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ELECTROPOLISHING
A User's Guide to
Applications, Quality Standards and
Specifications

For more information please contact

DELSTAR METAL FINISHING, INC.
11501 Brittmoore Park Drive
Houston, TX 77041 US

Telephone: 713-849-2090
Fax: 713-849-2091
Email: info@delstar.com
Website: www.delstar.com

January 2003
Ninth Edition

Delstar Metal Finishing, Inc.’s User's Guide to Electropolishing summarizes much of what has been
written about electropolishing in textbooks, magazines, technical journals and handbooks, and it is
believed to be accurately represented. However, Delstar makes no guarantees, warranties or
representations regarding its accuracy and use.

In the absence of nationally accepted electropolishing finish standards, Delstar's research and
development teams created recommended standards and specifications representing the various
needs of industry. This User’s Guide is provided as a service to engineers, designers and industry in
an effort to promote the use of electropolishing in various applications.

Copyright 2003 Delstar

CONTENTS
________________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS ELECTROPOLISHING?
HOW IS IT ACCOMPLISHED? 1

HISTORY OF ELECTROPOLISHING 2

BENEFITS OF ELECTROPOLISHING 3

WHAT METALS CAN BE ELECTROPOLISHED? 5

PHYSCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

ELECTROPOLISHED SURFACE 6
Basic Mill Plate Finishes for Stainless Steel
Surface Roughness Comparison Table

APPLICATIONS 12

GOOD AND BAD ELECTROPOLISHING:

How to Recognize Quality Work 16

HOW TO SPECIFIY ELECTROPOLISHING

The Standards of Quality 18

ELECTROPOLISH FINISH STANDARDS (EFS) 19

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS:
The Proof of Quality Assured Electropolishing 21
WHAT IS ELECTROPOLISHING?
HOW IS IT ACCOMPLISHED?
________________________________________________________________________

Electropolishing streamlines the microscopic surface of a metal object by

removing metal from the object's surface through an electrochemical
process similar to, but the reverse of, electroplating.

In electropolishing, the metal is removed ion by ion from the surface of the
metal object in question. Electrochemistry and the fundamental principles
of electrolysis (Faraday's Law) replace traditional mechanical finishing
techniques, including grinding, milling, blasting and buffing as the final
finish. In very basic terms, the object to be electropolished is immersed in
an electrolyte and subjected to a direct electrical current. The object is
maintained anodic, with the cathodic connection being made to a
nearby metal conductor.

During electropolishing, the polarized surface film is subjected to the

effects of gassing (oxygen), which occurs with electrochemical metal
removal, saturation of the surface with dissolved metal and the agitation
and temperature of the electrolyte.

Smoothness of the metal surface is a primary and very advantageous

effect of electropolishing. During the process, a film of varying thickness
covers the surfaces of the metal. This film is thickest over
microdepressions and thinnest over microprojections. Electrical
resistance is at a minimum wherever the film is thinnest, resulting in the
greatest rate of metallic dissolution. Electropolishing selectively removes
microscopic high points or "peaks" much faster than the corresponding
rate of attack on the corresponding micro-depressions or "valleys." Stock
is removed as metallic salt. Metal removal under certain circumstances is
controllable and can be held to 0.0001 to 0.0025 inch.

In summary, electropolishing removes metal. It does not move it or wipe

it. As a result, the surface of the metal is microscopically featureless, with
not even the smallest speck of a torn surface remaining. The basic metal
surface is subsequently revealed -- bright, clean and microscopically
smooth. By contrast, even very fine mechanically finished surfaces will
show smears and other directionally oriented patterns or effects.

1
HISTORY OF ELECTROPOLISHING
________________________________________________________________________

History's first reference to electropolishing occurred in 1912 when the

Imperial German government issued a patent for the finishing of silver in a
cyanide solution.

Further experimentation with the process continued, but the next

significant advancement was not made until 1935 when copper was
successfully electropolished. This leap forward was followed by other new
developments in 1936 and 1937, when Dr. Charles Faust and others
discovered solutions for electropolishing stainless steels and other metals.

During World War II, extensive research and process development by both
Allied scientists yielded a substantial number of new formulas and results.
Data from these projects was published during the post-war period in
hundreds of articles describing electropolishing's applications and its
theoretical basis. Dozens of new patents were registered between 1940
and 1955. Important applications were developed for the military during
World War II and the Korean conflict.

Today, electropolishing is being rediscovered as a replacement for

mechanical finishing. In addition to making a surface smoother, it is a
more visible means of brightening, deburring, passivating, stress relieving
and otherwise improving the physical characteristics of most metals and
alloys.

2
BENEFITS OF ELECTROPOLISHING
________________________________________________________________________

Better Physical Appearance

♦ No fine directional lines from abrasive polishing

♦ Excellent light reflection and depth of clarity

♦ Bright, smooth polish; uniform luster of shaped parts

Enhanced Mechanical Properties

♦ Less friction and surface drag

♦ Increased production and duty cycles in process equipment.

Electropolishing greatly reduces fouling, plugging, scaling and
product build-up

♦ Surface retains the true grain structure and properties of the bulk
metal

♦ Fatigue strength is not reduced. Electropolishing allows the true

fatigue strength of a part to be accurately determined

♦ Higher fatigue strength can be promoted by particle-blasting the

surface to reintroduce compressive stress without losing
electropolishing's advantages

♦ Stress-relieving of the surface

♦ Reduces galling of threads on stainless and carbon steel and other

alloys

Better Corrosion Protection

Electropolishing yields maximum tarnish and corrosion resistance in many metals
and alloys. Stainless steel contains metallic and non-metallic inclusions, which
are unavoidably included during manufacture. Mechanical polishing not only
fails to remove inclusions, but also tends to push them further into the surface and
even increase them by further pick-up of abrasive materials. These inclusions
eventually can become points of corrosion.

3
Ease of Cleaning

♦ Substantially reduces product contamination and adhesion due to

the microscopic smoothness of an electropolished surface (much
like a glass surface)

♦ Decreases cleaning time. Electropolished surfaces can be

effectively hydroblasted in less time and with less pressure. Some
companies report that electropolished process equipment surfaces
have reduced cleaning time by more than 50 percent

♦ Improves sterilization and maintenance of hygienically clean

surfaces for food, drug, beverage and chemical processing
equipment

♦ Provides best passivation of stainless steel. Unipotentializes stainless

steel with the oxygen absorbed by the surface, creating a
monomolecular oxide film

♦ Decarburizes metals

♦ Removes cold-worked metal oxides

For Special Effects

♦ Simultaneously deburrs as it polishes

♦ Radiuses or sharpens edges, depending on racking position

♦ Polishes areas inaccessible by other methods

♦ Reveals flaws in metal surfaces undetectable by other means.

Electropolishing is one of the most effective inspection tools for
judging metal surfaces

♦ Provides a correct and reproducible microhardness on the metal

surface

♦ Increases magnetism of parts by approximately 20 percent

♦ Allows micromachining of metal and alloy surfaces

♦ Processes large numbers of parts simultaneously

♦ Enables metal to be formed with fewer passes and annealing steps.

4
WHAT METALS CAN BE ELECTROPOLISHED?
________________________________________________________________________

Most metals can be electropolished successfully, but the best results are
obtained with metals with fine grain boundaries that are free of non-
metallic inclusions and seams. Those metals having a high content of
silicon, lead or sulfur are usually troublesome.

Stainless steels are the most frequently electropolished alloys, and all can
be processed. Castings will polish to a bright finish but not to the same
brightness or smoothness produced by wrought alloys.

Other Commercially Electropolished Metals include:

♦ Low and High Carbon Steels

♦ Tool Steels
♦ High Temperature Alloys (Molybdenum, Nimonic, Waspaloy,
Tungsten)

♦ Aluminum ♦ Titanium
♦ Copper ♦ Kovar
♦ Cupronickel ♦ Inconel
♦ Brass ♦ Columbium
♦ Bronze ♦ Leaded Steel (Low-Lead)
♦ Nickel Silver ♦ Beryllium
♦ Monel ♦ Vanadium
♦ Hastelloy ♦ Tantalum
♦ Beryllium Copper ♦ Silver and Gold

Many of the above metals can only be electropolished in large

production runs and in controlled environments. This is due to the
sometimes-costly set-up, tooling and special environmental and safety
equipment requirements associated with many of these processes.

5
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE ELECTROPOLISHED SURFACE
________________________________________________________________________

Important Considerations
A smooth, highly reflective electropolished surface is determined to a
large extent by the surface conditions of the metal and the process
controls.

Surface Conditions. Base metal conditions that can result in less than
optimum electropolishing finishes include the presence of non-metallic
inclusions, improper annealing, overpickling, heat scale, large grain size,
directional roll marks, insufficient cold reduction or excessive cold
working. These conditions may be inherent in the metal as it comes from
the mill. During electropolishing, metal is removed, revealing these flaws.

Process Controls. The degree to which the electropolishing process is

controlled determines the final quality and consistency of the finish. Many
electropolishing shops employ, at best, a minimum number of controls, or
no controls at all. A lack of process controls produces inconsistent and
unpredictable quality. While some variables are functions of technology,
others fall under what many call "the art of electropolishing."

It is imperative that the proper electrolyte be used, that its temperature be

maintained precisely (heated or cooled as necessary) and that its
chemistry be monitored constantly. Critical factors in the chemistry are
the specific gravity (an indicator of water content and a major
consideration in hygroscopic electrolytes), the acid concentration and
the metals content. A supply of clean, ripple-free DC power must be
available to drive the process, as well as appropriately sized cables and
connectors to the anodes and cathodes. The DC power must be applied
at the correct voltage and current density (amperes/square foot).

The "art" of electropolishing is the ability of a technician with many years

of experience to configure a cathode for optimum polishing in
inaccessible areas, corners, and areas of low current density. Equally
important is the knowledge of where, when and how to agitate either the
electrolyte or the part in order to prevent gassing streaks, flow marks and
similar undesirable markings.

For many products, electropolishing's mirror-like luster is the goal. Many

others, however, require additional functional or technical advantages of

6
electropolishing not attainable by mechanical means. Because there is no
mechanical disturbance of the surface during the metal removal process, the
electropolished surface possesses the true grain structure and properties of
the bulk metal.

In contrast, all mechanical polishing procedures leave a layer of disturbed

structure. The mechanically finished surface will not have the properties
reported for the bulk metal, regardless of the thickness of the disturbed
surface or the mechanical process employed.

The surface of a metal is often described as that place where the metal
ceases to exist. This certainly can be said of an electropolished surface, but
not for a surface that has been mechanically finished by cutting, smearing,
skin rolling, buffing, drilling, boring, reaming, broaching or grinding.

Electropolishing vs. Mechanical Polishing

A mechanically polished metal surface yields an abundance of scratches,

strains, metal debris and embedded abrasives. In contrast, an
electropolished surface is completely featureless. It reveals the true crystal
structure of the metal without the distortion produced by the cold-working
process that always accompanies mechanical finishing methods.

The difference between electropolishing and mechanical finishing is often

not readily obvious to the unaided human eye, particularly if both are
polished to the same micro-inch finish. The extraordinary advantages of the
surface finish produced by electropolishing leap forward, however, when the
metal is viewed under high magnification. In contrast, finishing processes
using abrasives or other cutting or burnishing action, regardless of how small
the amount of work, always distorts the metal surface.

The differences are much more than simply topographical. The damage
associated with cold working penetrates deeply into the metal; likewise,
abrasives become embedded in the surface. The mechanical strength of the
surface is lowered significantly by the cold working that accompanies simple
cutting operations. For example, the application of a mechanical finishing
process to steel having a tensile strength of 100,000 psi can leave a surface
skin of worked metal possessing only a tensile strength of only 35,000 psi.

Burnishing metal by lapping, buffing or coloring processes decreases

microinch roughness and improves the image-defining quality of a surface,
but it never completely removes the debris and damaged metal caused by
mechanical polishing. Burnishing cannot be viewed as an adequate
substitute for electropolishing in most applications.

Surface finish is confirmed by high-magnification scanning electron

micrographs. Several examples of these SEM photomicrographs are
provided in this Guide, using representative stainless steel surfaces in tubing
and plate.
7
The tubing photomicrographs show 316L tubing before and after
electropolishing at various magnifications. The photomicrographs of plate
surfaces (taken at 2,000X and enlarged) show plate in the as-received
condition (No.1 hot rolled, annealed and pickled finish), as well as the
cold-rolled (2-B finish), ground (No. 4 finish) and electropolished
conditions. SEM photomicrographs showing inadequate and intermediate
quality electropolishing also are included for reference.

Basic Mill Plate Finishes for Stainless Steel

There are eight basic stainless steel mill plate finishes available. Finishes 3,
4, 6, 7 and 8 are produced mechanically by using abrasive compositions
and buffing wheels.

Unpolished No. 1. This is a very dull finish produced by hot-rolling the

steel on hand sheet mills to specified thicknesses, followed by annealing
and descaling. The surface is microscopically very porous and uneven,
allowing a level of contamination pick-up that is many times its geometric
surface area. Used in industrial applications where resistance to heat or
corrosion, not a smooth finish, is desired.

Unpolished No. 2D. This is a dull finish produced on hand sheet mills or
continuous mills by cold rolling the metal to the specified thickness,
followed by annealing and descaling. The dull finish may result from the
descaling operations or may be developed by a final light cold roll pass
on dull rolls. This finish is favorable to the surface retention of lubricants in
deep drawing operations, and it is generally used in forming deep-drawn
articles that may be polished after fabrication.

Unpolished No. 2B. This is a bright, cold-rolled finish produced similarly to

the No. 2D finish, except the annealed and descaled sheet receives a
final light cold roll pass on polished rolls. The metal grains are flattened,
which facilitates removal of smearable contamination. However, the
etched boundaries between the grains are only partially sealed, resulting
in a network of sub-surface crevices. Contaminants lodging in these
crevices are protected from contact with cleaning agents, leading to
possible subsequent migration of trapped contaminants onto the cleaned
surface (bleeding). No. 2B is a general purpose finish used for all but the
most difficult deep-drawing applications, and it is more readily polished
than No. 1 or No. 2D.

Polished No. 3. This is an intermediate polished finish for use where a

semi-finished polished surface is required for subsequent finishing
operations following fabrication, or as a final finish with a 50 or 80 grit
abrasive compound. (In the case of metal sheets or articles that will not
be subject to additional finishing and polishing, a No. 4 finish is ideal.)

8
Polished No. 4. This is a general purpose mechanically polished stainless
steel finish that is widely used for architectural panels and trim as well as for
restaurant, dairy and kitchen equipment. Initial grinding is followed by
coarser abrasives, with sheets eventually finished out with 100-150 mesh
abrasives. Although microscopically flat, the grain of Polished No. 4 stainless
steel still contains deep grooves and other microscopic cavities that entrap
and retain contaminants.

Buffed No. 6. A dull satin finish possessing low reflectivity, a Buffed No. 6
finish is produced with a greaseless compound and 200-grit abrasive, and is
top-dressed with chrome rouge.

Buffed No. 7. This very reflective finish is produced by buffing a surface that
first was refined with 220-grit abrasives to approximate a No. 6 finish. It is then
buffed lightly with a white chrome rouge without removing the satin finish
lines.

Buffed No. 8. This is the most reflective mechanical finish. It is obtained by

polishing with progressively finer abrasives (320-grit and finer), followed by
extensive buffing with very fine white chrome bar buffing compounds. To the
unaided eye, the surface appears free of grit lines from previous grinding
operations.

Electropolished Surfaces. Electropolished surfaces are extremely smooth,

macro-scopically flat, microscopically featureless, and exhibit high high
luster, reflectivity and brightness. Electropolishing substantially reduces the
surface area available for contamination pick-up and eliminates all micro-
cracks and internal crevices.
________________________________________________________________________

COMPARISON TABLE
Differences Between Polished and Buffed Milled Finishes, Abrasive Grit
Numbers and Surface Roughness (Before and After Electropolishing)

Before Electropolishing After Electropolishing*

Mill Grit Surface Roughness, Ra Surface Roughness, Ra
No. No. micrometer microinches micrometer microinches
3 60 3.56 max 140 max 1.78-2.25 70-90
4 120 1.14 max 45 max 0.57-0.75 23-30
180 0.64 max 25 max 0.32-0.40 13-16
7 240 0.20-0.51 8-20 0.10-0.26 4-10
8 320 0.15-0.38 6-15 0.08-0.19 3-8
8 500 0.10-0.25 4-10 0.05-0.13 2-5
* Values are approximate. Electropolishing generally reduces surface
roughness readings of a non-electropolished surface by 50 percent.
________________________________________________________________________

9
Smoothness is not an independent variable in surface definition. It is one
factor of an important subject that is referred to as "surface metallurgy."
Smoothness specifications, based on gages, can be achieved by both
electropolishing and mechanical abrasive finishing techniques.

Surface Roughness

Surface roughness is commonly measured or classified as Ra (Roughness

average) or Rq (the equivalent of RMS -- Root Mean Square). Both are
measured in microinches and denote the smoothness of ground or
machined surfaces. For comparison, an Ra reading is approximately 87.5
percent of an Rq (RMS) reading.

Roughness measurements have no real relationship to how

easily an electropolished surface can be cleaned after use
or to its non-contaminating, non-particulating or non-stick
properties.

Surface roughness is usually measured with a profilometer. This instrument

cannot accurately read the distances between the "peaks" and "valleys."
Electropolishing may reduce the peaks from substantial points to
insignificant mounds without changing the peak-to-peak distance at the
same ratio. However, microscopic examination of the surface will show
up to a 90 percent reduction in surface area and up to a 50 percent
improvement in profilometer readings.

Surface Chemical Analysis

One of electropolishing's primary benefits is the chromium enrichment of

the surface resulting from properly controlled processing.

A consistent chromium-rich oxide layer only is attained when the atomic

concentration of chrome exceeds the iron in the surface layer as
demonstrated by the Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES). AES analysis
also measures depth and extent of surface passivation. Electropolishing
maximizes surface passivation because the surface contains very low
levels of iron (Fe) in zero oxidation states.

Other surface chemistry analysis can be made for sulfide inclusions,

precipitated carbides and other similar impurities, all of which affect the
final appearance of electropolished surfaces. The end-grain surfaces of
free-machining stainless grades such as Types 303 and 416 will appear
frosty after electropolishing due to the removal of the sulfide inclusions.
Type 302 stainless steel will show pitting if the annealing process failed to
redissolve the precipitated carbides.

10
Friction Reduction
Electropolishing reduces the coefficient of friction of metals. The process
removes or rounds off the small surface asperities, yielding a coefficient of
friction that measures approximately one-fourth of the coefficient
registered by a mechanically finished surface.

Electropolished Castings

Various alloys are used in most castings, making this particular product
less well suited to electropolishing. A major exception to this rule is
stainless steel.

Electropolished stainless steel castings will be brightened but will not be as

smooth as strip stock nor obtain the same mirror finish. The process
decontaminates and passivates the metal surface. Note: During electro-
polishing, the surface of the casting will be removed and may expose
sub-surface porosity.

Investment castings are better candidates for electropolishing than sand

castings, primarily because of the inherently smoother surface of
investment grade castings. However, sand castings will electropolish to a
clean and bright surface.

Limitations

Electropolishing cannot smear over or otherwise conceal defects such as

seams and non-metallic inclusions in metals. In addition, heavy orange
peel, mold-surface texture and rough scratches are not removed by a
practical amount of electropolishing and thus require an initial "cutdown"
with abrasives. Multiphase alloys in which one phase is relatively resistant
to anodic dissolution usually are not well suited to an electropolishing
treatment.

11
APPLICATIONS
________________________________________________________________________

Today, electropolishing is successfully applied to an expanded range of

new applications:

♦ Pipe/Tubing ♦ Valves ♦ Fittings ♦ Sheet Metal

♦ Stampings ♦ Spinnings ♦ Weldments ♦ Castings
♦ Wire Goods ♦ Forgings ♦ Fasteners ♦ Drawings

Major benefits of electropolishing continue to be demonstrated in reactor

vessels, heat exchangers, blenders, storage tanks, piping and tubing,
clean rooms, food and beverage processing equipment, medical
equipment, machined parts and nuclear applications. See the sections
below to find the advantages electropolishing offers for your application.

Reactor Vessels, Heat Exchangers, Mixers,

Agitators, Blenders & Storage Tanks

♦ Extends operating times and reduces wear and tear on parts

♦ Reduces adhesion and contamination on the surfaces of process

equipment (Electropolished surfaces perform as well as glass
surfaces in many applications)

♦ Promotes easy cleaning and reduces associated downtime

♦ Significantly reduces a metal's tendency to corrode

♦ Reduces friction between moving metal parts

♦ Improves heat transfer efficiency in heat exchangers

♦ Enhances flow characteristics of piping and tubing

♦ Eliminates burrs from machined parts

♦ Reduces surface stresses in formed metal parts

♦ Lengthens metal life against sour gas

12
Experience tells us that any container used in mixing, blending or storage
processes for liquids or powders is an excellent candidate for
electropolishing. The non-stick qualities of an electropolished surface
have obvious advantages in these applications. Companies who have
used electropolished parts successfully in the above applications include
Exxon, Shell, Union Carbide, Goodyear, Ethyl, Occidental, BASF, Allied,
Dow Chemical, Mobay and others.

Piping & Tubing

In recent years, electropolishing has been shown to provide the ultimate
I.D. and O.D. finish for piping and tubing. Electropolishing is necessary
whenever non-contaminating, non-particulating and anti-fouling surfaces
are required. In addition, pipe and tubing also benefit from the minimal
friction and maximum purity aspects of electropolishing. Major
beneficiaries of electropolished piping and tubing include the
petrochemical, nuclear, pharmaceutical, semi-conductor and food and
beverage industries.

Clean Rooms
Clean rooms demand non-contaminating and non-particulating surfaces.
Electropolishing is the ultimate finish for clean room tables, chairs, waste
containers, light fixtures, exposed electrical conduit and outlet boxes,
manufacturing and processing equipment, and other metallic
components used in this application.

Food & Beverage Processing

Electropolishing provides the smooth, easy cleaning and cosmetically
pleasing surfaces demanded by this industry coupled with unmatched
non-contamination and sanitary qualities. The process reduces oxidation
and contamination of stainless steel components used in kitchen, dairy
and automatic food processing equipment, and descales food and
beverage containers. Overall, one can expect a significantly cleaner
surface that resists the contaminating build-up of undesirable bacteria
and product particles.

Medical Applications
For many years, the medical field has been a beneficiary of
electropolishing. All hospital, medical and surgical equipment (scalpels,
clamps, saws, bone and joint implants, prosthetic devices, burn beds and
rehabilitation whirlpools) should be electropolished to facilitate cleaning
and achieve high levels of non-contamination. All metal articles exposed
to radiation and requiring regular decontamination are prime candidates
for electropolishing.

13
Machined Parts
All screws, bolts, washers, valve stems and bodies, and other machined
parts benefit from electropolishing. The process provides a number of
advantages, including deburring and stress relieving of the surface, easy
clean up, a non-stick, non-contaminating, non-particulating finish, and a
pleasing cosmetic appearance. It has been demonstrated that machined
parts of electropolished 304 stainless steel exhibit superior corrosion
resistance when compared to the same parts fashioned from non-
electropolished 316 stainless steel. Precise machining using
electropolishing techniques is an advantage in many applications.

Nuclear
Electropolishing is a critical finish in the nuclear industry. Used to polish
surfaces located in radioactive environments, electropolishing reduces
contamination pick-up and increases the effectiveness of conventional
decontamination techniques. The process can be used to decontaminate
radioactive metallic surfaces to non-detectable levels. Any
contamination located on or embedded in the surface can be removed
by the electropolishing process. In addition, residual contaminated
electrolyte can be removed in the rinsing operation. A very effective
application for electropolishing is the polishing of nuclear plant
recirculation piping for stress-relief of internal surfaces that have already
been mechanically polished.

More Industrial Applications

♦ Dry Product Delivery Systems

♦ Filters, Screens and Strainers

♦ Product Trays and Dryers

♦ Thermowells

♦ Pumps and Valves

♦ Compressors and Condensers

♦ Cooling and Plate Coils

♦ Turbine Blades, Wheels and Impellers

♦ Vacuum Chambers and Equipment

Significantly reduces outgassing on surfaces in a vacuum environment

14
♦ Paper Mill Equipment
Paper slurry pipe systems and head boxes are two of many applications

♦ Electronic and Communications Parts

♦ Offshore Oil field Applications

Instrumentation, down-hole safety equipment and other similar systems

♦ Fouling Reduction of Screens and Springs

♦ Reduction of Oxidation and Corrosion

Crucial for preserving mechanical seals and parts located in chlorine
environments

♦ Electromachining
Occasionally, parts are made to improper tolerances or to tolerances
needing a slight change. Electropolishing can be a valuable tool to alter
tolerances by precisely controlling the removal of a small amount of
metal.

♦ Passivation
Electropolishing serves as an excellent passivation process. The process
removes contamination located on or just beneath the surface and
passivates stainless steel to a much greater extent than any other
treatment.

Electropolishing also helps preserve carbon steel parts scheduled for

extended storage. Electropolished carbon steel has been stored at 60-70
percent relative humidity for more than six months without visible rust.
Electropolished brass tarnishes only slightly, if at all, under similar
circumstances – a sharp contrast to buffed brass which turns dark.

15
GOOD & BAD ELECTROPOLISHING:
How to Recognize Quality Work
________________________________________________________________________

What Does High Quality Electropolishing Look Like?

High quality electropolishing should exhibit brilliant luster and reflectivity.
The smoother the surface to be electropolished, the higher the brilliance
and reflectivity will be after the process is complete. High quality
electropolishing should be free of the following flaws:

♦ "Frosting" ♦ Streaks or Stains ♦ Orange Peel

♦ Shadows ♦ Water Spots ♦ Erosion
♦ Irregular Patterns ♦ Pitted Surfaces ♦ Pebbly Surfaces

Under high magnification, the electropolished surface should show no

evidence of grain boundaries and should be essentially featureless. (See
SEM Photomicrographs section, p. 21.)

What Contributes to Good (and Bad) Electropolishing?

High quality electropolishing begins with materials possessing superior
electropolishing properties. Quality materials, coupled with proper
techniques and conditions, generally will yield superb results.

However, there are times when even the best efforts of the Electropolisher
do not produce the desired results. A stainless steel part produced from a
specific alloy or possessing a unique history may present certain
problems. Pits, exposed seams, a grainy or dull luster, "patchy luster" and
a generally "unfinished" look are examples of situations where the
problem may be rooted in the material.

One or more of these effects can be attributed to non-metallic inclusions

that trace back to hot-rolling of slabs, under- or over-pickling, excessive
or undue temperature rise during cold rolling (as by too heavy a reduction
per pass), under- or over-annealing, surface decarburization during
annealing, excessive grinding prior to cold-rolling, burnishing action
during the last stage of cold rolling, and contamination from exposure to
industrial process materials, pollutants, lubricants and other materials used
in manufacturing. End-grain surfaces of free-machining stainless steel
grades such as Types 303 and 416 will appear "frosty" after
electropolishing due to removal of the sulfide inclusions.

16
A uniform, fine crystal homogeneous structure produces the best
electropolishing results. However, certain structural characteristics can
vary in stainless steel without affecting the nominally specified properties,
yet influence the electropolishing results. Examples include broken down,
highly oriented structures, grain boundary precipitation of carbides, and
other non-homogeneities – all of which cause a lower quality
electropolished finish.

Recognizing Quality

Learning to recognize quality electropolishing is like learning to distinguish

between a real one-dollar bill and a counterfeit. The best way to tell the
difference is to learn how the real things looks, feels and performs. Inferior
electropolishing then can be readily identified, either by visual
examination or by photomicroscopy.

Electropolishing is preferred in many industries as a final finish for many

metals because of its surface enhancement, non-contaminating, non-
particulating, non-sticking or cosmetic qualities. If the goal is a pleasing
cosmetic finish, high quality electropolishing usually can be judged by
visual inspection. A microscopic evaluation of the surface is necessary,
however, where a "maximum" finish is required and where it is imperative
that the surface condition be documented for future evaluation.

For example, a buffed surface (such as a No. 8 finish) often appears to be

electropolished to the uneducated eye. Either finish can yield the same
surface finish profilometer readings (Ra or RMS). Only photomicrographs
of the two surfaces would show the substantial difference between the two
surfaces. The electropolished surface would be seen as featureless, while
the buffed surface would show layers of smeared, disturbed and
damaged metal, as well as embedded abrasives and buffing compound.

Photomicroscopy is highly recommended whenever substantial capital

investment is involved and where an electropolished surface plays a key
role in the results of a research project or manufacturing process. In order
to maintain a rigorous quality control program, the use of comparative
sample coupons (previously electropolished and thoroughly proven with
photomicroscopy) is recommended. In addition to being cost-effective,
electropolishing establishes an objective evaluation and permanent
record for future reference.

Photomicrographs offer the only positive proof of the quality of the

electropolishing. Your electropolisher should be willing to certify the final
finish with a photomicrograph.

17
HOW TO SPECIFY ELECTROPOLISHING:
The Standards of Quality
________________________________________________________________________

For many years, the lack of accepted specifications for electropolishing left
many uncertain as to how to specify the finish desired on the metal surface.
There are four primary and generally accepted finish standards for
electropolishing. (See next page for specifics.)
To achieve quality electropolishing, Step One must be the specification of the
correct metal alloy. For example, a general materials specification to
manufacture a part from "300 series stainless steel" alloys can create
problems. Some 300 series stainless steels Electropolish better than others.
Type 316 generally polishes better than Type 304. Type 303 stainless
possesses sulfide inclusions, which presents an obstacle to high-grade
electropolishing. Selection of the material should be discussed with the
Electropolisher.
Step Two is the selection of the final finish required for the application being
considered. An intermediate step of mechanical abrasive polishing may be
required to achieve the final finish desired. Generally, electropolishing can
reduce the Ra or RMS reading on a mechanically polished surface by
approximately 50 percent. For example, if the existing mill or mechanically
polished surface shows a surface reading of 50 Ra, one can expect an
electropolished surface reading of approximately 25 Ra. There are factors,
however, that can depress or elevate the final Ra reading. Quality
Electropolishers use sample coupons of the metals to be electropolished in
order to help determine the final finish.
Step Three: Any mechanical polishing required to achieve the specified final
finish must be considered. Multiple passes of ever-finer abrasive grits are
recommended as mandatory for best results. Very coarse grits (less than 80
grit) should be avoided. Surface quality obtained by Electropolishing is
directly related to the quality of the pre-electropolished surface.
Electropolishing cannot remove digs, gouges, scratches or other similar
surface distortions. Discussion of the mechanical polishing requirements with
the Electropolisher will help assure the quality of the desired final finish.
Delstar Corporation recognized some time ago that the creation and
implementation of nationally accepted standards regarding electropolished
finishes was desperately needed in order to establish and maintain quality.
Working closely with an independent research institute, our research and
development teams led the industry's response to this challenge by
establishing the Electropolish Finish Standards (EFS). Each standard contains
specifications in order to enable customers to accurately specify the final
finish desired. Details on grades EFS-1, EFS-2, EFS-3 and EFS-4 are described
on the following page.

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ELECTROPOLISH FINISH
STANDARDS (EFS)
________________________________________________________________________

EFS-1 (Critical Applications Requiring Surface Verification)

"Part is to be pre-cleaned if necessary, and electropolished to uniform
overall finish with maximum brightness, luster and reflectivity on required
surfaces as shown by symbol on print. If indicated, final finish must be to
the Ra or RMS finish noted.

"Specified electropolished surfaces to be free of frosting, shadows, streaks,

erosion, stains, water spots and irregular patterns in the finish. Specified
surfaces also to be free of pebbly, orange peel or pitted appearance.

"Part is to be cleaned to acid-free condition throughout, D.I. water rinsed,

dried and packaged to protect the electropolished surface. Surface shall
be confirmed by one or more standard surface quality tests specified
below."

EFS-1a (Verification by SEM Photomicroscopy)

"Electropolisher to provide photomicrographs (100x and 1,000X

magnification) of representative surface areas to assure maximum
electropolished surface condition. Surface will show no evidence of
grain boundaries."

EFS-1b (Verification by Auger Electron Spectroscopy)

"Electropolisher to provide results of Auger Electron Spectroscopy
(AES) taken from representative surface areas to assure maximum
electropolished surface condition. Depth of chrome oxide layer shall
not be less than 20 Å (Angstroms)."

EFS-1c (Verification by ESCA Analysis)

"Electropolisher to provide results of Electron Spectroscopy for
Chemical Analysis (ESCA) taken from representative surface areas to
assure that the maximum electropolished condition has been
achieved. ESCA will be conducted in tandem with AES to confirm the
quality of the Cr/Fe oxide profile.

19
EFS-2 (Critical Applications Not Requiring Surface Verification)
"Part is to be pre-cleaned if necessary, and 100 percent electropolished to
uniform overall finish with maximum brightness, luster and reflectivity on
required surfaces as shown by symbol on print. If indicated, final finish must
be to the Ra or RMS finish noted. Specified electropolished surfaces to be free
of frosting, shadows, streaks, erosion, stains, water spots and irregular patterns
in the finish. Specified surfaces also to be free of pebbly, orange peel or
pitted appearance. Part is then to be cleaned to acid-free condition
throughout, D.I. water rinsed, dried and packaged to protect the
electropolished surface."

EFS-3 (Technical Applications Allowing Variations in Finish)

Where an EFS-2 electropolished surface is not required and where a more
economical electropolishing finish is acceptable, the following specification
can be used. Less stringent than the one above, this specification will allow
some irregularities in the finish.
"Part to be pre-cleaned if necessary, and bright electropolished to a visually
uniform finish on required surfaces as designated by symbol on print.
Specified electropolished surfaces must be free of pebbly, orange peel or
pitted appearance. Part is then to be cleaned to an acid-free condition
throughout."

EFS-4 (Non-Reflective Applications)

An EFS-4 electropolished finish is used where a non-reflective surface is
required.
"Part to be pre-cleaned if necessary, and electropolished to a uniform satin
finish. Surfaces shall exhibit no bright, reflective areas and shall be free of
pebbly, orange peel or pitted appearance. Part is to cleaned to an acid-
free condition throughout."

EFS-X (Specification for Electrical Connection to Part)

Where location of "rack marks" or other evidence of DC power anode
contact is important, the following specification should be included:
"Electrical anode connections to part shall be at those points or within those
areas indicated on the part drawing, or at alternate locations as approved
by Purchaser."

Special Note
Specifications should be included in any written description of work as well
as on the part drawing. The electropolishing specification should be a part
of, and in addition to, any required mechanical polishing specification.
Special post-electropolishing cleaning and/or packing instructions should
also be included.

20
SEM PHOTOMICROGRAPHS:
The Proof of Quality Assured Electropolishing
________________________________________________________________________

A Scanning Electron Microscope is an invaluable tool when evaluating

surface finishes. SEM photomicrographs illustrate in graphic detail the
differences between the surface qualities of mill and mechanically
polished finishes and an electropolished surface. The following
photomicrographs represent typical evaluations of various surfaces during
the polishing process.

SEM photomicroscopy is highly recommended whenever substantial

capital investment is involved and where an electropolished surface plays
a key role in the results of a research and development project or
manufacturing process.

(Note: When the actual surface of a large object cannot physically be

loaded into a SEM and viewed, a thin film of clear acetate often is used to
make an exact replica of metal surfaces. Film is pressed against the
metal surface in order to create a "mirror image." The processed replica
can then be sputtered with gold and subsequently viewed and
photographed using a SEM.)

21
Comparative Photomicroscopy Showing Stainless Steel Plate As
Received and in Successive States of Electropolishing

This photomicrograph represents

the surface of HRAP No. 1
stainless steel plate as received
from the mill. Note the grain
boundaries, porosity, crevices,
cavities and breaks in the surface.
If left intact, these surface flaws
will entrap contaminants that may
subsequently migrate onto the
cleaned surface.

HRAP #1 S.S. Plate As Received

This photomicrograph represents

the same surface after inadequate
Electropolishing. Note that many
of the serious surface flaws
persist. Metal that is inadequately
electropolished will not yield the
results expected from high quality
electropolished surfaces.

Inadequate Electropolishing

Comparative photomicroscopy of stainless steel plate in successive states

of electropolishing continues on next page

22
Comparative Photomicroscopy Showing Stainless Steel Plate
As Received and in Successive States of Electropolishing (cont’d.)

This photomicrograph represents

intermediate quality
Electropolishing. While most of the
surface flaws have been removed or
considerably reduced, the surface
can continue to entrap
contaminants. As a result, it will
perform inadequately in many
applications.

Intermediate Quality Electropolishing

This photomicrograph represents a

premium high-grade electropolished
surface. The surface is completely
featureless when viewed under high
magnification. This electropolished
surface is non-contaminating, non-
particulating, non-outgassing and
non-sticking.

Premium-Grade Electropolishing

23
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Two Standard
Mill Finishes Before and After Electropolishing

This photomicrograph represents

the surface of 304 stainless steel
with a No. 2B mill finish, before
Electropolishing. Note that the
etched boundaries between the
grains are only partially sealed,
resulting in a network of sub-
surface crevices. Contaminants
which lodge in these crevices are
protected from contact with
cleaning agents. As a result,
extensive migration of trapped
contaminants onto the cleaned
surface can easily occur.

Before Electropolishing

This photograph represents the

same No. 2B surface after
Electropolishing. Featureless
under high magnification, the
surface has the desired non-
contaminating, non-particulating,
non-outgassing and non-stick
properties.

After Electropolishing

Comparative photomicroscopy of mill finishes continues on next page.

24
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Two Standard
Mill Finishes Before and After Electropolishing (cont’d)

This photograph represents a 304

stainless steel surface with a
mechanically polished No. 4 mill
finish before Electropolishing.
Note the deep grooves, cavities,
torn metal and microscopic
imperfections that entrap
contaminants.

Before Electropolishing

This photomicrograph represents

the same No. 4 finish after
Electropolishing. When viewed by
the naked eye, the surface may still
show some of the abrasive
produced topography, but will be
microscopically featureless under
high magnification. This surface is
non-contaminating, non-
particulating, non-outgassing and
non-sticking.

After Electropolishing

25
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Stainless Steel Tubing
Surfaces

This 1000X photomicrograph

shows the surface of seamless
316L stainless steel tubing as
received from the mill. Note the
elongated grain structure,
cavities and surface distortions
resulting from the mandrel used
in the tubing’s manufacture.

Before Electropolishing

This 1000X photomicrograph

shows the same surface after
electropolishing. Note the
disappearance of grain
boundaries and other
imperfections that were in the
pre-electropolished surface.

After Electropolishing

Comparative photomicroscopy of stainless steel tubing before and after

Electropolishing continues on next page

26
Comparative Photomicroscopy of Stainless Steel Tubing
Surfaces (cont’d.)

This photograph shows the same

pre-electropolished surface viewed
at 3500X. Note the large fissure
that is typical of the larger surface.
Contaminants will inevitably lodge
in these crevices making the
process of maintaining purity of
surface virtually impossible.

Before Electropolishing

This 3500X photomicrograph

represents the surface of the same
tubing sample after
electropolishing. Note the absence
of the fissure of the pre-
electropolished surface shown
above.

After Electropolishing

27
DELSTAR: THE QUALITY LEADER
________________________________________________________________________

Delstar Metal Finishing, Inc. is capable of electropolishing all components

mentioned in this User's Guide to Electropolishing, including tanks, vessels,
heat exchangers, blenders, pipe, tubing, clean room equipment, food
processing equipment, medical items, as well as parts for many other
industrial applications.

Delstar operates a very modern, state-of-the-art plant facility that

encompasses 30,000 square feet of production space. In addition,
Delstar’s Mobile Electropolishing Teams (METs) can process large vessels
on-site and, in some cases, actually perform the process from within the
vessel.

Delstar's technicians and executives have worked on nuclear projects

(Louisiana Power and Light's Waterford III Nuclear Power Station,
Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Peachbottom Nuclear Station)
and process reactor vessels and heat exchangers for BASF, Shell, Hymont,
Georgia-Pacific, Tenneco, Union Carbide, Shamrock, Dow Chemical,
Mobil, B.F. Goodrich and many others.

Delstar is the electropolisher for major industry leaders such as Intel,

Motorola, Applied Materials, Lockheed Martin, NASA, Texas Instruments,
General Electric and Merck Pharmaceuticals. Other customers include
the U.S. Navy Special Warfare Center, Los Alamos National Laboratories,
and the U.S. Army.

Delstar Metal Finishing, Inc. is a diversified Texas-based corporation

operating in markets worldwide. In addition to electropolishing, Delstar
offers a full range of precision mechanical polishing, passivating, pickling,
chemical cleaning, corrosion and wear resistant coatings.

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