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Aircraft Design1 PDF
Aircraft Design1 PDF
.1مدخل ()Introduction
تصميم و تطوير الطائرة: .1-1
يمكن إدراج العوامل الرئيسية التالية المحفزة لتطوير أنواع الطائرات المختلفةة الجديةدة أو الموجةودة ية
الخدمة.
نمو حجم النقل الجوي و هذا لالسباب التالية: أ-
.1انخفاض أجرة الركوب.
.2تحسين نوعية الطائرة (السرعة ،الراحة...الخ).
.3زيادة نشاط اإلعمال و نمو دخل األيراد.
.4نمو سعة استيعاب الطائرة.
.5زيادة عدد الطيرات على خط الطيران الواحد ،و زيادة عدد الخطوط.
.6االستخدام المتعاظم للتسهيالت األرضية و التسهيالت داخل الطائرة.
عائد االستثمار ( ) return of investmentوهو المعيار المعقول ألي شركة استثمارية. ب.
رغبات الزبون :للحصول على طائرات مدنية أو عسكرية مختلفة األغراض تلب رغباته. ج.
استبدال الطائرات الت قاربت اعمارها التشغيلية على االنتهاء. ح.
ادخةةال التحسةةينات و التطةةويرات التكنلوجيةةة لمختلةةء اجةةراء الطةةائرة كالمحركةةات و سةةبائ الهيكةةل و خ.
االجهزة االليكترونية المختلفة.
االذعان لمتطلبات سالمة الطيران و التحديدات البيئية من ناحية الضوضاء و االنبعاثات الغازية. د.
اعتبارات مختلفة :سياسية ،اقتصادية ...الخ. د.
1-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
المحركات و مكانها ،تصميم مقصورة الركاب ،نوع منظومات المالحة و السيطرة ،المواد المستخدمة،
طرق التصنيع ،طرق التشغيل و الصيانة ،مستوى التكنولوجيا المقترحة ،الكلفة التخمينية ...الخ.
طور التصميم االبتدائ :يتم التحليل التقن لألشكال المقترحة بعمق ( االيرودينامية ،االداء،
االستقرارية ،السيطرة ،االجهادات الهيكلية ،الكلء المالية ...الخ .و ايجاد الهيئة المثالية للطائرة و حسب
المتطلبات التجارية مع المقارنة باألنواع المنايسة ي السوق.
طور التصميم التفصيل :ي هذا الطور يتم اعادة التحليل التفصيل لمجمل اجزاء و اجراء الحسابات
المختلفة التفصيلية النهائية لكل النواح المتعلقة بالطائرة .و ي نهاية هه المرحلة يتم اإلقرار على بداية
االنتاج بعد ان يتم تصنيع نماذج تجريبية للفحوصات االرضية و الجوية ،لتحليل اداء الطائرة ويق ما هو
مخطط و تحليل كل جزء من الطائرة بعد مروره بالفحوصات الالتدميرية و التدميرية.
يحدد الزبون عادة المواصفات الفنية و غيرها للطائرة المطلوبة .هذه الموصفات بمثابة بيانات إدخال
( )input dataللتصميم الطائرة الجديدة ،الشكل ( .)2-1يمثل مخطط انسياب لتصميم عام مطور و مؤلء
ألغراض برمجة الحاسوب.
بعض الشركات العمالقة ه الت تحدد المواصفات المطلوبة من خالل قراءة سوق الطائرات و
متطلبات حركة النقل الجوي .لذل تبدأ الدعاية عادة بوقت مبكر لمحاولة جذب رؤوس أموال المستثمرين.
ويبدأ اإلنتاج بعد اجتياز نموذج االختبار( )prototypeجميع الفحوصات الجوية المطلوبة .و يمكن لعملية
إبرام عقود البيع ان تتم قبل و أثناء و بعد اإلنتاج .ويكون التسليم حسب القدرة اإلنتاجية للشركات و حسب
التوقيتات المتفق عليها.
2-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
عمل يريق التصميم االبتدائ و الذي يكون مرتبطا بشكل دائم بأعمال المشروع ،بخالف باق أقسام
المشروع ،يتكون من النشاطات التالية إضاية للواجبات األساسية حسب اختصاصاتهم:
.1تحليل السوق و وضع اللمسات للمواصفات األولية لنوع الطائرة الجديد بالتعاون مع قسم التسويق.
.2اقتراح الحلول المختلفة ألي مشكلة تصميم معطاة.
.3تقييم مختلء اقتراحات التصميم باستخدام طرق التصميم االبتدائ لك يتم اتخاذ القرار على
أساس بيان مختلء اآلراء.
.4وضع و تحديد تفاصيل األبحاث للمشاكل الت تم مواجهتها ،مثال االيرودينامية و الهيكل و باق
مساحات العمل .مثال تطوير طرق تخمين الكبح ،الوزن...الخ.
.5مناقشات مع الزبائن الحاليين و كذل الوسطاء للمستقبل ي أمور تخص أجزاء الطائرة كالمحرك
و العجالت..الخ.
.6تعزيز قسم المبيعات بالمعطيات الفنية.
.7إجراء دراسات تطوير المنتج بهدف زيادة استخدام الطائرة.
3-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
الطائرات ضمن الحدود اإلقليمية لهذه السلطات لضمان مستوى معين من األمان لعموم مستخدم
.الناس
، مقصورة الركاب، كالبدن، لهذه األنظمة و القواعد بعيد األثر على تصميم أجزاء الطائرة
.الخ...المنظومات
. على المصمم اختيار قوانين سالمة الطيران المالئمة لغرض تصميم الطائرة ويقا لهذه القوانين
. قواعد سالمة الطيران تختلء من بلد إلى آخر
ييجب أن تظهر الطائرة القدرة على اإلقالع،تفرض قواعد السالمة كما قلنا مستوى عال من األمان
بقيادة طيار،و التسلق و الطيران للمساية المقررة و كذل المناورة مع األحمال المقررة للسرعة المحددة مسبقا
إن احتمالية الفشل الفاجع ي. دون أن تصبح الطائرة غير قابلة للقيادة أو متعبة للطيار أثناء الطيران،مرخص
. ) طيران107 إلى1(الهيكل أو أي جزء آخر يجب أن يكون اقل من
Safety is a concept generally ingrained in the human mind. The main conventional flight safety
factors are; (i) man, (ii) the environment, and (iii) the machine. Many countries issue their own
rules and regulations to preserve adequate level of safety by its civil airworthiness authority. But the
most regulations and authorities are:
1. BCAR: British Civilian Airworthiness Requirements: are published by CAA: Civil Aviation
Authority in Britain. The CAA was established in 1972. BCAR are now replaced by EASA.
2. FAR: Federal Aviation Rules; are issued by FAA: Federal Aviation Administration. FAR are
adopted in the United States as well as in many other countries. The Air Commerce Act of 20
May 1926 was the cornerstone of the Federal government’s regulation of civil aviation. In 1938,
the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the Federal civil aviation responsibilities from the
Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. on 1
April 1967, the FAA became one of several modal organizations within the DOT, Department of
Transportation and was given a new name, the Federal Aviation Administration.
3. JARs, Joint Aviation Requirements are issued by JAA, The Joint Aviation Authorities for The
ECAC (European Civil Aviation Conference). The JAA’s work started in 1970 (when it was
known as the Joint Airworthiness Authorities). Since 1987, JAA activities have been extended to
operations, maintenance, and licensing and certification design standards for all classes of
aircraft. (since 2002 there is efforts to transfer all activities to the EASA regulations).
4. EASA regulations, The European Aviation Safety Agency. The EASA is an independent
European Community body with a legal identity and autonomy in legal, administrative, and
financial matters. This single authority has been created by the adoption of a European
Parliament and Council Regulation in 15 July 2002 in order to put in place a Community system
of air safety and environmental regulation. The activity of the EASA started, as planned, on 28
September 2003 and, after a transitory period in Brussels, the Agency has now moved to
Cologne (Germany).
5. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) annexes. The ICAO officially came into
existence on 4 April 1947. At the invitation of the Government of Canada, Montreal was chosen
as the site for its headquarters. resently, the Contracting States number more than 180. The
4-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
و على هذا االساس ال تحبذ سلطات الطيران استخدام طائرة نقل للركاب ذات جناح علوي رغم ميزاته
( تأثير ارض قليل بسبب بعد الجناح عن االرض ،كفاءة ايرودينامية عالية لكون الكبح التداخل قليل و بناء
الضغط المنخفض يوقه يكون مستمرا) و ذل لألسباب التالية:
.1قد يؤدي ثقل الجناح الى انهيار المقصورة عند الهبوط االضطراري عند سرعة حط عالية
(.)touch down
.2عند الهبوط االضطراري على الماء يؤدي ثقل الجناح الى سرعة غرق المقصورة.
5-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter One/ Introduction, Airworthiness & Crashworthiness
و استخدام وقود ذو درجة اتقاد عالية و ان تكون خزانات الوقود بعيدة عن مقصورة الركاب الى الجانب و
الخلء و ان تحتوي الطائرة على مخارج طوارئ يتناسب عددها مع عدد الركاب ...الخ.
6-6 Ch.1
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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Ch. 2. Fuselage Layout Design
1-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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2.4. Cabin design (configuration):
2-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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b- Cabin length.
The length of fuselage cabin ( ) can be evaluating from figure (5) or it is approximately:
c. Passenger seat.
Preliminary design is based on a certain standard type of seat, but airlines can lay down their
own specification for cabin furnishing. See figure 4 and the table. And:
3-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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Deluxe type : Set pitch is (38 - 40 in) 965 - 1016 mm
Normal type : = = = (34 - 36 in) 865 - 914 mm
Economy type: = = = (30 - 32 in) 762 - 812 mm
d- Flight desk.
The general configuration can be chosen by comparison with other a/c. Location
and dimension of pilot seat and the flight controls can manipulated as shown in
figure (6) where visibility from the cockpit during horizontal flight and during
approach is assured. Details are out of the scope of this lecture.
a) Quick method:-
For fuselage with cylindrical mid-section
( )
4-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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⁄
( ) ( ) Where
: Fuselage volume.
⁄ for : Fuselage wetted area.
: Mid-section cross area.
: Diameter, mean.
√
: Fineness ratio.
: Fuselage length.
For fully stream lined shapes without cylindrical mid-
: Fuselage nose length.
section:
( )
⁄
( ) ( )
b) General method:-
The general method depends
on a diagram and an illustrative
figure. The following formulas are
used:
( )
( )
( )
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
The ratios ( ⁄ ) and ( ⁄ ) are
extracted from comparator aircrafts.
5-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Two/Fuselage Layout Design
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2.5. Fuselage weight:
The fuselage makes a large contribution to the structure weight, but it is much more difficult
to be predicted by general methods than the wing. The reason is the large number of local
weight penalties in the form of floor, attachment, support structure at, bulk heads, doors,
windows and other special structural feature. Fuselage weight is affected primarily by gross
shell area ( ), which intern depend upon the overall dimensions of the fuselage as well
as the design diving speed.
For AL-alloy fuselage, the following simple weight estimation method can be used as a first
approximation:
√ ( )
.
⁄
: Dive speed which is the maximum aircraft speed for its structure to withstand.
: Distance between wing a.c. and horizontal tail a.c, in .
: Fuselage maximum width and height, .
To the total basic weight that calculated by above formula:-
: should be added for pressurized cabin.
: = = = for rear fuselage mounted engines.
: = = = if the main u.c. is attached to the fuselage.
: = = = for freighter aircraft.
6-6 Ch.2
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Three/Wing Layout Design
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Ch. 3. Wing Layout Design
1-24 Ch.3
2-24 Ch.3
Mid wing:
This type is chosen, generally, when minimum drag in high-speed
flight is of paramount importance. With a fuselage of roughly circular
cross-section, the surfaces at the wing-fuselage junction meet at practically
right angles so that interference between the boundary layers at small
angles of attack will be minimized. In most cases the fuselage section at
the location where the wing is mounted to it is roughly cylindrical. The
divergence of the airflow over the wing root at high angles of attack is thus
minimized. Wing root fairings of only very modest size will therefore be required. For these reasons many mid-
wing layouts are found in fighter and trainer aircraft. The wing may be continuous through the fuselage. The
advantages and disadvantages are moderated.
3-24 Ch.3
⁄
∫
; Net wing area, the gross wing area minus the projection of the central wing part.
; Exposed or wetted wing area which is the net external wing surface area that exposed to the air flow. If the
wing contains nacelles, the wetted area should be reduced by
wing area inside the nacelle structure.
[ ( ) ]
( ) ⁄( )
̅ Geometric or standard mean chord.
̅
Aspect ratio
Quarter chord line, is the line passes through points at for all sections from tip to root.
Angle of attack is the angle between line of flight (free air velocity) and chord line.
Angle of incidence is the angle between a/c (fuselage) datum line from nose to tail and wing root chord line.
Angle of dihedral is the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the ( ) plane and y-axis.
The negative angle is called anhedral.
Sweep angle is the angle between the projection of the quarter chord line on the ( ) plane and the y-axis.
( ), ( ) and ( ) are sweept angle for wing leading edge, quarter line and wing trailing edge.
For straight taper wing, swept angle for any edge relative to other edge is;
( )
( )
( )
4-24 Ch.3
5-24 Ch.3
̿
( )
̿ ̿
6-24 Ch.3
point, ( ̿ ).
Wing loading, ⁄ ;
is a very important character. It is a
variable parameter, varying from a
maximum value at takeoff to minimum value at landing. It influences takeoff and landing field distance, stall speed,
buffet boundaries, gust loads, structure weight … etc.
( ⁄ )
The wing span is
√
And compute other wing characteristics,
̅ ̅ ̿ ̿. Assume that the wing is straight
tapered with straight trailing edge and
compute . You should decide
wither a geometrical or aerodynamical twit is
chosen depending on local lift distribution
(from Ch. 10). A suitable three views should
be drawn for the wing.
The airfoil cross section area and wing
7-24 Ch.3
3.7.1 Definitions:
( )
This is very roughly value. In order to estimate area of the airfoil section at root or tip or other sections,
Simpson’s rule with graphical paper or computer aided design software are recommended.
Example: an a/c has weights at takeoff has a straight taper of aspect ratio of and a taper ratio of
. If the wing loading at takeoff is ⁄ and the airfoil designation . Calculate wing
area, wing span, standard mean chord, wing volume, root section circumference.
Solution:
⁄( ⁄ ) ⁄
√ √
̅ ⁄ ⁄
√ ( ) √
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
̅
( ) ( )
8-24 Ch.3
9-24 Ch.3
Ex. NACA
• (6) 6-digit series.
• (5) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at (0.5C).
• (3) Favorable lift coefficient range is (± 0.3) above and below the design lift coefficient where favorable
pressure gradients exist on both surfaces.
• (2) Design lift coefficient is (0.2).
• (18) Section thickness ratio is (0.18).
Ex. NACA
• (6) 6-digit series.
• (4) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( ).
• (A) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( ) to the T.E.
• (2) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
• (15) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
Ex. NACA
• (6) 6-digit series.
• ( ) Position of minimum (negative) pressure, which is favorable gradient, is at ( ).
•( ) Section has cusped T.E. (without A).
• ( ) low drag range is ( ) above and below lift coefficient ( ).
• ( ) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
•( ) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
7- digit series;
Ex. NACA .
•( ) 7-digit series.
•( ) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over upper surface from ( ) of L.E. at the design lift
coefficient.
•( ) Extent of region of favorable pressure gradient over lower surface from ( ) of L.E. at the design lift
coefficient.
• ( ) Section is straight on both surfaces from about ( ) to the .
• ( ) Design lift coefficient is ( ).
•( ) Section thickness ratio is ( ).
11-24 Ch.3
3. Determine ( ), lift curve for unflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at low Mach
no.:
( )
( )
4. Determine ( ), lift curve for unfflaped wing for sub-sonic aircraft at high Mach, but below the critical Mach
no.:
( )
√(
: Sweep back of quarter chord line.
: Mach number.
: slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at low Mach no.
: slope of lift curve of airfoil section in 2-D, incompressible flow, at high Mach, but below the critical Mach
no. which is ( ).
: Aspect ratio correction factor.
: Taper ratio correction factor.
: Prandtl-Glauert factor, (√( ).
: Effective sweep back in degree.
12-24 Ch.3
Sol.
For straight, rectangular wing ( ) and ( ).
From sheet
Since ( ).Then:
From sheet ⁄
( ) ( )
⁄ .
( )
For the previous example,
( )
The value from this method is not far away from the previous value, .
For subsonic high Mach no.
√ ( )
13-24 Ch.3
14-24 Ch.3
15-24 Ch.3
iii. Draw the relationship between ( ) and ( ), the relation is assumed linear. For smooth roughness
there are three points while for standard roughness there is one point at ( ). So the second line
is drawn from point (d) parallel to the first line as in figure 14.
iv. At takeoff speed where: Air viscosity, ⁄ , Air density, ⁄ , and assume that
take off speed, ⁄ and standard Mean chord, ̅ , Then :
̅
16-24 Ch.3
[ ( )]
17-24 Ch.3
18-24 Ch.3
( )
: lift coefficient of the actual wing at the chosen incidence with main flap and auxiliary at neutral position.
: lift coefficient increment due to full span main flap with ( ), based on extended wing chord and
aspect ratio ( ), see data sheet (F 01.01.08).
: lift coefficient increment due to full span auxiliary flap based on extended wing chord and standard aspect
ratio (6).
: lift coefficient lift coefficient increment due to full span double slotted flap.
: lift coefficient increment due to full span double flap with the wing at the chosen incidence, based on wing
chord and aspect ratio of the wing.
19-24 Ch.3
20-24 Ch.3
21-24 Ch.3
⁄
[ √ ] ( )
⁄
22-24 Ch.3
23-24 Ch.3
24-24 Ch.3
4.1. Introduction
Tails are little wings. The major difference between a wing and
a tail is that, while the wing is designed to produce a substantial
amount of lift to carry the aircraft, a tail is designed to provide
moments for trim, stability, and control.
For the h. tail, trim primarily refers to the balancing of the
moment created by the wing. An aft h. tail (stabilizer) typically has a
negative Incidence angle of about to balance the wing pitching moment. As the wing pitching
moment varies under different flight conditions, the h. tail incidence is usually adjustable through a
range of about up and down. The exact area of the tail surfaces is actually not very critical in the
early stages of the design process. The tail geometries are revised during later analytical and wind-
tunnel studies.
For the v. tail, the generation of a trim force is normally not required because the aircraft is usually
symmetric about x-z plane. The v. tail of a multi-engine aircraft must be capable of providing a
sufficient trim force in the event of an engine failure.
A stabilator is variable-incidence (adjustable) tail plane which has
the advantages that at high-subsonic speeds adjustment of the tail plane
is more effective than trimming by means of the elevator - which may
cause shock waves, and has the additional advantage that it improves
both maneuverability and control in out-of-trim conditions.
1-11 Ch.4
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The design of the tail plane is always an iterative process. It is usual to make an initial choice of
certain shape parameters such as aspect ratio and thickness ratio, etc. The choice of the type of
aerodynamic balance, whether the stabilizer will be fixed or
adjustable, and the type of control system is much more
difficult, and more data will generally be required than are
available to the preliminary design engineer. Later may previous
assumptions regarding the tail plane shape or even the wing
location will have to be revised.
2-11 Ch.4
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Horizontal tail ( ) values are in the range of ( to ). Typical aspect ratios are about
( ). T-Tails are sometimes higher ( ), especially to avoid aft-engine/pylon wake effects.
Taper ratios of about ( ) are typical for tail surfaces.
Horizontal tail Leading-edge sweep is usually set to about more
than the wing sweep. This tends to make the tail stall after the wing, and
also provides the tail with a higher Critical Mach Number than the wing,
which avoids loss of elevator effectiveness due to shock formation.
For low speed aircraft, the horizontal tail sweep is frequently set to provide
a straight hinge line for the elevator.
Vertical tail sweep varies between about . For a low speed
aircraft, there is no reason for vertical-tail sweep beyond about deg
other than aesthetics. For a high-speed aircraft, vertical-tail sweep is higher
than the wing to insure that the tail's Critical Mach Number is higher than
the wing one.
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional
to the aircraft's wing area, so the tail areas cannot be selected until the
initial estimate of aircraft takeoff gross weight has been made. The initial
estimation of tail area is made using the "tail volume coefficient" method.
The force due to tail lift is proportional to the tail area. Thus, the tail
effectiveness is proportional to the tail area times the tail moment arm. This
product has units of volume, which leads to the "tail volume coefficient"
method for initial estimation of tail size.
Horizontal tails on transport aircraft are usually power-operated. A
controllable tail plane is sometimes used on small aircraft and frequently on
gliders. An anti-balance tab is recommended in order to obtain acceptable
control forces and control force stability. Trim tabs, balance tabs, horn
balance, etc. or variable-incidence stabilizers can be used to reduce the
control forces to zero.
3-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
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The next stage is to choice the type of aerodynamic balance, which is a way of reducing hinge
moments by construction geometry i.e. (to reduce force exerted by the pilot for light or old a/c).
After these decisions have been taken about the previous assumptions, the tail plane shape or even
the wing location will have to be revised. When designing tail plane, one should consider horizontal
“tail plane volume” instead of “tail area” and so tail distance is evaluated.
Bigger tail volume gives greater airplane stability.
Large center of gravity movement needs large tail plane, vice versa.
Transport a/c needs large tail plane and seat arrangement.
4-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
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3. It should be possible to land transport a/c in
cross wind up to ( ⁄ ).
4. The a/c must possess good directional and
lateral static stability.
5. In small a/c, recovery from spin must be
possible and rudder must be effective even art
large angle of attack.
Vertical tail plane volume is defined as:
5-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii. The cruciform tail, a compromise between the conventional and T–tail arrangements, lifts the
horizontal tail to avoid proximity to a jet exhaust (as on the B-IB), or to expose the lower part
of the rudder to undisturbed air during high angle-of-attack conditions and spins. These goals
can be accomplished with a T-tail, but the cruciform tail will impose less of a weight penalty.
b) Group B: twin fins is used to minimize rolling moment due to large distance from fin a.c. to a/c
longitudinal axis, for single large fin. The modern fighters always use such configuration.
It is also a good choice when a twin tail booms are used. The " " is used primarily to
position the vertical tails in undisturbed air during high angle-of-attack conditions, (as on the T-
46), or to position the rudders in the prop wash
on a multiengine aircraft to enhance engine-out
control.
The ( ) is heavier than the conventional
tail, but its endplate effect allows a smaller
horizontal tail.
c) Group C: ( ) (or butterfly) tail which is
adopted for sailplanes and sometimes on
powered a/c to keep the tail surfaces clear of jet
efflux. In " ", the horizontal and vertical
tail forces are the result of horizontal and
vertical projections of the force exerted upon
the" V" surfaces.
It has the following advantage:-
Less drag interference.
Fewer tendencies toward rudder lock.
Fewer surfaces to manufacture.
High location of surfaces which reduce
possibilities of tail buffeting due to wakes.
And it has the following disadvantage:
More complicate operating system.
Possible of interaction of elevator and rudder
action.
6-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) Canard tail (forward tail): There are actually
two distinct classes of canard:
The control-canard.
The lifting-canard., which generate
upward lift.
In the control-canard, the wing carries most of the
lift, and the canard is used primarily for control.
The canard normally operates at nearly zero angle
of attack; and thus carries little of the aircraft's
weight. This is accomplished by a Sophisticated,
computerized flight control system that changes the
angle of the canard in response to gusts.
e) Tailless configuration: It offers the lowest
weight and drag of any tail configuration, if it can
be made to work. For a stable aircraft, the wing of
a tailless aircraft must be reflexed or twisted to
provide natural stability. This reduces the
efficiency of the wing.
7-11 Ch.4
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Tabl
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
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b) For transport category a/c and executive jets, design ⁄ , figure 4.6.
[ { }]
√
[ { }]
√
: Design dive (maximum) speed in ( ⁄ ) which is expressed in terms of ( ).
: half chord swept back angle for horizontal and vertical tail plane.
: Correction factors.
, For fixed stabilizers, (convention type).
, For variable incidence stabilizers,
(movable tail).
, For fuselage mounted stabilizers.
[ ]
8-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9-11 Ch.4
Prepared by A.A. Al-Hussaini 2014/2015
UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10-11 Ch.4
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UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Aircraft Design
Chapter Four: Tail Layout Design
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11-11 Ch.4
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