By:

Shubha N. Bhambhani
Akhilesh Singh Rawat
Harish Kumar
Pushpendra Kumar Singh
MDI , GURGAON
Idealist
—  Hope to minimize conflict and maximize cooperation
among nations
—  Focus attention on legal-formal aspects of
international relations, such as international law and
international organizations
—  Also focus on moral concerns such as human rights
 Idealist
—  As early as the 14th
Century the Italian poet
Dante wrote of the
“universality of man” and
envisioned a unified
world state
—  Immanuel Kant argued
that doing good was an
end unto itself rather
than a means to some
other end
Realist
—  While realists are just as interested as idealists in
conflict management, realists are less optimistic
about the effectiveness of international law and
organization and about the extent of international
cooperation that is possible
—  Realists view international relations almost
exclusively as a “struggle for power” among
competing nation-states
—  States, like human beings, have an innate desire to
dominate others
Realist
—  The ultimate goal of all countries is security in a
hostile, anarchic environment
—  Realist policies are determined by power calculations
in pursuit of national security
—  Countries satisfied with their situation tend to pursue
the status quo
—  Countries that are dissatisfied tend to be expansionist
—  Alliances are made and broken based on the
requirements of “realpolitik”
Realist
—  Realists focus on military strategy, the elements of
national power, and the nature of national interests
more so than international law and organization
—  From WWII they learned that the way to prevent
future wars was a “balance of power” capable of
deterring would-be aggressors or on a “concert of
powers” willing to police the world
Realist
—  In the 16th Century Machiavelli had
argued in The Prince that:
—  “it is far better to be feared than loved”
—  “he ought not to quit good courses if he
can help it, but should know how to
follow evil courses if he must”
—  “he will prosper most whose mode of
acting best adapts itself to the
character of the times; and conversely
that he will be unprosperous, with
whose mode of acting the times do not
accord”
Social and political structures in Italy 15th centu
Political structure of late Middle
Ages Italy and its unusual social
climate allowed the emergence of
a rare cultural change.

Italy did not exist as a political

entity in the early modern period.
Instead, it was divided into
smaller city states and territories
Kingdom of Naples controlled
south,
Republic of Florence & Papal
States center Milanese
& Genoese to the north & west
Fifteenth-century
Venetians east. Italy was one of
the most urbanised areas in
 .....Social and political structures in Italy
Starting from 12th century

—  By 15th Century France, Spain (monastic),

rest under Church.
—  Italy’s exit from Feudalism...City states.
Oligarchic system. Church and Empire at
bay.
—  Society based on merchants and
commerce. Venice as great trading
centres made them intellectual
crossroads
—  Linked to this was anti-monarchical
thinking, with tilt towards the virtues of
liberty, fairness, justice, republicanism and
good administration.
—  Classical political theory accepts morality in
political law. In contrast, Machiavelli argues that
political action must always be considered in light
of its practical consequences rather than some
lofty ideal
—  Machiavelli’s underlying view is that - lofty ideals
translate into bad government. for a prince to act
in accordance with virtue is often detrimental to
the state
The Prince …the political context
— Unlike other political literature The Prince
is far less theoretical and relies on highly
practical considerations.
— Unlike earlier thinkers Machiavelli
presents historical evidence pragmatically
to ground The Prince in real situations
vaporising the hypothetical notions of
ideal states.
 The Prince …the political
context
Earlier treatises assumed that a prince needed above all to be
good, virtuous - in traditional sense.
Machiavelian virtue is in contemporary reality
He challenges the civilization by saying
—  Prince could not be constrained by the demands of
normal morality if he hoped to do his job properly.
—  Tenets of traditional morality would not produce an
effective ruler.

— Politics must have its own rules.

 The Prince …the political context
—  In insisting that no single quality could be identified as
‘Virtue’ and pursued in every situation, Machiavelli became
the political teacher of Europe.
—  Generations learned from him to make political decisions
with a hard new realism and sense that some form of deceit
are not to be avoided by any ruler who hopes to survive.
—  His teachings contributed to the core of the doctrines of
‘reason of state’ that became the basic political
education of modern Europe.
Machiavellian Prince - Summary
—  Machiavelli elaborates the doctrine of “ Raison D Etat.”
—  End justifies the Means
—  State is sovereign, autonomus and non-religious
—  A prince must combine the qualities of a lion and a fox
—  Use a double standard of morality
—  Favour despotic rule
—  Maintain strong army
—  Human nature is low and ungrateful, so Prince must
consider this nature of man
—  He should win the popularity of his people must not touch
the property of the people
—  A prince must have council of wise men and not of
flatterers Separate politics from religion
—  Remain free from emotions.
 Raison D Etat
—  Reason of state.
—  Actions and policies promoting safety and security of the
state. Because the state must preserve itself before it
promotes the welfare of its people. For preserving and
safeguarding itself all means adopted by the state are
justified by Machiavelli.
—  According to him in politics, one is guided by the harsh
realities of political life which is a struggle for power and
survival.
—  Independent, self-sufficient and well ordered and well
maintained state, all means adopted by the state are
justified
—  Prince should give priority to power. Morality and ethics
have different spheres. It cannot be mingled with the
reason of the state. To a prince power of state is of
supreme importance.
 End jus;fies the Means
—  It is a very famous statement of Machiavelli which he
justified for the “Reason of state”
—  He assumed that state is highest form of human
association. State is to be worshipped like a deity even by
sacrificing the individual
—  A ruler must remember that whatever brings success and
power is virtuous even cunningness, shrewdness is justified
—  Politics is the most precarious game. It can never be played
in a decent and orderly manner
—  The state has some primary objectives and responsibilities
like protection of life, maintenance of law and order and
looking after wellbeing of its members. Hence state must
have adequate means at its disposal.
THE END JUSTIFIES THE MEANS: REALISM
NOT IDEALISM
—  If an underlying principle is to be determined from Machiavelli’s
ostensibly ‘realist’ and practical text, it might be that the end can justify the
means. That is to say, it’s OK to do bad things if it’s for a good reason. The
problem here is that there is a very particular person who is to be the one to
decide what the good reason is: the prince.
—  This practical and rational (rather than idealistic) method of dealing with
politics is communicated through the short text in aphoristic statements
such as:
‘Men have imagined republics and principalities that never really exist
at all. Yet the way men live is so far removed from the way they ought
to live that anyone who abandons what is for what should be pursues
his downfall rather than his preservation; for a man who strives after
goodness in all his acts is sure to come to ruin, since there are so many
men who are not good.’ (Machiavelli, XV)
THE END JUSTIFIES THE MEANS:
REALISM NOT IDEALISM - contd
‘The answer is that one would like to be both the one and the
other [feared and loved]; but because it is difficult to combine
them, it is far safer to be feared than loved if you cannot be
both.’ (Machiavelli, XVII)

‘Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the
good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to
appear to have them. And I shall dare to say this also, that to
have them and always to observe them is injurious, and that to
appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful,
humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a mind so
framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able
and know how to change to the opposite. ’(Machiavelli, XVIII)
THE END JUSTIFIES THE MEANS:
REALISM NOT IDEALISM - contd
—  Machiavelli’s logic is that being cruel, frightening or
deceitful when necessary is better than being
merciful, loved and honest because people will be
more likely to obey you, therefore allowing you to
maintain power and achieve the ends you feel to be
most significant. However, despite this, a Prince must
appear to be honest and good or else his people will
not support him. This is again a matter of using the
means of diplomacy with one’s people so as to be able
to do what one wishes ‘behind the scenes’.
CONCERNING CRUELTY AND
CLEMENCY
“If the ruler wants to keep hold of his new
possessions, he must bear two things in
mind: first, that the family of old prince
be destroyed; next.....”
Every prince ought to desire to be
considered clement and not cruel.
Nevertheless he ought to take care not
to misuse this clemency (XVII)
WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO BE LOVED THAN
FEARED
—  whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared
than loved? It may be answered that one should wish
to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in
one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved,
when, of the two, either must be dispensed with.
Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that
they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous,
and as long as you succeed they are yours entirely;
they will offer you their blood, property, life, and
children, as is said above, when the need is far distant;
but when it approaches they turn against you. (XVII)
WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO BE LOVED THAN
FEARED - contd
—  Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a
way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred;
because he can endure very well being feared whilst
he is not hated, which will always be as long as he
abstains from the property of his citizens and subjects
and from their women. But when it is necessary for
him to proceed against the life of someone, he must
do it on proper justification and for manifest cause,
but above all things he must keep his hands off the
property of others, because men more quickly forget
the death of their father than the loss of their
patrimony.
WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO BE LOVED THAN
FEARED - contd
—  Besides, pretexts for taking away the property are
never wanting; for he who has once begun to live by
robbery will always find pretexts for seizing what
belongs to others; but reasons for taking life, on the
contrary, are more difficult to find and sooner lapse.
But when a prince is with his army, and has under
control a multitude of soldiers, then it is quite
necessary for him to disregard the reputation of
cruelty, for without it he would never hold his army
united or disposed to its duties.(XVII)
State is sovereign, autonomus and
non-religious
—  State is superior to all associations in the human society. It
is sovereign and is autonomous.
—  Moral and religious considerations cannot bind the prince.
He is above and outside the morality. He can use religion to
realize his ends. Religion cannot influence politics and the
church cannot control the state
—  Sovereign state enjoys absolute power over all individuals
and institutions
—  divorced politics from theology and government from
religion
—  Did not view the state as having a moral end and purpose
but gave importance to man’s worldly life
—  Politics is an independent activity with its own principles
and laws.
A prince must combine the
qualiGes of a lion and a fox
—  Advised the prince he should imitate the qualities of
fox and lion
—  A fox might have shrewdness and foresight, but he is
powerless without necessary force of a lion. Similarly
a lion without shrewdness and prudence of a fox
would be reckless
—  Hence a ruler who wants to be very successful must
combine in himself the qualities of both fox and lion.
He must possess bravery of lion and cunningness of
fox
—  Physical force is necessary when there is anarchy and
indiscipline. But law and morality is essential to check
selfishness of people and to generate civic virtues
Use double standard of poliGcs
—  One for the ruler and another for his subjects.
—  Morality is not necessary for the ruler. He is creator of
law and morality hence prince is above the both.
—  A ruler has primary duty of preserving the state. For
this purpose he may use instruments of lie,
conspiracy, killings and massacre etc.
—  Insisted that morality is essential for people. Only
moral citizens willingly obey laws of the state and
sacrifice their lives for their nation. It cultivate civic
sense and patriotic spirit.
Favoured despoGc ruler
—  Did not recommend the republican form of
Government, because republican form requires
virtuous, honest and patriotic citizens.
—  Machiavelli says that the government is founded upon
the weakness and insufficient capacity of men. If in a
society men are corrupt and selfish and the law is
powerless, then normal administration is not possible
at all.
—  A superior power is essential for bringing the society
into order. The government with absolute power stop
the excessive desires and control the behaviour of the
people.
Maintain strong army
—  Recommended constant military preparedness for the
preservation of the state.
—  Prince should organize a strong army to meet any
internal and external threat to his power.
—  Strong and regular army was must for a state for its
own defense. The state try to build up its own
independent, regular and faithful army. Such an army
should consist of its own citizens and be prepared not
only to defend its national borders but also to expand.
—  The citizens must be trained for army service and
there should be compulsory military training for all
able persons.
Human nature is low and ungrateful, so
prince must consider this nature of man
—  Viewed men to be a compound of weakness, ungrateful,
fear, lust for power and assumed all men are bad.
—  Prominent traits of human nature are
—  There is no limit to human desires. He is selfish and
aggressive.
—  The masses are interested in security. They realize that only
laws of the state can ensure security hence they co-operate
with the state and obey the laws.
—  People must be restrained by force because force breeds fear.
Only force and repression can keep control and check on the
evil tendencies in man. Hence the method of government
should be force and not persuasion.
—  By nature every human being is ambitious and remains
unsatisfied. No human being is content with his position.
—  Thus human nature is selfish, power hungry, quarrelsome
and guided by materialistic considerations. Only fear of
punishment is a powerful bond and it never fails.
Should try to win popularity of his
people
—  Prince should try to win popularity, goodwill and
affection of his people. He should keep his subjects
materially contented by not taxing them. The prince
should not interfere in age old customs and traditions
of his people because by nature people are
conservative. He should not have craving for wealth
and women of his own subjects. He should keep a
watchful eye on his dissidents.
A prince must have council of wise
men and not of flaMerers
—  Only way to safeguard yourself against flatterers is by
letting people understand that you are not offended
by the truth.
—  However if everyone can speak the truth then you
lose respect.
—  A shrewd prince should adopt a middle way, choosing
wise men for his government and allowing only those
the freedom to speak the truth to him and only
concerning matters on which he asks their opinion.
—  The prince should also question these wise men
thoroughly and listen to what they say before making
up his own mind.
Separate poliGcs from religion
—  Religion cannot influence politics and the church cannot
control the state. In fact the sovereign state enjoys absolute
power over all individuals and institutions. As such the church
is subordinate to the state
—  State is the highest form of social organisation and the most
necessary of all institutions. It stands on a wholly different
footing and must therefore be judged by different standards
—  He said politics is an independent activity with its own
principles and laws. State is non-religious and secular. It has its
own rules of conduct to follow.
—  Machiavelli sanctioned the use of immoral mans by the ruler
whenever it was necessary to do so to save the state. Thus the
separation of politics from ethics is the essence of
Machiavellian.
How princes should honour their word
—  Praiseworthy to be straightforward rather than
crafty however for achieving great results
cunningness is required
—  Combination of a lion and a fox succeeds. Lion to
frighten off wolves and fox to recognize traps.
—  Prince should know how to colour his actions and
to be a great liar and deceiver. The deceiver will
always find someone ready to be deceived.
—  What appears to be is more important because
people in general judge by their eyes rather than
by their hands.
Prince must be free from
emoGons
—  Prince should exploit emotions of his people for the
purpose of the state. He should be cool, calculating
and opportunist. His suggestion is that a prince must
know how to act as a beast.
choice of force against
subjects
“Men must be either pampered or crushed,
because they can get revenge for small
injuries but not for grievous ones. So any
injury a prince does a man should be of
such kind that there is no fear of
revenge”.
 On Political disorders
As doctors say of a wasting desease, to start with
it is easy to cure but difficult to diagnose;
after a time,
unless it has been diagnosd
and
treated at the outset,
it becomes easy to diagnose but difficult to cure.

“So it is in politics. Political disorders can be

quickly healed if they are seen well
advance ...only a prudent ruler has such
foresight
 On Statecraft
“.....When the Cardinal of Rouen said to me that
the Italians did not understand war, I retorted that the French did
not understand statecraft,
Because ,
if they understood it,
then they would not let the Church become so great”

The course of events in Italy has shown that how the

greatness of the church and of Spain has been caused
by France, and how the ruin of France has been
caused by them.
Machiavelli derives – “Whoever is responsible for
another’s becoming powerful ruins himself.”
On Fortune
—  Chapter 25: For my part I consider that it is better to be
adventurous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you
wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and ill-use her; and it
is seen that she allows herself to be mastered by the adventurous
rather than by those who go to work more coldly. She is, therefore,
always, woman-like, a lover of young men, because they are less
cautious, more violent, and with more audacity command her.
—  For Machiavelli politics is masculine, it is power and control;
fortune is feminine, it is anarchy. If not under control, it will be
unpredictable and dangerous. I won’t get into various feminist
responses to this, but as you can imagine, the view Machiavelli
has on human nature and how people must behave can be
questioned. Yet given his time, what was happening in Italy, and
what he experienced, his perspective can certainly be understood.
His influence, however, reaches far beyond Italy in the
16th century, and remains with us today in how we study and
understand the world of international relations.