CONTENTS ONE iwrnooucTiON ‘Beet Hasory 2 net nraectin wo the Teton of Aronts TWO. FLUID MECHANICS Fis Dyanice Baler ation of Maton Detcrnnaton of FeeStenm Velo Desi of Tras Alseed "ety Potent and Seam Fanci lemenry Flo Functions ‘The Catan of Pos for Wel Deed Body Shapes "The Cuca tnd ‘re Nani Caen of Pots ow Aroued Arar Body THREE THE GENERATION OF LIFT Xie Ato Furies NACA or Dg See NACA f Senet 0 Preto of Atal ete Pia Fs Sia Pape asseenCONTENTS ‘ONE wrrooucrion (Bet Hitry A et Intodution othe Tecan of Aeooacs Two FLUID MECHANICS is Stace and the Atowpbere e's uation of tine Bernas Eaton Detention of Tie Apres ‘he Cet of lows for Well Defed Body Shoes "Te Cacia Cylinder ‘Te Namal Calton of Potent Pow Arad Airary Body Stipes THREE THE GENERATION OF LET ‘Wie Geomety ‘Need Fain NACA Four Dit Serie Dat Sees sees 1) Moder Ait Bovelopnens Prettn of Altos Bear Manin Lit Sst age Seat Bape agsehexaneee ee SseseesvennsaceLetting Edge Devices ‘Phe Opin Ao for gh it “The bina Lift 4 ase Wig seat of Fuselage on Con, test f Trin on Cr. sunt of Cas fot Cpe Alan Cofption FouR oRAG en Oe Brg of Shean Staes iia Boe a of nds Dg Ease ages ‘on Sako nd pve Pa Pe Aen ra Cont ‘rg iin Cote Aer of Si sna Dae Gem oe Tet Apa Dre PIVE_LIET AND OPAG AT HGH MACH NUMBERS lave Behavior of feist Pact Sf Mae Number Sunni Plow a igh Mach Number Odie Shock Wives Sperone ow (Acker They) is Soper Lenin Fons ett th aro he to it Dg of Tn Te |SiX_THE PRODUCTION OF THAUST Sree oe ores Theo sein Contos Retsing Wo Gas Trine Prfranse {ontatne Compan of he Pevtermance Tuo}. Turan. ond SEVEN AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE Effect of Wind Btn Feld ent ‘Geserakied Peer Rewaed Curve"eh Bavetre Maseseing Envelope (¥- Dig) Hoey Mens or Opin Teicaie ‘he At of katate td Sting 10HT STATIC STABILITY AND CONTROL dnt Systep—Fuces Maen nV ‘agin! ue Sy Sekt New Plt nd Sse Main Gocsad hry Cone cans Fe We Soma ace ‘ine Fon Feo of Lit Cote “este a Siar cintt Fores Cex Sch Factor 4 ute Eval Cea of Sk Face ‘Secreta Ste Sly eur Ste Coen Snes Conteaon Stree Ste Mara Sieatynacentne Toraos Sate Berar Conk: enter Ang er ‘Stahiletor Angle per g me Siet Foe pete Si it Coesin tec of Fiseage a Nase ‘Beat of Prope Scan Lead Deco 9a Subse Conta eageees 88 Re Conta 9 the Ue of Spies counting Bets ans Mt ith Ssesip Ane Dede ee NINE LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTROL auton of Moon ‘4 Sumeury Look st the Say Devas an Other Parmeter “Rfectng Lonptinl Dynan: Moon X Datatvs an Parameters 2Z Durance in Prsneers [oieation and Reducton f Euan of Logi Motion oe Coetseals Mote Shes ‘hom thane Psd Mode) ‘engi! Five Quaies Pak Path Sty TEN LATERAL-OIRECTIONAL DYNAMIC STABILITY AND CONTHOL "Afeing Ctr Beton Dyas Maton sMole Shoes Ro Mose Lage Dba Pine Qs [APPENDIX A THE Si SYSTEM APPENDIK 42 STANOARO ATMOSPHERE APPENDIX AS. AIRPLANE OATA APPENDIX A4 NOMENCLATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS Invex AERODYNAMICS, AERONAUTICS, AND FLIGHT MECHANICSONE INTRODUCTION ‘Acronis is defined at “the science tht teats of the operation of ‘Hteraft; aso, the art or scence of operating aircraft” Basia, with Sororities, one ie concerned with predicting and controling the fores and inoments om gn acral hat tnvclng trough the atmonphere ‘A BRIEF HISTORY ‘Thursday, December 17, 1908 “ihen we got wp a wind of Betwen 20 and 25 mies wa Blowing from he om, We sot the machine out ely ond put ow the signal forthe mem at the ‘tation. Before we mere gute ready, John T. Dani, W. S. Dough, A.D. iheriige, W.C Brinly of Manto, and Johny Moore of Nags Head aived. “Ajierraing the engine and propellers fow minutes to et thar woking ‘nde. It on the machine af 1035 forthe fst ta. The wit, according 10 ‘ur anemorctes a thls tne, wus Blowing le oer 20 miles (erred) 27 Ines according tothe goverment anemameter at Kity Hak On slippig the zip the machine sted of mereosing speed to probably 7 oF § ms. The ‘machine fed from the teh hast ait as entering the fourth ral. Mr ‘anil took picture justo Uf the racks found the contr ofthe fromt ruler suite dif on account of ts being balanced to near the crater ond thus Baa tendency to tur sl when started 0 thatthe rudder was tuned toa for on ome side and then 00 Jar on the other. AY a resi the machine wouldve suddenly to about 107! und then ar sudden. on taming the rudder, dart for the ground. A eudden dart when out abou 100 fet from the nd of the tracks ended the fight. Tne about 12 second fot know exactly {5 wich was nox promptly stoped) The ee for thong af the engine wat ‘akan aed the sid under the raddr racked. After pais at 30min fer TH o'clock Wil made the second tra “The above, taken from Orvle Wright's diary, ax reported ia Reference 1, describes cuankands tet stained, controled, powered ght ia a1. That the rato of dif tf in welt shaped surfaces i es at ales of Incidence of fee degree 40.12 degrees than at ame of thre dss.” CDi what we now call “dra cat in arched arfacs the contr of preatare a 90 degrees i near the enero the surface, but moves sols forward asthe ane becomes less {it cic! angle sarin wih the hape and depth ofthe eure is reached, “fer which it moves eupdiy toward the rear Til he angle of mo ft own” atu pir of superposed, or tandem surface, has le ti proportion to anit than aber surface separetely, coe after maKingallowence for ‘eight end head rsttance of the connections.” “These statements and other remark (ace Ref. 1) show thatthe Weight ‘brothers had good understanding of wing and all Behavior well beyond thot of eter eaperimenters of the ine Following their frst secessal fights ot Kitty Hawk, Noth Caroling, a 1903, the Wh Brothers returned (ther hore in Dayton, Oho, Two Years Lee thy were making hts there, amor route. im excess of 30K and inn whe oters were sil trying fo gt ofl the pun, ‘Moat of the sucess of the Weight Brothers est be tributed to their foun reeare, which ize their sed tunnel and numerous experents Sith controled Kites and. les. However, tei work wis ail io son ‘egre, o the glilng espriments of Ono Lienthl and Oetave Chanute Begining i189, ilenthal, working near Bec, Germany, male ap- ‘roximately 2000 gliding fight over # St pesos. Based on messirements ‘Shrined from these experiments, he publiated ubics of hit and drag measurements on which she Weght Brothers based their early designs Unfortunately, Lilenhal had ao cans of providing doeet seoljamic comma to his ghdere and rsd instead om kinesthetic consol, whereby ne Sted his weight fore anata sie fo side. On August 9, 1996, os the Fert of a gust, Oto Lilenthal lst conte snd ecssbed from an alta of ‘ppeoaimately iSm. He died the next day. Dasing 1896 and TR¥7, Octave ‘Ghani, nspcd by Lalitha work, desaned and bit several ses that Sere down by ofher near Mile, Indians. Chanute recoguizedLikenthals onto probans aad was attempliag to achieve an “automate” sabi i his designs. Chanute’ principal eoatnbution was the aditon ofboth verte thrill stabiing a arfaces In tion, he went tothe "S04," OF Upaae, confguaion for edded stength Unfortuately, he aso ried on hnesthate contr ‘When the Wright Brothers began this win experiments in the fall of 1900, they realized tht adequate conta shoot al three ex ms ove of the major preaqulsites ta successful fight. To provide pach contol (eae Up or down), they revred toa sllmovsble horzoaal al mound infront of Apaice stony 6 the wing. Yaw control (Ge. taming to the left 2 ght) was accompliabed by Ineans of an albmovablevortkal al mounted behind the wing. Toei method {tril contol (ce, lowering oe sige ofthe wing nd ring te be) wes ‘not as obvious fom photographs as the controls about the other two axes: Here, the Wriht Brothers devned s means of warping thet "Sox" wig 50 thatthe angle of ineidence was Increased 0a oe she and deeteted om the ‘thers The verted tal o adder, was eomected othe wingoneping Wires So {it produce what pilots eer today a coordinated tom, "The Wright Brothers were well bead of al oer avalon enthusiasts of thir era infact. ws ol anil 33 afer thle est ght at 8 similar Capabty wan emomtrate, this by Charles apd Gabrel Von in Paris, France (Ref 12). On March 3, 1507, Cartes Voisin ade cmtroled ight ‘of epproximetaly 107m in an silane simi ia appearance to the Wright fyer A second mackie but by the Voisin Brothers for Hens Farman = ‘lycie and auomobe race, was Bown By Farman later tht eat on Migs That exceeded 2000. BY the end of tat year at ast ve others suceeded in folowing the Weight Brothers’ ead, and aviation ws ots way "Taday we ure ale to explain the eval of the carly eaperinenters ia a ‘ery rations! way by applying wellesbishal serodyasnie principles that have volved over the fears tom both analysis and experimentation, These evelopment tave thes beginings with Sit Isaac Newton, who his een fatled the fist fel Mud mechantian (Ref. 13). Ia 1687 Newton, who ie probably best known for hs work in tld mechaees, reasoned hit the Fesitance of 4 body moving though + Mid is propo! 10 the Aid ‘density, the veotyguare, and the area of the body. "Newton sve postulated the sac force ia viscous Mud be propor ional 1a the velocity padient. Todo. any Ait Obeying this relationship 6 fetered to aos Newtonian fui In 1738, Danist Beroul 3 Swics mathematician, published hs teats, ‘Hydrodynamics whieh was flowed in 74 by a similar work preduced by hit father Joh Bernal The Bermolis made portant cotibtions to linderstanding the Rehavioe of fids Iq parcuar Jobn introduced the ‘Soncept of fterma posture, ané he was probaly the Fest to apply momen tam priniles oifatexal uid elements eontuid Euler, another Swiss mathematician, ft pt the science of nydrocvoamiss on a firm mathematical hase. Afound 1738, Er properly formosted the equation of motion based ua Nevwonian meezanks and the tron of Jahn and Daniel Berowli It was he who Art derived alone 8 Iiteamlne the relationship that me ster to tay Be "Bernas equation.” ‘he nedyaamie theres of the 1806 and early 18008 developed frm the cay works of there mathematars. Ie 189 the Engl engineer, Freerck Will Laschester- developed «theory fo prodit te aerodynamic Tehavir of wings Unfortunatly, ths work was not made generally Knownable 11 Largest Avert Exola Stating wth he Wight Brothers —— ——— Table £4 (connues cor ror FE om oo 5A BMEF wrROQUETION 70 THE TECHNOLOGY OF AERONAUTICS 9 uni 1907 in book published by Lanchester. By then the Wright Brothers had been yng for yt. Much of the Knowledge that they ha lborously ‘deduced trom experiment cou. have been reasoned from Lanchester theory In 1894, Lanchester completed an analysts of aplane Sabi tht ‘ould also have been of valde fo the Wrshts. Again, this work Sis tot Published wat 1908 TLancestes wing theory wus somewhat intuitive in its development. 1918 Lodaig Prana a Gecran professor of mechanics, presented athe ratial formulation of hee-dinensionl wing theurs today both men ate edied with ths secompishment. Prandaiso made another portant onto to he scence with his formalized Boundary aj concept “Around 1917 Nala Ergrovich Foukowski (the spling ba been ak Sized)» Rassan professor of falls! mechance and erodynamis io ‘Moscow, pblshed” «series of lectures on hydrodynamics a WAh the behave ofa family oF altos was investigated analytical "The work of thee einy hyo: ane aerodynamicit contributed Ile, s ny 16 the progres and ultimate socess ofthe strung vo By. However, Teas the amlvea base lls By Euler and those who flowed him on which the api progress in aviation was bull. “Atte 1906, the list of avstrs, npincers, and sietists contributing to the development of aviation grew rapidly. Quantum improvements were Accomplished withthe Une of fap ceratale gear, the eantlevered Wins ‘ibmetal constuction, and the tbojet engi. This impressive growth Alocumented in Table Note that ia less thin 10yr fom the, Weigh Brothers fst Bight the Useflload increased from 667 (01) to more than 13.00 GOOD. Inthe nest 10 the sel oad increased by a factor (1 TOs toy terme than 178% 1076 (ao AOD) for the Lackeed C58. ‘Ou slate of Knowledge js now sch that one can predict with some ‘erainty the performance of am aplane before its ever flown. Where ‘salvia or mmerial techniques ae insufcent, sophisticated experimental, Fees are ued to investigate ateas such 5 iit dvies, completed tee-dimensonalfows a tubomachinery, and eerotbermodymnics. Tot Aint Fa Novos Pacne 70H Wr tes a sie, ‘A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNOLOGY OF AERONAUTICS. Consider the siplane in steady linking fight shown in Figure 1.3. The term stanly means thatthe apne nt aseeerating. hence, ll forces Ed ‘mometts on th sctafl mun be ih balance. To be more precise, one states ‘hatte vector sm of al force and moments om the aiplane mist We = ‘To depict the anger sore cles all forces ate shown acting trong the enter of gravy (ey Alten the resutat of all the forces mst past Table 4 jcomnun rd oo edFigure 13. Forces ane moments onan alae ina tay climb throwgh the center of gravity, i 6 nt generally tre that any one of the forces, mth the exception of W must sty thir condos Te ths gre Vcopreseat the veloty Vector ofthe aplane's center of gravity. Ts vectors shown iacined upward from the horizontal through the Single of clin, 8. The ange between the horizontal andthe Trt line is ‘denoted asf this ine taken tobe the reference line of the splene,the foe states that the skplane ir pitched up through this ange. Tho angle between the reference tbe and the velocity Vector, 8 As eferred a8 the tage of attack of the arlane. Later we wil ase oer anges of aac Telerenced tothe wing grometr: this, one mast be creat a tterpeting lt tin dag data presente as funtion ofthe angle of sack ‘The thrst, Tis the propling force that balances mainly the ar0dy~ namic dragon the ailne. 7 canbe produced by a propeller, a turbojet, 3 The lift, I. is defined as the component of all aerodynamic forces ‘enerated By the ara in the direction nora t the veloky vector, Vin level fight this means principally the upward vertical force produced bythe wing. Generally, however, it includes theta and fanelage forces. For ext ‘lin anlngmnny sirraft require downward force oa the hovel tall In order to tm out the nose-down pching moment produced by the wine Maps This wimming force canbe wena equing «wine ft atceby ceazens of the silanes weight Simiar to the lit, the drag, D, is defined as the component of all serodyramic orcs genetted by the aipane in the deco opponte 0 the ‘A BRIE WrRODUCTION TO THE TEGINCLOY OF AERONAUTICS TH velocity vector, V. This force i composed of two principal pats, the paste {ag and the induced drag The minced drag fe eenerated 9 result of ‘producing i; the parasite drag isthe drag of the fsenge, landing peat, rte, and other surfaces exposed tothe alr Tete 2 fin plat concerning the diag of the wing to be meaoneé ete that willbe elaborated on later. Pare of the wing drag contiter to the parasite drag and i rometines feferred tos pro das. The profle dag i clove) equal wo the drag of the ‘ning a zor Mt: however, des increase with increasing It. Ths Increase Js threfore usually inlade as pat of tho induced dra. a Sit sense this i incocet, owl Become clearer Iter on W tthe rors weight ofthe alan and by defn, ats atthe centr cof gravity the plane and is drected veraly downward is composed fof the empty wight ofthe allan und its useful loud. Tis later weight ‘telus the payed persengers and cargo) and fhe fel weight “The pitching moment, Mf, defined ux postive fn the nore-updiection (clockwise in Pipe 13) and resis from the disibton of aerodyeamie forces om the wing tail fuselage, engine aces, and ater srteces exposed tovth flow ObviusyyH the icplae inti, the sum of these moments about the center of gravity mst be zr. ; We know foday tht the aeroyeami forces ona aiplane ar the sae swhather we move the alpine Uugh silat or fx the eplane and move the al past In ater words, its the eave motion Between thea and Liplane snd got the absolte motion of either tat determines the wetdy- amie force. Thr rstement wat a always so obvious. When be leaned of the Wright Hroers’ wind tonne tests, Octave Chante wrote 10 them on (etober 12,1901 (Re 1.1) and refered to "natral wind." Chanute com etre in his eter: 1 seoms to me tat there may bea diference nthe rent whether the ait {is impinged upon by a mosing body or whether the wind impinges upon the Sune body af rst. In he later cout each molecule being dren from Behind. fens to tomer more of ty sheng tthe body than In he former case when the Body mects cach molecule tucestinly Before that time to reat On Fortuately, Wilbur and Orvile Weight chose to believe their own wind Retuming to Figure 13, we may equate the vector sum ofall frees to er, ince the silane i equ. Hence, in he dretion of Hiht, T eos(0=8)-D~ Wsin=0 a Weon tL =P sin(o~8)=0 an12 o0ucnOW “These equations can be solved for the ange of climb t give yt Ts05(0=6.)-D In thie form appears om both sides of the equation. However lt vs assume prio hat 6 ata (8) are sll anges. Ao except for very High Setformance snd V/STOL (ect r short aks and nig) planes the {us for ost aiplnes i oly a fration ofthe weighs Ths, Pqution 13 « aa ange os For silanes propelog by rwhojets or rackets, Equation i ia the form that one eould-noemally use for calculating the ange of climb However, inthe ease of tiplnes with shaft engines ths equation is mated 10 tht we ea eal with power inten of rst ist, consider tyustng propel tht moves a detanceS inte fat constant velocity, V. The Work thatthe propels performs during ht ine i sotiusl power 78 But Sit x cqunl tothe vlocy of advance ofthe propeller, Hence the power alae frm the proper ven by Pow TV “9 Sinry, the power reauited by 4 tay traveling through the ai with velocity of sed Raving rag of D wl be Baquaton 4, by eulying ough by WY, we vet WEVA) Pos Poss wo “The quantity Va, ithe verti ate f climb, Vi. The diferece between the ‘ower that Is eaulted and that sealable fe rofrred to athe exces power Pe Thus Equation 1.6 shows thatthe verte! rate of climb canbe obtaned by equating the excess power t9 the power reqused te Mit the miglanes ‘elght at the rate Vj. In operating an plane this means the fallowiag A Pilot is fying ata given wpecd in stay, evel fight withthe engine three ‘nly partly open If the plo advances the trots while maining 2 ‘Tha, rewrniag 19 ‘A emir mrnooUCTIN 10 Rie ECWNOLOGY OF AEROMUTICG 19, constant airspeed, the power from the engine wil hen be in exes ofthat ‘Sure for evel ahs and we plane wil lib. ‘Sunpove, stead of keeping Ht onsat, the plot, while opening the tote alows the akspeed to increase In soch a manner nt mas Constant slide, Whet a wide open thote (WOT condom i eiched the ‘Sunmum power avalele i eqal tothe power feued. Tas i he om. {ion for maximum sitopecd "stright and Fve” rom tis it intoductin into silane performance, iis bviows that vee must be able to estinate the aerodynamic forces 08 the aiplane before me {an predict it performance. Ako.» Saculedge of the chatacters of power pln propelsor combination is essential Tain to performance, the aren of "0g quite” is very im povtan tothe nceptanct of at sane by the cstomer. Fig qualities Feten primary to tabity and cont, bat ko cocompasses plane [et us bry Consider the pitching moment M, showa ia Figue 3. This ‘moment, which must be Zero forse, tried ih, results mai from {het onthe wing an a Im on, comibatins rs rom the fseae, faces propusor, an distbuton of reste over the wing, Suppose 209 ‘hat the inane fe winmed in steady, lve! Might when is suddenly Sstrbes (ously by seus ean fpet fom the plod) suck that tptches up by some amount, Before ean respond, he anes pth il essestly bovzotal so thatthe see between the velocity vector andthe plane's as imtmomentary incrsed Ie wil be shown later ta, a given speed he Imoment, Nee dependent om this anle defined previously as the angle of Each. Sine the moment vn italy zo Before the srlane was dstarbed {follow tan general wil ave same vale other than Zero de tothe Increase in angle of tack. Suppose this increment Ms postive. In ths {ise the tendency Would then be forthe ale of stack (0 ietese even farther Ths isan onsabe stun whee the alae, whee disturbed, fends to-move even further fom fs steady-state conto. Thus forthe Spline fo exhbit a more favorable, sable response, we dese thatthe Increment in M caused by an ange of ask change be agave Tis Is abot oe for we can go without consicerg in dal the senertion of aerodynamic forees ani’ moments on an aplane and is Somponeatss The preceding discoson far shown the importance of being Bio sredt ths quan rom ath perormnce ond ite guar Siewpoite The folowing chapters wil present detafed ataytsl a ryote mater suene to deermine the performance aed stbity St0 como shurcterst of an spl. ‘Ri you stay the matt fo fellow, Keep i ind ta it took the ery aviton pioneers a iftine to aeumulste nly fact of the Knowle? {hats yours to gain wih few months of dy14 wmooucrow sre primary syste of wits oe wed in stent the SSIs te AT, Since this system fst now being adored We Intranets tothe Bagh este. preset ABpEnY ie ee re tama with bot systems, nie mbsf A Ae the Enlh pte, Fora mare complete exansion of {he's oyster, see Reference 14 PROBLEMS 1 Coe te tte of tin fan eae having runt weih Cote te ong rato of 180 at forma veloc of Tome of 025 a ene Vm meters et second. Coren practice 0 PSs Ear cc pr mint What woul be your amar in the ar ot the este al and rack pitared below rei equim? Wich sre stale? 1.3 Amara wei 450001 (01171) ad eau S972 0) 04 ta ci Net a caper of Bes (79 mph. he alae foe! Sea an ye) how fast wil the aan cin when the throe vanced to te wide open poston? sa Riameed on hh ertco-eiht atthe onl fc Foran aan ain, for cornin VISTOL alsa the tt necessarily et ge upward sigan wih pest othe etion of TE in angle Ts dened as show that coun Teen 15 Astsent poses agains the side of bling wit x fore of 6N for AARRGr Li ow much work was done? ee ifcaodag ao of 15,1 i a an alte of 10 a rere tne epi An port 1k (2 ies) end. Wl the plot be ale to reach? REFERENCES ny sean tr Mr 2 eR er ne, ees ee eect eee 1s ag agen 1a Reefs, eglewood Cit, NI. 1965. Apptcaton Ps a nr se, Washington, D.C,, 1969. * Government Pring 1 Cleveland, F. A. “Size F Cc SSeS, Seba et rt atTwo FLUID MECHANICS ‘This chater will tess the princiles in Hoi mechanic that are expect ‘ily important to the study of aerodynamics. For the reader whose pre uration does no ineloge Bid mechan the material ths chapter sho be tffcene to understand the development in succeeding chapter. For Imore complete tratent, soe aay of the many avalible texts on Aid mechanics (eg Rels.21 and 22), Unlike solid mechanic, one normally deal wth» continuous medi in the study of fil mechanics Am aplane fa Mght doesnot experience = Sudden change i the properes ofthe a sucoundig it.The steam of watt ftom a rehose exerts steady force on these ofa burning Biking ke ‘he impulse on a swinging bat as Ht compects withthe discrete mass of the Tn sold mechanics, oe is concerned with the behavior of ven ie system of said masses ander the infoence of force and moment vectors Systen, bu with the Now of comtinoous Haid ast Under the lauence of Asribetedpresutes and shea stesses "The tern fd should not be comfered withthe term lg, wince the foxmer includes ot ony the aller, bul gases ax well Generally Bui i defied as nny sabstance that wil realy deform under the invence of hearing forces. Thun» fi nthe antonyn ofa soi. Sine th aside and tases salty ths efletion, they se both Known an Bulls A lgud i Sistine from agus by the fee tat the former Is ary incomgvessibe Unie a gas the volume of ven mass of liquid remsine independent of the pressure imposed onthe mas ‘FLUID STATICS AND THE ATMOSPHERE Before westag the mote sificaltcat offi in motion lt us comer fod a est in sate equilbam. The mass per une volume of «ud I efi as the muss deny. uweally denoted by. The macs demalyie constant or Huis, bt ti fonction of temperate, T nd presure,p for po ektT en in efete to the eas constant se hs valu of 287.3 9PK sec fr aie ‘normal temperate In Equation 2 Tl the themodyranico absolte temperature in doprecs Kelvin. T and th Celis temperate, tare tlated uy rerems en ‘A. containe fled ith sfigid ic pctred in Figure 2. A freebody ingrnof smal hg of the fds shown ta Figure 2.1. This slog has & Ira (2%)unit cross-sectional area and x diferent ength of dh, Acting downward ver the eper urate the sae resure,p, while acting upd ove the Tower face tis same pressure plus the fate of increase ofp with depth muted bythe shang i dept, dh. The state pressure so acte Layard ‘round the ses ofthe element, but ths contbuls aotung fo the balance of forse in the vera eeetion, ln nition to the pres forces, the weight ft the id elsneat, pth acts vetcaly downoad; i the provisions ‘Suaming forces onthe clement nthe verti! divection kad to Boon en Integrating Baton 23 from h =O athe surface to any depth, hres ln thesia pretore at function of the depth or en were pe the atmorpheri peste athe fee surface ‘A.manometer is device frequcny used to measre pressures. ti based om Equation 24, Consider the experimental setop pictured in Figure 22 Here, «device hnown os pitotstati tbe ts mmecsed i aed aligned Svith'agas ow. The impact ofthe gas being brought rest at the nose ofthe {ube producer pressure hiher thas that along the ses of the Tube. Tis pres, know at he foal pressure, taneeited through a tae tone Sie ofa Ushaped glass tube aril fled with uid. Some distance back from the nose ofthe pitts te the presere fe sxmpled hough sll ‘pening tht fe ish with the sides ofthe tube. This opening Wi far ough tuck fom the mote, Joes mot stu the Gow so that the presse Simple by itis the same as the sac presure ofthe undisturbed ow. This ati preture ie tana tothe right si o he pass Uctube manometer The ttl pressure, being Niger than the state presse, cases the qui i te lett side of the Utube to drop whi the lev on the i ie rises. we denote pas the statis pressure and +p a8 the ttl presee,the pressure a the Sttom ofthe Use canbe escalated by Equation 24 vse fier the right of et side of the tube, Equatng the resus rom the (vo sides b+Ap+ =P Rta he) p= oe ah es ence, the diterece of the oui eels inthe two sds of the manometer ‘na direct measre ofthe pres difeenceappicdseross the manometer Tihs case we cond then determine the difternve between the ttl press ==) Tam ‘igure 22. Pactsai tube coonected ta Utube las mano snd state presse in thes fw from which, ax we wil se later the Nelocty of the gue canbe calls "Now consder the variation of tate pressure through the atmosphere. Again the forces ating oma ierentil asso eas wil be eated ina nner Sima tothe development of Egoation 23 for lau. However will be {ake to be the altitidesbose the ground aad sige the ruviationlatace tions now opposite tothe dection of increasing hy the sin of Eauaton 2.3 ‘changes For the stosphere, ae, 6 Bam eo “The mass density, toot x constant in this ese 0 that Equation 2.6 ‘unmot heintgrated immediately. lm onder to petty the integration the ‘ation of state, Equation 21 1 substted for. which ends teeth an po RTFrom experimental observation, the vation of temperature with a tide Roown or at eats standard variation hat bee speed on, Up toa hide of I hn the temperatures akon to decrease inet with tude at trate, known a the lapse rte, of 6S1°Clkm. Tas, Equation 27 besomes Tt pT Raa som en were 6 the rato af he state pee a ite fo the pete tsa iceland ithe conespondingsicine taper a ‘Ung the canton of ste the comesponig deal ra, oi obtained mediately tro Eaton 2 ono om Using the standard lapse rate a se evel temperature of 28.15°K, 888 function of tude fy piven by omen 10) suber isthe attade in Kilometers “The lower region ofthe atmosphere upto a atu for which Equations 28 10210 hold eelered Yo atthe troposphere, This the vegan in which ‘mot f today's Byiag is dove. Abowe I Km and up to om alitude of {ppcoximatly 23, the temperature i seary constant. Thi region forts the lower part ofthe strteaphere. rough the mainder of the sratoopere the temperature increas, Yechnganproxiatly 270° at an alae of Figure 23 prevents graphs (akeo om Ref. 2) ofthe various properties fof the sandare atmosphere as a function of abide. Each propery Is ‘resented asa ratio tos standard ve eve vale denoted by the stbotpt "0." In addon to pp, and T the acoustic velocity ond kinetic cosy ste presented. These to properis wil he defined later. ‘One normally thinks of tae asthe vera distance ofan plane above {he earths surface. However, the operation of an airplane depends on the properties of the ar trough which i i Ming, ae on the geomet Reig ‘Ts the slide is requenty speci in terms of the standard etmospher. Specialy, one refers Yo the presse elltude othe density altitude tthe ‘eit i the standard atmosphere corresponding t tbe presse or dens. ‘espectvely, ofthe atmosphere ia Which the airplane i operating. AN i ‘lane's alee simply an absolute pressce guar alba according to ASSES TRE TESS “ga J ct rt | 7 a < “4b. | | FSS ‘igre 23° Te standard atmosphere the standaidstmosphere has u manu adjustment to allow for variations in scx level Bojometic pressure. Whee set fo standard sea level pressure (Comm Hg, 2992 Hy), ssaming the istrment and Sate pressure Source to be fee of eros; the alee Wl read the pressure ade. When set. ‘he local sen level barometric pressure wich tbe plot can obian over the22 rue mecwNcs radio while in fight, the abimetr wil ead closely the tae stitute above sea Tove. Apt must refer Coa chart peseibing te ground elevation above sea level inorder to determine the height shove th round, ‘rLuio brnamics We wil now ets fil tht moving tht, aon o wave ‘on forehand bering fey ml be cme “sinc ow oan steamined shape pte age 24 Note that hi ae abled “womens fow'this mea seh a {ow cd rnc nt a ro corde an yin eee Ogre 25) amt docs not ened on he thd conte: For vamp the oof wind ound 2 ta ea emotestck ssn o-dneoa ‘cep nea the top Here te wind oes over we ao he sch and ‘keto in tesmenon: Arse sample Pe 3 mig erent ihe fow trou a eumincd st ot te ove tha pars he ‘ingot atighning sane The tiedmantonl cutee of Bs tape ‘might be the blimp. a“ Sever ers of fow rund body npn re oe in Fare 24 Fiserv that he Bow tte by mean of ween. Aste lina imu tinea he Row sch te vey ol sos ‘Mtn the recy vst get tein to-do @ veo veer ‘igre 24 Two-dinensiona! tow around a seed sheoe ruponaucs 23 tow if (0) defines the poston of x streamline, (2 elated te the and y omposgnts of the veloity, as) and vs) BY Be ew [Note that he body ssfae tsi x 3 streaaio. in iecedimencional ow a sface swept by streamlines is krown a & stream Surface, uch successes bow a 9 seam be "The mass Row accelerstes around the body as the fesul of contouous istibion of prestere exerted o0 the Mid by the Body. AR equal and SGppositereseton mast occur on the body. This sate pesrare dsibton, Ring evenyuhere nova the body's srface, x petred onthe lower af rahe body in Figure 24, The small rows repreneat the local state pressure, De tcntve to the state pretur, py inthe Mad far removed from the body Ker the aose pie greater thn py further af the pressure becomes negative {atnveto pI hie sai pense distribution, acting norma othe surface, [S imown, forces on the Bay can be determined By integrating this pressure In addon to the local state pressure, shearing stresses resting from the i's viscosity ao ive ee To ody fees. AS Hud pastes over 8 solid Sorina, the Rs pasties taneditely i contact wit he surtace ate Deou {o rest Moving nay from the surface, soecessve layers of fui are slowed by the shearing stresses produced BY the der layers. (The term “ayes” Is ‘oad nly ae convenience fe describing the Md bev. The Mas shears Ins contingous manner and nota discrete layers) The rest thin ayer of Slower moving Mul, known ss the boondary lye, adjacent tothe surface [New the front ofthe body this Iyer sr very this and the flow within Ii ‘tron witht any random or urbulestRatuatins. Here the fui particles tit be deeribed st moving lon inthe layer om parallel panes, of laminae ence the flow i Yefered foo lamina. ‘some distance back from the nove ofthe body, iterbances tothe fow (ea. trom urface roughness) ren longer Sumped out. These disturbs ‘deny smi, andthe laminar boundary layer undergoes transition to “arbuleat hounds layer Ths ayers canary hike than hein one Sri characterced by a mean veloc poof om which smal, randy Aucwating velocity component are superimposed. These flow regions a shownin Figure 24 The houndary layers are pctred considerably tier than ‘hey actually are for puoses of dustin. For example, onthe wing of an ‘plan ing t 10 m/s tow alte, he erbulent boundary 10 mack om the lading edge ord be only sppronnately Lc hick Ihe layer wert lumiane ais pine tickers would be approsiatly 0.2 cm Retusing to Figure 24, the tuaiat boundary layer continues to ‘sien toward the rea ofthe body. Over this parton ofthe surface the Aud24 rue mecians is moving ato a region of increasing state pressure tht i ending to oppose the flows The slower moving Mid in the Boundary layer may be Unable to bvercone this adverse pressure gradient, so tha at some point the #0% ually sepuates trom the body surface. Dowaetream of this separation Pring, reverse fow wil be found long fhe surace wit the sate pesire eal constant and eau to that at the point of separtin, ‘At some distance downstream of the Body the separated flow closes, and a wke i focmed. Fete, a velocity dflency representing» moment [ot bythe uid is found ear the center of the wake. Ths decrement of momentum (nore precisely, momentom fn) i dzet measure f te BOO? ‘rag Ge the force om the body i the direction of the fresteam veloc) "The general ow pattern described thus far can vary. depending onthe size and shape ofthe Body the magne of the fee trem Velocity, sd he properties ofthe Bid. Variations in these parameters can eliminate transition ‘Goe might reasonably assume that the forces oma body moving through x ‘uid depend in some way on the mass desi ofthe Hui, p the sizeof the body, snd the Body's selocy, Vf we asome that any ot force, Fis opertinal 1 the prodt of these parameters cach raised tun unknown power. thes Peeve In onder forthe basic units of mas, length and time to be consistent, it me a Considering M,L, an Tin onder leads t tise equstions fo the wnknown fxponents a, 8, and'¢ from whih if fou tat a=, b=. a 2 Fepve en) For a patil force the constant of proportionality in Euston 2.12 refered to at coecint and ss modified by the tame ofthe forse, fot ‘example, the hit coeffient, Thus the it abd dap force, Land Dy can be caprered L=pysc, e213) D=bvisce em) [Note tht the square ofthe characteristic eat has Been replaced by a reference afet § Also, factor of 1/2 has bee italuced. Tit eat be one, sige the it abd drag coetiiens, Cand Cn are abirary at this point The quaaty” pV ix refered to. the dvoumie. presse, the ‘Sieance of which wil be made Sle shorty ru onuucs 26 or many aplication, he cosets Cand Crema constan fra siven gomaticshpe ove we range of opeatingconon or boy se Fer dimplewecdenensna aif aa ang of stack il have si [Sin ef approsimaly 0 for veltes fom few meters person Spe" enor” addon, Cw Be almon ndpendet of he is Titel However,a more rigwow sppbeaton of dimensional say te icing ihe Rt.) ln one porosity in Equation 212 publ eng dependent om number o iments parameters “Two of the most important of these are known as {he Reynolds mbes ant Mach mmber, Meine e140) ee) where! is characteristic lngth, Vis the freestteam veloc, the Cheficint of vitconty, nd ais the velo of sound. The velocity Of sound he sped ot which small pressure itutance fs propagated through the fi ot this pin, requis no further explanation, The coefcent of scons, however, is aot as well Koown and wal be elaborated on Teference to Figure 2, Hee, he velocity proie i plied inthe boundary Taye of laminar viscous ow overs surface. The viscous shearing produces shearing reve of om the wal. Tas force pe unit nen is elated 1 the fradient ofthe Yelocy wp) a he wall by en i #(@),. an Actually, Equation 2.18 is applicable to calelting the shear szeses ‘between il element and wot rested simpy tothe wal, General, the viscous searing sree in the fil in ay plane parallel fete How and s¥ay a ‘gure 25. Viscous tw ascent to sre,rom the wal given by the product of and the velocity gaint normal to the dirstion of fo. “The hnematie viscosity,» sdefined as the rai of 1 1 vet is defined ea matter of convenience, since itis the rato of a top that foverne the Reypolds number. The kinematic viscosity for the standard “Tmospere fe chded in Figure 23 ne am svere frac of the standard 3a evel vale, "A physic) signifance canbe gven othe Reynolds number by mul ving numertor and denominator by V and dividing by waa a In the folowing mater (se Equation 228) the normal eesire wil be sown to be proportional to pV? whereas, from Equation 215, 4Vl is Proportional 19 the seiring sree. Hence for given How the Reynols umber tn proportional tothe rath of normal pressures Gnerti free) (0 ‘rcoos searing stresses. Tus, relatively speaking ow i ess viscous han “nother How ke Reyoois amber is ger than tat of the secon ow. "The Mach number determines to what extent Mud compresibty canbe redlested (cry the var of mse denaiy with prestre). Caren! et transports for example can cruise at Mach aumbers up to proximately 08 tere signcont compress effect are encoantere. 'M Tower Mach numbers, two flows arc peometrcly aad dynamically simar ithe Reynolds numbers are the saat for both ows, Hence, for {xample, for «given shape, Cp for Body Tem long at 100s Wil be the Same as Cp fora 1-m fong body at IOs. As another example, suppose traniion occurs 2m tack from the lending edge of = Bal late signed with & flow having a vlochy of Sa. The, at 2Savs vanstion would occur at 8 distance of 4m from the eading edge. Obviously the effects of Rand Mon Simenstonlss aerodynamic coeficints mst be consiered when ilerpeting test eults obtained with the uve of small model For many eases of iferes 0 aerodynamics the presse feld around 9 shape can be cakultedansming the ai to be iviaci and incompressine Sal corections can thon be made to Ie resling solutions fe sceount for these “eel fu eects Corectons for viscosity or compress wil be onsered as needed i he following chapters CContervation of Mess Pid passing though an aren at velocity of V has mas ow rate cual to pa This easly seen by reference to Figure 2 Hove ow is | | a =. F fe 7 ‘Figure 26 Mate ow though a sutace ictred long steamtube of crosescctional area A. The fad velocity is cual to Ve At time "0, pote smal slug of Au of tnt, f,about to ‘ssa reference plane. Artime I ths cue slug wil ave passed through the reference ple. The vlume of tho spi A, 50 that a mass of pA was teamorted scrote reference plane during the tie IV. Hence the mass fate of Bev, mis ven bY map iy =eav a6, Alongs streamtahe (which may be conduit wi solid walls) the quant AV ‘monte constant mises oto necumblte nthe system Forlocampressie fom piv canst 0 tht the conservation of a leas othe conti) rinse AV constant |AV is the volume flow rate sad i sometines referred to as the fx Similay,pAV isthe many an The mas fx tough surface muipled by the velocity vector st the surface It dfined se the momen Mux. General, ifthe velocity vector is aot noel to the surface he mate Mux wl Be pAven with the momentum ux writen as Av aw hoce mi the unit vector sonal to the svtae and in the dation in which, the fur ip defined to be poriive. For example, If the sufoce ences a ‘volume andthe et mat un ot of the volume i to Be aleulted, mouldbe circted outward trom the volume, an the following ina w hla over the ene sutace ‘ent wou be [free Comite he conservation of mate peed to» derail contrat ute sire nano! ot wit tee Acar Star L's i Bigue 27 Tae fow psng trough as one hs ‘shy Comment stad he cna he sect he ma ist, eiperivey Te eoepangConponsts on th pi fie the cement ue found by exguna them apr tad Atpgig tecoadorer sad pene ie nse te tase Bot thou eg ace be (aA Wang intr exresin forthe ter tree fas asthe net mass [290222] aray ‘The et mas us ot of he ieee ms gl the at a which the mvs fed conte wine semen ice pen -Sparay | (oure 27. Arwctangar Serer convlsurace Since Sx andy are arbitrary, follows tha, in general, three dnensions the preceding equation can be writen in vector notation Berge an tere isthe eta pert dl ete by ae Vay Re ‘Any physically possible fw mst satisfy Equation 2.17 a very poi in the For an incompressible fl, the mass density 3 constant, so Bauation * vivo ew “The above fs known asthe divergence ofthe velocity vector, dv V. ‘The Momentum Theorem “Te momentum theorem in Mud mechanics i the counerart of New= too’s second law of tution sid mechanics, which sates that foree Imposed on a system produces a rte of change ia the momentum of he ‘Sytem, The (beorem com be extydetved ty treating the Mid a a colecton SF nud parses an apolving the second law. The deta of the derivation habe found in several texts (eg, Rel. 21) and will ot be repeated here ‘efning «cont surface ov 3m inagiary closed surface through which ‘fv x passing, the momenta theorem state “The sum of extemal force (or momens) acting on a contol surface end intera forces (or moments) acting on he Rid within the como race produces change the fof omentum (or angir momentum) thous Fe surface and wn instatancour rate of change ef moment (or angular momenton) of the fs partes win the contol surface.” Mathematically, fo linet motion of anv Mi the theorem canbe expres investor Botton BY -[fosssen=[Jowr-nesea ff fover aan {In Equation 219, mis the uit arm directed outeard from the seo,99 Au weoues ‘enclosing the volume, V. Vi the velocity vector which wnerally depeeds tn poston and time B represents the vector sun fall boy foress within the contol srace acting the fad. p ie the mass deny of the Bad feed asthe mar per unit volume, For the angular momentum, =f fowxnw-masr2f ffowxnd 20 Here, Qs the vector sum of all moments both internal and external, sting ‘on the conta surface or the Mui within the surfaces he radios vector ‘uid parte, “ara example ofthe ut ofthe moment theorem, conser the force on the Buning building produced by the fchore mentioned atthe beganing ofthis chapter Figure 2 states a pose fw’ pattern, admitedy ‘implied. Suppose the nozzle hes «diameter of 10em and water fishing ftom the sezte with velocky of Ome. The mast denety of water ie approximately 1000kgim™= The" -contalsueface shown date Equation 219 wil now he writen for the system in the 5 dvecton Since the ow i steady. the paral derivative wih respect tie of the Yume intra! given By the lst term on the right ste of the espaton Vanlhes. Alo, B i zero, since the contol surface does not enclose any gure 28. ject water moacting on 8 wal bodies. Ths Equation 219 bocomes [ones [,fowv-nas Measuring p relative 19 the atmospheric static prestue, p ie zero everywhere song the contol surface excep al the wall Here misdirected to ihe reht so thal the surface integral om the left comes the total forse ted othe Mui by the pres onthe wall IF reprevents he mage Sf the tual fore onthe -iw=f, fowv was For the Mui entering the coouol surface onthe let e=-t For the Moi leaving the control setace, the wit normal to this csindia ‘srface his no component inthe x direction. Hence, ur J, foxes esx fas The surface integral reduces to the aozele area of 7.85% 10m! Thos without actully termining the presse dstibtion on the wal he toa Forse on the wall found fom the momentim theorem to eal 28.3 KN. ue Equation of Motion “The prinsinle of conservation of mass, applied to an elemental cont surface, edt Equation 217, which must be satisied everywhere inthe BOW: Simdary, the gomeatum theorem upped to the Same element leads (0 nother st of egpation that mot hol everywhere Referring again to Fagute 27. ps the static pressure a he centr of the element thet, om the centr of the right face, te tats presute wil be eRe “Tis prensure and a simi pressice om the left fae proce a et force inthe = direction equal 9 ~Baray32 rue meounes Sine there are nobody force presen nd the fd i assumed ivi, the above force must equal the net momentum Mux ot ps the instantaneous ‘Change of fd momentam contained within the clement “The momentum flux out of he igh Lae inthe = section wll be [mele ‘Out of he upper face the comesponding momentum Mux wll be [str ne he inartancous change of the Gull momentum contained within the Jouansy Tus, eauting the net forces in the direction tothe change in omentum and mocentom fx sad using Easting 2.17 lads to yy My pM Le aan wae ay par en Generalizing tis to thse dimensons rests i » st of equations known 38 ule’ equations of mation, -12 con) 1 am» te ae) oe Nae mai wit 2 ee ef Eatin 22 the feat of The ape he te hl a sd inversion lr span cme ween Bema te amy 1b vec ade ft peri 6 to wth ah rm in eu Else 2 2 +-Te-0 am 1 isthe cur ofthe velocity veto, FV, and is knowns the vorticity, tise veveld 2 rn 29 ‘One can conclude from Fauation 2.24 that, for an inviscid ud, the ory is constant long 4 steamline Sines, far removed from a Days he ow is asually taken (0 be union. the verity at that location iy ert hence, itis tro everyahere Bormout’s Equation ‘Bernoul's equation i well Known in fad mechanics and relates the pressure tothe velocity alone a streamline In an evscd incompressible fom was frst formuleted by Euler i the idle 170s, The dertion of this tation follows from Fale’ equations using the Tac that slong a steamlie ihe velocty vector i tangential tothe steaming 229 Iuiply Equation 2224 though by dx and then substitute Easton for edi and sede Also the fst erm ofthe eqution wil beset eau 0 ero; that i this time only andy ow wil be Sosiere. WM ect ay uM ae Las Sinurty, moipiy Equation 222b by dy, Equation 222 by de and substute Eainton £6 for way dy and dvb respectey, Adige ice equa reuts peret rent forp and Vs V being the Iga ofthe cn chy ony he sen. This at en ea trom te fc a Thus, along streamline, Euler's equations become vavet. em4 riuw Meow pismo function ofp Le the ow i incompressibie, Eaton 227 can be inetd immediately to sive p+\pv'— constant ex the Now i uniform a aint, Equation 228 becomes Dp +IpV" = constant = + lp¥ em Here V is the magnitade of the local velocity and pis the focal sate pressure, Vand pz ae the corresponding (cestveam valet, Eualon 2.2 iowa as Bermoull's equation “Te counterpart to Equation 229 for compressible ow i otsined by suing pressures! density changes 1 follow an entropic proces. For ach proce Plo” constant ex) 1 the tai of the specie het at constant pressure tthe spec het at onvant volume ands cq spproaimatly to 1 for al Substtung times referred to asthe compressible Bernoulli's equation. YP = constant ean 7B = constant ean This equation can be writen in terms of the acoustic velocity, Fest iti necesar to derive the acoustic velocity, which canbe done by the use ofthe Stationary disturbance in‘ steady ow across which the presute, desi. tnd veleity change by smal imerements. Inthe abseece of body forces und = (0 don da a? But, trom comin, (oe apyus a 4e e230 ao ce ‘owe 24. staionay eal turbance a steady compressie How: 1s the salt dscubancef stationary in he steady flo having a velocity of then obviously a isthe wot ofthe eiturbance relative to the fa, By ‘inion, fotows tha given by Equation 22, te acount velocity, By the we of Equation 20, the acoustic velocity is abtained ax a-(2)" ex) ‘An aermate form, using th eqution of state (Equation 2, asc” 34 ‘has Eaution 2.31 canbe writen vat constant a9 “The acoustic veloc is alo inched in Figure 2.3 forthe standard atmos Determination of Free-Stream Velocity [A Tow spoods (compared to the acoustic velocity) a gas flow is essen. tity lacrosse. tn this este, and or tat of # haul, Exuation 22 ‘pln Ifthe Rad brought To vest so tha he Joa velocity 2st then, from Equstion 229, the local prev, refered 10 in this cave Ws Che Sanat ot tot resuree 1 equal fo the sun of the festrean ste Dresnie, pad pV 12 Tic te term scaled the dymamte pressure so 5 Frequeaiydepate by the symbol. Thus pace" ea where ns the total pees, also refered 0 a the stagnation or reservoir pressure The pte static tbe shown in Figure 2.2 measures (Pep. and i Drobaly the mot commoe mane sed fo determine trpecd. However, otce that Equstion 26 contains the mass density that mut Be determined efor the sirspeed can be calculated. The most seadly achieved By ‘eusving, i addon wo the dilference between the stagnation pressive and the state prestre, the sati presre Heit an the temperature, The Jesity ‘then determined fom the equation af tte (Equation 21 ‘At higher speeds fend we will no exuine whale high) Equation 229 ‘0 longer olds that V- mnt be dlermined foe Equation 231 Via py96 ro mecnancs [At this point he subscript» hasbeen diopped so that pg and V without 2 Sbseris maybe los! oe tram ales. ‘Remembering tht pip i the square of the acoestic elocky, the receding equation becomes we Pp Using Equation 2.3, this an be writen as em The dynamic pressure, gi elie ss abv ex) hic can be writen in terms of he Mich members a= home Combining this with Equation 2.37 gives ee. Zale ex “The sqote root of Equation 29 i presented graphically in Figure 2.10, “The departure ofthis fonction from unity fa measure of the eror Be incurred in eacuting the arpeed from the incompressible Berl ear ton Below a Mach numberof the err i sen fo be lss thin 3, Determinetion of Tre Alrspeed using tring pilot son lars thatthe srspeed that appears on the speed indicator ot the tre speed Iestend, mort to determine the tive auspeed the pilot mast ao teal the umeter ani use ir tow peratures The plot then revoris tot small hand cecustor or, dn some stance, aa the il te send inde accra Tallow for the atmosphere papers “The airspeed instr in nothing more thin an acura ferential pres sare age Calibrated according 10 Equation 23. Tis equiion can be puta _ lesen can be placed athe origin witht aerng the stesmine representing the surlace of the cilindr. Tf this done we sin 5 %y em Retaine othe pearson th sera of the sind il be pom hpurhe [au sin a+ 74 mm Retering to Fire 2.19, the net vertical force, or lift onthe eyinder resutog fam the pressure distribution il Be baa f pe ‘Moure 218, Greur epider wth cretion,4 ruowecnanes co, fom Equation 2.78 this reduces to ty ean This setered 10 asthe Kutt-Joukowshi ln. Although derived her spec for citcla cylinder, ean be applied to other shapes where 7 “The net horizontal force, or drag, onthe cylinder s found fro Daf aco ‘sing Equation 28, the deg is found to be zero, a result dat sue ia general for a closed body in steady potent Bow. This reso known 0s [Biakembents paradox, aftr Jean le Rond D'Alembert.& French mathemati ‘an who ist athe this conclusion around 1783, ‘The Numertoa! Calculation of Potential low Around ‘Arbitrary Body Shapes ‘he preceding bas demowsaed how particular body shapes can be eneated bythe superposition of elementary Row fonction. This procedre an he generalized andthe inverse problem can be solved where the Body Shape i prereried andthe elementary Row functions tat will erat the body shape ae found "he concept of point source or a poiat vortex can be extended 10 continuous dniution of thew functions Consider fs the two-dimensional Sure disuibution shown in Figare 220. Here q the source srenth pet Ui ent Const the closed contour shows dashed in Figure 220, having a eng of sr ands vaishing small bight. The toa fon throug this srtace mist faa qd Close tothe surface thea velosity component rom the elemen tal source will cancel so that only a Component raine. This “4 od em arbitrary shapes. Thus, unlike the Rankine oval, the body shape species, tnd the problem is to And the dstibution of singharies to satily the onion thatthe velocity everywhere norma to the boy surface te be ete ‘This particular probem ss relered oss the Neumann problem. Ensen ‘he mumerial Salton of the problem prea By segmenting the ody GRRE RHR z owe 220 Ostrbuted sources in wo-inensiona tow. sarface and disrinuting sant source srenath, a over the Ith element. The oral velo induced st the mide of te ik slement by is obtained Itameditly from Equation 282. The contribution Io the vlocky a the ith ‘lement from anotbe element is eaulted by assuming the total source Strength atthe second clement to bea poiat source located atthe wide of {hat element Taking elements and teting {= ,2,3---s lead se of ‘linear simultaneous algebraic equations for the uakowa.dd. Ayo Consierm more dota ths approach fr twardimensiosl fw Figure 221 shows two elements slog the surface of «bod. The th elem isthe onal element over sich the unit source strength qf trates. At the Ith element point source ix tested having strength eae to 88, 35, being the length of te /h element. The fresteam selacty Uys shown relative to the body sani ten ange of attack of [A he center af the ih element the normal velocky component fom ach source and the fre ueam iat vanish, Hence sinc Sehea int a thea i ex) Js an influence coefcent, which accounts forthe geometry of the body shape a determining the normal velocity induced athe ih element BS the source atthe /th element and corespond to the mipoins ofthe th element thee for Figure 224 sina eet6 uo mecnamcs ‘Piguce 221. Numeral solution of th Naumann problem by #distabton of teehee es tet BR as) an od emo tbr amy weforno omp Having ths determined the source strengths the rsaunt vee at ‘ny locaton can be determine by adding vector te fre-steam velocity {othe contibuons from all ofthe sources Pal, the pressure dition an be determined fom Equation 274 “This numeric! procedre applied to cicuar eytnder with nit divs lusrated in Figure 222. Hore, only eight cleats ate shown. For this aso pesam ‘awe 221 Conger ct the numeri ett the exact son for»‘The mumercal calulaton of the pressre distribution around a ieee ‘vlinder i compared in Figure 225 withthe exact solution given by Bauston {o approach the exact solution rap In Chapter The ths numerical ‘method wl be extended to include dntnbuted vores in atom to sree Ththis way the Hf of an atbiuary aol cam be redcad summary This chopter has inwoduced some fundamental concepts in Auld mechanics that wil be expanded on and applied to exlaining the nerd ‘ume bchavior of aiplanecompotents x succeeding chapter. Poenital Row iethods wil be used ektessivey with sorection even for Reyrots and Mach sumer, PROBLEMS 2.1 Prove that she reauant static force on the face of dam ast a he enti of the dam's ten 22 Show that the incompresible Bernoulli's eguaton (Equation 225) becomes p rpgh + oV'= constat for hauls the weight of which sieicant in comparison tthe stati pressure fxces (hth Jeph of the sttamine eave ton arhtary hoviznilvetevenee plane) 23. Apt ly making a instrement approach into the University Park Airport, Sue College, PensyWvania for which the Geld slevation i listed 78m (13414) above sea Tevet The seu level Borometic rssure is 763.3 mm Hg (30.05(n, Hb the pt inorectly sos the Bllimetr to 7582 eum He (2.85. He)- Wil te pilot be fying too Bigh 00 low and by how much? [Note Standard sea level presse eal {0 760m Hp 29 92m Hg) 24 Set fo standard sen level ptersre, an akimeter ead, 2500 m (82000, ‘The outs aie temperate (OAT) teas “15°C (SP). What i the reso alte? What ithe density atede? 23. By interatng the pressure over «bodys surface, prove thatthe buoyant force onthe body whes lnmersed ins Has ee tothe produc of the volume of te spaced Iu be atid moss denny, and he revewouces 50 216 The hypothetical wake downstream of wo-dinemionl shape is pc {ed below. Ts wae far cous away from he toys at th Stee peur trong the wae vai coninst neal he freesream sats pevere Cate the dy oct ofthe shape ised ont projected frontal re Se | 27. An ocompressible Now has velocity components given by = oy and Pe Le where wis a constant Ir euch a ow phiiealy poset? Cana ‘ebcity potential be defined? How i ented tothe verte)? Sketch 24 Derive Beroul's equation dicey by applying the momentum theorem tora diferent control surtace formed by the walls of 3 small steam {abe ant closely spaced paral! lanes pependesr tothe veloc 29 A et of arent fom a tank ving an aolle pressure of 152.000 Pa, (22a) Me tank at andar sen level (SSL) temperature. Caetate the et velocity if i cxpandsientrpically to SSL pees 2.40 Aight sreraftingictes antrpeed 246K (16S 2eph) at 9 Presa altitude of 2400 (876A). H the susie at temperature Is 2.31 Prove thatthe velocity induced athe ceater ofa ring vortex ike woke ring of stengh and rads Ris normal the plane of the ag and has 2 tmegitde of TR, 7 1 Thiscan be done by dividing line vortex ito Bete, small sighing ements. Ataried location he veloctiesnduced by ae he ements ‘a then be added vectorial to ie he toa resultant velocity. Check {Your progam by using so solve Problem 211 REFERENCES 2 Sereter, Vist Land Wylie, E.Besi Fl Mechanic, th eon 22 Roberson John A and Crowe, Clayton, Engineering Pid Mechanic, ovghon Miia Boston 197.23 Minzner, RA, Champion, K. SW. ind Pond, H. Ly “The ARDC Model Atmouphere,” AF CRC-TR:S9-267, 1959, 24 Smith, AMO. “Incompresible Flow About Bodies of Arbitrary Shape" TAS Paper No. (2-13, presested a the IAS Nation “Meeting Los Angles, June 198, THREE THE GENERATION OF LIFT sormal lo the auplate's velocity vector. Most te its dzectedvertelly ward. and cistsine the weigh of she simple. There ae exceptions owever A etter with» threst-toaveiht rat close to wat in seep ‘mb may be generating very tle Lt wih is weight Being opposed mainly bythe engine thrust. “The component that i the major lift producer om am slept and on which ths chapter ll concentrate isthe wing. Depending on the plane's rome, ker components can conte to or igniandy act the i ‘Sending "the fuselage, engine aacelles, nd horzots tal These le components wil be considered, butt a Tescr extent than the witg wine GeomeTaY ‘The top views or plaform, ofa wing is shown in Figure 3.1 "The lena, », trom ob wing tp tothe fhe dened asthe wingspan. Tbe chor, at some speswive sation, isthe distance fom the wing's leading edge to its Tring edge messired parle to the plane of smmety im which the stntriae chord, yet The chord generally ¥aies with yo that fOr ‘Purposes of chricerizng wing esomcty, mean chord, él defined a the alte that, when multiple bythe span, results inthe planform are. 2 ab ed an ‘The aspect ratio of a wing, A. is 2 measure of how long the spans with ae on For etn plnorm whee he horde ont, hee ast oo2 rmeaenenanow or urr gure 24. Top vaw ot «wing (lator) [As shown in Figue 3.1, wing plantorn may be tapered and swept back “The taper rato, dened we the aio ofthe ip chor, cyto the miepes horde 6 ‘The sncp an fogerty mass reatve to the uated lin ae i,t yn ney tes fst soo te fiance fromthe kao eget he ang ee om oes eo tenured reve tothe kag ce ay te contr porto fing ied by the seas In sah sa inne the wis pet aon pst ae strinc ynrog ite free snd exposing te pura ste tote emer. Te Ii herd in th anaes somewhat ete, The wie Fat Seconda the ing scion att jae of te win ua flrs ‘Germinal in he ert, oe il fit sing ey eared ‘Sm of he vg ot cor seo he wn ch ‘proximity tes 510 Po sw ding ge meal. On the utr oer ora othe won he alte a8 one si oh at ‘hes opt that on he Wh Teae apo mvng sine nt Sales stromans proves lag mont swt he nln’ ae odin as For exam wen te eo ote et wing eves do {nt on one gt nner ap, osoment noted aes i left wing and lower the ght one: thi Isa maneuver necessary in making & ‘Coordinated tary to the right "The toe movable portions ofthe wing's walling edge on Rot sides of the wing ae known asthe ap: For akeof and lasing the fps ate lowered the same on both ses. There Is no diferental movement ofthe aps onthe Iefcand right ses of the wing. The prpose ofthe Raps st allow the Wing to develop a bigher it coeficient than h would otherwise. Thus, for «piven teiat, te plan can fy slower with the Maps dowe than with them op. Flap, inclaing leading edge Maps and the many diferent types of ling toe aps, ithe dvcused ia more deta ate. or sume applications both trons are lowered to serve 38a extension to the Maps In such a cate they are refered to at crooped aletons, or Alagerons. When Maperons are employed, addons rll contol i usually Droided by spoerr These are panels that project into the How eat the {Eling edge to cau separation with an attendant loss of it Thode: to understand ad prod the nerodynaric behavior of wing i is expedlent to consider fst the betstoe of twordimensiondl seis. AN tla can be thought of ax» coestant chav wing of ifite aspect rato ararous ‘A considerable amount of experimental and salsa effort has been devoted tothe development of airfoils Moc of this work was done by the National Advisory Commie for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor of {he National Aeronsiie nd Space Adminteation (NASA), Reference 3.1 ‘a excllent summary of this effort par to 194%, More recently NASA and ‘thers hve shown s renewed intrest in if evelopment partially for Splieaion to elicopter rotor blades, general aviation aera, and aera operating transom see of Mach 707 highe. “The development of + unlaped afl shape is ustrated in Figure 3.2. ‘Fest, Figure 320 the chord tne, is rave. Next in Figure 3.2, the Camber line is plated ap from the chord & small distance ®, which i fonction ofthe distance fom the leading edge. Next, a shown is Fre 320, the semihickaess i added fo ether side ofthe camber in. Alt, the 036 tirle centered on a tangent tothe camber line atthe leading ele and passes through the lesding edge. Pnally, an over coaour aed around the $eteton to form the atoll shape. Observe thatthe chord ine i the Line Joining the ends of the mean camber line “The ealy NACA fame of sirfis were described ia this way, with the camber and’ thicknese Uhtributioar given algebras functions of the ‘Shordwite positon, However, for certain combinations of suximur thick- ‘eso-to-chord rato, maximum camber ‘o-hord ratios, and chordie DosFigure 3.2. ‘The constieton of aes contour tion of mavimum camber, tabulated ordinates for the upper and lower surfaces are avalabe (Ret 3.0. Before discusing the various families of sinfils in detail, we wil enerally conser the serodjname characteristics Tor soi ll of wich fn be influenced by ail geomet) To begin aid derives ie from the presse being higher onthe lower surface ofthe fo than onthe upper surface Its subscript! denotes Tower surface and“ deotes upper surface, then the ttl It (per it Spas) on the sro wl be tefle-me eS "he ea eg, ea nen ov [poe as 1m accord with Equation 2.12, the lita moment con be express terms of dimensiones coefcens o- TRE co Anrous as CoS 6 Note that lowercase subscripts are used to denote coeficients for a two-dimensional afi, whereas uppercase subscrips are used forthe te B= py hae = PEP, Pa hay dinv™ and redening x athe distance in chord esas from the leading ee, uations 1S and 36 become a= fe-ore 0 oo es ‘The moment calculated from Equation 310 cam be visuals being produced by the sulla lft acting a a particular distance back fom the Eadig edge, ration of the chord, te distance to is pin, known asthe centr of prema, can be caleted fom oC ein Kowing fe the moment coolsient about any other point, long the Sirol can be writen, refering to Figae 3.3, a8 = -Gy-G on1 will be shown lotr thet @ point exsts on an alll called the crodyeumic center abot wich the moment soefiint constant ahd does tot depend on C, Denoting the locaton of the aerodynamic center ya uation 5.12 ea be selved for the location of the enter of pres Cu “ ge oy Do not confuse the aerodynamic cemer with the center of pressire ‘ain he serodynamic center i the Ication at which the moment onstant, the center of pressure is dhe point at which the estan if acs. “The proresive development of sro! shape tilted by Provmsely inthis manner. Consdee Gre the simple shape of ton, Aa piste Beginning with Figure 34a ifthe ange of attack of a thin tpt i sudden increased from zero, the few wll appear for moment i shown ocase of eearsymmet), thee is practly no lit produced on the ple However, because of viscosity, the Row atthe Waliag edge cannot continue {to turn the sharp edge to Row upsucam. Instead, it quickly adj 0 th pattern shown in Figure 346. Here the Bow leives nary fngent 19 the Ualling edge This condition is known ax the Kutta condition aftr the ‘German scl, W-M. KUta, who ia 1902 fst posed the traling ee condition inorder to predict the lift of an fol theorteal. In Figure 34> ‘bierve iat there is one streamline that vides the Bow tat pases ver the Pate fom tat below. Along this “dividing streling,” the Bow comes 'o Fest tthe stagnation pol, where it join perpendiussto te lower surface {oF the pate ner the leading ce. Aa the Row puopeses forward one this Tne t's unable to sdhere tothe slice around the sharp leading edge 3d separates from the plate. However i is turned backward hy the mln Row ‘hd reataches tothe upper surface shor ditunce ft the Tenge ‘The resulting nonsymmetnia! flow pater causes the uid particles to ae cslerate over the uppet surface and decelerate over the lower surtice. Hence, ‘om Bernoull's equation, there a destese iat pressor above the ale nd am increase Below it This presse ference acting on the tol Produces ait the angle of attack of the plate i 00 grt, the separated flow at the eating edge will at reattach tothe uper surface, a show in Figure ‘When hn occurs, the large sepiated repon of unarered flow on the ope surface produces an increase in pressure that surface and hence 4 tome t it This behavior ofthe aol known a tal. Th the lm in Cy hat, G8 the ren of flow separation onthe upper wrtace of he sce “To improve this condo, une can cusve the lating edge portion ofthe fat plate as shown In igure 8.4 be mare nearly alized wth the Am ih arrows 67 gare 24 progressive development of sol shay. a) Ft pt a sun ‘Sigler tack notte 2) Fatpam at angleaf stack instant ow and generating Inv (e)Ptpite experiencing acing ocge seperation andes o ita, (d) Fat fine coved acing wag oprevetiardng sage separation () Aoi wth Iikoaee and camber to doy sta (h Ail wih tring ecg seperation[Rgure 34 (Cominues) that regio. Sush a shape simi otha sed by the Wright Rrotbers. This Solution to the separton problem, stone mish expect fe sensitive to angi haltack and ony olde neat a parteular design angle. However, by adding Itickrese (othe this, eambered plate and providing rounded leading edge, the peroumance of the stl iv improved over temge of angles, wih the leading ede separtion being avoided shogether. Thus in» quale sense, ‘rehave defined atypical nfl shope, Camber and thicknest Ze ot weeded {o proce it ft en be produced with «Mt plte) but, stead, 0 incre the masinam ME tht piven wing area can delve. Evens camberd ii of rite thickness Bs its aions, shown io Figute 347 A the angle of atack is lacreasey the Mow ea separate aly ca the ting edge, ith he separation pot progressively moving forward the angle of stack contaues fo fncease. The degree to which the Row separates fom the leading or tain edge opens on the Reynolds number sed the aro! prometry. Ticker sods ‘Mth more roumied leading edges tnd to Gly leading ee sparstion. Ths “eration sv improves with nceasing values ofthe ReYaelds umber. eng sige separation reste ow separation over the ene ail sand sudden Ines tn Ht On the oer hand, taiing edge eparstion i Dropressive with angle of atack and results 3 more grata stalling. The Stontion sted Figures 3.8 aad 6 (aken fom Rel 3.1). In Fire 3.5 fete the sharp diop ia Cal ata of IF for R=3% 10, whereas for ‘R91, the fe curve is more rounded, with a gradual decease in beyond ana of [4 In Figure 4, fora thicker aefe ith the same camber the it ingreases up 1 an angle of approximately 16 for all ales tested [At the Higher ange, even for R991, Ic appears that leading eee Separation occurs because of the sharp drop in G for @ values pester thin 16 From fying qaites standpoint, an fl witha wellvoundod lift curve {8 dviale inorder to avoid ten loss inl spot slows down the Seplane However thr factors such a ag sad Mach aber acs mus iso be considered in selecting an aso. Hence, os i tru with most desir decaions the serodsmamicit chooses an sifol that represents the Bet Sompromise to coficing requirements, including nonsrodyaasie 2m Serato: such a structural efcincy Finwres 3.5 and 36 illustrate other characteristics of afi behavior that wil be considered ls more deta ater. Ooserve tha the GE curve, Ci vests “is nearly tinar over a rage of angles of atack. Notice alo thi the slope, Cia ofthe lit curve over the Incas portion unchangod by deflecting he Split ep. The elect of lowering the fap or, petecally of ierensing amber 1Wincrense € by a constant imetemest for each ai thee ange Ths he Stale of atack for Ze Hl, ons nexaiv forwcambered sro Inthe case tbe 40 airfoil pctred in Figure 35, nq equals 12-5. with he spi Rap Aeteste 6‘gure 35 Characterae ofthe NACA 1408 ao PEGE EE EE tea72 REGENERATION OF LET It w is increased beyond the stall C, wil again besa to incense before roping of o zero at am a of approximately 9” The second peak in Ci ‘generally not as high a that which occurs just before the sod stale SP. Tandy, in ht early experiment, noted these two peaks inthe C: vets carve bit chose to fais smooth curve tough them. Later, the Waght Brothers served the same characteristics and were troubled by Lange's stpoth curve. Afr searching Langley’ orginal dats and nding that be, hd 2 "bump" it the data, Wilbur Wright wrote fo Ost, Chanute on December 1,101 “ifhe (Langley had followed hic obserations, line wouldprobaby have been earerthetrate (have myself sometimes fund tifa te tenet 0m ‘hee they il ita of unning them where | think they ough 1 £0. MY oncom i that ti safest folow the obseraion exactly and there do tha owm cometing i they wish” (Ref 1D “To parphrase the immoral Wr Wright, "Do not ue” your dati may be ceht” ‘AIneoM. FAMILIES NACA Four-Digt Senos Around 1912, NACA tested & sels of aieod shapes known a6 the four sections. The camer ap thickness distin for these sections are pre By equations o be found ie Reference 3. These distibutons were ‘ot elected on any theoretical bass, bat mere formated to eppronimate ‘Mlclnt wing sections in use a that ie, such as the wellknown Clark “The four-digit afl! geometry i dened, a the aateiapis, by four iis: thet ves the manimu Camber in percent of cord the second the locaton of the maximum camber in teaths Of chord, and the Tat wo the ‘Maximum thickness in percent of chord. For example, the 242 nfl {2m tik aif having’ 26 camber located 4c from the eaing edge, The 2412 aol is pictured in Figure 47 along with other ifs yet to Be [NACA Five-Digt Seles ‘The NACA fvedigt series developed around 1938 nes the same thick ‘ess datibution asthe four-digit series. The mean cember line fs defied Aiermly, however. In der to move the postion of maximum camber nro ramues 73 oo ‘igure 87. Comparison of vsous ato! shape. forward in a efoto ines CI, for comparable hikes ae Cambers, the Cue votes forthe weigh erie ze 0.1 to 02 bagher than ‘ore fr the (oui seo. The numbering system forthe veg sres isto ax stratgtforward a forte (ourcig sence The Sst i aiid ‘by 32 aves the desig Bt conthieat ofthe aod. The next two agi are twice the postion of maninum camber in percent of chard. The Ist two {gis ve the porvent hickoes For example the 207 io ea 12% thick ol having 2 desgn C of 0.3 and a mximom camber Toaled 15% af ‘ick tom the ening edge Tas aol ao pltered in Pgs 32NACA 1-Sertes (Series 16) “The NACA tris of wing sections developed around 1939 was the st series hated on theoretical considerations. The most commonly seed sts Eto tove the minimus pressure located at the Oe post andar referred to as sertele aro, The camber ine for these aiols is designed (0 prodices walfoum chordwise pressure diference across it Toth tun afl Theory to follow, tis corresponds & constant chordie dibton of ‘Operated at its design C, the seis-6 ato produces it it while avon low-pressure peas crrespoading 19 ceaes af high focal velo. Thus the sod hasbeen applied extensively to both marine and scratt propellers Inthe former appiation, lw presure repos ave undesirable From the stindpoit of caviation (be formation of vaporous cavities it 4 flowing hud). Inte later, he use of sere folk delays the onset of Aeleterioos effets resaltng fom shock waves Heng formed local a reson of high velocities Series abou are also identifed by five digits as, for example, the NACA 16212 section, The first gt desioutes the series: the second di, designates the ocation of the mioinum pressure in tenths of chor. Following the dath the fst nber gives the design Cia tena. AS forthe other tifa, the lat two digts esigate the maxinum thickoess ia percoat of ‘hor The 16-212 srl is shown n igure 87 ‘The Gseiesalfs were designed w achieve deseaie drag, com resibiity, and C_, performance. These requests. are somewhat, Sontag abd it appears that the motivation for these airfois was primary the achievement of low drag. The chordwive pres diabutionreslng ‘om the combination of tyckness and camber soni to taining extensive lminar ow over the leading portion of the alot over a limted ‘ange of G vals. Outside of this range, Cy and C,, vals arent foo much ‘erent fom other uf, The mean lines sed withthe eres ssf have & uniform ouding buck toa distance of de ~2. AfUof thi lation the lad decrees inca The a1 meen line coresponde to the uniform loading fr the seis 6 seta "There are many perturbations onthe numbering system forthe series sino. The later seis Mente for examples $2228.53 44 CT RS 3 ‘awe 28 horodyanie character76 re Genenanon or ur re 6 denotes the series: the mera Sis the Tocation of the minum pressure i tons of chord forthe base thickness dsiuton, ad the obsrpt | indicates that ow drags maintained tC values of 0.4 above and {Below the design Go the 2 denoted bythe following the dash. Ags the hast two digits specty the percentage thckoct. Mf the faction ub ot speed ss understood egal unity. The 65-212 itl shown in Fue Lift and drag curves forthe 6-212 ali are presented in Figure 38 [Notice the unusual shape of; vets Cy whee the deg vsifcanty ower between C,vales of approximately 0003. la this spin, for very smooth Surfaces and for Reynolds umber es than 9 1, extensve amine fw i ‘aintined over the surface ofthe fo with a stlenentderease i he shin {ction dag. This resin, for obvions reasons, known athe “arg Docket In practice this laminar ow, and resulting low drag dificlt t achieve ‘beatse of contamination by bugs of by stactarlytranemited iain at errs the lamina Boundary aver, ssusing tanston, Chapter Feu wll {Ssouss the dag of thse sols in more deta MODERN AIRFOIL DEVELOPMENTS Systematic series of sitfois have given way, st las i prt 10 speck alized ‘ifs designed to satisfy particular equiements. Thre sf ae Sythesized withthe use of sophisticated computer programs such as the one Aesribed in Reference 3 which wil be dicted ia more deta inter, One Sch spec purpose alls the welled supercritical rol reported on i References 36 and 37. This slrfloa bat a welvounded lad edge an i ‘oatively fat ontop with a dooped taliog edge. Fr a constant thickness of 129% wind tine! stulles neste possible inreate of approximately 19% 2 the tragivergence Mich number for a seperti aif as compared fo 2 ‘more conventoral Series sito nation, the well-tvunde onding ge provides an improvement tC. at Tow speeds over the Gace, which Bas Sharer lading edges ‘A quatatve explanation forthe superior performance of the super- rte! siti s Tour by reference to Figure 39. At feestieun Mach ‘umber a low a 07 oS depending onthe shape aad Cyn comeationa ‘rol wll aceerate te ow to velocities that ae locally sersone over the forward or midale portion of upper stitce: The flow thea decelerate ‘apiy trough relatively strang shock wave to subsonic Conditions, Tis compression wave, with is seep posiive presure paint, canes the ‘boundary layer to ihcken and. depending om the strength the shock to Separate. This in turn, cases a siguileaa iorease inthe dag. The mii ‘ave of the fresteam Mach sumer for which the lcal ow becomes emo gure 38. Supetetica tow phenomena supersonic is seferted 10 asthe cridcal Mach suber, AS this value Sstsedel bys few hinder te shock nave septbeny sia (0 ltt te dg to reside The feeseam Mach umber i koe 3 the dagtverence Mach sumer, “Te supertalk accelerates the fow to local supersonic condins Mt eeten Mach nos Compii (9 Ge eo nen Stout Howevet the sopetrical ef ie sheped so tht round ts design [ift coefiicient, the low Gecelertes to subsonle conditions Trough i {tha a nek comperon waves ited fone soa Int Wa) {he dig veacace Mach nanos incsse sbsanty.eres emantnewor ust Although the possiblity of such airfoils was known fo some time, thst saccesstl development in moder tines is atibated to RT. Whiteonh, A ‘Whicombiype supererleal sro ix pictured i Figure 37 "Tested at low speeds, the supetctiel airfoils were found t9 have good Gq, ales s wellas bw C, value st moderate it coeffcens, Av etl, nsiher family of sires evoWved from the superset stole, but for lowspoed applications. These are the "eneralsvition” folly, designated (GA(W for general aviation (Waiteomb). The GACW)- aif the lat the Brae eae a ae ‘igus 2100. Conation sre 9s Figur 3.108 ‘igre 3.30 GA sto section characters or 0.20 slated sett MAD (etic 85-92, ”| Sees ee | gure 211 Comparison of secon enaracaristcs of NASA GA sto and NACA SSr41s andes, tit aifols 020; A010" la varlonel Cand wn) Veston ot Cs with isos pitored im Figure 3.7. Tet results fr this airfoil ate seported Reterence 38, where ts C., wales are shown tobe sbout 30% higher than those forthe older NACA Eseries aio. In addition, above C2 values of round 0. ts drag is lover than the ede aminae fo series with tandaed roughness, These data afe presented in Figure 3.10 forthe GAWH aio Comparisons of Cy aod C, for this sito with similar cethents for other sires are presented in Figen 311 and 3.12. ‘Observe thatthe performance of the GACWP1 soi is very Reyooids suaber dependent, particularly C_.. which increas rapidly with Reyools ‘umber (rom 2 to min, At the time ofthis writing the GACW) ail i teginning to be eaployed vn production urcaft The same tre of the Supercritical aif Indeed, the supercitcal so Beng wxed on bath te ‘Bosing YC-I4and MeDonnel-Dougas YC-18 prototypes curently tena tsted forthe advanced medium STOL transport AMST) competition Atte tie of {is writing, NASA is adopting new neatenclatre forthe GAIW) lol They ‘il be designated by LS dow speed) or MS (medium speed) followed by four ‘hats. Forexample, the GACW)-srfolbecomes LSU)-0477-The Desipates ‘anil. The 0 refers tos design it coeteient of 4 and 17 the any owe 212 Conon ef mxinon Ica of he CMW i wit42 rn oenenarow OF LT Laichness in percent of choc Fr more information on modern roils conslt Reference 336 [PREDICTION OF AIRFOIL BEHAVIOR In Chapter Tao it was noted thatthe concepts ofa point vortex and a oat source sould be extended to conlinsoes dition af the element) ow foneios. ln tht chapter a ditbuton of soucer i a uniform flow was found to produce 4 nonkfng body of fale thickness. tn the case of the ‘Srl cylinder the addon of» vorlex aso produced Be ‘Comparable tthe continous distribution of rureespctred ia Figure ‘2am, conider 4 snilrdistbotion of vortices x kstrated in gure 313 Sch a distibtion i refered to au vortex shoe I the strength pe uni length of the sect, y x Hl be the toll stength ealosed by the dashed Contour shown inthe figure. Te cota taen toi ort above aed Below ‘he sheet. i sufcintly small so that the velocity tangent tothe sect. {un be ateumed tobe constant, Besa of the symmetry to the Now proved by anyone segment ofthe sect, the angen velocity just below the sheet Jt equal in magnitude but opposite ia dcton to tat just above the sheet From Feuaton 258, relating citculation tothe tenth of a vortex, it follows tise yan 2ede or [Note the similarity ofthis relationship o that expressed by Eqution 282 However ithe cise of Equstion 314, the velocity i langet to the Wore ‘Sheet wheres, for Equation 23 the velo nonmal tate ine on CH ‘he sources {Consider now the thin afi pictured in Figuee 3.14 If the aif producing a tthe pressure on the lower surface grate than that on the Spper. Hence, from Bemoulis equation, the velocity onthe upper sce i freer than the velocity on the lower surface, Legg ts alrence it Sea mint ‘Powe 319. itibuted vortices in «two-dimensional ow (rex shen. ‘igure 2.14 “The velocy dernoe scree 8 ig thine. vweocity across the afi! equal 2s, the oper and lower velocities cam be VinVoe “Ths the ow eld around the aro is the same that which wold be oduct by place unm iw of sy Vaart het of it tte cotton ote it of» dierent! gh of he iro wil be a=@-p)dr (r sing Bernoul's atin, his Becomes, a= pVQ0)de Sine 2 she unit vortex stength the Kuta-Joukowski aw (Equation 2.81) is fond to hold forthe suo element. a= ovyae ot nating Eaton 318 ovr ete cor. (er eas hee ie acca cond the a given by ro[frae cus In order to predict the lift and moment om the stoi one est find the houdige dsb of (8) tat wil produc #rean Row evezywhete “agent to the mean camber ine (hi if pronation) a ton, the Kutta condition is applied atthe taling edge to assore that che flow leases ‘he tang edge tangent t6 the mean camber linet Ut pola. This 1s =4 mecenensnow oF LT ecesary condition otherwise, the resulting fw wil appear similar to Figure STha withthe Ht being equal 220 An analytical alton to the thin sii wil be obtained ater ba, et et ts considers numeric! sprosch to pricing the ft and momeat of a ‘into. "Se sero approximation tothe dstibued vorticity along the id, the isuibuion wil be replaced by only one vortex of umknowe strength, However, F willbe placed at» particule poit on the afl atthe qurter= hondpoit. The boundary Condon and the Kutta condition wil bests Stony one poi. te three-quarterchord point. Tis approximation, known {Ss Websinger' approximation, js illutated ia Fire 3.13 for ft pate The vlosity induced at 3 by placed ate will bo Assuming tobe «sal ge it follows that nave om Peacva ow From the Kutt-foukowskielationship, L = VP, so that LepreVa ow Expessog tin terms ofthe Ht cofclest and using Equition 3.19 eas to G=2ea a2 where ai be angle of aac in radians. “The expression agrees Keatealy with the theoreti! solution of this problem that fellows. Nodes that the resi predicte te slope ofthe icv, Cida, to be Bead. Experimentally this Agar is ustally found to be ‘gure 3.18. Wsisnge's acerximation 02th to, Preoicnaw oF Kno RENAN 85 somewhat less. Figures 35 and 36, for example, show a value of around btasaea on €or ‘The approximation of Figure 3.15 can be anprovedon by dividing the sift chon into a-gumber of equal segments and pacing 4 voter of Unknown strength atthe quarter-chord pont ofeach seyment. The unkown ‘engine ce determined by aruring thatthe wormal velocity vanishes tthe ‘hreeauarerchord point ofeach segment With the last contol plat down Stream ofthe st ore sigalati, the Kata Goaditon fs assured, To iltate this nomencal soliton ofthe tia aii, conser Fleure 2116, Hera cieular ae sil having unit chord length with» maximum ‘amber rato of 7k operating at an angle of ala a Wits assumed that sa 62) the rads of cuvatre, Rf the fll wil be related oz approximately by ‘Tre slope ofthe camber line relative to the chord ne the angle ia Fire 3.16 at any distance x canbe determined from the acometry of the fie be d-tne ean ered Pure 2.18 srcule ae stot approximates by to voresThe component of V normal w the mean camber line and directed ‘upward i thas vea-#) Te fotlows that at contol points f and 2 located at values of 38 and 7, fespectney, the two voruces tmiaing the aif! must endace vlocis Sowvard given by Via-2) st 1 eau) Mie r3e) at 2 a2) The problem scaled by Equation 3.2199 thatthe vores, and, se tker 10 i onthe chord line. Thus, according to Equation 256 the Iota ‘eoetes induced at the two conl points by the to Vries wil be se han-t th © (24a) {Gyean) a2 am Boating Equations 3.23 and 324 results in Bien) 0.250) ay, (ose) e2%) ‘plying the KurttJoukowski lw to each vortex results aot only in predicted lta ft But avo im 5 moment. In coefrent fom the It snd Ioment (about the leading edge) become G=2nt0-2) om) cua e278) a2) “The moment coefciet about the leading edge canbe tannered 10 the uarterchord point by ang 1 ote Coe 2 on This simple, two-point model rests ia several importa observations aren aresnent with mare exact ston. Pst aoe tat Eaton 3260 Show the Lit coeffceat to be Hoear combinaion of and Ths, re ned te ae ie Spe Ti ie eal erate ape ao denen aonb om ph Ee ea plpetinee rs esas ite asa at et Misael eine foae Sparnse co sieht cate ite ces elie he son sag oe ks ae pure 3:17 comparison of manera! clcuation of chords it dtibuton ‘ith Soria prasicvon fore Rapa sion 10 ange of tack.Figure 2.10. Comparson of numaricleleultion of cherdwa Ht distibuton ‘nth ararcal prdcton fora 4 camber, ceva itl ‘The mumeies! model predit the Hit in exact agreement with more precise analytical models. However, the momeal cotton, sven by Equa {Sop 4271 only thre quarters ofthat obtained by analytical means. Fiebre 39 shows that the eaact value fe spprauched mpi}, however a te umber of seemens increases, As insted By Figbe 39, the exact vale ofthe moment coeficient out the nrodyoamie eter (8 forthe ee fairl even by on 2) ‘Using Equation 318, be ication of the centr of pressure ca be found mend om ents, / ‘owe 319. Numerical edcustion of moment coeicet compere wih analy COterve that as G desrenses, the center of pressure moves af, ap rosshing infty aC goes torre. This movemeat of the center of pressure ppocte to what wat believed wo be te bythe early pioneers n aviation “The Wah Brothers were probly the fit fo recognize the te nature of the cemerof povsure movement 4 rest of thelr meticulous wind tunnel "analytical solutions to the thin aol cin be found in several texts Ref. 32 and 33). Hee, the aio replaced bya continuous dstibution of ‘orices instead of discrete point vortices, ss wsed With the numerical sl Retering to Figure 3.20, without any loss of generality the aro ‘aken io have a uit chord ing long the Xans with the orig a the ending Tae ee eeeyeere— i‘ge, The shape of the camber tne given by 2) a it i assumed that rst ‘With his assumption the problem is incre ad made taste by reloe- {ng the aol with «vortex sheet of unit tenet) Ine song the chord Une instead of alone the camber le. [Atte pint xy the downward velocity induesd by a elemental vortex of strength (3) ds ocaed t's scoring to Equation 2S, wil be given by 00 wogn fae aan In order to sat the boundary sonstion that the flow be tangent everywhere to the mean camber linc. it fllows tht, 1o' small ange Spproxination. “ya (#2). am Ths, heh ands the flowing neal eatin must be Sled foe yo " av 2E-<-(), os In addon, (2) must vanish tthe tailing ede in rds to stint the ‘ta condition. Oterwis, the induced veloty wl be infest owe stream of thin pone gation 3.3 solved by fest transforming to pol csoeinates, ening safa-cooo) 639 Eaton 3.29 tecomes wo ween =-() e39 nthe bass of the more soptiticaed method of conformal mapping (a see Ref. 3, Is koown that (0) 6 senealy singular atthe ead ‘ge approaching infty as Vax Thus we wil assume pir that Eauaton 3:38 canbe satisfied by 3 (8) dstibution of the form yn av [atssatle $4 sinnt] 039 Using the relationshis Homer no-cost] si ann 2 + _cosnede sian, . Laettan Se om equation 338 becomes Mutipying both sides ofthe preceding eqution by €0¢ 0 (=O, 1, 25-0 tec) ad integrating (rom Ot 7 ead 0380) 0.3%) Thus, knowing the ape of the mean camber line the cetcens As, As, ‘Az -can be determined either a lose form or by graphical or numerical teats (ee Ref, 3.1. Having these coeicints, Cand Cy can then Be easy ‘etermined from the Kutt-lotkowsk elatonshi. Theft and moment shot the lading edge ae given by b= ['nveoes =f ovorxts From these and using Eaustio 3.6, carr $(ar a4) om 1 flows that Cy aout the auarerchord pont independent of, 0th {hs ot te serodymamis Seats, with he momen efi Being EN Cun AAD ean, Since « is contained only in the Ay coeficcat, it can be concluded immediately without considering the atl form of #3) tat Gs ven by 2192 _Tme Gevenariow oF FT tear combination of «and function of 2, Tas, camber changes cam be tnpeced to affect the angle of zo Iift but not the lope af heft curve Relerenee to af dar, such a tat presented in Figures 3S ad 4 wil show that the predictions of thin arf theory are esventally corset ‘There a range of angles of tack over which the hf coefilent varies Teast with ce The slope of this it curve is bwaly not as high the theory predict, Beng appeomctaly 4 1B leat than the theoretical vue, FOr Iuny purposes am ssumed Valco 0.1 Cg is salient accurate ands Seta! number to remembe. Experimental data also stow the aerodynamic feznter to be close to the quater

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