M . B e r t h e l o t , Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (1888) I I
30.7: EÔQXUKXC; . . . tmÖEvi u E x a ö i ö ö v a i EL LIT) LIÖVOV TEKVWL x c a
tyikun yvr\oiwi. PGM 4.475: (.lövan 6 E TEXVCOI J t a p a ö o x d ; cf.
1.193.
25. T h e real existence o f "Asclepiads" i n the classical p e r i o d ,
w h i c h had been contested b y E. J . and L . Edelstein, Asclepius I I
(1945) 52-63, was p r o v e d b y an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l p h i ; see J .
Bousquet, " D e l p h e s et les Asclepiades," BCH 80 (1956) 579-593;
SEG 16 n o . 326; M . Gamberale, "Ricerche sul G E N O S degli A s -
clepiadi," RAL 33 (1978) 8 3 - 9 5 ; S. M . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Ancient Cos
(1978) 257-263. Asclepiads are m e n t i o n e d b y Plato Prot. 311b, Rep.
408b, Phdr. 270c; the physician E r y x i m a c h o s i n Symp. i86e refers
to Asclepius as " o u r ancestor"; " t h e y were trained at their parents'
f r o m c h i l d h o o d " : Galen Anat.Admin. 2.1, I I 280 f. K ü h n ; Soran.
Vit .Hippocr. 1 f.
26. L . Edelstein, The Hippocratic Oath (1943), reedited i n L .
Edelstein, Ancient Medicine (1967) 3 - 6 3 , esp. 4 0 - 4 4 ; he was t h i n k -
i n g o f a special Pythagorean p r o v i s i o n , because he failed t o see the
craftsmen's t r a d i t i o n .
27. Lex 5, I V 642 L i t t r e .
28. C o d e x H a m m u r a p i § 188; B o r g e r (1979) 37; ANET 174 f.
29. bn nsk; see C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note
10 and at n o t e 62.
30. Mudü, mär ummani: Schrank (1908) 16; cf. mär bare, " s o n
179
N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 5 - 4 6
o f the seer," Z i m m e r n (1901) n o . 1.1 p. 97 f.; Z i m m e r n p. 87 o n

the " g u i l d " o f seers. Cf. A m o s 7:14: " I a m n o t a p r o p h e t , n o r the
son o f a p r o p h e t . "
31. M . Weinfeld, The Organizational Pattern and the Penal Code
of the Qumran Sect (1986) 61; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 37, 47, i n .
32. Z i m m e r n (1901) 118 f., n o . 24.19-22.
33. D i o d . 2 . 2 9 . 4 — h i s source cannot be i d e n t i f i e d ; p r o b a b l y
n o t Poseidonios; cf. FGrHist I I C p. 157.
34. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 131-149; Pfiffig (1975) 3 6 - 4 1 ,
115-127. J. H e u r g o n , " T a r q u i t i u s Priscus et l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de
l ' o r d r e des haruspices sous l ' e m p e r e u r C l a u d e , " Latomus 12 (1953)
402-417.
35. Tac. Ann. 11.15: Primores Etruriae . . . retinuisse scientiam et
in familias propagasse; C i c . Div. 1.92: ut de principum film X ex sin-
gulis Etruriae populis in disciplinam traderentur; ad Fam. 6.6.3 (to A .
Caecina): Tuscae disciplinae, quam a pâtre . . . acceperas.
36. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 3.70; see below, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 9.
37. D i o d . 1.73.5; J. Bidez and E C u m o n t , Les mages hellénisés
I I (1938) 8 f., 119. Siberian shamanism t o o is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m fa-
ther t o son; see M . Eliade, Schamanismus und archaische Ekstasetech-
nik (1957) 22, 24 f., 28 f., 3 0 - 3 2 .
38. N o t e d as a case o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g b y S z e m e r é n y i
(1974) 157; F e h l i n g (1980) 15 f.
39. Plat. Rep. 408b, Leg. 769b. For o r i e n t a l examples see notes
2 8 - 3 0 , above.
40. VIEÇ ' A x c a o r v belongs t o the H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s ; o r i e n t a l
influence is b y n o means excluded even i n this case (see Chapter 3,
" F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s ' " ) . A u ô ô r v i t a î ô e ç :
H d t . 1.27.4. "Sons o f H a i t i " ( = H i t t i t e s ) , "sons o f M i t t a n n i " (mare
Hatti, mare Mittanni) i n a treaty between H i t t i t e s and H u r r i t e s :
E. F. Weidner, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien (1923) 20.68, etc.
41. "Sons o f m e n " equivalent t o " m e n , " Gospel o f T h o m a s 28;
see A . G u i l l a u m o n t i n Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions
Presented to G. Quispel (1981) 191.
HEPATOSCOPY
i . A B a b y l o n i a n hepatoscopy text was first p u b l i s h e d b y L e n -

o r m a n t i n 1873; cf. B e z o l d i n Blecher (1905) 247. For general ref-
erences t o the B a b y l o n i a n provenience o f Greek hepatoscopy see
180
N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 6 - 4 8
B o u c h é - L e c l e r c q (1879/82) I 170; Farnell (1911) 248 f. O n the M e s -

o p o t a m i a n - E t r u s c a n relations see Boissier (1905); Blecher (1905),
esp. n.5; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I ; R. Pettazzoni, Stud. Etr. 1 (1927) 195-
199; N o u g a y r o l (1955b) a n d (1966); M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etmscologia
(1963 ) 247 f.; Pfiffig (1975) 115-127. For M e s o p o t a m i a see H . D i l -
5
l o n , Assyro-Babylonian Liver-Divination (1932); A . Boissier, Man-

tique babylonienne et mantique hittite (1935); G. C o n t e n a u , La divina-
tion chez les Assyriens et les Mesopotamiens (1940); La divination en
Mésopotamie ancienne, 14 R e n c o n t r e Assyriologique International
e
(1966); N o u g a y r o l (1968); Jeyes (1980); Starr (1983); M e y e r (1987).

2. See HKL I I I 96. A first f o u n d a t i o n was laid b y Boissier
(1905); a r i c h selection i n G e r m a n translation is t o be f o u n d i n j a s -
t r o w (1905/12) I I 213-415. See R. Labat, Commentaires assyro-
babyloniennes sur les présages (1933); B . Meissner, O m i n a z u r E r -
kenntnis der E i n g e w e i d e des O p f e r t i e r s , " AOF 9 (1933) 118-122;
J. N o u g a y r o l , "Textes hépatoscopiques d ' é p o q u e ancienne c o n -
servés au M u s é e d u L o u v r e , " RA 38 (1941) 6 7 - 8 8 ; A . Goetze, " R e -
ports o n Acts o f E x t i s p i c y f r o m O l d B a b y l o n i a n and Kassite
T i m e s , " JCS 11 (1973) 89 ff; Starr (1983).
3. F o u n d i n 1877; see W. Deecke, " D a s T e m p l u m v o n P i -
acenza," Etruskische Forschungen 4 (1880); Blecher (1905) 201; T h u -
l i n (1905/09) I I 20 f., 37-39, pis. I , I I ; i d e m , Die Götter des Martianus
Capella und die Bronzeleber von Piacenza (1906); Pfiffig (1975) 121-
127; L . B . van der Meer, The Bronze Liver of Piacenza: Analysis of a
Polytheistic Structure (1987). A n o t h e r liver m o d e l , made o f clay,
f r o m Falerii: N o u g a y r o l (1955b) 513, 515-517; Pfiffig (1975) 116 f.
fig- 45-
4. B M B u 89-4-26, 238, published b y T . G. Pinches, CT 6
(1898) pis. 1-3; A . Boissier, Note sur un monument babylonien se rap-
portant à l'extispicine (1899); T h u l i n (1905/09) I I p l . I I ; Meissner
(1920/25) I I fig. 40; N o u g a y r o l , RA 38 (1941) 77-79. A n o t h e r ex-
emplar, B M R m 620, i n T h u l i n p l . I l l and Boissier (1905) 7 6 - 7 8 ; a
t h i r d i n N o u g a y r o l (1966).
5. Blecher (1905) 199-203, 241-245.
6. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 30.
7. See n o w M e y e r (1987). H i t t i t e s : KUB I V 71-75, X X X V I I
6 8 - 7 2 nos. 216-230; A . Goetze, Kulturgeschichte Kleinasiens (1957 ) 2
pis. 11, 2 1 . M a r i : M . R u t t e n , RA 35 (1938) 3 6 - 7 0 . A l a l a k h : L .

Woolley, Alalakh (1955) 2 5 0 - 2 5 7 p l . 59. Tell el H a j j : R. A . Stucky,
181
NOTES TO PAGES 4 8 - 4 9
AK 16 (1973) 84 p i . 15.2; U g a r i t : Ugaritica V I (1969) 91-119; cf.

165-179; O . L o r e t z , Leberschau Siindenbock Azazel in Ugarit und Is-
rael (1985). H a z o r : B . Landsberger and H . T a d m o r , Israel Explor.J.
14 (1964) 201-218. M e g g i d o : H . T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) n o .
1193. C y p r u s : BCH 95 (1971) 384 w i t h f i g . 93a; Kadmos 11 (1972)
185 f. A t e x t f r o m Tarsos: Goetze (1939) 12-16.
8. Pfiffig (1975) 117. M e y e r (1985), b y contrast, suggests the
Etruscans b r o u g h t hepatoscopy w i t h t h e m w h e n they i m m i g r a t e d
f r o m the East i n the age o f the Sea Peoples.
9. I n the e n u m e r a t i o n o f Etruscan saecula, Varro i n Cens. 17,
the first f o u r o f these are g i v e n r o u n d n u m b e r s , 100 each, b u t then
specific n u m b e r s are presented, a c c o r d i n g t o celebrations actually
held. T h i s indicates that f r o m about 600 B . C . Etruscans h a d d e -
t a i l e d — w r i t t e n - — d o c u m e n t a t i o n , i n contrast t o vague " r e c o n -
s t r u c t i o n s " about the earlier p e r i o d ; cf. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 66; see
also above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," n o t e 36.
10. See C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 18.
11. //. 1.69; cf. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82) I 168 f.
12. //. 24.221; Od. 21.145, 22.318-323.
13. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 1.30; cf. Lydos Mag. prooem.
14. Van der M e e r (1979); J . L . D u r a n d and F. Lissarrague, He-
phaistos 1 (1979) 92-108; R . B l o c h , BCH suppl. 14 (1986) 7 7 - 8 3 ;
the so-called D i o t i m a statue f r o m M a n t i n e a : BCH 12 (1888) 3 7 6 -
380; Blecher (1905) p i . 3.3; H . M o b i u s , Jdl 49 (1934) 4 5 - 6 0 .
15. Plat. Phdr. 244c: TEX.EIOTEQOV x a l EVTIUCJTEQOV |xavxtxf|
oioovtoTixfig.
16. Tac. Hist. 2.3.1: scientiam artemque haruspicum accitam et Ci-
licem Tamiram intulisse . . . ipsa, quatn intulerant, scientia hospites ces-
sere: tantum Cinyrades sacerdos consulitur. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82)
I 170 combines this w i t h the c u l t o f Zeus S p l a n c h n o t o m o s , " c u t -
t i n g the entrails" (Hegesandros i n A t h . 174 a) and the alleged i n -
v e n t i o n o f sacrifice o n C y p r u s (cf. B u r k e r t [1975] 76 f . ) . H e r o d o t u s
2.58 asserts that sacrificial d i v i n a t i o n came f r o m E g y p t ; there is
n o t h i n g t o substantiate this c l a i m .
17. H s c h . s.v. pylai = A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 Kassel-Austin; C i c .
Div. 1.91; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," n o t e 65.
18. O n e e x a m p l e , f r o m the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (116624), is often
illustrated, e . g . , Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) p i . Ha; C a q u o t a n d L e i b o v i c i
182
N O T E S TO P A G E S 49-51
(1968) opposite p. 32; T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976)

194; i t is dated t o 7 0 0 - 5 0 0 B . C . See S. S m i t h , " T h e Face o f H u m -
baba," Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology n (1924) 107-114 and
fiRAS (1926) 4 4 0 - 4 4 2 .
19. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 206 p i . 32 n o . 215;
cf. below, " F o u n d a t i o n Deposits," note 10. For O r t h e i a see above,
" O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 34.
20. T h e " p l a c e " (mazzazu), the " p a t h " (padanu), the
" s t r e n g t h " (dananu), the "gate o f the palace" (bah ekalli), the lulmu
(unclear), the " g a l l " (martu), the "left p a t h o f the g a l l " (padan sumel
marti), the " f i n g e r " (ubanu), the " y o k e " (niru), the " a p p e n d i x " ( p r o -
cessus papillaris) (sibtu); seejeyes (1978).
21. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 5 0 - 5 4 ; the most detailed Greek text
is Rufus Onom. 158.5 f. ed. D a r e m b e r g - R u e l l e (nvXai, TQCXJTECO:,
udxoaoa, ovu§). " G a t e " : Eur. El. 828, A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 Kassel-
A u s t i n , Plat. Tim. 71c, A r i s t . Hist.an. 496b32. " H e a d " : see note 23,
b e l o w ; cf. T h u l i n 3 0 - 3 4 . " H e a d o f the l i v e r " (res amutim): AHw
46b. " H e a d o f the f i n g e r " (res ubanim): AHw 975a. " R i v e r " : H s c h .
s.v. potamos. " R i v e r o f the l i v e r " (nar amutim): AHw 46b, T h u l i n
54. " P a t h " : H s c h . s.v. akeleutha. A " w e a p o n " i n the liver: AHw
46b; cf. uex/capa i n Rufus. See also N o u g a y r o l (1955) 512; Starr
(1983) 7 7 - 9 1 -
22. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 34 f., f o l l o w i n g Boissier (1905) 2 2 0 -
234; Starr (1983) 15-24.
23. M i s s i n g " h e a d " : Plut. Kim. 18.5, Marc. 29; L i v . 41.14 f.
T w o "heads": Sen. Oed. 353-365; Lucan Bell.civ. 1.618-629; t o o -
direct lines are d r a w n b y W. G. Schileico, " E i n O m e n t e x t Sargons
von A k k a d u n d sein N a c h k l a n g bei römischen D i c h t e r n , " AOF 5
(1928/29) 214-218.
24. A . Boissier, Mémoires de la Société linguistique 11 (1901)
e x x x i x , 330; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 3 n . i ; A . E r n o u t and A . M e i l l e t ,
Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine (1959'') 290, w i t h ques-
tion mark.
25. AHw 46.
26. M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etruscologia (1963 ) 247 f.
5
27. AHw 1350 f ; cf. Z i m m e r n (1901) 88 f.

28. C i c . Div. 2.28: nec esse unam omnium scientiam; cf. Blecher
(1905) 202.
183
29. T h e m a i n texts are collected i n Prinz (1979) 382-384, w h o

t h i n k s all o f i t is p u r e i n v e n t i o n ; see also I . Löffler, Die Melampodie
(1963) 47-51-
30. T h e so-called M a d u w a t t a s t e x t , A . Goetze, Maduwattas,
M i t t e i l u n g e n der Vorderasiatisch-ägyptischen Gesellschaft 32
(1928) 37; o n the date o f this text, see H . O t t e n , Sprachliche Stellung
und Datierung des Maduwatta-Textes (1969); J. D . M u h l y , Historia 23
(1974) I 3 9 - H 5 ; R- D - B a r n e t t , CAH I I 2 (1975) 363-366.
3
31. KAI n o . 26, I 16, I I 11, I I I 12; see F. B r o n , Recherches sur

les inscriptions de Karatepe (1979) 172-176; Barnett, CAH I I 2 (1975) 3
363-366; A . Strobel, Der spätbronzezeitliche Seevölkersturm (1976)

31-38.
32. X a n t h o s the L y d i a n , FGrHist 765 F 17. A name mo-qo-so
also appears i n Linear B, K N D e 1381 B; P Y Sa 774.
33. For M a l l o s see RE X I V 916 f.; f o u r t h - c e n t u r y coins have a
w i n g e d figure reminiscent o f the w i n g e d sun disk o f Syrian-Persian
i c o n o g r a p h y ; one type o f these coins has a b i l i n g u a l , A r a m a i c -
Greek i n s c r i p t i o n ; see C. M . Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek
Coins (1978) 285.
34. " I f a w o m a n gives b i r t h t o a l i o n " occurs i n an A k k a d i a n
text, as i n H d t . 1.84; cf. C i c . Div. 1.53; see G. Bunnens, Hommages
RenardU (1968) 130-132.
35. For b i r d s , see H u n g e r (1909) 23-25; Jastrow (1905/12) I I
7 9 8 - 8 1 2 ; E. Reiner, JNES 19 ( i 9 6 0 ) 28. For lecanomancy, see
Z i m m e r n (1901) 85, 89; J. H u n g e r , Becherwahrsagung bei den Baby-
loniern nach zwei Keilschrifttexten aus der Hammurabi-Zeit (1903); Jas-
t r o w (1905/12) I I 7 4 9 - 7 7 5 ; see also Ganszyniec, RE X I I 1879-88
s.v. Lekanomanteia.
36. Aesch. Ag. 322; Farnell (1911) 301; cf.J. N o u g a y r o l , " A l e u -
romancie babylonienne," Orientalia, n.s. 31 (1963) 381—386.
FOUNDATION DEPOSITS
1. See E. D . van B u r e n , Foundation Figurines and Offerings
(1931); Ellis (1968); RIA I I I (1971) 6 5 5 - 6 6 1 s.v. Gründungsbeigaben.
M a g i c a l figurines deposited i n clay capsules are to be distinguished
f r o m these; see R i t t i g (1977); see also J. M . Weinstein, Foundation
Deposits in Ancient Egypt (1973).
2. ANET 356 f.
3. East r o o m o f the sanctuary at Archanes, pebbles: I . Sakel-
184
N O T E S T O P A G E S 54-5 5
larakis, Praktika 1979, 381. M i n i a t u r e vessels, animal bones, one

seal under a r o c k placed i n the r o o m at Knossos where evidence for
cannibalistic feasts seems t o come f r o m : P. Warren i n R. H ä g g and
N . M a r i n a t o s , eds., Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age
(1981) 166. T h r e e pairs o f kylikes under a cult r o o m at T i r y n s : K.
K i l i a n , i b i d . 53.
4. V. Karageorghis, BCH 99 (1975) 831-835.
5. B o a r d m a n (1967) 5 7 - 6 7 and (1980) 57; cf. Chapter 1, " O r i -
ental Products i n Greece," note 38. See n o w i n general for this and
the f o l l o w i n g finds Wells (1988), w h o draws a t t e n t i o n especially
to f o u n d a t i o n deposits o f clay vessels under f o r t i f i c a t i o n walls o f
Asine, 7 2 0 - 7 0 0 B . C .
6. H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH 71/72 (1947/48)
148-254; H . Gallet de Santerre, Delos primitive et archaique (1958)
129; V. R. d ' A . D e s b o r o u g h , The Last Mycenaeans and Their Succes-
sors (1964) 45 f., t h i n k s that the Mycenaean objects had been acci-
dentally discovered and reinterred d u r i n g the b u i l d i n g process.
O n e m a y compare the fact that the Assyrians i n t e n t i o n a l l y sought
for the "ancient temennu" w h e n r e b u i l d i n g temples: Ellis (1968)
147-150.
7. A . B a m m e r , " N e u e G r a b u n g e n an der Zentralbasis des A r -
t e m i s i o n v o n Ephesos," JOEAI 58 (1988) Beiblatt 1-32. For the
older discussion, see P. Jacobsthal, JHS 71 (1951) 85-95; L. W e i -
dauer, Probleme der frühen Elektronprägung (1975) 7 2 - 8 0 ; B o a r d m a n
(1980) 101; A . H e u b e c k , Kadmos 22 (1983) 62; D . Kagan, AJA 86
(1982) 343-360. For Priene, Perachora, I s t h m i a , see Sinn (1985) 136
f. n.23 w i t h further b i b l i o g r a p h y .
8. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 24 f.
9. Cf. the i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m K a l l i p o l i s c o m m a n d i n g the erec-
t i o n o f a statue o f A p o l l o i n o r d e r t o get r i d o f a plague; K. B u -
resch, Klaros (1889) 81—86; J. Krauss, Die Inschriften von Sestos (1980)
n o . 11. O n b o u n d a r y stones, see Die Schriften der römischen Feldmes-
ser, ed. K . L a c h m a n n I (1848) 141.
10. Sinn (1985).
11. Ellis (1968) 42 f.
12. See i b i d . 138-140, 167 f. w i t h the vague f o r m u l a t i o n : " t o
enhance the value o f the b u i l d i n g and the v a l i d i t y o f the ceremonies
connected w i t h its c o n s t r u c t i o n " (140).
13. I b i d . 16, 31, 34; the f o r m u l a ina sipir asiputi i n D . D . L u c k -
185
N O T E S T O P A G E S 5 6 - 5 7
e n b i l l , The Annals of Sennacherib (1924) 137.31 ( = L u c k e n b i l l

[1926/27] I I § 437) and i n S. L a n g d o n , Die neubabylonischen Königs-
inschriften (1912) 62, 4 0 - 4 3 (Nabopolassar).
PURIFICATION
1. P r o k l . Chrestom. p. 106 f. A l l e n = p. 47 Davies; Schob T

//. 11.690a ( I I I 261 Erbse): Jtag' 'Oufjgoot o û x oïôauEv cjjovéa
x a O a i g ö i i e v o v ; b u t cf. //. 24.480 w i t h schob
2. N i l s s o n (1967) I 91 f., 6 3 2 - 6 3 7 ; i d e m , Greek Piety (1948)
41-47; D o d d s (1951) 2 8 - 6 3 ; L. M o u l i n i e r , Le pur et l'impur dans la
pensée et la sensibilité des grecs (1952); b u t Parker (1983) 15 f., 6 6 - 7 0 ,
115 f., 130-143 warns against s i m p l i s t i c ideas o f " d e v e l o p m e n t . "
3. K . M e u l i , " S k y t h i c a , " Hermes 70 (1935) 121-176 = Gesam-
melte Schriften I I (1975) 817-879; cf. D o d d s (1951) 135-178.
4. Farnell (1911) 289; Farnell's b o o k seems t o be the o n l y u n -
prejudiced and careful discussion o f the p r o b l e m t o date, even
t h o u g h he seems n o t to have studied the eastern languages. Cf.
above, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 36.
5. Survey i n HKL I I I 8 5 - 9 3 ; see also Meissner (1920/25) I I
198-241; E. Reiner, La magie babylonienne (1966); G. R. Castellino,
" L a letteratura magica," i n Storia délie letterature d'orienté, ed. O .
B o t t o , I (1969) 227-238. Earlier editions include Z i m m e r n (1901),
Fossey (1902), T h o m p s o n (1903/04), T h u r e a u - D a n g i n (1921),
E b e l i n g (1931); there are g o o d editions o f Maqlû ( G . M e i e r 1937)
and Shurpu (E. Reiner 1958).
6. Goetze (1939) 11 ff. (an amulet?).
7. See Z i m m e r n (1901) 8 2 - 9 3 ; Meissner (1920/25) I I 6 4 - 6 6 .
8. Heraclitus B 5; (j)6vü)i cjjövov as a f o r m u l a i n Soph. O.T
100; Eur. Here. 40, I.T. 1213, Or. 510, 816.
9. Aesch. Bum. 441, frs. 8 9 - 9 3 Radt; w r i t t e n H I E I Q N on a
vase p a i n t i n g , i.e., associated w i t h ixÉTT|ç, suppliant; E. S i m o n ,
Würzburger Jahrb. 1 (1975) 177-185. FIdt. 1.35.2 says that the L y d -
ians had the same m e t h o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n as the Greeks. M y t h has
even A p o l l o u n d e r g o p u r i f i c a t i o n after k i l l i n g , be i t w i t h K a r m a n o r
in Crete (Paus. 2.30.3, 10.7.2; Schob P i n d . Pyth. hypothesis c), at
Tempe (Hymn of Aristonoos at Delphi I 17, p. 163 P o w e l l ; A e l . V.LI.
3.1), o r t h r o u g h exile w i t h A d m e t u s (Eur. Alk. 5-7).
10. Aesch. Eum. 281: L i i a o i i a exuX/utov; 283: x a 8 a g u . o î ç
rector) x o i g o x x o v o i ç ; cf. 4 4 8 - 4 5 2 . T h e m o s t detailed description
186
NOTES T O PAGES 5 7 - 5 9
o f p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m m u r d e r i n later literature is i n A p o l l o n i u s
Rhodius 4.662-717; see Parker (1983) 370-374. There is n o w an
extensive "sacred l a w " f r o m Selinus, fifth century B . C . , i n the J.
Paul G e t t y M u s e u m , part o f w h i c h contains detailed prescriptions
for p u r i f i c a t i o n ; i t w i l l be published b y M . Jameson, D . Jordan,
and Roy K o t a n s k y .
11. //. 1.3 14: " T h e y t h r e w the lymata i n t o the sea."
12. L o u v r e K 710: A . D . Trendall and A . C a m b i t o g l o u , The
Red-Figured Vases of Apulia I (1978) n o . 4/229; G. Schneider-
H e r m a n n , AK 13 (1970) 59 p i . 30.1; A . Kossatz-Deissmann, Dra-
men des Aischylos auf westgriechischen Vasen (1978) 107-111; cf. R. R.
Dyer, " T h e Evidence for A p o l l o P u r i f i c a t i o n Rituals at D e l p h i and
A t h e n s , " JHS 89 (1969) 3 8 - 5 6 , w i t h additional illustrations f r o m
vases.
13. Farnell (1911) 129 f. For M e s o p o t a m i a n b l o o d rituals see
L. C a g n i i n F. V a t t i o n i e d . , Sangue e antropologia biblica (1981) 7 4 -
76; R. G e l l i o , i b i d . 4 3 8 - 4 4 5 . T h e r e are i m p o r t a n t b l o o d rituals i n
H i t t i t e and H u r r i t e r i t u a l texts, t o o .
14. E. L a n g l o t z and M . H i r m e r , Die Kunst der Westgriechen
(1963) 24; A . D . T r e n d a l l , The Red-Figured Vases of Lucania, Cam-
pania and Sicily (1967) 602 n o . 103; G. S c h n e i d e r - H e r r m a n n , AK
13 (1970) 59 f. p i . 30.2; a s i m i l a r representation is f o u n d o n a cameo
f r o m the C o l l e c t i o n Fouad, RML I I 2574. For the m y t h o f the
Proetids see B u r k e r t (1983a) 168-173.
15. Cf. Soph. Tr. 1235: "he m i g h t be sick o n account o f aveng-
i n g d e m o n s , " ei; akaoxÖQMV v o o o i .
16. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 16-21 ( w i t h slight adjustments o f
the translation); Meissner (1920/25) I I 222.
17. See the c o m i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the Proetids
i n D i p h i l o s fr. 125 Kassel-Austin, M e l a m p u s o p e r a t i n g " w i t h one
t o r c h , one squill . . . w i t h sulphur, asphalt, and l o u d - r o a r i n g sea."
18. O v . Fast. 6.158-162. T h e r e is an equally close parallel i n a
H i t t i t e i n c a n t a t i o n text; see H . Kronasser, Die Sprache 7 (1961) 140-
167; V. Flaas, Orientalia 40 (1971) 4 1 0 - 4 3 0 ; FI. S. Versnel, ZPE 58
(1985) 267.
19. Od. 5.396: öTiryeQög öe 01 eôae öaiLiorv. For the d o g l i k e
Erinyes see Aesch. Cho. 1054, Bum. 264-267; see also below, " S u b -
stitute Sacrifice," n o t e 2.
20. arrat saggaste i n Shurpu 5.48 f. Closer to the Greek is the
187
NOTES TO PAGES ÖO-Ö2
O l d Testament: the spilled b l o o d " c r i e s " f r o m the earth, Gen. 4:10,

j u s t as i n Aesch. Cho. 4 0 0 - 4 0 4 .
21. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 10; cf. Parker
(1983) 125 f.
22. For the f i g u r i n e s , see R i t t i g (1977) 188-194. E x p u l s i o n o f
"ravenous h u n g e r " (bulimos) at C h a i r o n e i a : P l u t . Q.Conv. 693 f.:
8§<JL> ß o ü X t i i o v eoto ôè JtÀoûxov x a l û y i e t a v .
23. U n c l e a n hands, etc.: T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138-141; cf.
L e v i t i c u s 5:2 f.; " L o r d o f g u i l t " (bel ami): Shurpu I I I 134-137;
a ß X a ß f | c avvovaîa: Aesch. Eum. 285. " N o s p e a k i n g " : i b i d . 448
and i n the a e t i o l o g y o f the Anthesteria r i t u a l , B u r k e r t (1983a) 221 f.
24. Ludlul bel nemeqi I I I 23-28. L a m b e r t ( i 9 6 0 ) 48 f.; cf. ANET
436, Castellino (1977) 487. Branchos: A p o l l o d o r u s o f K e r k y r a i n
C l e m . Strom. 5.48.4; C a l l i m . fr. 1 9 4 . 2 6 - 3 1 .
25. F o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this f i g u r e — o f t e n b u t w r o n g l y
called Oannes after Berossos, FGrHist 680 F 1 § 4—see K o l b e
(1981) 14-30; cf. AHw 58 s.v. apkallu(m); represented, e . g . , beside
the bed o f the sick o n the L a m a s h t u tablet (see below, " L a m a s h t u ,
L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 15); representation f r o m Terqa, n o r t h e r n
Syria: Genge (1979) 44 r e f e r r i n g t o Annales archéologiques de Syrie 2
(1952) 179 p l . 2.
26. D e m o s t h . 18.259; H a r p o k r . s.v. àjtoiidxxtuv; Soph. fr. 34
Radt: oxpaxoû x a o a Q x f | ç xàjtoiiayLidxcov ïôpiç. A real case o f " p u -
r i f y i n g " an a r m y : X e n o p h . Anab. 5.7.35; cf. W. K . P r i t c h e t t , The
Greek State at War I I I (1979) 200 f.
27. AHw 442 f.; Z i m m e r n (1901) 92; Schrank (1908) 81-88.
28. AHw 509; S o p h r o n fr. 5 K a i b e l ; for M e l a m p u s see note 17,
above.
29. Shurpu 1.13, 18, r e v . 9 ' , 5 . 6 0 - 7 2 ; K r a t i n o s fr. 250 Kassel-
A u s t i n ; D i p h i l o s fr. 125.3 ( s e e
note 17, above); T h e o p h r . Char.
16.14; OKikfat) 'EmiiEViÔEioç: T h e o p h r . H.Plant. 7.2.1.
30. Shurpu 8.89 f.; Maqlû 7 . 8 1 .
31. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21.1-38; 138 n o . 30 C 9.
32. H s c h . : 4>aQfxdxrp r\ %vxça fjv éxoîiiaÇov x o î ç x a o a t o o u a L V
xàç KÔXEIÇ. I n the L a t i n c o m e d y Querolus (p. 38.10-15 Ranstrand)
the w o u l d - b e m a g i c i a n asks f o r a l i t t l e coffer, arcula inanis . . . in
qua lustrum Mud exportetur foras. I n the H i t t i t e Telepinu t e x t , "Tele-
p i n u s ' rage, anger, malice fand] f u r y " are enclosed i n subterranean
bronze caldrons; ANET 128.
188
N O T E S T O P A G E S 6 2 - 6 4
33. E b e l i n g (1931) 138 n o . 30 C 11; 82 n o . 21.38; Shurpu 7.64

ff.; cf. Ebeling (1918/19) 1 3 3 = Castellino (1977) 633.
34. H i p p o e r . V I 362 L i t t r e .
35. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138 f. Petronius 134.1: quod pur-
gamentum in node calcasü in trivio out cadaver; L i v . 8.10.12: ubi ilhtd
signum defossum erit, eo magistratum Romanum escendere fas non esse.
36. A r i s t . fr. 496 Rose = Paus. Att. cj> 5 Erbse; Leviticus 14:4-
7; 4 9 - 5 3 -
37. D i o g . L a e r t . 1.114 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 T 1.
38. E b e l i n g (1931) 150 n o . 30 F 35 f.
39. Historia Alexandri Magni 2.31.3 K r o l l ; Testamentum Alex-
andri, R. M e r k e l b a c h , Die Quellen des griechischen Alexanderromans
(1977 ) 254; cf. Paus. 8.18.6: T h e water o f Styx can be kept o n l y i n
2
a horse's hoof.
40. D i o g . L a e r t . 8.3. Epimenides m e n t i o n e d the Idaean cave i n
the c o n t e x t o f the m y t h o f Zeus, FGrHist 457 F 18. T h e name o f
E p i m e n i d e s ' m o t h e r , Balte, has been associated w i t h Semitic
Ba alat;
c
G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 659; T. Poliakov, RhM 130 (1987)
411 f.
41. See Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 13.
42. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 12.
43. See note 9, above.
44. A p o l l o and numenia: H d t . 6.57.2; Philochoros, FGrHist
328 F 88, numeniastai o f A p o l l o D e l p h i n i o s : F. Graf, M H 3 1 (1974)
214; cf. RF X V I I 1293. F o r the celebration o f the n e w m o o n i n
Israel see, e.g., I Samuel 20:3, I I K i n g s 4:23, Ezra 3:1. A p o l l o and
"Seven": EßöotiayETac;, Aesch. Sept. 800 f ; cf. H d t . 6.57.2;
'EßööitEioc,: IG I I / I I I 4974; 'Eßöouou'urv: Inschriften von Erythrai
2
(1972/73) 207.87; a festival " E ß ö o i i a i a o f the Molpoi o f M i l e t o s ,

LSAM 50.6; 2 i , etc. See also B u r k e r t (1975).
45. See notes 9 a n d 25, above. Rhakios is the husband o f
M a n t o , m o t h e r o f M o p s o s , A k k a d i a n rahu is a sort o f magician;
AHw 944a.
46. S. L e v i n , SMEA 13 (1971) 31-50 c o m m e n t i n g o n nektar;
B u r k e r t (1975) 77; cf. AHw 907 (qataru), 930 f. (qutrenum, sacrifice
o f incense); HAL 1022-24; o n
I I K i n g s 23:5, e.g., the f o r m is jeq-
atter(u), " t h e y b u r n t incense," w h i c h , transcribed, w o u l d produce
s o m e t h i n g like E x d B n o a v . For the mirage o f a G r e e k - s o u n d i n g suf-
fix i n xcxöaoög ( G . N e u m a n n , ZVS 98 [1985] 305 f . ) ; cf. XExdvn,
189
N O T E S T O P A G E S 6 4 - 6 5
C h a p t e r 1, " T h e P r o b l e m of L o a n - W o r d s , " note 11. I t is even m o r e

t e m p t i n g t o assume that the name o f A p h r o d i t e the goddess o f i n -
cense, KuGepeia, is f r o m the same Semitic r o o t ; cf., e.g., H e b r e w
mequtteret, " f i l l e d w i t h fragrance" ( i n spite o f Greek p o p u l a r ety-
m o l o g y c o n n e c t i n g the name w i t h the island Kü8r|pct; the change
T|-£ is l i n g u i s t i c a l l y impossible; cf. G. M o r g a n , " A p h r o d i t e C y -
therea," TAPA 108 [1978] 115-120 for another e t y m o l o g y ) . " H e
cleaned/fumigated w i t h s u l p h u r , " e x d ö r i p e Geeum: //. 16.228; cf.
Od. 22.481 f.
47. AHw 565; the r o o t is used as adjective and verb, the n o u n
is lutu; for its use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n ceremonies, see, e.g., Maqlü 1.102;
1.105; 3.113. O n the p r o b l e m s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n as to \v\xa/Xv-
9QOV see C h a n t r a m e (1968/80) 650 f.; for a detailed investigation
i n t o the m e a n i n g o f these w o r d s see E. Tagliaferro i n Sangue e An-
tropologia Biblica I (1980) 182 n.36, 186-189. For lustrum see note
32, above.
48. O n araru see AHw 65, HAL 88; used as a l o a n - w o r d i n
H u r r i t e ; E. Laroche, RHA 28 (1970) 61. B i l e a m : N u m b e r s 22:6; cf.
above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 4; on d p a see Chantraine
(1968/80) 100 f.
SPIRITS O F T H E D E A D A N D B L A C K MAGIC
1. Cf. above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 19.

2. AHw 263 f.
3. See Rohde (1898), esp. I 2 5 9 - 2 7 7 , " E l e m e n t e des Seelen-
cultes i n der B l u t r a c h e u n d M o r d s ü h n e . "
4. See below, Ch ap te r 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f
Z e u s , ' " note 1.
5. E b e l i n g (1931) 68 f. n o . 15.23-25 (burial i n the context o f a
r i t u a l o f s u b s t i t u t i o n ; cf. C h ap te r 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice").
6. Aesch. Pers. 611-618; cf. Eur. l.T. 159-166: water, m i l k ,
w i n e , honey.
7. Spirits l a c k i n g the " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " (naq me) become u n -
r u l y ; T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 40. A s h u r b a n i p a l reinstated f o o d of-
ferings and " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " for the earlier kings; Streck (1916)
II 250 f.; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 131 n o . 30 A 38; Färber (1977) 150 f.,
text A I I a 158. O n offerings o f water i n the Greek cult o f the dead
see B u r k e r t (1985) 73, 194.
8. N o t i c e d b y T. W i e g a n d , Sechster vorläufiger Bericht über die in
• 190 •
Milet und Didyma vorgenommenen Ausgrabungen, A b h . B e r l i n (1908)

27; hence N i l s s o n (1967) 177 n . i ; RE Suppl. V I I I 136.
9. CAD I I ( A ) 324 s.v. arutu (this w o r d is interpreted differ-
ently b y E b e l i n g [1931] 132 and AHw 72b).
t o . A r i s t o p h . fr. 322 Kassel-Austin; see T . Geizer, ZPE 4
(1967) 123-133.
i t . Esp. i n E b e l i n g (1931) n o . 30 A - F ; n o . 31.
12. I b i d . 84 n o . 21.1; 138 n o . 30 C 1; 142 n o . 30 D r.
13. I b i d . 141 n o . 30 C verso 10 f. = SAHG 341.
14. E b e l i n g (1931) 84 n o . 21 verso 23; cf. Castellino (1977)
647.
15. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 38 f , f r o m the series utukki lemnuti;
Gilgamesh X I I 151 f.; cf. Ebeling (1931) 145 n o . 30 C 22-29.
16. E b e l i n g (1931) 145 n o . 30 E 22.
17. 17. 22.358, Od. 11.73.
18. Plat. Phdr. 244a, Leg. 854b; cf. Trag.Adesp. F 637.16 Snell;
Eur. Phoen. 934: i n b o t h these passages there is a mantis t o deal w i t h
the menima. C f . I . M . L i n f o r t h , "Telestic Madness i n Plato,"
IJCPCP 13 (1946) 163-172; B u r k e r t (1987a) 19, 24.
19. A r i s t . Rhet. 1 4 ^ 2 4 - 2 6 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 F 1.
20. J. T r u m p f , "Fluchtafel u n d Rachepuppe," MDAI (Athens)
73 ('958) 94-102; cf. B u r k e r t (1985) 75; Faraone (1991) and ClAnt
10 (1991) 164-203; Faraone and ü b b i n k (1991) index s.v. voo-
doo dolls. Maqlû 4 . 2 7 - 4 7 ; cf. 1.1; Ebeling (1918/19) I I 38.26
= Castellino (1977) 675.27; Färber (1977) 211-213, text A I I I 10;
E b e l i n g (1931) 133 n o . 30 A subscriptio.
21. Maqlû 1.131 ff. = Castellino (1977) 618, Biggs (1967) 28.
22. Theoer. 2.53.
23. B i g g s (1967), esp. 28.22-24: figurines made o f w a x , fat,
b i t u m e n , g y p s u m ; cf. E b e l i n g (1925).
24. Theocr. 2.162.
25. Plat. Leg. 933b.
26. E b e l i n g (1931) 71 n o . 17.2.
27. T h e second tale i n A . E r m a n , "Papyrus Westcar," i n Die
Literatur der Ägypter (1923) 66; E. B r u n n e r - T r a u t , Alt-Ägyptische
Märchen (1965 ) 12 f. C f . the magical destruction o f A p o p i i n G.
2
Roeder, Der Ausklang der ägyptischen Religion mit Reformation, Zau-

berei und Jenseitsglauben (1961) 150 f.; P. D e r c h a i n , Le papyrus Salt
825 (1965) 161 f.; E. H o r n u n g , Altägyptische Llöllenv or Stellungen,
• 19t •
NOTES TO PAGES 68-69
A b h . L e i p z i g 59.3 (1968) 27; M . J. Raven, " W a x i n E g y p t i a n M a g i c

and S y m b o l i s m , " OMRO 54 (1983) 7-47. Figurines o f w a x and fat
i n H i t t i t e magic: G u r n e y (1954) 162.
28. Text o f Sfire: ANET 660, KAI 222, F i t z m y e r (1967) 14 f.,
16 f. (I 35, 42); L e m a i r e and D u r a n d (1984). Esarhaddon: D . J.
Wiseman, Iraq 20 (1958) 75 f.; ANET 540.608-610; S. Parpola and
K. Watanabe, State Archives of Assyria II: Neo-Assyrian Treaties and
Loyalty Oaths (1988). H i t t i t e : J. F r i e d r i c h , " D e r hethitische Solda-
teneid," ZA 35 (1924) 161-192; ANET 353; N . O e t t i n g e r , Die mili-
tärischen Eide der Hethiter (1976) 6-17; see D . J. M c C a r t h y , Treaty
and Covenant (1963, 1978 ); M . Weinfeld, JAOS
2
93 (1973) 190-199.
B u r n i n g o f effigies is c o m m o n i n Maqlü.
29. S. F e r r i , Abh. Berlin 5 (1925) 19-24; SEC 9 n o . 3; R.
M e i g g s and D . L e w i s , A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions
(1969) n o . 5.44; x r | g i v o g J t X d ö o a v t e g x o X o a ö g xax6xcuov. O n this
text see A . D . N o c k , AR W 24 (1926) 172 f.; A . J. G r a h a m , JHS 80
( i 9 6 0 ) 95-111; M u r r a y (1980) 113-119. A c c o r d i n g to S. Dusanic,
Chiron 8 (1978) 55-76, i t is a f o r g e r y (or " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n " ) f r o m
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.c.
30. PGM 2.34; 4.339, 1419. 2485, 2750, 2912; 5.340, 425;
7-317, 985; 13.923; 70; etc.; i t occurs also i n defixions and o n m a g -
ical gems; see D r e x l e r , RML I I 1584-87.
31. S. Ferri, Notiziario Archeologico 4 (1927) 91-145; SEG 9 n o .
72; U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , " H e i l i g e Gesetze. Eine U r -
k u n d e aus K y r e n e , " Sitzungsberichte B e r l i n (1927) 155-176; G. I .
Luzzato, La Lex Cathartica di Cirene (1936); H . Jeanmaire, REG 58
(1945) 6 6 - 8 9 ; J. Servais, BCH 84 ( i 9 6 0 ) 112-147; LSS 115; Parker
(1983) 332-351. I t m u s t n o w be c o m p a r e d w i t h the u n p u b l i s h e d
lex sacra a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m Selinus; see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , "
note 10.
32. J. G o u l d , " H i k e t e i a , " JHS 93 (1973) 74-103.
33. LSS 115 B 35-39: KOXOOOC, Jtotrioavxa EQOEVCX xou öfj-
X.£ia[v] f| x a X i v o g t | yai'vog imobe'E,ä\ievov jta0TL8[e]LiEV TO LIEQOC;
jtdvTCDV EJtEt ÖE x a jtoifjoEg x d v o i i i ^ o L i e v a , ((>Egovxa Eg vkav
dEgyov £ g £ [ t ] o m x d g x o X o o o g x a i x d uigr|. For c o n j u r i n g a spirit
"either male or female" cf. Maqlü 1.73-86 = Castellino (1977)
Maqlü I I 3 8 - 4 9 = Castellino 620; Maqlü I I 108-110 = Castellino
622 f.; Maqlü I I 131 = Castellino 623; cf. 632.28-30.
34. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21 recto lines 1-39, cf. i b i d . 82
192
NOTES TO PAGES 7O-72
f., 84 f. verso lines 23-32. For the p o t see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , "
notes 31-32.
35. Plat. Rep. 364c: EJtaycoYaic; x t a t x a t xaxaSEauoLc;; Eur.
Hipp. 318: e£ ETtaxxoT) Jir]uovf]c;; cf. T h e o p h r . Char. 16.7; H i p p o c r .
Morb.Sacr. 1, V I 358 L i t t r e ; Vict. 4.89, V I 652 L i t t r e ; Parker (1983)
348.
36. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was first advanced b y H . J. Stukey, CP
32 (1937) 32-43, f o l l o w e d by Parker (1983) 348 f.
37. T h i s was Stukey's o p i n i o n t o o , b u t Parker (1983) 348
thinks the second and t h i r d sections deal w i t h a hikesios w h o is " p a l -
pably h u m a n . "
38. " T o do rites o n , " according to K. D o w d e n , RHR 197
(1980) 415 f.
39. T h u s LSJ s.v. prophero and telisko; cf. S o k o l o w s k i o n LSS
115.40-49.
40. H d t . 5.66.1. T h e n e w lex sacra f r o m Selinus (note 31,
above) speaks about establishing a cult to an elasteros (opposite to
hikesios?).
41. LSJ Suppl. has " d u b . sense" for autophonos, b u t " t o sup-
plicate" for aphiketeuein. autophonos occurs a few times i n poetry; i t
refers to suicide i n O p p . Cyn. 2.480.
42. l o o a v x a line 52 i n o p p o s i t i o n to looctfiEVog line 40 f. m u s t
be transitive. Is i t the corpse o f the suicide w h i c h "is seated"?
43. XQi<jnjA.fcrv is preceded b y . . . ]jtoA.iov; aAAoJjro?uav is a
possible supplement. [tiEXpi 6pco]v ( [ E m l a p d ) ] v is the supplement
at line 55 b y O l i v e r i o p r i n t e d i n LSS. Cf. Plat. Leg. 873d: A suicide
is to be i n t e r r e d "at the borders o f the twelve sections."
44. Cf. E p i c h a r m . fr. 165 K a i b e l ; FIsch. s.v. kreittones; Schol.
A r i s t o p h . Av. 1490.
45. There seems to be a certain parallel to the Skira procession
in A t h e n s , an apopompe w h e r e a ram's fleece is o f some i m p o r t a n c e ;
see B u r k e r t (1985) 230.
46. Paus. 2.18.2; EOtvDg xcu Jtoiv&q xcci J t p o a x p o j t a i o u g xarv
61' EXELVOV rjxnxTlxoxoov: P o l y b . 23.10.2.
47. A n t i p h . 2.3.10; 4.1.4; 4.2.8 (the passages are parallel, b u t
LSJ translates " s u p p l i a n t for vengeance" at 2.3.10 and "avenger" at
4.2.8); Aesch. Ch. 286 f.: xo y a p OXOXELVOV xarv EVEpxEpurv PeXog
EX JtpooTpOJtaiarv EV Y£VEL JXEJXXOIXOXCOV, " t h e dark missile o f those
below, f r o m prostropaioi k i l l e d w i t h i n the f a m i l y . " T h e ancient c o m -
193
m e n t a t o r explains: " f r o m A g a m e m n o n , w h o supplicates the gods

to o b t a i n avenge"; this has misled LSJ astray t o translate " s u p p l i a n t
for vengeance" instead o f avenging spirit w h o "attaches h i m s e l f "
to the c u l p r i t . R o h d e (1898) I 264 n.2. had i t r i g h t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
his a n i m i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " D i e zürnende Seele w i r d z u m
KQoaxQÖnaioc,." See also Aeschin. 2.158 w i t h H a r p o k r . s.v. JTQO-
a T Q Ö J t a i o v tuaatxa. C f . H . J. Stukey, CP 32 (1937) 40; Parker
(1983) 108, 349.
SUBSTITUTE SACRIFICE
1. See B u r k e r t (1979) 7 0 - 7 2 and (1981b) 115 f.

2. See F u r l a n i (1940) 285-305, esp. 290 f.; cf. Chapter 2, " P u -
r i f i c a t i o n , " at note 19.
3. Paus. A t t . e 35 ed. Erbse; Z e n o b . A t h . 1.8 p. 350 M i l l e r ; the
c o m m o n source is D i d y m o s ; cf. R u p p r e c h t , RE X V I I I 4, 1754 f.;
cf. W. Sale, RhM 118 (1975) 265-284. M e n a n d . Phasma 80 Sand-
bach and fr. 368 K o e r t e .
4. L e x X I I Tab. V I I I 24a, explained b y Festus 347, 351 M =
470, 476 L.
5. E b e l i n g (1931) 6 5 - 6 9 n o . 15; cf. F u r l a n i (1940) 294 f. and
RA 38 (1941) 60. A s i m i l a r b u t shorter text i n Ebeling 69 f. n o . 16;
for Ereshkigal see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 30; f o r libations see
above, " S p i r i t s o f the Dead and Black M a g i c , " note 5.
6. Gell. 5.12.12.
7. A e l . Nat.An. 12.34; cf. B u r k e r t (1983a) 183.
8. AHw 109 f
ASCLEPIUS AND ASGELATAS
1. K y r i e l e i s (1979); cf. A . F u r t w ä n g l e r , AK zi (1978) 113 f.

2. F u h r (1977) 136.
3. Paus. 2.27.2, c o n f i r m e d b y coins; cf. F u h r (1977) 140 f i g .
10. T h e r e l i e f f r o m E p i d a u r u s , A t h e n s N M 1426: U . H a u s m a n n ,
Kumt und Heiltum (1948) f i g . 10; K . K e r e n y i , Der göttliche Arzt
(1948) f i g . 15; cf. N i l s s o n (1906) 409 n.7.
4. A p o l l o d . , FGrHist 244 F 138.
5. IG I I / I I I 4962 = LSCG
2
21.9 f.: moiv nönava xoia-
xwriYETcag j t ö j t a v a xoia.
6. Plato, Phaon fr. 188.16 Kassel-Austin. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f the
verse is c o r r u p t ; see Kassel-Austin for suggested emendations.
194
7. K. L . T a l l q v i s t , Akkadische Götterepitheta (1938) 5; Fuhr

(1977); AHw 92b; i n A r a m a i c - S y r i a n asja, physician, is a current
word, too.
8. Asgelatas: IG X I I 3.248 = LSCG 129 = SIG 977.8, 27
(end o f second c e n t u r y B . C . ) ; Asgelaia: IG X I I 3.249; cf. N i l s s o n
(1906) 175 f.
9. See U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , hyllos von Epidauros
(1886) 93. A H i t t i t e e t y m o l o g y f o r Asclepius is advanced b y Sze-
m e r e n y i (1974) 155.
10. Esp. at the Black Sea; W. M . Calder, A]A 75 (1971) 3 2 5 -
329; S E C 30 n o . 880; A r i s t o p h . Av. 584, Pint. 11, etc.
11. Paus. 8 . 4 1 . 7 - 9 ; even i f the name E p i k u r i o s o r i g i n a l l y des-
ignated the g o d o f mercenaries, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " t h e H e l p e r " as
given b y Pausanias shows w h a t Greeks w o u l d n o r m a l l y expect.
12. IG X I I 3 412 (Thera, fifth century B . C . ) ; X I I 3 259, 260
( A n a p h e ) ; A p o l l . R h o d . 4.1716; C a l l i m . fr. 7.23; Aiglatas as a per-
sonal name: Jeffery (1990) 199 n o . 22.
13. x d p o g is n o t f o u n d i n C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80). For kam and
kam sec AHw 452a. F o r s y m p o s i u m couches see Chapter 1, " O r i -
ental Products i n Greece," note 28.
ECSTATIC DIVINATION
1. Heraclitus B 92; Aesch. Ag. 1072-1263; cf. H . L. Jansen,

"Die Kassandragestalt in Aischylos' Agamemnon," Temenos 5
(1969) 107-119; H d t . 8.135; cf. also Pindar Pyth. 4.10 f. o n Medea
prophesying: â[XEvf]c; . . . ctJtejtvenae. Already i n the Odyssey
T h e o k l y m e n o s the seer is said t o be " o u t o f his m i n d , " c«t>paiVEi
(Od. 20.360); cf. S. Scheinberg, HSCP 83 (1979) 16.
2. Plat. Phdr. 244a; the ecstasy o f the Pythia was contested b y
P. A m a n d r y , La mantique apollinienne ä Delphes (1950); and b y J.
Fontenrose, The Delphic Oracle (1978) 204-212, w h o w o u l d a l l o w
"enthusiasm b u t n o t u n c o n t r o l l e d and i r r a t i o n a l f r e n z y " for the
P y t h i a — a s i f d i v i n a t i o n were n o t i r r a t i o n a l i n any case. See D o d d s
(1951) 70-74-
3. Esp. Def.Or. 51.4383-d; interesting details also i n Lucan
Phars. 5.69-236, t h o u g h overlaid w i t h reminiscences o f Virgil
Aeneid V I .
4. Farnell (1911) 303.
5. F. Ellermeier, Prophetie in Mari und Israel (1968); E. N o o r t ,
195
NOTES TO PAGES 8o-8l
Untersuchungen zum Gottesbescheid in Mari (1977); W e n - A m o n :
AN'ET 26; cf. G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 666-668; o n mahhu, mahhutu see
AHw 852 f.
6. Jastrow (1905/12) I I 158-165; L u c k e n b i l l (1926/27) I I 2 3 8 -
241; A NET 449 f.; cf. A . K . Grayson and W. G . L a m b e r t , JCS 18
(1964) 7-30; W W H a l l , Israel Explor.J. 16 (1966) 231-242.
7. See Rzach, RE I I A 2073-2183 s.v. Sibyllen.
8. T h e fame o f the S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e seems t o date f r o m her
rediscovery b y a prophetess at the t i m e o f Alexander; Kallisthenes,
FGrHist 124 F 14; cf. A p o l l o d o r u s , FGrHist 422; Die Inschriften von
Erythrai und Klazomenai I I (1973) 224-228; G r a f (1985) 335-350.
9. T h e o r i g i n and date o f the libri Sibyllini i n R o m e w i l l r e m a i n
controversial; see R. B l o c h i n Neue Beiträge zur Geschichte der Alten
Welt I I (1965) 281-292; R. M . O g i l v i e , A Commentary on Livy I
(1965) 654 f.
10. C f . A . Peretti, La sibilla babilonese nella propaganda ellenistica
(1943); further Semitic e t y m o l o g i e s for Sibylla i n O . G r u p p e , Grie-
chische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte I I (1906) 927; H . Lewy,
Philologus 57 (1898) 350 f.; F. Eilermeier, Sibyllen, Musikanten, Ha-
remsfrauen (1970) 7 - 9 ; R. B . C o o t e , Journal of North West Semitic
Languages 5 (1977) 3 - 8 .
11. Schob Plat. Phdr. 244b = N i k a n o r , FGrHist 146; B e r o s -
sos, FGrHist 680 F 7; cf. Höfer, RML I V 264-269.
12. M . P. N i l s s o n , " D i e älteste griechische Z e i t r e c h n u n g ,
A p o l l o n u n d der O r i e n t , " ARW 14 (1911) 423-448 = Opuscula Se-
lecta I (1951) 3 6 - 6 1 ; i d e m , Die Entstehung und religiöse Bedeutung des
griechischen Kalenders (1918, 1962 ); Nilsson's ideas are o u t d a t e d i n -
2
sofar as Linear B has p r o v e d that there was already a Mycenaean

system o f m o n t h names, b u t this does n o t invalidate the w h o l e o f
his theory. See also A u f f a h r t (1991) 417-420 o n the nineteen-year
p e r i o d . C f . B . C . D i e t r i c h , "Reflections o n the O r i g i n s o f the
O r a c u l a r A p o l l o , " BICS 25 (1978) 1-18. M . L . West t h i n k s i t pos-
sible that t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e m y t h s reached H e s i o d v i a D e l p h i :
JHS 105 (1985) 175.
13. See A . M a l l w i t z and H . M . Lee i n The Archaeology of the
Olympics, ed. W. J . Raschke (1988) 7 9 - 1 0 9 and 110-18.
14. P l u t . Def.Or. 435c, 4 3 7 b — " s p r i n k l i n g an o x w i t h water t o
observe its r e a c t i o n " : Reiner (1960a), 25, 28.
196
NOTES TO PAGE 82
15. See also K . Latte, " T h e C o m i n g o f the P y t h i a , " HThR 33

(1940) 9 - 1 8 .
16. Apollo f r o m A k k a d i a n abullu, A r a m a i c abul, c i t y gate: E.
S i m o n , Die Götter der Griechen (1967) 132; f r o m A k k a d i a n aplu,
son: H . L e w y , Wochenschrift für Klassische Philologie 10 (1893) 860;
L. R. Palmer i n A . H e u b e c k and G. N e u m a n n , eds., Res Mycenaeae
(1983) 362.
LAMASHTU, LAMIA, AND GORGO

r. See Reiner (1960b), esp. 154.
2. F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , RA 18 (1921) 192-198; Frank (1941)
15-23; F I . W. Saggs, " P a z u z u , " AOF ig (1959/60) 123-127;
ANEP 857; f r o m Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli V (1943) 31 figs. 24-25 a n d
pl. I2a-d.
3. I n c u n e i f o r m , the signs mas and bar (no. 74 B o r g e r ) have
become i d e n t i c a l ; the earlier reading had been Labartu. T h e reading
Lamastu was established b y a text published i n 1934; see Frank
(1941) 4 n . 1. Earlier studies include D . W. M y h r m a n , " D i e
L a b a r t u - T e x t e , " ZA 16 (1902) 141-200; reliefs: K . Frank, Babylo-
nische Beschwörungsreliefs, Leipziger Semitistische Studien 3.3
(1908); F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , " R i t u e l s et amulettes contre L a b a r t u , "
RA 18 (1921) 161—198; Frank (1941); F. Koecher, Beschwörungen ge-
gen die Dämonin Lamastu, Diss. B e r l i n (1949); L. J . K r u s i n a - C e r n y ,
" T h r e e N e w A m u l e t s o f L a m a s h t u , " Arch. Orientalin 18.3 (1950)
297-303; H . K l e n g e l , " N e u e L a m a s t u - A m u l e t t e aus den Vordera-
siatischen M u s e e n z u B e r l i n , " Mitt. d. Inst. f. Orientforsch. 7 (1960)
334-355; cf. 8 (1963) 25-29; W. v o n Soden, AOF 20 (1963) 148;
L e i b o v i c i (1971) 92, 95 f.; E. L i c h t y , " D e m o n s a n d P o p u l a t i o n
C o n t r o l , " Expedition 13.2 (1971) 22-26; M . V. L b n i e t t i , " U n i n c a n -
tesimo sumerico c o n t r a la L a m a s t u , " Orientalia 48 (1978) 301-323;
G. W i l h e l m , ZA 69 (1979) 3 4 - 4 0 ; Patzek (1988); see also RML I I I
269; Meissner (1920/25) I I figs. 33-34; ANEP 857. A c o m p r e h e n -
sive survey is given b y W. Farber, RIA V I (1983) 4 3 9 - 4 4 6 ; he m e n -
tions s i x t y - t h r e e reliefs (441-443).
4. Patzek (1988); f o r H u m b a b a a n d dog-leaders see above,
" H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 19; and "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 1.
5. Sappho 178 A V o i g t ; Maas, RE V I I 1005 f. w i t h reference
to m o d e r n Greek beliefs about TuM-d), cf. R. Reitzenstein, Poiman-
197
dres (1904) 299 and ZA 23 (1909) 1 5 7 - 1 6 3 ; ] . C. L a w s o n , Modern

Greek Folktale and Ancient Greek Religion (1910) 176-179.
6. C. Frank, ZA 24 (1910) 161-165; Meissner (1920/25) I I 200;
cf. AHw 275; contra, W. Eilers, Sitzungsber. M ü n c h e n 1979.7, 5^ f
7. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n -
t u r y , " at note 18; and above, "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8.
8. Stesichorus 220 P M G / D a v i e s ; D u r i s , FGrHist 76 F 17;
D i o d . 20.41.3; equated w i t h Gello i n Schob Theoer. 16.38/39C; a l -
lusions i n A r i s t o p h . Vesp. 1035 and 1177, Pax 758, fr. 724 Kassel-
A u s t i n ; cf. Schwenn, RE X I I 5 4 4 - 5 4 6 ; } . Fontenrose, Python (1959)
100-104; o n the p r o b l e m o f Greek p i c t o r i a l representations see Ver-
meule (1977).
9. S t o l l , RML I I 1820 f.; Schwenn, RE X I I 545 f.; L a w s o n
(note 5, above) 173-176.
10. See n o t e 3, above.
11. U g a r i t : J. N o u g a y r o l , Ugaritica V I (1969) 393-408; B o g -
h a z k ö y : i b i d . 405; C a r c h e m i s h : G o l d m a n (1961) p i . 4.1; Z i n c i r l i :
i b i d . p i . 4.2; K l e n g e l (note 3, above) nos. 4 6 - 4 7 ; cf. RIA V I 442.
12. C. C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , Etudes d'archéologie orientale 1
(1895) 8 5 - 9 0 ; cf. W. C u l i c a n , "Phoenician D e m o n s , " JNES 35
(1976) 21-24. Patzek (1988): a m u l e t f r o m P o g g i o C i v i f a t e , 675-650
B.C. Patzek also suggests that H o m e r ' s calling A r t e m i s "lioness for
w o m e n " (//. 21.483) is dependent o n the image and f u n c t i o n o f
Lamashtu.
13. H . Gollancz, " A Selection o f C h a r m s f r o m Syriac M a n u -
scripts," Actes du XI Congrès International des Orientalistes (1897) I V
7 7 - 9 7 , esp.80, 85.
14. Schob A r i s t o p h . Pax 758.
15. For some representations see note 3, above; the standard
i l l u s t r a t i o n is the b i g a m u l e t i n the L o u v r e , C o l l e c t i o n de C l e r c q ,
RML I I I 269, RIA V I 442; the "Mistress o f A n i m a l s " schema is
especially clear i n Meissner (1920/25) I I p l . 34, w h i c h also has a
horse next t o L a m a s h t u .
16. O n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f the G o r g o n see T. G. Karayorga,
rooyeiri Ke<j)cAfj (1970); J. F l o r e n , Studien zur Typologie des Gorgo-
neion (1977); the o r i e n t a l connections are discussed i n C. H o p k i n s ,
" A s s y r i a n Elements i n the Perseus-Gorgon Story," AJA 38 (1934)
341-358; M . E. W i l l , Rev. Arch. V I 27 (1942) 6 0 - 7 6 ; Barnett ( i 9 6 0 )
198
145-158; Hopkins (1961); Goldman (1961); Kantor (1962); Akurgal

(1968) 187; W. Culican, "Phoenician Demons," JNES 35 (1976) 2 1 -
24; Helck (1979) 214 f.; for details borrowed from Pazuzu heads see
Boardman (1980) 79.
17. For Corfu see, e.g., G. Richter, A Handbook of Creek Art
(i959) 63; Schefold (1964) 49. For the horse besides Lamashtu see
note 15, above; Gorgon holding two snakes: gold pendant from
Delphi, Hopkins (1961) pi. 15.2. See also Burkert (1987b) 2 6 - 3 2 .
18. Strab. 16 p. 759; Konon, FGrHist 26 F 1.40; los. Bell.lud.
3.420; Plin. N.H. 5.69; 128; Paus. 4.35.9.
19. Coins of Tarsos: Burkert (1983a) 210 n.26.
20. Burkert (1987b) 28 nn. 7 9 - 8 0 with fig. 2.7, esp. "Williams
cylinder"; Ward (1910) 201 no. 578; P. Amiet, Syria 42 (1965) 245;
also in West (1971) pi. Ha.
21. The so-called Polyphema type: E. Unger, DLZ 85 (1964)
694; M. Knox, JHS 99 (1979) 164 f.
22. Berlin VA 2145; M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible,
and Homer (1893) pi. 31.16; cf. p. 208; A. de Ridder, BCH 22 (1898)
452 fig. 4; Ward (1910) 212 no. 643c; A. Moortgat, Vorderasiatische
Rollsiegel (1940) no. 781; C. Flopkins, AJA 38 (1934) 351 fig. 5 and
(1961) pi. 15.3; Amiet (1976) 26 f.; B. Brentjes, Alte Siegelkunst des
Vorderen Orients (1983) 165, 203, with the information that it was
bought at Baghdad, whereas Ohnefalsch-Richter had made people
think of Cyprus; Burkert (1987a) 276 f. fig. 2.3.
23. E. Kuhnert, RML III 2032; also in Goldman (1961) 21 f.
24. Amiet (1976) 26, preceded by Hopkins (1961) 31.
25. An old and impressive instance: steatite vessel from Kha-
fajah, dated about 2700 B . C . , BM 128887, Strommenger (1962) pi.
38 f; cf. a circular amulet from Luristan in Geneva, Goldman
(1961) pi. lb.
26. Pind. Nem. 1,43-47, fr. 52U 7-18 Snell-Maehler; Eur. Here.
1266-68; Theocr. 24; for pictures see LIMC Herakles nos. 1598-
1664; for some other eastern elements in the myth and iconography
of Herakles see Burkert (1979) 8 0 - 8 3 and (1987b).
27. Egyptian Bes amulets were reinterpreted to represent Her-
akles the "Daktylos"; see C. Grottanclli, "Eracle dattilo dell'Ida,
Aspetti 'Orientali,'" Orlens Antiquus 11 (1972) 201-208; that the
iconography of Herakles is dependent on that of Bes had been
199
shown already by A. Furtwängler, RML I 2143-45 ^ ARW

a n
10
(1907) 325 = Kleine Schriften I I (1924) 420; see also A. M. Biri,
"Da Bes a Herakles," Riv. Stud. Fen. 8 (1980) 15-42.
28. J. Boardman, Pre-Classical: From Crete to Archaic Greece
(1967) 106, wrote: "In the art of the 'orientalizing' period we look
in vain for anything which we might call religious art"; this state-
ment overlooks the Ida tympanon (Chapter 1, "Oriental Products
in Greece," note 13; see Figure 1), and of course there were votive
offerings and also divine images; but it captures a characteristic of
the epoch.
29. See Faraone (1987) on Od. 7.91-94.
3 . "Or Also a Godly Singer"

FROM ATRAHASIS TO THE " D E C E P T I O N OF Z E U S "
i . "The Gilgamesh Epic . . . may well be called the Odyssey
of the Babylonians"; A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testa-
ment Parallels (1949 ) 1. A catalogue of parallels in Auffahrt (1991)
2
136-139; see also Gresseth (1975); Wilson (1986); Burkert (1991).

Jensen (1902), (1912/13), (1924) and Ungnad (1923) called attention
esp. to Kalypso and Siduri the ale wife, Alkinoos, and Utnapish-
tim. Utnapishtim's ferryman quits his service after the transport of
Gilgamesh (XI 234-236), just as the transport of Odysseus is the
last ever done by the Phaeacians (Od. 13.125-187). See also G.
Crane, "Circe and the Near East," in Calypso. Backgrounds and Con-
ventions of the Odyssey (1988) 61-85. Fries (1910) reached an extreme
position; more solid is Wirth (1921). Most specific is Enkidu com-
ing up from the dead to meet his friend (Gilgamesh XII), just as
Patroklus' soul meets Achilles (//. 23.65-107): "The comparison
. . . is, indeed, almost irresistible"; G. S. Kirk, Myth (1970) 108;
cf. idem, The Nature of Greek Myths (1974) 260 f.; see also Chapter
2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at note 4. There are also
connections with Od. 11, the Nekyia; cf. C. F. Lehmann-Haupt,
RE XI 433; G. Germain, Genèse de l'Odyssée (1954) 3 4 ~ 3 4 6 ; Dirl-
2
meier (1955) 30-35; "A faintly possible model": G. S. Kirk, The

Songs of Homer (1962) 107. For the beginning of the Odyssey and of
Gilgamesh see Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental
and Greek Epic," at note 17.
2. Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969), with von Soden
(1978); Bottéro and Kramer (1989); Dalley (1989).
200
N O T E S T O P A G E S 8 9 - 9 2
3. See Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969) 11-13.

4. Atrahasis I 7-10 = Gilgamesh XI 15-18 (the word translated
"sheriff" in line 10 by Lambert and Millard is problematic; see their
note p. 147; "contre-maître": Bottéro and Kramer 530: "canal-
controller": Dalley 9); Atrahasis I 11-17; the translation by Lambert
and Millard has been modified here, following von Soden and Dal-
ley.
5. II v 16-19, 3 0 - 3 ' » PP- 8 0 - 8 3 ; tablet X rev. I 4-7; II 2.5, pp.
116-119; cf. the commentary by Lambert and Millard p. 166.
6. II. 15.187-193. The three divine brothers are illustrated on
a black-figure vase by the Xenokles painter (ca. 540-530 B . C . ) , BM
B 425, ABV 184; A. B. Cook, Zeus II (1925) 745. The drawing of
lots (klêroi) was said to have happened at the site of Apollo's sanc-
tuary at Klaros, Schol. Apoll.Rhod. 1.308. Further from Homer
and Atrahasis is a Hittite text: "When they had created heaven and
earth, they divided. The upper gods took heaven, the lower gods
took earth and the lower countries for themselves"; H. Otten and
J. Siegelovâ, AfO 23 (1970) 32 f. This lacks the tripartite structure
and the drawing of lots.
7. Hes. Theog. 883.
8. Heaven-earth-underworld: the oath: 17. 15.36 f.; cf. 3.277-
279; Od. 5.184 f. Earth-heaven-sea: //. 18.483 (description of the
shield of Achilles); Od. 1.52 f.; Hes. Theog. 847; Hymn. Dem. 33 f.
Heaven-underworld-earth-sea: Hes. Theog. 736 f. Cf. already
Wirth (1921) 132; E. G. Schmidt, "Himmel-Erde-Meer im
frühgriechischen Epos und im alten Orient," Philologus 125 (1981)
1-24 (still without knowledge of Atrahasis).
9. Cf. already Gruppe (1887) 612-618; U. von Wilamowitz-
Moellendorff, Kleine Schriften V 2 (1937) 167 and Der Glaube der
Hellenen I (1931) 341: "die fremde Genealogie"; W. Theiler, Unter-
suchungen zur antiken Literatur (1970) 24-26; A. Dihle, Homer-
Probleme (1970) 8 3 - 9 2 . For the function of the scene in the Iliad see
H. Erbse, A&A 16 (1970) 93-112. See now R. Janko, The Iliad: A
Commentary IV (1992) [ 6 8 - 2 0 7 .
10. Plat. Krat. 402ab; Tht. 152e, i8oc-d; cf. Tim. 40e; Arist.
Met. 983b27; Aet. 1.3.2; Plut. Is. 3640-d referred to Egypt for com-
parison. Cf. J. Mansfeld, Mnemosyne 38 (1985) 123-129.
11. ' Q x e a v ö v T E OEÜJV yévEaiv x c ù i i n t é g a TnSiJv: //.
14.201 = 302; ' Q x e a v o û , ô ç JIEQ YÉVEOTÇ JtdvxEaor x é x u x x a i : 246.
201
Oceanus and Tethys also appear in Hes. Theog. 133-136 and in the
genealogy of Phoroneus Apollod. Bib. 2.1; both are represented on
the dinos of Sophilos (about 570 B . C . ) , BM 1971.11-1.1; cf. A.
Birchall, Brit. Mus. Quart. 36 (1971/72) pi. 37; G. Bakir, Sophilos
(1981) 64 fig. 3; D. Williams in Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty
Museum I (1983) 9 - 3 4 ; Tethys is spelt 0E0YE by Sophilos.
12. U. Hölscher, "Anaximander und der Anfang der Philoso-
phie," Hermes 81 (1953) 257-277, 385-418, revised in Anfängliches
Fragen (1968) 9 - 8 9 , esp. 4 0 - 4 3 ; cf. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and
M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (1983 ) 10-17; W. K. C.
2
Guthrie, A Flistory of Greek Philosophy I (1962) 5 8 - 6 1 ; Walcot

(1966) 34; West (1966) 204. The relevance of Enuma Elish for He-
siod was established by F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual Basis for He-
siod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950) 95-116.
13. Enuma Elish I 1-5.
14. AHw 1353 f; ta-a-wa-ti (genitive): Enuma Elish IV 65 p. 23
Lambert and Parker; ti-ä-wa-ti: II 8 1 , p. 12 Lambert and Parker; ta-
ma-tu: I 33, p. 2 Lambert and Parker. The sign wa can also be read
aw. For the change m/w see W. von Soden, Grundriss der Akkadischen
Grammatik (1952) §§ 2 i d , 31a. The first to see the connection be-
tween Enuma Elish and Homer, Tiamat and Tethys was W. E. Glad-
stone, Landmarks of Homeric Study (1890), appendix; then F. Lukas,
Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der alten Völker (1893) ! 5 4 - ;
n
cf. also Duchemin (1980a) 851, 858 f, 864, 868; Szemerenyi (1974)
150.
15. For Sophilos see note 11, above; Eudemos fr. 150
Wehrli = Damask. Princ. I 322.1 f.; for theta reproducing Semitic
taw see also E. Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik I (1939) 154.
16. R. Gusmani in Studies in Greek, Italian and Indoeuropean
Linguistics Presented to L. R. Palmer (1976) 7 7 - 8 2 , against E. La-
roche, Melanges P. Chantraine (1972) 8 3 - 9 1 .
17. On the date of Enuma Elish see Walcot (1966) 33; Reiner
(1978) 175; Dalley (1989) 229 f.; "neo-oriental": West (1971) 205.
18. On the kestos II. 14.214 see C. Bonner, AJP 70 (1949) 1-6;
F. E. Brenk, Class. Bull. 54 (1977) 17-19; C. A. Faraone, Phoenix
44 (1990) 219-243. Zeus's catalogue, II. 14.315-328; cf. Gilgamesh
VI 4 2 - 7 8 , but also Kalypso's catalogue of goddesses who have
loved mortals, Od. 5.118-128. For the oriental background of
Aphrodite see Chapter 3, "Complaint in Heaven."
202
NOTES TO PAGE 94
19. IL 15.36-38 = Od. 5.184-186. Inscriptions from Sfire (see

above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28):
I A 11 f., ANET 6$9, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f. "Oath of Heaven and
Earth" also in the Sumerian Descent oflshtar 241; Bottero and Kra-
mer (1989) 285; in Tukulti Ninurta III (IV) 40, Annals of Archaeology
and Anthropology 20 (1933) 121, 126; even Jahwe takes his oath "by
heaven and earth," Deut. 4:26—but also Mongols and Manchus in
A . D . 1628, R. Merkelbach, Mithras (1984) 5 f. n.7. The oriental
background of state treaties was already stressed by Schwahn RE
IV A 1107 f; see now M. Weinfeld, "The Common Heritage of
Covenantal Traditions in the Ancient World," in I trattati nel mondo
antico, ed. L. Canfora, M. Liverani, and C. Zaccagnini (1990) 175-
191.
20. Cf. E. D. van Buren, "The Rain-Goddess as Represented
in Early Mesopotamia," Analecta Biblica 12 (1959) 343-355, esp. 350
f., pi. XXVI 9 (Syria, second millennium); R. M. Boemer, Die
Entwicklung der Glyptik während der Akkad-Zeit (1965) 6 2 - 6 4 with
figs- 333, 364, 367, 368, 371, 373, etc. (third millennium); U. Win-
ter (1983) 276 withfig.273. Lugal-e 26: "Ami fecundated earth";
Ena I 28 f.: "Ami, king of the gods, mated with earth: seven gods
she bore to him"; incantation text Ebeling (1918/19) II 45: "As
heaven mated with earth, and plants grew abundant . . ."
21. Niemeyer (1984) 68 f.; the statuette also in Schefold (1964)
pi. 39; LIMC Hera no. 202.
22. II. 14.274, 279; 15.225; 8.478 f.; 5.848 (ovocxvixuVEg); cf.
West (1966) 200 f.; Burkert (1985) 174; F. Solmsen, "The Two Near
Eastern Sources of Hesiod," Hermes 117 (1989) 413-422.
23. On karuiles siunes see H. Often, ZA 54 (1961) 135--141,
157; E. Reiner and H. G. Güterbock, JCS 21 (1967) 265 f.; V. Haas
and G. Wilhelm, Hurritische und luwische Riten aus Kizzuwatna
( i 9 7 4 ) 5 5 3 ; Gurney (1977) 15; V Haas, Hethitische Berggötter und
0 _
Hurritische Steindämonen (1982) 32-34, 133.

24.Ebeling (1931) 38 no. 8.5 (the "seven gods" who have been
vanquished/bound by Anu the god of heaven); Enuma Elish 4.127;
cf. 7.27. AHw 433 translates kamü 'to bind,' but CAD VII (K) 127
f. insists on the meaning "to vanquish." Cf. B. Landsberger and
J. V. Kinnier Wilson, JNES 20 (1961) 178 f.; J. S. Cooper, Analecta
Orientalia 52 (1978) 141-154; Van Dijk (1983) 10 f.; Haas (1986) 45
f-, 91-93-
203
25. Orph. fr. 114.

26. See above, Chapter 1, "The Problem of Loan-Words," note
22; and Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental and
Greek Epic."
27. Eustath. 332.24-28; A. Dieterich, RhM 48 (1893)
280 = Kleine Schriften (1911) 121; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the
Study of Greek Religion (1922 ) 491-493; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of
3
the Greek States V (1909) 172.

28. Cf. already E. Assmann, "Titaia, Titanen und der Tarta-
ros," Babyloniaca 6 (1912) 2 3 6 - 2 3 9 ; Astour (1965) 196 n.3. But for
striking assonances note also that the mythical ancestor of the kings
of Ugarit, in the assembly of the netherworld, is Ditanu; O. Loretz,
Ugarit und die Bibel (1990) 69.
29. Ebeling (1931) 76 no. 20.4; 138 no. 30 C 4; E. D. Van
Buren, Orientalia 10 (1942) 69 f.; titu in particular is the material
from which man has been created: Zimmern (1901) 158 f. no. 48.1;
Atrahasis I 203.
30. Reiner (1978) 157.
31. See Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the Eighth Cen-
tury."
32. Cf. West (1988) 169. There will not easily be agreement on
the process of composition and the date of our text of the Iliad.
Suffice it to refer to A. Lesky, RE Suppl. XI 6 8 7 - 8 4 6 s.v. Elomeros
(1968); A. Heubeck, Die Homerische Frage (1988 ); J. Latacz, Homer 2
(1989 ). I, for one, am inclined to think that our text is a well-

2
planned composition from beginning to end, to be dated in the first

half of the seventh century, though relying on generations of earlier
oral singers (cf. WSt 89 [1976] 5-21).
COMPLAINT IN HEAVEN
1. See, e.g., P. Von der Mühll, Kritisches Flypomnema zur Ilias

(1952), who assigns practically all the divine scenes to his "Bear-
beiter B"; cf. 96 f. on II. 5.353-431.
2. Esp. L. A. Stella, II poema di Ulisse (1955) 188-205; Stella
(1978) 73-123-
3. Gilgamesh VI 1-91; ANET 83 f., modified according to von
Soden.
4. //. 5 . 3 3 0 - 4 3 1 .
5. This was noticed by Gresseth (1975) 14, who also compares
204
NOTES TO PAGES 9 7 - I O O
the threat of Ishtar to release the dead from the underworld, if Anu
does not grant her wish (Gilgamesh VI 9 6 - 1 0 0 ) , with the reverse
threat of Helios in the Odyssey to go down to the underworld, if
Zeus does not grant his wish (12.382 f ) . See also Burkert in Eranos
Jahrbuch (1982) 335-367.
6. i7. 21.505-513.
7. Cf. Burkert (1985) 152-156; for Anchises and Aphrodite see
L. H. Lentz, Der Homerische Aphroditehymmis und die Aristie des
Aineias in der llias (1975), esp. 104-107, 144-152. Helck (1979) 2 4 3 -
249 holds that practically the whole Homeric pantheon reproduces
North Syrian/Late Hittite gods.
8. Dione is mentioned Hes. Tbeog. 17 in a catalogue which is
close to Homer (cf. West [1968] 156) and in Theog. 353 among the
daughters of Oceanus; for Dodona, see Strab. 7 p. 392, who says
that Dione has been secondarily introduced there; cf. Escher, RE V
8 7 8 - 8 8 0 . G. Murray, Five Stages of Greek Religion (1925) 77, argued
that Dione had preceded Hera as Zeus's wife; this is refuted by
Linear B, where Hera is the wife of Zeus. For Diwija see M. Gé-
rard-Rousseau, Ees mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycéniennes
(1968) 6 7 - 7 0 . The suffix -û)VT| remained productive in the Greek
language, so that female names could always be formed with it; cf.
Danae Akrisione, //. 14.319; Helena Argeione, Hes. fr. 2 3 3 2 0 .
9. Callim. Hymn. 5, esp. 5.35 with schol.; see W. Burkert,
Zeitschrift fur Religions- und Geistesgeschichte 22 (1970) 361 f. ; see also
the Catalogue of Ships, //. 2 . 5 5 9 - 5 6 8 ; 0 . Andersen, "Die Diome-
desgestalt in der llias," Symb. Oslo, suppl. 25 (1978). Note that
Diomedes is immortal (Thebais fr. 5 Davies).
10. Porph. Abst. 2.54 f; this section is not taken from Theo-
phrastus, but no further details can be made out; neither "King
Diphilos of Cyprus" nor "Seleukos the theologian" mentioned in
the text is known elsewhere. Cf. RE I A 1835 s.v. Salamis.
11. F. Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den Griechen und Romern
i 9 S)
i l
7 f- argues against this thesis.
1
12. See Chapter 1 "Historical Background," at note 19; and

below, "The Overpopulated Earth," note 12.
13. See Burkert (1983a) 60 f.
14. Gilgamesh VI 53-57; see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'De-
ception of Zeus,' " note 18.
15. Od. 4 . 7 5 9 - 7 6 7 .
205
NOTES TO PAGES I O O - I O 3
16. A kind of vegetable offering: L.

Deubner, Kleine Schriften
zur klassischen Altertumskunde cf. Schob 761 and Eust.
(1982) 625;
Invented by the poet: S. West in A. Heubeck, S. West, and J. B.
Hainsworth, .4 Commentary on Homer's Odyssey I (1988) 240; "ohne
jede Analogie" according to K. Meuli, Ausgewählte Schriften II
( i 9 7 5 ) 994 n . i .
17. Gilgamesh III ii 1-21; ANET 81; Dalley (1989) 65; supple-
mented according to von Soden (1982) 38.
18. //. 16.220-253.
19. Cf. Jeremiah 44:17-19 and the Greek Adonia; cf. also the
Ugaritic epic of Keret ii 7 3 - 8 0 , ANET 143.
THE OVERPOPULATED EARTH
1. Atrahasis III vii 1-9, p. 102 f. Lambert and Millard. "Birth

control" is aladam pursi, line 9. Cf. A. D. Kilmer, "The Mesopo-
tamian Concept of Overpopulation and Its Solution as Reflected in
the Mythology," Orientalia 41 (1972) 160-177. Studies on the motif
of overpopulation without knowledge of Atrahasis include H.
Schwarzbaum, "The Overcrowded Earth," Numen 4 (1957) 5 9 - 7 4 ;
G. Dumézil, Mythe et épopée I (1974 ) 31-257; J. W. de Jong, "The
2
Overburdened Earth in India and Greece," J AOS' 105 (1985)

397-400.
2. Atrahasis I 352-359 = II 1-8.
3. Kypria fr. 1 Allen = fr. 1 Davies = Schob AD II. 1.5.
4. Schob AD //. 1.5; cf. Schob Eur. Or. 1641; E. Bethe, Homer
II(1929 ) 154
2
f.; 228. Cf. also Gilgamesh XI 182-185: the gods dis-
cuss whether mankind should be reduced by flood, man-eating
beasts, famine, or plague.
5. Prokl. Chrestom. p. 102.13 Allen = p. 31.5 Davies.
6. Hes. fr. 204.96 ff.; cf. M. L. West, CQ 11 (1961) 133-136;
K. Heilinger, MH 40 (1983) 23 f.
7. Enuma Elish 1 47; ANET 6 1 ; Dalley (1989) 234; in the tran-
scription of Eudemos (see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception
of Zeus,'" note 16) Murnmu is M C M J L U V .
8. Apollod. Bibl. 1.39-44; cf- Burkert (1979) 7 - 9 .
9. W. Kullmann had insisted on the pre-Homeric character of
the story; see "Ein vorhomerisches Motiv im Iliasproömium,"
Philologus 99 (1955) 167-192, referring to the Mahahharata, as
Schwarzbaum, Dumézil, and de Jong (see above, note 1) also did.
206
NOTES TO PAGES I 0 3 - I 06
And still the parallel with Atrahasis, very incompletely known to

him, had already been noticed by Wirth (1921) 132.
10. See Rzach, RE XI 2379 f.; H. Lloyd-Jones, "Stasinus and
the Cypria," in Stasinos. Syndesmos Hellenon Philologon Kyprou 4
(1968/72) 115-122, esp. 117 f. A direct link to Kypris = Aphrodite
can hardly be accepted—it should result in *Kypridia.
11. Schefold (1964) pl. 2 9 b ; LIMC Alexandras no.
5 = Aphrodite no. 1423 = Athena no. 405; II. 24.29 f.; cf. K.
Reinhardt, Das Parisurteil (1938); I. Raab, Zu den Darstellungen des
Parisurteils in der griechischen Kunst (1972).
12. See V. Karageorghis, "The Age of Exuberance," in Salamis.
Recent Discoveries in Cyprus (1969); for the "sword with silver nails"
see p. 70 pi. 25; for the role of Cyprus see above, "From Atrahasis
to the 'Deception of Zeus,' " note 19; and "Complaint in Heaven,"
note 12.
13. H. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 815; Markoe (1985) 2 7 8 -
283, E 2 and E 1; U. Gehring and FL G. Niemeyer, eds., Die Phöni-
zier im Zeitalter Homers (1990) 186 f. no. 139 fig. 23.
14. C. Clermont-Ganneau, L'imagerie Phénicienne et la mytho-
logie iconologique chez les grecs (r88o).
15. I owe this idea to C. Grottanelli and A. Hermary.
16. //. 5.311 f.; cf. 3.373 f., etc.
17. Atrahasis I 27-102, pp. 4 4 - 4 9 Lambert and Millard.
18. II. 1.396-406; cf. W. Kullmann, Das Wirken der Götter in
der Ilias (1956) 14-17; Duchemin (1980a) 864; B. K. Braswell,
"Mythological Invention in the Iliad," CQ 21 (1971) 18 f.
19. Cf. J. Duchemin, Prométhée. Histoire du mythe de ses origines
orientales à ses incarnations modernes (1974). On trickster mythology
and Atrahasis see Burkert (1982b).
SEVEN AGAINST THEBES
1. F. H. Stubbings, CAH II 2 (1975) 168.

3
2. S. Symeonoglou, Kadmeia I (1973) 72-76; F. H. Stubbings,

CAH II 2 168 f; T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 53—55;
5
5 8 - 7 1 . The problem of how to combine the results of excavation

with the mythical traditions is discussed in A. Schachter, "The
Theban Wars," Phoenix 21 (1967) 1-10; Edwards (1979), esp. 104 f.;
C. Brillante, "Le leggende Tebane e l'archeologia," SMEA 21
(1980) 309-340; "more than one hypothesis will fit": Edwards 189.
207
NOTES TO PAGES I O7 - I O8
Biegen thought the destruction of Thebes (by the Epigoni) and of

Troy VII A were about contemporary, ca. 1250. M. I. Finley's de-
nial of the historicity of the Trojan War, Proc. Brit. Ac. 60 (1974)
393-412, receives decisive support from the late date for the de-
struction of Troy VII A, ca. 1140, as established by E. F. Bloedow,
Prähistorische Zeitschrift 63 (1988) 23-52.
3. J/. 2.505 with Schol.B and Strab. 9 p. 412. For the late date
of the catalogue see A. Giovannini, Etude historique sur les origines du
catalogue des vaisseaux (1969); G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary
I (1985) 168-195. Note that the Iliad presumes the presence of Boio-
toi in Boeotia, who, according to local tradition, came there only
after the Trojan War.
4. For the history of Boeotia and Thebes in the early archaic
period see P. Cloché, Thèbes de Béotie (1952); M. Sordi, "Mitologia
e propaganda nella Beocia arcaica," Atene e Roma, n.s. 11 (1966)
15-24; Jeffery (1976) 77-79; R. J. Buck, A History of Boeotia (1979);
H. van Effenterre, Les Béotiens (1989); bibliography inj. M. Fossey
and J. Morin, eds., Boeotia Antiqua I (1988).
5. Qfjßric éKTam3Xoio: //. 4.406; Od. 11.263. Fragments of the
Thebais: pp. 21-26 Davies. The most extensive study of the whole
Theban tradition is still C. Robert, Ödipus (1915). See also Burkert
(1981a) 2 9 - 3 4 .
6. Following Keramopoullos, see the map in R E V A 1425 f.;
cf. T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 62; K. Demakopou-
lou and D. Konsola, Archaeologisches Museum Theben: Führer (1981)
22; N. D. Papachatzis, Pausaniou Periegesis V (1981) 64 f.; S. Sy-
meonoglou, The Topography of Thebes from the Bronze Age to Modern
Times (1985) 32-38. The existence of the seven gates was denied by
U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, "Die sieben Tore Thebens,"
Hermes 26 (1891) 191-242 = Kleine Schriften V 1 (1937) 2 6 - 7 7 , es
P-
62 f., followed by F. Schober, R E V A 1429, who states that only
three gates make topographical sense: "drei Tore . . . entsprechen
allein der Lage auch der heutigen Stadt, die auch nur drei Ausgänge
kennt"; Howald (1939) 3; P. J. Reimer, Zeven tegen Thebe, Diss.
Amsterdam (1953).
7. The oldest lists are in Aesch. Sept. 375-652 and from the
Argive dedication at Delphi, Paus. 10.10.4; cf. Apollod. Bibl. 3 [63]
6.3; Robert, Ödipus (1915) I 237-247.
8. Amphiaraos, originally probably *Amphiares (connected
208
N O T E S T O P A G E S I O 8 - I I O
with Ares; see A. Heubeck, D i e Sprache 17 [1971] 8-22), called

Amphis in Aeschylus fr. 412 Radt, probably had some relation to
Amphion, whose tomb was prominent at Thebes. The names
Adrastos and Amphios are associated at II. 2.830, somehow reflect-
ing the Thebais(?), cf. B. C. Dietrich, Historia 29 (1980) 499. On
Diomedes see above, "Complaint in Heaven," notes 9-10.
9. Howald (1939), criticized by A. Lesky, Die tragische Dichtung
der Hellenen (1972 ) 89 with n.25. Sikyon: Hdt. 5.67. On Arion see
3
Burkert (1979) 127.

10. Ed. R F. Gössmann (1956); Cagni (1969); Labat et al.
(1970) 114-137; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 6 8 0 - 7 2 7 ; Dalley (1989)
285-312; not in ANET; cf. Reiner (1978) 166-168. Walcot (1966)
4 9 - 5 4 compares the way the poet introduces himself (Ena V 4 2 -
61) with the poem of Hesiod. It is strangely reminiscent of Erra the
god of war and plague that in Sophocles' O. T! Ares the god of war
is introduced as the god of plague (190).
11. See Cagni (1969) 44 f.: ninth century at the earliest; Bottero
and Kramer (1989) 720: about 850 B.c.; W. von Soden, Ugarit-
Forschungen 3 (1971) 255 f.: 765-703 B . C . ; cf. Dalley (1989) 2 8 2 -
284.
12. Reiner (1960b); cf. Reiner (1978) 167; Cagni (1969) 45; see
above, Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7 on Tarsos.
13. Seejastrow (1905/12) I 173 f.; Meissner (1920/25) II 203;
D . O. Edzard in EI. W. Haussig, ed., Wörterbuch der Mythologie I
(1965) 124 f.; Gössmann (note 10 above) 7 0 - 7 2 . Wirth (1921) 157
already associated the demoniac "Seven" with the "Seven against
Thebes."
14. A collection of incantation texts, Asakki marsuti, Thomp-
son (1903/04) II 28 f.; for etemnm, see above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of
the Dead and Black Magic," note 2; for gallu above, Chapter 2 "La-
mashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," note 6.
15. The collection utukki lemnuti XVI, Thompson (1903/04) I
88-103,
m m
e context of the eclipses; cf. Tablet V of the same
series, Thompson I 50 f., 74 f.
16. Thompson (1903/04) I 184-201; cf. Meissner (1920/25) II
199 f.
17. Meier (1941/44); earlier treatment by Zimmern (1901) 168
f. n.54; cf. Castellino (1977) 716-725; see now F. A. M. Wigger-
mann, Babylonian Prophylactic Figures: The Ritual Texts (1986) 2 0 5 -
• 209 •
NOTES TO PAGES I I O- I I 3
227. The "divine Seven" and "seven bearers of arms" also appear
in a text about the fabrication of magical figurines, Rittig (1977)
154 f., 164 f. (KAR 298).
18. Cf. C. L. Woolley, JRAS (1926) 689-713; R. Borger, Bibl.
Or. 30 (1973) 176-183; Rittig (1977); see above, Chapter 2, "Purifi-
cation," note 31; "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," notes 28,
34; and Chapter 3, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,'"
note 29.
19. The form used, mundahse (Gt from mahasu; cf. Chapter 1,
"The Problem of Loan-Words," note 34), basically means "fighting
reciprocally" (Meier [1941/44] 151) but is also used in a more gen-
eral sense for "fighter"; see AHw 581, 672.
20. M. von Oppenheim, Tell HalafUl: Die Bildwerke, ed. A.
Moortgat (1955) pi. 35b, A 3, 49, p. 54 states that the sculptor
obviously intended to render the figures in mirror symmetry: "Die
Absicht des Bildhauers war anscheinend, die Männer spiegelbild-
gleich zu bilden"; H. T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 472. See Figure
8. For Etruscan representations see I. Krauskopf, Der Thebanische
Sagenkreis und andere griechische Sagen in der etruskischen Kunst
(1974)-
21. II Samuel 2:16; cf. C. Grottanelli, "Horatius, i Curiatii e II
Sam. 2,12-28," Annali dell'lstituto Orientale di Napoli 35 (1975) 547-
554-
22. Liv. 1.24 f.; see Grottanelli (above, note 21).
23.Pind. frs. 162-163; cf. Pyth. 4.88 with Schob; Diod. 5.50
f.; Apollod. Bibl. 1 [ 5 3 - 5 5 ] 7.4; Eust. 1687.36. The Aloadae are
mentioned in Ii. 5.385 f., Od. 11.305-320; and in Hesiod fr. 19.
24. See R. Hampe, Frühe griechische Sagenbilder in Böotien
(1936); Schefold (1964) 6a, advocating a date in the eighth century;
but see K. Fittschen, Untersuchungen zum Beginn der Sagendarstellun-
gen bei den Griechen (1969) 213-221. For the parallels, esp. the
seven-headed snake in oriental iconography, see Burkert (1979) 8 0 -
83; (1987b) 25-29. Boeotians, lawones, and Locrians are grouped
together, //. 13.685; see above, Chapter 1, "Historical Back-
ground," note 18.
25. See Chapter 2, "Flepatoscopy" and "Foundation Deposits."
26. J. McK. Camp, "A Drought in the Late Eighth Century
B.C.," Hesperia 48 (1979) 3 9 7 - 4 1 1 ; contra, see I. Morris, Burial and
Ancient Society (1987) 158-167.
210
NOTES TO PAGES I I 4 - I I 6
27. I. Krauskopf (see note 20, above) 86, 299, following E.

Simon; LIMC I 711 s.v, Amphiaraos.
28. G. Mylonas, Praktika (1953) 81-87, g i g vague date
y m a
"late geometric"; cf. Paus. 1.39.2; Plut. Thes. 29.5; and Eur. Sup-
plices.
29. See J. N. Coldstream, "Hero-Cults in the Age of Homer,"
JHS 96 (1976) 8-17.
30. See above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,'"
note 32.
31. For the "Seven Sages" of primordial times (apkalle) see
AHw 58 f; E. Reiner, Qrientalia, n.s. 30 (1961) 1-11; R. Borger,
JNES 33 (1974) 183-196-
32. The Sibitti appear in the inscription of Sfire I A 11 (see
above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28),
ANET 659, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f.
COMMON STYLE AND STANCE IN ORIENTAL AND GREEK EPIC
1. Stella (1978) 3 6 2 - 3 9 1 , with the cautionary statement that

direct influence should be excluded: "esclusa naturalmente ogni
eventualita di influssi diretti su Omero" (368). Comparisons of
Homer with Babylon began with Jensen and Fries and were carried
on by Wirth (1921) and Ungnad (1923); for the more recent devel-
opments see esp. Bowra (1952), Dirlmeier (1955), Gordon (1955)»
Walcot (1966), Gresseth (1975), Helck (1979) 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 . See also
Burkert (1991).
2. See M. Parry, The Making of Homeric Verse (1971).
3. The bibliography has become abundant. Suffice it to men-
tion R. Finnegan, Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance, and Social
Context (1977); J. M. Foley, Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research. An
Introduction and Annotated Bibliography (1985).
4. quradu Enlilin Atrahasis 1.8 = Gilgamesh XI 16. See for this
and the following also Bowra (1952) 241.
5. Utnapistim ruqu in Gilgamesh X-XI passim.
6. qarrad la sanan in Erra passim.
7. rkb rpt in Baal passim, /)/// nt in Baal and Aqhat passim, dnl
c c
rpe in Aqhat passim.

8. mudu tuquntu in Gilgamesh IV vi 30.
9. tabat rigma in Gilgamesh XI 117.
10. ersetim rapastim in Gilgamesh VIII iii-iv 43, 46, 47, p. 49
211
NOTES TO PAGES I I 6- I I8
Thompson; cf. evQela / Ö C Ü V . A S to "black earth" (youa [XEâtva),

Ottinger (1989/90) argues for Hurrite-Hittite provenience.
11. Sumerian prayer to the moon god in SAHG
223 = Castellino (1977) 336 line 16. In Hittite Ullikummi is called
"father of the gods"; ANET 121 f., as El is ab adm, father of men,
in Ugarit.
12. pasu ippus-ma iquabbi, ana . . . (amatam) izakkar with slight
variations; see F. Sonnek, "Die Einführung der direkten Rede in
den epischen Texten," ZA 46 (1940) 225-235; the formula occurs
also in fables, e.g., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 178.7.
13. Gilgamesh X i n f.; cf. X iv, 12-14; Elana II 99; J. V. Kin-
nier Wilson, The Legend ofEtana (1985) 98; in Hittite: J. Siegelova,
Appu-Mdrchen und Hedammu-Mythus (1971) 48 f.; in the Old Testa-
ment, too, people "speak to their heart": Gen. 27:41 f., I Samuel
1:12 f.; cf. Stella (1978) 365; D. O. Edzard, "Selbstgespräch und
Monolog in der akkadischen Literatur," in Lingering over Words:
Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Literature in Honor of W. L. Moran,
ed. T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and R Steinkeller (1990) 149-162.
14. mimmu seri ina namari in Gilgamesh XI 48 = 96; cf. Ungnad
(1923) 30.
15. ANET 124: the weather god sends Tashmeshu as Zeus
sends Hermes in Od. 5. An important assembly of the gods also
takes place in Gilgamesh VII 1 3 ff., where the gods decide about
the death of Enkidu. The entrance of victorious Ninurta into this
assembly, who threatens to rouse panic but is appeased by his
mother, in the Sumerian poem ANGIM 71 ff. (Bottero and Kramer
[1989] 381 f.), has a marked resemblance to Horn. Hymn Apoll. 3 -
13 (I owe this observation to C. Penglase). For Ugarit, see E. T.
Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite
and Early Hebrew Literature (1980).
16. See Bowra (1952) 266 f, who includes materials from Gil-
gamesh.
17. See Wirth (1921) 112 f.; A. B. Lord in A. J. B. Wace and
F. H. Stubbings, A Companion to Homer (1967) 198.
18. Gilgamesh III iv 141-148 (in the reconstruction of von So-
den), p. 27 Thompson; ANET 79; Dalley (1989) 145. simatu awil-
utim in the Babylonian version X ii 4 p. 53 Thompson. Cf. Gres-
seth (1975) 14; T. Bauer, JNES 16 (1957) 260, who also refers to
the expression "to set one's name for people of later times" (sakin
212
N O T E S T O P A G E S I l 8 - I 2 0
sumim ina nisi uhhurati) in school texts; on Greek-Indo-European

Ct(j)0iTOV xA.EOg see R. Schmitt, Dichtung und Dichtersprache in indo-
germanischer Zeit (1967) 6 1 - 6 9 .
19. II. 12.322-328, imitated by Stesichorus S 11 Page-Davies.
20. Gilgamesh VI 162 f., ANET8S- Bowra (1952) 63 translates
"member" of the bull, which might be misleading. For imittu, hind
leg, see AHw 377.
21. //. 22.20.
22. Od. 18.136 f., taken up by Archilochos 131-132 West, then
by Heraclitus B 17.
23. Ludlul bei nemeqi II 4 3 - 4 5 ; Lambert (i960) 40 f. translates
the text ki pite u katami, "like opening and shutting the legs," which
may be the original sense, but the commentary on the passage from
the library of Assurbanipal (Lambert 40; cf. 291) paraphrases "day
and night"; hence ANET 435; so this was the way the passage was
understood at the time of Archilochos.
24. See M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature II (1976) 5 7 -
72 on the various versions, the documents—inscriptions and a pa-
pyrus text—and the earlier editions.
25. D. Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (1924) 43-47;
transcription in Borger (1979) I 83-85; translation in Luckenbill
(1926/27) II §§ 252-254. //. 2 0 . 4 9 8 - 5 0 1 .
26. For mercenaries see Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in
Greece," at notes 6 3 - 6 8 . Cf. the conclusions drawn from the bowl
of Praeneste (Figure 7), Chapter 3, "The Overpopulated Earth," at
note 15 (which also has the chariot for the prince).
27. Judges 4.
28. For Ugarit see FI. Gese, Die Religionen Altsyriens (1970) 54;
Dirlmeier (1955) 25 f.; Jeremiah 2:27; //. 22.126; Od. 19.163; Hes.
Theog. 35.
29. Od. 19.107-114: otQETCÖai ÖE Xaoi im' avrov (114); Hes.
Erga 225-247; Assurbanipal in Streck (1916) II 6 f.; cf. Walcot
(1966) 92 f.;Jeffery (1976) 39; West (1978b) 213.
30. See above, Chapter 1, "Loan-Words," note 30.
FABLES
I. See in general W. Wienert, Die Typen der griechisch-römischen
Label (1925); K. Meuli, Wesen und Herkunft der Fabel
(1954) = Gesammelte Schriften (1975) 731-756; M. Nojgaard, La
213
NOTES TO PAGES I 2 I - I 2 2
fable antique I (1964); Rodriguez Adrados (1979); T. Karadagli, Fabel

und Ainos (1981); O. Reverdin, ed., La fable, Entretiens sur l'anti-
quité classique 30 (1984); for enormous materials on the influence
of ancient fables see Enzyklopädie des Märchens (1977 ff.) s.v. Aso-
pika, Babrios, Avianus, Fabel, etc.
2. E. Brunner-Traut, Altägyptische Tiergeschichte und Fabel
(1970 ).
3
3. E. Ebeling, Die babylonische Fabel und ihre Bedeutung für die

Literaturgeschichte (1931); see esp. Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) ; RIA VII 46.
4. "The king of trees": Judges 9; "The thistle and the cedar
tree": II Kings 14:9.
5. H. Diels, "Orientalische Fabeln in griechischem Gewände,"
Internationale Wochenschrift 4 (1910), on Callim. fr. 194 compared
with "the palm and the tamarisk," for which see now ANET 410
f., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 151-164. See also A. La Penna, "Letteratura eso-
pica e letteratura assiro-babilonese," RFIC 92 (1964) 24-39; Rod-
riguez Adrados (1979) 301-379.
6. Babrius 2.2 f.: ZDpcov JtaÀaicov éoxiv eupeu.' àvOptimcov, oi
Jtpiv Jtot' fjoav èm Nivou te xat Btfjôu. On the identity of "King
Alexandros" mentioned in the dedication of Babrius see B. E.
Perry, Babrius and Phaedrus, Loeb Classical Library (1965) xlvii-lii;
Inschriften von Ephesus V: Die Inschriften Kleinasiens 15 (1980) no.
1537-
7. On Ahiqar see Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the
Eighth Century," at note 30; on Lydia, Chapter 1, "Historical
Background," notes 25-26. Parallels between Greek and Meso-
potamian fables are collected in Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 7 6 -
378; Hellenistic parallels in West (1969); Aesop no. 137 Perry,
Babrius no. 84. "The fly and the elephant" seemed to be especially
close to "the bird and the elephant" (Lambert [ i 9 6 0 ] 217 f., 339),
but the little animal involved in the Akkadian version, niniqu, is not
identifiable, as Moran (1978) 18 n.7 has stressed.
8. Archilochus fr. 174-181 West; Aesop no. 5 Halm = 1
Perry; cf. Williams (1956); I. Trencsényi-Waldapfel, Untersuchungen
zur Religionsgeschichte (1966) 186-191; H. Freydank, "Die Tierfabel
im Etana-Mythus," Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung 17
(1971) 1-13; Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 1 9 - 3 2 1 . Further Greek ar-
chaic fables: Archilochus fr. 187 West = Aesop no. 81 Perry; Se-
monides fr. 13 West = Aesop no. 3 Perry.
214
NOTES TO PAGES 1 2 2 - 1 2 5
9. ANET 114—118, 517; Labat et al. (1970) 294-305; cf. E.

Ebeling, AOF 14 (1944) 298-303; W. von Soden, WZKM 55 (1959)
5 9 - 6 1 ; I. Levin, Fabula 8 (1966) 1-63.
10. See R. Wittkower, "Eagle and Serpent," Journal of the War-
burg Institute 2 (1938/39) 293-325; C. Grottanelli, Riu. Stud. Fen. 5
(1977) 16-18; B. Garbe, "Vogel und Schlange," Zeitschrift für Volks-
kunde 75 (1979) 52-56; Aesch. Cho. 246, etc.
11. Seal cylinders in W. H. Ward (1910) 144 nos. 391-394; En-
ciclopedia dell'arte antica s.v. Etana. But there is no direct icono-
graphic link: In Greek art Ganymede and the eagle appear only after
the fourth century B.c.; see LIMC s.v. Ganymedes.
12. Archilochus fr. 196a West = ZPE 14 (1974) 97-112; the
proverb ojtetjöouoa KÜarv TU<j>X.a T I X T E I in Aesop 223 Perry, Paroe-
miographi Graeci I 381, II 181 and 491, Schol. Aristoph. Pax 1078.
13. See W. H. Moran, HSCP 82 (1978) 17-19; J. Bremmer,
ZPE 39 (1980) 28.
14. See above, Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the
Eighth Century," note 25.
15. Gilgamesh X I 2 66-2 8 9 .
16. Ibykos 342 Davies, together with Soph. fr. 362 Radt and
other quotations in Ael. Nat.An. 6.51; Aesch. fr. 45 Radt; Nik.
Ther. 343-358; cf. M. Davies, MH 44 (1987) 65-75, who speaks of
a folktale.
MAGIC AND COSMOGONY
1. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo."
2. See Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in Greece," note 23;
Burkert (1987b).
3. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," at note 22.
4. Clay relief from Gortyn, Schefold (1964) pi. 33, LIMC s.v.
Agamemnon no. 9 1 , Burkert (1987b) 28 f., 32.
5. See, e.g., G. van der Leeuw, "Die sogenannte epische Ein-
leitung der Zauberformeln," Zeitschrift für Religionspsychologie 6
(1933) 161-180; M. Eliade, "Kosmogonische Mythen und ma-
gische Heilungen," Paideuma 6 (1954/58) 194-204.
6. The Adapa versions are in ANET 102 f.; S. A. Pittioni, 17
poemetto di Adapa (1981); for Ena see Chapter 3, "Purification," at
note 16.
7. For Atrahasis see Chapter 3, "Craftsmen of the Sacred." The
215
NOTES TO PAGES I 2 5 - I 2 6
passage on the creation of man, I 190-217, was understood as "part

of an incantation to facilitate childbirth" in ANET 99 (corrected in
ANET 513); an incantation text proper refers to this myth; J. Van
Dijk, "Une incantation accompagnant la naissance de l'homme,"
Orientalia 42 (1973) 505. Atrahasis and rain charm: Atrahasis 27 f.
8. The text is listed HKL ill 63, "Der Mondgott und die Kuh
Amat-Sîn"; see W. G. Lambert, Iraq 31 (1969) 31 f; Labat et al.
(1970) 285 f.; connected with the myth of Io by Duchemin (1979),
(1980b).
9. "The Worm and the Toothache," ANET 100 f., Bottéro and
Kramer (1989) 484; B. Landsberger and T. Jacobsen, "An Old Bab-
ylonian Charm against merhu," JNES 14 (1955) 14-21.
10. See C. J. Gadd in S. H. Hooke, Myth and Ritual (1933) 4 7 -
58; T. H. Gaster, Thespis (1961 ) 6 2 - 6 4 ; F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual
2
Basis for Hesiod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950)

95-116; Dalley (1989) 231-232.
11. "House of the priest" in Ugarit, containing liver models
as well as literary texts: J. C. Courtois, Ugaritica 6 (1969) 91-119;
for various libraries at Emar see Arnaud (1985/87); a priest's library
at Sultantepe: W. G. Lambert, RA 53 (1959) 121 f.; cf. Walcot
(1966) 47 f.
12. For Orphism, suffice it to refer to Burkert (1982a), West
(1983), Burkert (1985) 2 9 6 - 3 0 4 ; see also above, Chapter 2, "Crafts-
men of the Sacred," note 2.
13. Cf. above, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," note 9.
14. Olympiodor. in Phaed. p. 41 f. Westerink = Orphicorum
Fragmenta 220; the "four monarchies" enumerated there seem to
match with the Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. X 6: Uranos,
Son of Night, the first king; Burkert (1985) 297 f.
15. Eur. fr. 912, in the context of conjuring up the dead.
16. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at
note 19.
17. See Chapter 2, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," at note 15.
18. VI 1-34; text from Assur (KAR 4) in A. Heidel, The Bab-
ylonian Genesis (1942) 6 8 - 7 2 ; Berossos, FGrHist 680 F 1 p. 373 Ja-
coby. See V Maag, "Sumerische und Babylonische Mythen von
der Erschaffung des Menschen," Asiatische Studien 8 (1954) 8 5 -
106 = V. Maag, Kultur, Kulturkontakt und Religion (1980) 3 8 - 5 9 ; G.
216
N O T E S T O P A G E S I 2 6 - 1 27
Pettinato, Das altorientalische Menschenbild und die sumerischen und ak-

kadischen Schöpfungsmythen, Abh. Heidelberg 1971.1.
19. Atrahasis I 213 and 215-217 = 228-230 Lambert and Mil-
iard; cf. Bottero and Kramer (1989) 537; Dalley (1989) 15 with nn.
I I - L 2 . Interpretation has remained controversial. W. von Soden,
Symbolae biblicae et mesopotamicae F. M. T. de Liagre Böhl dedicatae
( 9 7 3 ) 3 4 9 3 5 8 (cf. idem, ZA 68 [1978] 80 f.), contested the read-
T _
ing etemmu and tried to construe a word edimmu, wild man; this has
not been followed by other specialists. Cf. W. L. Moran, BASOR
200 (1970) 4 8 - 5 6 ; L. Cagni in V. Vattioni, ed., Sangue e antropologia
biblica (1981) 7 9 - 8 1 ; J. Tropper, Ugarit-Forschungen ig ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 0 1 -
308; J. Bottero in Societies and Languages of the Ancient Near East.
Studies in Honour of I. M. Diakonojf (1984) 2 4 - 3 1 , whom I try to
follow.
20. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at
note 2.
21. The Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. IX has Zeus swal-
lowing the phallus of the first cosmic king (this at any rate is what
the commentator understood, who was in command of the full
text, pace West [1983] 85); this introduces the most startling motif
of the Kumarbi myth into Orphic literature.
217
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS
alabastron (vase for oil), 36 harpe (a kind of sword), 39, 85

alala (a war cry), 39 hikesios (haunting spirit), 68-72
alimon (drug to stop hunger), 62
ana (up to, at), 38
kalche (a kind of purple), 37
apomattein (to wipe off), 61
kanon (measuring stick), 34, 38
ara (curse), 64 karos (dizziness), 79
arrabon (down payment), 37
kathairein (to purify), 64
axine (axe), 39
kaunakes (Persian garment), 37
kleos aphthiton (imperishable
bothros (pit), 55 glory), 118
byblos (papyrus, book), 31 kyanos (a blue-coloured sub-
stance), 37
charassein (to scratch), 38
chartes (papyrus), 31
cheironax (craftsman), 39 lekane (bowl), 36, 53
chiton (shirt), 36 leon (lion), 120
chrysos (gold), 36 libanos (francincense), 20, 36
lipa (gleaming with oil), 36
deltos (writing tablet), 30, 34 lis (lion), 39, 120

demioergoi (craftsmen), 23 lyma (dirt), 57, 62, 64
diphthera, diphtherion (leather,

leather scroll), 31, 33 machesthai (to fight), 39
makellon (market), 37
epagoge (sending magic), 69 menima (wrath), 66
ephodoi (assaults), 59 mna (mina), 34, 37
molibdion (lead tablet), 31
gypson (gypsum), 38 myrrha (myrrh), 20, 36
219
I N D E X O F G R E E K W O R D S
oinos (wine), 174n2 sky tale (stick), 31

ololyge (shrieking cry), 100 smaragdos (emerald), 37
solos (metal ingot), 39
pallake (concubine), 40 sphen (wedge), 176n25
pharmake (a kind of pot), 62 sphyrelaton (fabricated by hammer-
plinthos (brick), 38, 39 ing), 22
potamos (river), 183n21 sylan (to loot), 37
propheresthai (to pronounce), 71
prostropaios (haunting demon), 72 tdanton (talent, unit of weight), 37
pylai (gates), 183n21 Wilms (bull), 39
techne (art, craft), 23, 41
rhodon (rose), 174n2 telein (to perform), 70
teras (sign, prodigy), 51
semidalis (fine flour), 36 thyoskoos (diviner at sacrifice), 49
skana/skene (booth), 39 titanos (lime), 38, 95
220
GENERAL INDEX
Adapa, 124 Asclepius, 75-79

Aeschylus, 65, 79, 108, 111 Ashurbanipal, 14, 56, 119
Aesop, 121 asphalt, 61, 187n17
Ahiqar, 24, 32, 121 assembly of the gods, 117
Aisehines, mother of, 44, 61 Astarte, 20
Aithiopis, 56 Athens, 12-13, 16, 17, 23, 26, 42,
Alalakh, 48 43, 60, 162n4
Alasia, 42, 159nl4 Atrahasis, 88-91, 100-106, 115—
Al Mina, 11, 13, 21 116, 124-125, 204n29
Aloadae, 111 augury, 49, 53
alphabet, 26-29
Amarna, letters from, 42 Babrius, 121
Amphiaraos, 44, 108 Babylon, Greeks in, 24
Anaphe, 78 Babylonian Sibyl, 81
Andromeda, 85 Bellerophontes, 30
antisemitism, 2-3, 34, 36 Beloch, Julius, 3, 16, 21, 34
Aphrodite, 20, 97-99 Bileam, 42, 64
Apollon, 63, 82, 185n9, 186n9 Branchos, 61, 64
Apollon Asgelatas/Aiglatas, 75-79 Bronze Age, 5-6. See also Hittites;
Aramaeans, 9, 28, 114 Ugarit
Aramaic inscriptions, 16, 18, 26, bronzeworking, 16, 22
28, 67, 93-94, 170n6 By bios, 9, 31, 80
Aramaic literature, 32, 121
Aramaic script, 11, 30-31 Calchas, 49, 52-53
Archilochus, 31, 121-123, 213n22 Carchemish, 9, 13, 22, 25, 37, 83-
Artemis of Ephesos, 20, 54 84, 165n25
Artemis of Munichia, 73-75 Carians, 25
Asclepiads, 44, 179n25 Carthage, 11, 21
221
G E N E R A L I N D E X
Chaldaeans, 45 Enuma Elish, 92-95, 103, 125-126

Chalkis, 12, 14, 159nl3 Ephesos, 20, 21, 54
chimaera, 19 Epimenides, 42, 60, 62, 63, 66, 126
Cilicia, 11, 12, 13, 49, 52, 170n3. Ereshkigal, 68, 74
See also Karatepe; Tarsos Eretria, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17
Cimmerians, 14 erotic charms, 67
clay molds, 22 Erra, 109-110, 115, 124
Corfu, 84-85 Essarhaddon, 14, 68
Corinth, 14, 22, 23 Etana, 122-123
craftsmen, 21-25, 27, 38, 39, 41- Etruscans, 12, 13, 16, 17, 46-53,
42, 44-45, 55 111-112, 114
Crete, 11, 16, 22, 25, 26-27, 54, Euboea, 7, 12, 13, 14, 26, 113. See
63. See also Epimenides; Gortyn; also Chalkis; Eretria; Lefkandi
Idaean cave; Knossos; Kommos Eumolpidae, 43
cult of the dead, 65-66
Cypna, 101-104 family, model of the, 25, 43-46,
Cyprus, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 27, 48, 48
49, 54, 98, 103-104. See also Ra- Farnell, Lewis Richard, 56-57, 80
tion; Salamis fish mask, 61
Cyrene, 68-73 fish-tailed monster, 19
flood, 89, 101, 103, 117
defixions, 66-68, 70, 192n30 foundation deposit, 22, 49, 53-55
Delos, 15, 17, 54 frankincense, 20
Delphi, 16, 17, 56, 68, 79-82
Derveni papyrus, 41 Ganymede, 122
Didyma, 61 Gello, 82
Diels, Hermann, 121 Gilgamesh, 3, 32-33, 65, 81, 88-
Diomedes, 98-99 90, 116-118; tablet \\\ ii 1-21:
Dione, 97-98 100; III lv 141-148: 117-118; VI
Diotima, 43 1-91: 96-99; VI 16-17: 117-118;
divination, 41-53, 79-82 X I 182-185: 206n4; X I 266-289:
divine garments, 20 123
dogs, 75-79 Gordion, 161n26
DornseifF, Franz, 4 Gorgon, 25, 83-85, 124
Gortyn, 22, 49, 54-55, 63, 82
Egypt, 14, 31, 67, 68, 182nl6 griffins, 19, 165n24
Egyptian literature, 92, 121 Gula, 75-78
Egyptian priests, 45 Gyges, 14
Eleusis, 43, 114
Emar, 125 haruspices, 45, 50-51
Embaros, 73-75 Hazael, 16, 18, 159nl5
Empedocles, 43, 92, 126 heaven and earth, 94, 109
222
hepatoscopy, 46-52, 82, 113 Ischia/Pithekoussai, 6, 12, 15,

Herakles, 87, 113, 124 26, 33
Hesiod, 5, 7, 90, 119, 121, 209nl0; Ishtar, 80, 96-99
Erga, 102; Catalogues, 102 ivory, 19, 22, 162n2
Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease,
41, 59, 62 Kabeiroi, 153n3
Hippocratic Oath, 44 Kadmos, 2, 154n2
Hittites, 4, 5, 39, 42, 48, 52, 53, Karatepe, 9, 33, 52
68, 83, 94, 117. See also Illuyan- Karmanor, 64, 186n9
kas; Late Hittites Kition, 11, 13, 21, 54
Homer, 5, 48-49, 56, 88-100, Knossos, 22, 27, 54, 158n3
114-120. See also Iliad; Odyssey Kommos, 20-21
Hovvald, Ernst, 108-109 Kumarbi, 5, 7, 94
Humbaba, 100
Humbaba masks, 20, 49 Lamashtu, 82-87, 124
Lamia, 82-83
ladnana, 13 Late Hittites, 9, 11, 16, 39, 52
lamani, 13 leather scrolls, 30-33, 123
lamidae, 43 lecanomancy, 53
lapetos, 1-2, 177n37 Lefkandi, 6, 12, 15
lawones/Iawan/Ionians, 12-13, 14, libations, 54, 55, 65, 70, 71, 74
26, 31, 160nl8 lions, 19, 120, 124, 163nll
Ibycus, 123-124 liver divination. See hepatoscopy
Idaean cave, 16, 22, 63, 167n42 Luwians, 9, 34, 52. See also Late
Iliad, 49, 90-100, 114, 117-118, Hittites
208n3; 11, 1.5: 101; //. 1.314: 57, Lydians, 14
62; //. 1.396-406: 207nl8; //.
5.330-431: 97; //. 6.119-211: 30, magic, 41-46, 55-75, 82-87, 109,
172n20; //. 12.322-328: 118, 124-125
213nl9; //. 13.685: 13, 210n24; Magnesia, 44
//. 14.183: 15; //. 14.201, 246, Mallos, 52
302: 90-92; //. 14.315-328: 99; Man, 80
//. 15.187-193: 90; //. 21.505- masks, 20
513: 97; II. 22.20: 118; //. 23.65- Melampus, 42
107: 200nl mercenaries, 25, 39, 49
Iluyankas, 5, 7, 103 Midas, 13
immortality lost, 123-124 Mistress of the Animals, 19
Indo-European linguistics, 2, 5, 34 Mopsos, 52
Io, 125 Munichia, 73-75
Ionia, 12, 170n3. See also lawones
Iranian influence, 178n3 Naxos, 12, 13, 26, 160nl8
Iranian magi, 45 Nereus, 177n37
223
Nineveh, 24, 32, 121 Phoenician script, 25-26, 28-30

Northern Syria, 9, 11-12, 16, 24, Phrygia, 13, 27, 161n26, 169n3
28, 37, 61, 82. See also Late Hit- physicians, 41, 44, 75-79
tites; Luwians Piacenza, liver from, 46, 47
Pithekussa. See Ischia
oath, 45, 67, 68, 93-94 Plato, 91; Phaedrus 244d, 66; Resp.
Odyssey, 21, 49, 88, 117; Od. 1.1- 364L>-e, 42, 125; Laws, 66, 67
4: 200nl, 117; Od. 1.184: 12; Od. Plato comicus, 77, 194n6
4.759-767: 99-100; Od. 5.396: Polemainetos, 43
187nl9; Od. 7.321: 159nl0; Od. Praeneste, 16, 19, 104-105
12.382-383: 205n5; Od. 17.383- Proetids, 57-58
385: 6, 23, 41; Od. 18.136-137: Prometheus, 106
118; Od. 19.107-114: 119, Ptolemy Philopator, 44
213n29 Ptoon, 79
Olbia, 31 purification from blood guilt,
Old Testament, 25, 30, 111, 119, 56-60
180n30, 188n20, 189n36, 214n4. Pythia, 79-81
See also Bileam; flood
Olympia, 4, 15, 16, 17, 25 Qumran, 32, 3.3
Olympiads, 81
omphalos bowl, 20
onions, 62 Ramses II, 118
Orestes, 56-59 Rhakios, 64
"Orient," concept of, 1 Rhodes, 16-17, 21
Orphism, 125-127 Royal Road, 14
Ortheia, 20
Ovid, on striges, 58-59 Salamis (Cyprus), 13, 98
Samos, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 55, 75-
pan-Babylonianists, 3 77, 82
Paphos, 13, 49 script, 5, 9, 11, 25-33
papyrus books, 31 seers, 41-53, 55, 61, 75, 113,
Patroclus, 200nl 191nl8
Persepolis, 24, 31 Sennacherib, 13-14, 32, 118-119
Perseus, 85-87, 124 Seven Gods/Demons, 94, 108-114
Petronius, 62 Seven Sages, 114
Philistines, 9, 25 shamanism, 56, 180n37
PhilonofByblos, 5 Sibyl, 79-81
Phoenicians, 2, 3-4, 11, 12, 15- Sidon, 9, 11, 14, 16, 21
19, 20-21, 28-30, 83, 104, 128 silver bowls, 16, 168n62
Phoenician inscriptions, 16, 26, 27, Soloi, 12
28, 45, 52, 83, 158n3, 168n62 Sparta, 42
Phoenician literature, 32, 92, 94 sphinx, 19
224
spirits of the dead, 65-66, 126, Triton, 19

200nl Twelve Tables. Rome, 74
Stella, Luisa Achillea, 115 twins, 111-113
symposium, 19 Tyre, 9, 11, 24
Syria, Greeks in, 6, ll-12. See also
Northern Syria Ugarit, 5, 42, 48, 83, 89, 119, 125
Ugantic alphabet, 28
Tamasos, 159nl4 Ugaritic literature, 5, 116-117
Tamiradae, 49 Ulu Burun, wreck found at, 30
Tarsos, 11, 13, 14, 23, 32, 48, 52, Urartu, 11, 23, 25
56, 209nl2
Teiresias, 51, 52 Veiovis, 74
Teisamenos, 42, 43 voodoo dolls, 66-67
Tell Halaf-Guzana, 9, 32, 111-112
Tell Sukas, 12 warrior god, 19
Telmessos, 49 wax figures, 67-70
Temesa, 159nl4 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich
Tethys, 91-93 von, 2, 107-108, 154n9, 155nl0,
Thaletas, 42, 63 155nl2
Thebes, 44, 106-114 writing, 7, 9, 25-33
Theocritus, Pharmakeutria, 67 writing tablets, 30-33
thunderbolts, 19-20
Tiamat, 92-93 Zeus Atabyrios, 34, 163nl5
Titans, 94-95, 125-127 Zeus Dipaltos, 165n30
trade in metal ores, 6, 11, 12 Zmcirli, 9, 13, 37, 83, 165n25,
tripod cauldrons, 16 197n2
225

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THE

Near Eastern Influence on

and Walter Burkert

First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burkert, Walter, 1931-

i . " W h o Are Public Workers": The M i g r a n t Craftsmen g

2. " A Seer o r a H e a l e r " : M a g i c a n d M e d i c i n e 41

3. " O r A l s o a G o d l y S i n g e r " : A k k a d i a n and E a r l y

Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic

Map T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the N e a r East i n t h e early

Figure 1. B r o n z e t y m p a n o n f r o m t h e Idaean cave, C r e t e ;

Figure 2, N o r t h Syrian bronze plaque f r o m horse har-

Figure 3. Liver models from Mesopotamia and from

Figure 4. B a b y l o n i a n bronze f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the Hera

Figure 6. Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield 86

Figure 7. Cypriote silver bowl from the B e r n a r d i n i 103

Figure 8. O r t h o s t a t e r e l i e f f r o m the palace at G u z a n a - 112

T h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sit-

" G o d ' s is t h e O r i e n t , G o d ' s is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n . 1

Classical scholars have found i t d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n such a b a l -

T h e p u r s u i t o f this u n i v e r s a l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the c o l l e c t i v e

n i c i a n " H e r a k l e s o f T h a s o s was n o less o f a fantasy t h a n the

s i o n o f the i m p a c t o f t h e N e a r East o n classical Greece, w h i c h

the East w h i c h was so n o t a b l e i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r o u n d 700. I t

final phase o f H o m e r i c epic, t h a t is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -

n o t o b s c u r e the sheer fact o f b o r r o w i n g ; t h i s w o u l d a m o u n t t o

T h e m o d e s t a i m o f this b o o k is t o serve as a messenger across

" W H O ARE PUBLIC WORKERS"

western Semites based i n t h i s area, called Phoinikes by the

T h e m o s t p o r t e n t o u s a c h i e v e m e n t i n Syria-Palestine was the

was also r e a c h i n g b e y o n d t o t h e far West: 814 is the t r a d i t i o n a l

A f t e r Shalmaneser, A s s y r i a n forces d i d n o t appear o n the

s o m e w h a t later at T e l l S u k a s . T h e r e are also G r e e k f i n d s f r o m

Rash-al-Basid (Poseidonia), Tell Tainat, Tyre, and H a m a . C o n -

I t has l o n g been a m a t t e r o f c o m m e n t a n d discussion t h a t t h e

Junan i n A r a b i c a n d T u r k i s h . T h e A s s y r i a n f o r m is Iawan(u) or,

p r u s , w h i c h the A s s y r i a n s i n fact called ladnana. 11

Sennacherib ( 7 0 5 - 6 8 1 ) p u t d o w n an u p r i s i n g i n Tarsos i n 696.

Oriental Products in Greece

the case o f o s t r i c h eggs o r the t r i d a c n a shells f r o m the R e d Sea,

f o u n d , g o l d i n m a n y f o r m s , faience beads, a n d also beads o f

a n d spread o f g e m s a n d seals offer even m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e v i -

have been u n e a r t h e d at O l y m p i a as w e l l as o n Samos and

A t O l y m p i a i n a b o u t 670 B . C . b r o n z e r e l i e f vessels f r o m the Late

C y p r u s a n d also C r e t e are i n a special p o s i t i o n ; t h e y have been

Figure 1. Bronze tympanon from the Idacan cave, Crete, eighth

neighboring Italy, including Latium; 1 8

Domestic craftsmanship and p r o d u c t i o n developed from

O n e area o f m o r e p r o f o u n d eastern influence o n the practice

century o n , w i t h various structures still identifiable, remains o f

T h e P h o e n i c i a n m e r c h a n t s h a d always been r e g a r d e d as the car-

has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h i s m o v e m e n t i n d e t a i l , especially i n the case

T h e actual p r o o f t h a t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e appearance o f east-

T o s u m u p : F o r c r a f t s m e n i n t h e East, at least t h e chance f o r

that p r e c i s e l y t h i s factor c o u l d act as a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r e m i -

Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century

F o r t h e general h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t

F o r the t i m e a n d place o f t h e a d o p t i o n o f the Phoinikeia, as

u m e n t s o f w r i t i n g f r o m these places so far, a n d t h e inference can

t i o n f r o m left t o r i g h t , t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t was t o p r e v a i l i n Greek

dence f r o m C r e t e so far t o r i v a l the e a r l y g r a f f i t i f r o m the sphere

S o m e S e m i t i s t s s t i l l t e n d t o plead t h a t the G r e e k alphabet is