TITLE: Communication and Supervision of Alcohol in the family: Parental

Perspectives

SHORT TITLE: Communication and Supervision of Alcohol in the family

AUTHORS:

Nigel Sherriff, Trust for the Study of Adolescence, Brighton

Louise Cox, Trust for the Study of Adolescence, Brighton

Lester Coleman, Trust for the Study of Adolescence, Brighton

Debi Roker, Trust for the Study of Adolescence, Brighton

Correspondence to: Dr Nigel Sherriff, Trust for the Study of Adolescence, 23 New

Road, Brighton, BN1 1WZ, UK. E-mail: nsherriff@tsa.uk.com, Tel: 01273 693311

Contract/grant sponsors: Alcohol Education and Research Council.

Abstract

It is now well acknowledged that parents can have a central role in supporting

sensible alcohol use and reducing alcohol misuse amongst young people.

However, little research has considered how communication and supervision in

relation to alcohol actually takes place within the family. Drawing upon interviews

with the parents of young people aged 13-17 years (n = 40), this article describes

the strategies and tactics that many parents use in communicating, monitoring, and

supervising alcohol use within the family. The findings revealed that many parents

lack the guidance needed to convey ‘sensible drinking’ messages to young people,

and wish for greater information and support about many different issues

associated with young people and alcohol. The research also highlights potential

pathways to reduce harm from alcohol misuse.

Policy background

Alcohol use remains widespread amongst many young people both nationally in

the UK and elsewhere (Coleman and Cater, 2003; Hayes and others, 2004;

Newburn and Shiner, 2001; Slater and others, 2006). Reducing the early uptake is

particularly important given that research evidence suggests that the later

adolescents delay their first alcohol drink, the less likely they are to become regular

drinkers (e.g. Spoth and others, 1999).

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With the long-term goal of changing the culture of youth binge-drinking, recent

research has tended to advocate a harm-reduction approach. Such an approach

stipulates that if young people are going to drink, then how can we ensure that they

stay safe and reduce the likelihood of associated harms? (Coleman and Cater,

2005, 2006; McBride and others, 2000; Wright, 2002).

Indeed, in 2004, the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit published the Alcohol Harm

Reduction Strategy for England (Cabinet Office, 2004), which outlines a framework

for tackling the problems associated with alcohol misuse in England. The strategy

document details a number of key aims in this respect including: better

identification and support for individuals with alcohol problems; preventing and

tackling alcohol-related crime and disorder; working with industry to reduce

irresponsible promotions, and; improving the information available to individuals to

start changing the ‘drinking to get drunk’ culture. In its framework, the Strategy

explicitly acknowledges the importance of families in “making the strategy happen”

(p.19), by parents providing young people with “clear and accurate information,

and encouragement to make responsible decisions” (p.20). Consequently, the

research study we describe in this article aimed to improve the evidence-base

surrounding how parents communicate and supervise young people in relation to

alcohol.

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Alcohol and families: what do we know?

There is an increasing awareness of the role that parents can have in affecting the

development of their children’s drinking behaviour (e.g. Barnes and others, 2000;

Hayes and others, 2004; Wood and others, 2004), and in reducing the incidence

and impact of alcohol misuse upon young people (Orford and Velleman, 2002;

Spoth and others, 2001). For example, there is a considerable body of evidence

demonstrating that adolescents who are poorly monitored by their parents begin

alcohol consumption at an early age, tend to drink more, and are more likely to

develop problematic drinking problems (e.g. Barnes and others, 2000; Beck and

others, 2003; DiClemente and others, 2001; Guo and others, 2000; Thomas and

others, 2000). Moreover, studies suggest that good quality parent-child

relationships are generally associated with lower levels of adolescent drinking, as

well as lower rates of problematic (mis)use (e.g. Barnes and others, 2000).

In general, there is clear evidence that sensible parental drinking, combined with

open communication and moderate levels of parental supervision, is most likely to

lead to a reduction in alcohol-related harm (Beinart and others, 2002; Foxcroft and

Lowe, 1995; Newburn and Shiner, 2001). Yet despite the clear links between the

family environment and adolescent alcohol usage (e.g. Ennett and others, 2001;

van der Vorst and others, 2005; Yu, 2003), a number of important gaps in the

literature remain. Although many aspects of family life have been investigated as

4
risk and protective factors for adolescent alcohol (mis)use (e.g. factors such as

parental drinking, authority, attitudes, nurturance, and monitoring, and other wider

aspects such as family structure, socio-economic factors, and broader cultural

influences and norms; see Hayes and others, 2004), there is a relative dearth of

work exploring parent-child communication and supervision within families. More

specifically, little direct attention has been given to describing how parent/young

people communication and supervision in relation to alcohol actually takes place

(Ennett and others, 2001).

Two recent studies by the Trust for the Study of Adolescence (TSA) have provided

some insights into family processes and alcohol (although this was not the aim of

either study). For example, a study by Stace and Roker (2005) found that many

parents find it hard to supervise alcohol consumption, and when it does occur, it

tends to be based mainly on intuition. Furthermore, Coleman and Cater’s (2005)

research into young people’s ‘risky’ drinking also identified that most young people

would value more discussion and communication with parents and carers about

alcohol. Both studies showed that many parents lack guidance in conveying

sensible drinking messages to young people. The research described in this article

explored this issue further and had two main aims: First, we wanted to explore the

strategies that parents use to communicate about alcohol within the family, and

whether (and if so how), they attempt to supervise sensible drinking; second, we

wanted to explore what information and support parents wanted in this respect,

5
and develop appropriate materials to meet this need (see Cox, Sherriff, Coleman,

and Roker, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c).

Methodology

The study took place over one year from the beginning of April 2005, and consisted

of both secondary and original research. In the first instance, secondary analyses

of 180 interviews (115 young people and 65 parents) from two existing TSA data-

sets (Stace and Roker, 2005; Coleman and Cater, 2005) were conducted in order

to elicit themes likely to be of relevance for the original aspect of the study. In an

area of such little research, this secondary analysis was essential in providing a

‘head-start’ in order to focus the lines of the investigation. The data generated by

these two projects were analysed using NUD*IST (a software package to assist in

qualitative data analysis) and focused on issues that were mentioned by parents in

the interviews. Five main themes emerged in relation to how parents and young

people ‘relate’ about alcohol. These included:

 Communication – examples of parents discussing alcohol with young

people.

 Supervision – examples of parents trying to monitor, supervise, or control

young people’s use of alcohol.

 Modelling – instances of parents mentioning their own use of alcohol, or

how their alcohol use might be seen by their children.

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  Legal and health issues – information about what parents know about the

law in relation to young people and alcohol, or about health issues (e.g.

alcohol units).

 Difficult issues – examples of how parents address ‘difficult’ issues that arise

in relation to alcohol (e.g. a young person wanting alcohol to take to a party,

or coming home drunk).

Following the secondary analysis, an original cross-sectional qualitative study

involving the parents of young people was then conducted.

Sample

A total of 40 parents were interviewed for the research, and were reached through

a variety of routes including advertising in local newsletters, parenting groups, local

universities, and the local council. Only parents with teenagers aged 13-17years

were selected to take part in the study. Given the age at which young people start

experimenting with alcohol (averaging around 12 or 13 years; Honess and others,

1999) these parents are likely to draw upon recent alcohol-related issues,

concerns, and experiences within the family.

Participants were purposively selected to ensure that certain groups were included

in the research. Consequently, the final sample was diverse and included parents

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who differed by age; socio-economic status; ethnicity; location (urban vs. rural);

family structure (single-parent, two-parent, and step-parents); parental attitudes

and use of alcohol (ranging from abstainers to heavier users), and; child’s current

use of alcohol (ranging from abstainers to heavier users).

Data collection and analysis

Interviews took place either in the participant’s own home or in the TSA offices in

Brighton (a small number were also conducted by telephone). Most interviews

lasted for approximately 30-45 minutes and were semi-structured around the five

main topics elicited from the secondary analysis. All interviews followed a schedule

consisting of the five topic areas i.e. communication, supervision, modelling, legal

and health issues, and difficult issues. The interview schedule was designed to act

as an aide-mémoire to ensure coverage of the same kinds of questions with each

interviewee, whilst still maintaining a degree of flexibility during the discussions.

All parents agreed to the tape-recording of their interview, and data from the audio

tapes were transcribed verbatim. To assist in analysing the material, transcripts

were coded using the NUD*IST data analysis package to provide a consistent

system for cataloguing the data set.

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Ethical considerations

The research was undertaken in accordance to TSA’s ethical guidelines. These

guidelines specify procedures relating to the protection of participants in research,

informed consent, confidentiality and the use of information, feedback, disclosure,

expenses, payment, and organisational matters. All TSA research staff hold current

CRB (Criminal Records Bureau) checks.

Results

In this article we outline a number of significant themes that emerged from the

interviews with parents including: communication; supervision; modelling and

influences, and; legal and health issues.

Communication

Research evidence on alcohol and the family indicate a number of factors that are

likely to influence young people’s drinking. For example, Highet (2005) found that

communicating and negotiating openly with children seems to be an effective

strategy in helping young people develop and sustain a sensible relationship with

alcohol (see also Ennett and others, 2001; Foxcroft and Lowe, 1991; Hayes and

others, 2004; Wood and others, 2004). In our research, we asked parents about

the different kinds of techniques or strategies they used for talking about alcohol

9
within the family. Parents reported that one of the main ways of initiating

conversation was to use examples of personal, family, or peer experiences. For

instance, many parents reported basing a conversation around their own

encounters with alcohol. Other ‘conversation starters’ included using a specific

incident when a friend or family member was drunk or ill as a result of excessive

alcohol use, and using this as a timely basis for discussion within the family:

‘We have talked about it when one of the older one’s friends drank way too much once….so

we were able to talk about it after that.’ (mother of one, age 14 years)

Parents talked about a wide range of messages that they try to communicate to

young people in relation to alcohol use. One of the main messages was that of

‘moderation’, and that when used in a safe and sensible way, alcohol can be a

normal part of adult life. Other messages parents felt were important to portray

related to personal safety, the law regarding young people and alcohol, and the

health implications of misusing alcohol. Less common, but very important to some

parents, were messages to do with the amounts of alcohol young people drink, the

type of alcohol, and the fact that alcohol can become addictive.

Parents also talked about a range of difficult issues in relation to communicating

with young people about alcohol. Parents said they often felt worried that if they

explicitly asked young people not to do something, they would be more likely to do

the very thing that they have been asked not to do. Furthermore, parents reported

10
the need to try and reach some sort of communicative ‘balance’. For example,

many parents said that they did not want to pry or interfere, and wanted to ensure

the development of independence and personal choice in their child:

‘I think it’s the same old thing, if your parents tell you something, unless you are the perfect

child, you’re either not gonna take any notice of them, or you’re gonna go and try whatever

it is they’ve told you not to.’ (mother of one, age 17 years)

Parents were also asked whether anything had helped with communication about

alcohol in their family. Particular techniques or strategies included that of talking

‘little and often’ about the consequences and implications of alcohol use, and

providing young people with clear messages and information. Moreover, parents

talked about the need to ensure that young people are given the chance to initiate

conversations when they are ‘in the mood’ for talking. Negotiation about rules and

boundaries were also considered very important. This negotiation required the

parent to respect young people and view them as young adults, whilst at the same

time ensuring that communication lines are kept open between young people and

their parents. Parents also said that ‘normalising’ alcohol use, rather than

forbidding it, helped initiate open and general communication:

‘… it was always our intention to talk about alcohol in a way that he doesn’t feel he’s being

talked down to. And allowing him to express interest, concern, ask questions and so on. So,

it’s always been an open discussion between the two - well, three of us.’ ( father of one, age

15 years)

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What was clear from these findings was that for many parents, drinking is

perceived as a normal part of family life, and many parents reported engaging in

purposeful discussion and negotiation with their young people as a way of initiating

them into safe and ‘sensible’ drinking. However, what was also clear was that many

parents concerns, about how to start conversations about alcohol and how to

communicate effectively with young people about alcohol use, were often to the

fore. The parents we interviewed reported feeling ill-equipped in relation to

communicating and negotiating about alcohol use within the family, and wished for

greater advice and support in this respect.

Supervision

Evidence from the literature tends to suggest that parental supervision and

monitoring are related to young people’s alcohol-related attitudes and behaviours

(Barnes and others, 2000; Hayes and others, 2004; Highet and others, 2005;

Newburn and Shiner, 2001; Stice and Barrera, 1995; Wood and others, 2004). For

example, a number of longitudinal studies have shown that higher levels of

parental supervision and control of alcohol use in early adolescents, is associated

with lower levels of alcohol use (Barnes and Farrell, 1992), and a reduced

likelihood for the onset of heavy drinking amongst young people (Reifman and

others, 1998).

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However, in our research many parents said they found supervision and control of

alcohol more difficult to deal with than communication per se. Moreover, parents

said they wanted more information and support about how best to supervise

alcohol use in the family. When asked about specific limitations or rules in relation

to alcohol supervision, few parents had any. For example, some parents said that

in most circumstances a parent simply has to trust a young person and that young

people cannot be ‘managed’ or ‘controlled’.

‘It’s difficult to impose any limits, ‘cos you’re not actually physically there and with

teenagers, you have to give them a measure of independence and encourage them to sort

of, regulate themselves, to a degree, with parental encouragement and boundary setting.’

(father of two, aged 14 years and 17 years)

Many parents did attempt to limit the type of alcohol young people were allowed.

Here parents differentiated between ‘softer’ alcoholic drinks such as beer and

lager, versus ‘harder’ drinks such as spirits. Parents also made reference to alco-

pops, with many concerned that young people did not recognise their alcoholic

content:

‘Well, it’s usually - I’ve always said, you can drink beer, weak beer. Not strong beer and not

those horrible alco-pop things. I would never ever have them in my house, or spirits.’

(mother of one, age 15 years)

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Parents reported a number of difficult issues that they had encountered in relation

to the supervision of young people’s alcohol use within the family. Some parents

said that they did not want to impose harsh limitations on their children, particularly

if it would make young people stand out and appear different to their friends. Other

parents reported that one of the main difficult issues to deal with was negotiation.

Several parents commented on the dilemma that if a young person is going to drink

alcohol anyway, then to what extent should a parent supply alcohol or allow alcohol

in the home. These issues were closely related to safety, with some parents saying

that they would prefer a young person and his/her friends to drink alcohol in the

home, as opposed to drinking outside of the home, which might lead to them

approaching strangers and asking them to buy alcohol:

‘In fact, I probably aid and abet, because every Friday I buy a tray of cans which they have

to pay me half for, ‘cos it’s cheaper than them getting it from the off licence, so probably in a

way, I’m being a bad mother ‘cos I’m helping them get it.’ (Mother of one, age 17 years)

There were a range of other issues or concerns described by parents. These

included: other parent’s attitudes towards young people and alcohol, a young

person’s reaction to limitations or rules that a parent may try to impose, and

knowing whether they (parents) should be worried about young people’s alcohol

use:

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 ‘I really don’t know if I should be or I shouldn’t be [worried] because there are people who

are doing lots worse - sort of, taking drugs and drinking a lot more, and given that he’s

doing well at college and he works hard… I don’t know if his drinking is a problem or not.’

(mother of one, age 17 years)

Some parents talked about ‘successful’ approaches or ways of supervising a young

person’s use of alcohol. The main successful approach involved using some form

of negotiation. Many parents said that negotiating with young people, and letting

them experiment with alcohol in a safe and supervised environment, was the most

appropriate approach to supervising alcohol use within the family:

‘At her age, we negotiate. Well, because she’s a young adult and it’s part of growing up,

isn’t it? And being an adult and being seen to be an adult. For me to respect her - for her to

able to put her case to me, and me to put mine to her. And for us to find something that,

hopefully, works for both us. I just think it’s a good life lesson, anyway.’ (mother of two, age

15 years and 17 years)

Modelling and influences

In our research, most parents ranged from abstainers to heavier drinkers in terms

of their own alcohol use, with the majority drinking at moderate levels. Many

parents said that their children were fully aware of parental alcohol use, and felt

that this had no (or very little) impact upon their children’s own drinking behaviours.

Where parents talked about their children seeing them drunk, the majority felt that

this amused young people, rather than impacting negatively upon them. When

15
asked to say what young people might learn from witnessing or observing parental

use of alcohol, the majority of parents felt that young people were receiving mainly

positive messages. These messages were associated with moderation, and seeing

alcohol as a part of normal social life:

‘I think he’s learned that it’s OK to drink in moderation. And that’s the message I hope he

gets, ‘cos he doesn’t see me drinking all the time, usually just social. And so, that’s what I

hope to get across to him.’ (mother of one, age 15 years)

Most parents were more concerned about the influence of factors outside of the

home, than the influence of their behaviour as parents (such as the media and

advertising, peer pressure, schools, and the British ‘drinking culture’). By far the

most commonly reported influence was cited as being the young person’s peer

group. Many parents recognised that friends and social groups are key in

determining the use of alcohol by young people, and some believed that young

people are more likely to listen to their friends than they are their parents.

Such views are not unsurprising given that during adolescence, there tends to be a

shift away from parental influence, with peers taking on greater importance (e.g.

Coleman and Hendry, 2004). Yet, although peer influences can be a powerful

determinant of adolescent drinking behaviour (Wood and others, 2004), it is

perhaps erroneous to assume that parents have little or no influence on their young

people in relation to alcohol use. Research suggests that young people tend to

16
imitate the alcohol consumption of their parents. For example, Yu (2003) has

demonstrated that exposure to parental alcohol use is associated with adolescents

drinking at a younger age, and higher alcohol consumption in young people.

Moreover, Zhang and others (1999) has shown that young men in particular, tend

to imitate the drinking behaviours of their fathers.

However, the specific influence of parents and peers on adolescent drinking

behaviours is complex and can not be easily separated. For example, the influence

of peers may mediate the influence of parenting on adolescent alcohol use, and

become particularly salient when the parent-child relationship is of poor quality

(e.g. Barnes and others, 2000). Moreover, parents may influence an adolescent’s

choice of peer group (e.g. Bamberg and others, 2001; Curran and others, 1997)

which in turn may predict later changes in adolescent alcohol use. In a review of

research on the impact of parenting factors on adolescent drinking, Hayes and

others (2004) therefore argue that there is a need for parents to be provided with

‘educative guidelines on the influence of parental attitudes and norms on

adolescent alcohol use…’ (p.xiv). Although peers are a central influence on young

people’s alcohol related attitudes and behaviours, they do not negate the influence

of parents, particularly where the parent-child relationship is a positive one.

Legal and health issues

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We also asked parents about some of the legal and health issues in relation to

young people and alcohol use. Many parents said they felt confident that both they

and their young people were aware of the broad legal issues associated with

alcohol use, for example age at which you are allowed to buy alcohol, drinking in

pubs, etc. However, the vast majority felt that they were not aware of alcohol units,

and agreed that their children were not likely to be aware of the concept of alcohol

units either.

Parents raised other concerns about legal and health issues in relation to their

children and alcohol. These included emotional vulnerability, safety, and the

behavioural effects of alcohol (e.g. fighting, being out of control, and drink spiking).

Several parents also made reference at this point to gender differences in relation

to young people and alcohol use, and about the potential increase in vulnerability

and risk for teenage young women associated with alcohol use.

In addition to wanting more support relating to communication and supervision,

many parents also reported wanting more information with regards to the legal and

health implications of alcohol use. Some parents said that this information should

be in a format that is accessible to young people:

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 ‘Yeah, I think it’s good for children to know that as well. How many units are in certain

things, ‘cos they probably wouldn’t even realise. Especially like with the alco-pops drinks

that are like fruit juice and with alcohol mixed in. You certainly wouldn’t know what sort of

unit that is and how much that they can have of that. Even though they’re not supposed to

be drinking it, but yeah, I think that would be useful information.’ (mother of one, age 13

years)

Discussion

This article has examined how some parents communicate with their children

about alcohol, and how they seek to supervise ‘sensible drinking’ in the family.

Given the recognised important role that parents can have in shaping the culture of

drinking in the future, the concerns and worries expressed indicate areas of where

more potential support is required. As examples, this research highlighted

concerns over the implications (short and long-term) of alcohol use, the location of

drinking, alcohol type, and mass-media portrayal. Also, concerns over how to start

conversations about alcohol, at a time when communicating about all manner of

subjects may be challenging were also raised, alongside a number of more specific

difficult issues.

The research described is important in that it provides new information about how

parents view communication about alcohol in the family, and the issues that alcohol

raises. Such in-depth accounts will be of use to policy-makers and practitioners

working to reduce alcohol misuse within the family. It is also significant that most of

19
the parents interviewed said that they wanted more information about young

people and alcohol use (for similar findings see Research Works, 2005). They also

wanted advice and support in relation to communicating and negotiating about

these issues. There is no reason to believe that this group of parents are in any

way unusual in wanting more information and advice in these areas, and it is

therefore important that more support is made available to parents to help them to

open up conversations about alcohol. In addition, parents want help to monitor and

supervise young people in this respect to help to keep them safe.

The authors have addressed these support needs in one particular way. Based on

these findings, we have produced an evidence-based ‘Guide’ which provides a

variety of information and support material for parents, and practitioners working

with parents (see Cox et al., 2006b). This Guide is a 16 side A4 ‘magazine’ style

document that is printed in full colour, and includes photos and illustrations. The

Guide includes articles based on the research, addressing parents’ concerns, and

detailing their ‘hints and tips’ for monitoring young people’s alcohol use. It also

includes some of the practical information that parents in the research asked for,

such as alcohol units and information on the legal aspects of young people and

alcohol use. A number of quotes and practical examples are included, making the

Guide parent-focussed, lively, and engaging. The guides are now available from

TSA, and are aimed at individual parents, and those who work with parents; the

guides could be usefully used in individual work as well as group work with

parents.

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Future r

esearch

The study highlighted a number of important areas for future study, two of which

are proposed here.

First, it was particularly difficult to obtain a sample of participants that was

ethnically diverse, despite numerous strategies specifically targeting BME (Black

and Minority Ethnic) individuals. Many of those who were approached to participate

in the study cited cultural reasons for not wanting to take part in the research. More

specifically, this was reported as being due to cultural taboos which forbid drinking

in certain communities, and sometimes even talking about alcohol at all. With an

apparent lack of potential communication in some BME households, it may well be

that young people from such communities (if they do drink alcohol) could be at

particular risk from alcohol-related harm, given the lack of parental guidance. It

would be both important and useful to develop methodological strategies that

facilitate the recruitment of BME groups whom may adopt quite culturally different

approaches to communicating, monitoring, and supervising alcohol use or

abstention within the family.

Second, the research highlighted a number of ‘tips’ and strategies that parents may

find helpful in reducing alcohol misuse amongst their children. For example, the

research provides examples of how parents are able to start conversations about

21
alcohol, the ‘little and often’ approach to communication, and being open and

honest whilst talking about alcohol with their children. A useful extension of this

research would be to validate more rigorously whether parents’ perceptions of

effective communication and supervision are transferable to other parents in a

range of different settings. Longitudinally designed research would be a suitable

approach to validate whether these perceptions are indeed indicative of an

effective means of parenting, and preventing and reducing alcohol misuse amongst

young people. The research presented in this article is therefore the first step

towards identifying parental strategies that are proven to ‘work’ and can be

recommended more widely.

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful for the financial support received from the Alcohol

Education and Research Council to undertake the research. We are particularly

grateful to all the parents who gave up their time to be involved in the project and

to members of the advisory group for their considerable expertise and advice.

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Contributors’ details

Dr Nigel Sherriff is a Research Officer at TSA. He is a Chartered Psychologist and

has a range of research interests mainly around young people, gender, identity,

health, and parenting.

Louise Cox (now left) was also a Research Officer at TSA.

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Dr Lester Coleman is the Research Team Manager at TSA. He manages a number

of projects around young people’s health and well-being, including alcohol misuse,

sexual health, and sporting and physical health.

Dr Debi Roker is the Co-Director of TSA. She is a Chartered Psychologist, and

Chartered Health Psychologist. Debi is particularly keen to undertake research that

has practical application, and has produced a number of ‘good practice’ guides and

training materials based on her research.

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