) Wang cred Salonen Binlered Concrele Dosen. Retaining Walls inge. A counterfort the counterfort is hidden tress is exposed and may be tior izontal is designed as a beam fixed at the bottom and simply supported or pi210 Retaining Walls soil mechanics, Only a brief summary will be provided in may be expressed p= Cwh aay Weight of the soil and C= a coefficient which depends properties ofthe soll. It is the factor C which causes lar soil to perhaps 1.0 for wet clay. ‘The designer of a retaining wall must be thoroughly aware of the ings are constructed near the top of ‘against such a wall is increased: ing, the weight of the eight (surcharge) of bac or railroad passing over the terial dynamic reaction which cannot accurately be converted into a static effect, —e—————— Retaining Wells However, the AAS! road retaining ree corresponding to 4 number of sideration is soils. Although fexett, under ordi solution to the probles the active pressure 3 ‘wedge of earth to slide W of the wedge of eat and R, The failure plan te oes requ ofthe wal masa a failure (2) Sing wedge 34. Covlom theory highway bridge specifica specification (4) prescribe an €q additional feet of backtil jons require a wedge havi (©) Presse dagram 1 active presi a pressure surface (48 surface (CB of Fig.22 Retaining Walls In uetual fact the failure surface e pressure the assum sin? (@ = 9) wintosin@ + pli + 4/ EDs — DY esol Serna where # = angle of the pressure surface measured counterclockwise from = angle of ion of the soil; 8 = ang! long the pressure su to be that between so and concrete); 8 = angle of retained material with the horizont any (113.2) and C, may be referred to as the coefficient of active pressure. When the sal (9 = 90°) and the friction on that surtace is Eq. (11.3.1) becomes: cos 8 — eos b= ord C= cosa (BS = VO b= 3) 133) (os 8 + eos 5 — cos" 6 Furthermore, if the back sure becomes (5 = 0), the coelficient of active pres- asa) Although Coulomb did not present the concept of passive pressure, fevelop the equations for that ig, 11.3.2, acting to di (>) Pressure diagam 1 passive presue, the compressed soil in the wedge upward. The frictional forces developed fet downward opposite to those in the active pressure situation. The fquation for passive pressure on 4B of Fig. 11.3.2 is ae sin? @ + 0) ren sin(o+ Bsin (6 + sin? sin (@ - a)|1 ~ Vf Sate Manis Ue) sin (@ — 6) sin (@ 43s) of, in general, 136) be referred to as the coeflicient of passive pressure. When 1 and the passive pressure is assumed parallel to the earth ihe expression for C, becomes + Vea — cosa) an 3 Veos?5 = cox") oe 3.1 becomes 1.3.8) se. Thus, normal pk Equations (11.3.7) and (11.38) ‘A derivation of Eqs. 3.5) has been given in consider- in @ somewhat abbreviated form by Huntington (21 Theory. W. J. M. Rankine presented a theory of earth iffering somewhat from that of Coulomb. Rankine’s theory ‘compressible cohesionless soil. The active expansion of elemental applies to a pressure is brought about by consider Strips in the wedge (Fig. 11.3.3) which ate parallel to the earth surface ymogencous ‘This lateral expansion may result from a deflect the soil moving forward with the back of the w it, This lateral expansion causes shear planes to develop along AB and (Ci of Fig, 11.3.3 as well as along the diagonals within the wedge. The plane DB within jentical results I plane is assumed the soil mass. The Rankine and Coulomb theories yieh fora vertical wall when the soil pressure on the vert to be parallel to the earth surface. sat of active pressure is Eq ive pressure coeflicent is Eq. (11.3.7). For level tions are Eqs, (11.3.4) and (11.3.8). encountered on typical retaining walls do not agree24 Retoining Walls 33. Rankine theory for active pressure the assumptions of either theor servative results for the v For ‘most other cases, the Coulomb theory gives the better result, It is again emphasized that these theories apply only to cohesionless materials, such as sand and gravel. 1A. PRACTICAL TREATMENT OF SOIL PRESSURE ‘The active soil pressure can, in general, be expressed by Py = Cwh?)2 (13.2) where Caw may be thought of as the density of an equivalent Muid Properly chosen, the equivalent-fluid pressure approach may be applied to most situations. Of course, Cw is dependent upon the unit weight w ofthe retained material, the elfective angle of internal [riction @, and the slope of the backfill, As an aid for many common ns, typie: values for unit weight and effective internal friction angles are given in Table 11.4.1. Even for ice of estima ing an effective @ and computing pressures by means of the Coulomb or the Rankine theory, rather than by determining a cohesion value and applying more exact methods. TABLE 11.4.1 Onniany Vaturs tox Unit WHGIT AND INTERNAL ERICT4 be Unt Waadewiped Sonday — ony Mediu cay 1530 Sand and gravel dow permeubiiy) 235 Sand and gravel 50.40 Re ing Walls 215 The active pressure on frictionless vertical walls with level backfill is hori in direction and may be computed from the Rankine- Coulomb equation, Eq. (11.3.4). This formula is valid when the top of the wall can move outward, either by ion or by rotation of the entire structure about the toe. The required deflection may practically always be expected to occur. na more general situ |, surcharg and the back bbe used. One avolving combinations of stoping ned pressure surfa tion between the if any) is thus ion of P, and R. The magnitude of , can then be 3.1) or obtained by the force-triangle graphical Afier two or three assumptions for the position of the failure plane and the determination of ignitudes of P, a curve of be drawa and the maximum value of istance, or that pressure exerted by a compressed carth wedge om a structure pushing against it, may be computed from the as shown in Eq. Eq. (11.3.7), or Eq, (11.38) This ly more in error than is the cale Although the true passive resistance is not actu; c kine and Coulomb methods indicate, it is still several times as large as the active pressute VAS. STABILITY REQUIREMENTS Prior to determining 1 is components of a retaining s ¢ of, and the amount of reinforcement in the vari ure, the proportions must be established such that the stability of the structure (see Fig, under the action of earth forces is assured. Three requirements mu: satisfied: a) the balanced by the r against overtur nal resistance F in lable passive resistance ust provide an adequate factor of safely ing caused by Pay; and e) the base width J must be R to the foundation soil without causing against overturning may be computed by many ring to the Rankine pressure distribution of Fig, 11.5.1, this factor of salety (FS) would be computed ingmoment_ _ Wa + Pad ng moment ~ Pay(H"/3) 5.1)216 Retaining Walls Fic. 11S. Fores on etaiing wall or, perhaps more frequently, neglecting the v where W represents the weight of soil resting on the footing On the other hand, referring to the Co itis seen that the resultant force P, acts on @ ‘as shown, to the right of the toe and therefore does not tend to over 1g moment of the vertical component of the the footing. When the Rankine active pressure is neglected, the two the same overturning factor of safety. It has 4 in Ref. 2) that the position of the resultant ‘sufficient guide to the overturning safety; tation, equations such as Eq. (11.5.1) oF any. The tion of eit ais) e concrete wall and footing and of the wulomb wedge of Fig. 11.5.2, line which frequently pass theories will provide rough been concluded (see R (Figs. 11.5.1 and 11.5.2) is ough ifone desires a compu- 5.2) seem as logic Retoining Walls a7218 Retoining Wolls a sEetnsurtce | stem 152. Passive ren remains inadequal the base disturbed mate force Pyp and shift base key (Fig, Thus, the and concrete Pressure may not exceed able bearing cap. found in Chapter 18. Referring to Fig. 11.5. pression, one obtains by appl ing and axial compression to a 1 the basi strip alon _ Ry Rett/2) ree ena R= emmy = 2k in b= for0 < 3m <1 re entire Footing is 72 and eet of bse key 5.3) may be used. Friction angle @, rather than on Norm: ly, an @ > w for Ab), ais.) Retaining Wall ) ye aot fered Pay L4.ot footing | respect to the Height of Wall. ‘Since the bottom of the footing must be below the frost penetration depth, say 3 to 4 fin the northern United States, the height equals the desired dilference in elevation plus the Trost depth, ion of Stem on the Base Footing. The following demonstration using approximate statics will show that the front face of the wall should coincide with the desired position of the resultant soil pressure beneath the base, Take the most typical situation of a verti with level back- | as shown in Fig. 11.6.1. Assume an average unit weight w for all material (conerete and earth) enclosed within abcd and neglect entirely the concrete in the toe: Thus, R= W = whl rium about the heel, Satislying rotational eq pt al + wie Ral 3 77% wh? h a CES + whet = wheat ing for l/h gives220 Retoining Walls wat Neglect 1. Data for econamica propo ‘or wal The variable a must be selected by the designer, based on the type of soil und desired pressure distribution. For good grant and ac- ceplance of a triangular pressure distribution with the resultant at the rredge of the middle third, a = "s. For clay where a uniform distri- jon might be desired, a would be ' Minimizing, the //h in Eq, (116.1) such that the base width z-a (16.2) should line up ith the desired position of the soil pressure resulta Length of Base. A pretiminary val the length of base may be ‘obtained by the dircet application of static moments with respect to in Fig. 11.6.1, employing the same assumptions which unde! 6.1). By this direct process, a more exact result may be obtained since one could easily estimate the stem thickness and footing thickness as Fractions of for of h. ‘Thickness of Footing. The base thickness is usually 7 to 10% of the total height f, with a minimum of about I fl. It should be about equal to the base thickness ofthe stem, “Thickness of Stem, The thickness at the top of the wal however, cover requirements and construction problems wil thin it may be. According to ACI 202k, 8 in. is minimum, but general speaking 10- oF 12-in, minimum is preferred, ‘The base thickness 0 width or 10 to ined as required (or bending as 12 (0 16%, of the base height. The stem thickness should not be te yz 00 skimpy, since a thin wall deflects considerably at the top and savings in reinforcement will tend to offset the cost of any extra concrete used. It is recommended that a batter of Ys in./ft of height be provided on the front face to offset deflection or forward tilting of the structure J. DESIGN EXAMPLE—CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL Is required to design a cantilever ret ‘of earth 16 ft high above the fin ining wall to support a bank level of earth al the Loe of the wall, The backfil isto be le fon the fill, Assume that fan fe surcharge earth pressure effect. Data: weight of retained material = 120 pef; angle of internal friction = 35°; ‘of friction between masonry and soil = 0.40; f = 3,000 psi; pressure = 5 ksf (kips per square foot). Le sing _ 0.426 _ V4 sing © 1374 one Equivalent fluid density, Cw = 0.271(120) = 32.5 pef. Surcharge HE be22 Retaining Walls by Design constants and allowable stresses. Use fe = 1,350 psi: f= 20,000 psi; = 9. The balanced constants ate k = 0.378, = 0.874, and R= 223 ps Shear (diagonal tension), ¥. = 1AW7z = 60.3 psi Bond, top bars, tension, uw = 34Wfz/D ~ 186.5/D psi Others, tension, u = 48Vf2/D = 263/D psi ) Height of wall, Allowing 4 t for frost peneteation to the bottom of the Footing in front of the wal, the total eight becomes A= 6h + 4f = 208 4) Thickness of footing. The thickness may be estimated at this stage of design o be 7 to 10% ofthe overall height A. Assume uniform footing thickness, ¢ = 2 (about 10% of fi) ©) Base Length. Using a 1-1 length of wall and letting the unit weight of material bounded by points a,b,c, and d in Fig. 117.1 equal 120 pet, P, = 0,.260(20)(1) = 5.2kips Pz = "f(0.630)(20)(1) = 6.5 kips W = 0,120(20 + 8)x = 3.36x kips Summation of moments about point 6 gives M(x(2) = P10.) + PA6.67) 3.36x!/2 = 5.2(10.0) + 6,5(6.67) 1.682? = 95.3 x= 753M Since for this granular material the resultant soil pressure is desired to be at the outer edge of the middle third of the footing, Base length = 1.5x = 1.5(7.53) = 113 Try 113 in, £) Stem thickness. Prior to computing soil pressures and stability factors of safety, a more accurate knowledge of the concrete dimensions is, necessary. The thickness of the base of the stem is selected with due re- gard for the bending moment and shear requirements Since bending moment will normally provide the governing criterion, the general expression (x measured from the top of the wal) is 0.26082 0.03254! 2 6 At the bottom of the assumed 18 ft high stem wa Moar = 0.130(18)? + 0,00541(18)! = 42.1 + 31.6 = 73.7 Rekips For the ideal (balanced) section, 3.7(1 2,000) - [EXTEIO «15.16, “Ve 223(12) M = 0.130x7 + 0.00541" ) Retaining Walls 223 Total thickness - 18.16 4+ 2(cover) + 0.5¢esti in, Try 21 in. for the stem bas ‘minimum for the top of the w: The critical section for shear as a measure of diagonal tension is taken ata distance d from the bottom of the stem (ACI 1201a and 1701a). Assume the critical section at x = 16.5 ((d = approximately 18 in.). The general expression for shear is, V, = 0.260x + 'f:(0.0325)x? ~ 0.260% + 0.01625x? At the approximate critical section, ‘an = 0.260(16.5) + 0.01625(16,5)? = 4.29 + 4.42 = 8.71 kips ated bar radius) = 204 thickness and select 12 in, as the practical 7.2) (OK) . based on these computations. Sometimes it may be desirable to arbitrarily make it thicker than what the stresses require in order to minimize deflection, ‘Where appearance on the front face is important, a batter of that face should be provided so as to counteract the effect of deflection. ‘The usual batter is about 4 in./ft of wall height. ‘Thus, the minimum batter here is 48) = 4'4 in. In this case the thickness increases by 9 in, from the top to the bottom of the front face 5 in, and the rear face 4 in, When the w is in place, it will deflect forward and become nearly vertical; therefore, the analysis from this point will consider the front face to be vertical 8) Factor of safety against overturning, Using the dimensions given in Fig. 11.7.2, locate resultant of vertical forces with respect to the heel, asin Table TABL Wy = O10 8 + Bes) - 2028 | aas iz 020 035 Duy Seas WE OsaQKIB) 270 700 Totals 2636 : 104.07 Resultant, from heel ~ 12497 _ 3.93 4 26.56 26.56(11.25 — 3,93) = 194 f-kips P\(10) + Py(6.67) 5.2110) + 6.5(6.67) 95.3 fekips. Resisting moment Overturning moment i224 FS against overturning hh) Location of resultant and 3. Retoining Walls = 203 >20 (OK) 1g soil pressures. Referring to = 26.56 kips p= 10407 +953 _ 199.37 5p 26.36 26.56 Retaining Wells 225 e = 753-425 — 19050 s 0.36 in. outside of the middle third; howev The soil pressure diagram is ati R= ‘hb (PauMelective base length) 26.56 = Ys (PauXl1.28 ~ 7.5313) Pan = A7SKSE Retaining Wells oF 4 diction paral o them (eon D-D of s shown bY aob in Fig. 118.10 with loads 8.tc. The downward weight of sll Win ahe fe sab WV, add to an edgemoment HM, fearing pressure agaist the te. This edge moment com tributes a distributed fe Won the hel sab, asumet oe hone inFig IL8.e. Inthe diecion The coun ‘4 ountertort 089 Smeaelescion aa “(eT — + —— {c} Forces on het28 Retaining Walls tute overturning and sliding stability, as well as the maximum soil pressure, are the same as discussed in Art. 11.5, and demonstrated in Art. 11.7. The counterfort retaining wall has the advantage of uti action in the wall and heel to achieve thinner sections, but this saving is Somewhat offset by the material and labor involved in the counterforts For good economy, several trials of slab thickness versus counterfort spacing may be necessary. The ‘be made a minimum, say 10 to 12 in,, thickness and uniform over the height of the wall. The heel slab thickness may be about Yip of the overall wall height A, and the counterfort thickness may be on the order of //20. The maximum counterfort spacing may be computed on the basis of the slab and heel ‘but a preliminary estimate may be made of about 10-f1 spacing for walls in the 25 to 30 ft range to about 8 ft for walls 40 to 45 ft high. A summary of typical proportions is presented in Fig. 11.8.2 Design of the Face Slab. For the vertical bending at Fig, 1.8. sion B-B of ke a vertical strip 12 in, wide as shown in Fig. 11.8.3. A con- ical expression for the bending moment at the bottom M, My = 0.03 phHs'/h) oY jacess30 lena reese + teving Watts a flag : sepia be iN ! } » B by * el | b = SLL Si EM = O.O3pAF Is /ny) 1. 182, Veal edag nie hdof ce sb bteen counterfors, Jt oe were p = the equivalent fui pres at he bolton ofthe wal: hy =the face slab height; and s’ = the clear spacing of counterforts. This expres. 3 om sary exact for Bed gs at fh = 0.75 0 about comes about three times the theoretical values "fly = 025. The matimum ponve bending moment soared seen the lower quarter point in the range of s'/h, less than unity, and. may reasonably be taken at '4 of the value given by Eq. (11.8.1), Thus, Mz = 0.0075 ph3(s'/h) (1182) Since the vertical bending moment becomes zero at the counterforts and approximately varies parabolically between them, Huntington [2] suggests taking bending-moment constant longitudinally over the ‘middle third of the distance between counterforts and linearly varying from the maximum to zero over the end one-thirds. The vertical moment diagram may be taken linearly between the quarter points as shown in Fig. 11.8.3. Frequently, a 0.001 minimum percentage of reinforcement is provided verticaly in the front face. For horizontal bending, a [-t-high strip at section A-A of Fig, 1 7 at section A~A of Fig. 11 is treated asa continuous beam as shown in Fig. 1 Some 4. Since transverse TE Countertrt240 Retaining Wol joints occur at intervals along the wall, the moments of Fig. 11.8.4 may require adjustment, depending on the number of counterfort spans s be- ween joi mt occurs at midspan or through a counterfort, In liew of determining the exact arrangement of joints, the moments over the counterfort supports may be taken at ‘jy ws", and the midspan moments at ‘jg ws"? or even & Yio ws"? ‘The recommendat ‘of Huntington is to take the maximum w equal to one-half the maximum equivalent uid pressure at the bottom of face slab, and lake its verti trapezoidal form as shown in Fig. 11 ‘On the other hand, uses the fixed-end moments as given in 84 and, for the maximum w, uses the equivalent fluid pressure at tical section (section A-A of Fig. 11.8.1) located at « distance a = (hy ~ 8/4 from the bottom of face slab, where s is the center-to- ‘center spacing between counterforts. Vertical distribution of normal pres- sure w may be assumed to be linear from the maximum location to zero at the top and bottom of the fuce slab. It is considered that either of these approaches will give about the same net eff Regarding shear, itis suggested that the maximum shear on a hori= zontal strip be Design of the Heel Slab. The heel slab tudinal strips, with support con Thus, the same moment coefficients of ws* may be used as for the face slab, The net unit pressure acting downward on the back of the heel slab is used to determine the maximum longitudinal reinforcement for the rear The transverse variati tensity of loading w may be assumed (0 decrease linearly from a maximum at the heel to zero al back of the face slab, Referring to Fig. 11.8.5, the components cor prising the net loading w are shown. The weight of the soil plus surchary ifany, which rests on the heel slab, the weight of the heel slab itself, and. [pressure under the footing are obvious components which lever retaining wall. The effect that is perhaps. ‘moment M, ‘This moment causes the heel slab to deflect downward between counterforts; thus it acts as vertical load, Since it causes the greatest effect at the back of the heel slab and has some unknown variation to zero at the back face of the w: it has been assumed (2] to be paral 1¢ total downward force is the parabolie area, 184) ‘The centroid of the parabolic area is at 5b/8 from back face of the wall; thus the applied moment is M, = Wi{b = IhwbU hb) = “howd? 185) } CTT orth cbove he ab = coo. Footing slab weight \ ail "Piette ane 2a Face slob “6 bet sas So presse resare w wo Fla. 118.5. Loads on hee slab of eounterortetaining walls Solving for w, gives = 24M yb (ise Furthermore, when thi ‘component adds dor assumed to be of triang Transverse reinforcement should be provided in the top face of the ss al acu oat eer ae fh al nae to transmit the end moment Inthe bottom face probs neal a barsin th fo should extend the fll wih ote footny Pi aged tinforcment wil prove for te conngeny of tendon te the bens fae to ows action, Desig of CoumterfrThe cou face Haas. beam se242 Retaining Walls Han = forth \, | Ceac, oe Se FLL Le Ea eee Eee : el be | w ce a te etre tnt bcs ely to cause any difficulty ge width by at section AA .C1 906, This width m its Je at section A-A to the the top of the may be determined accord is assumed to decrease counterfort thickness Referring to Fig. 11.8.6, the internal resisting moment Mat any see tion a distance x from the top of a wall may be expressed as M = Tyid = Teos dd = Cid (18.8) Since the compression area bety is teh ompressive stress wil not control, ass usual inthe ease of ordinary T-beams. Thus, the ension reinforcement may be determined fom 4-5-2 (1189 i” Tadeo {As the moment requirement decreases, the amount of steel may be re ‘duced by bending some bars diagonally across the counterfort toward the face slab and anchoring them in the compression zone. » en case any carried by stirrups, and 7, = the portion of the shear carried by the tension steel, Furthermore, Mund T= Tuan = tang = Mua 81 ever, me CoN} id Bea Af ee ine wt “G) " ‘The nominal shear stress from Eq. (11.8.12) must be compared with the allowable values from either ACI 1201 or 1701. Any stirrups which may bbe required should be designed by the usual methods described in Chapter 4. SHLECTED REFERENCES 1. Karl Terzaghi and Ralph B. Peck, Soif Mechanics in Engineering Pracice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, lnc, 1948). 2, Whi irk Huntington, Earth Pressures and Retaining, Walls (New York: John Wiley & Sons, In., 1957). 3, Standard Specification of Highway Bridges, 8th ed, American Association of tate Highway Oficials ssi sur une application des régles des manimis et ‘quelques problémes de statique relatifs 4 Varchitecture,” Mem. acad. ry. pres divers savants, Vol 1 (Paris), 1776, 6, W.J. M, Rankine, "On the Stat ‘Soc., Vol, 147 (London), 1857 The Design of Walls, Bins, and Grain Elevators (New ‘York: Engincering News Publishing Company, 1911), Chapter 2 Fundamentals (New York: John th” Phil. Trans, Roy. 1g Stability of Retaining Walls and Standard Specifications ‘o constituent organizations, for Concrete and Reinforced Concret June 1940, American Concrete Institu 11. F.D.C. Henry, The Design and Construction of Engineering Foundations (New ¥ork: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, 1956), Chapter 6.248 Retaining Walls PROBLEMS problems assume that Fost penetration depth is ft ‘wall of the accompanying figure with ‘Cy = 0.27, the weight of retained soil = ‘coefcient of friction and earth = 040: a) De- the factor of safety provided against overturaing. Would you consider this e ihe factor of safety provided against sliding, ‘Would you consider this factor jon you sn? | 20 pots oe) SESH Tove | Prow, tL . Determine the adequacy of the retaining wall of the accompanying fo stability (overturning, rand soil pressure magnitude ig-on good granular soil with a maximum ine the adequacy of the retaining wall of the ostability Hf the backtil is level. Assume an ‘of 4000 pal, Draw a conclusion regarding what would happen if the backiill became saturated to an equivalent fluid pressure of 5 pe. fol Art. 11-7 if the surcharge Sometimes under such surcharge Is i ing elfct of the vertical surcharge is omitted. Compare the wall proportions for both con im length of base and keeping the soll pressure resu ofthe base. Verily the adequacy of the dimensions, but do not design the nforcement. Use f= 4000 psi, f, = 40,000 psi, and the working-stress method of the 1963 ACI Code, 15. Assuming that the ove Prob, 11.2 is adequate for earth stabi proportioning of the ret i) design the reinforcement for the w Retoining Walls quale th 28 Beet Equvatent five a0 a reste 35 pet zo pan 26 = sede ee eae 20-[twall height. Draw cantilever forthe w 0" to the horizontal. Use Jf) = 3,500 psi strength method ofthe 1963 ACI Code, forthe wall of rob. 11.3 ifthe 2 if the backilis ase, use three changes of reinforcement over the y diagram, Use J: = 4,000 a) the working-stress methodist en eng the pe fy = 4.00 pa and the sano 1¢ ultimate-strength method. ithe dierent 12 ) ' ( 2 248 Retenng Walls Sautceoncttan so ternoimomsol peur sll ot xed 3300 pe Compression Members— | of Prob, ns of Prob. 1 Design counter ctaning wal forthe cond ie thickness. Assume that reinforcement tudinal e to provide ity hr Ultimate-Strength Method 12.1, INTRODUCTION id rarely, if ever, ‘h may be due to end restraint arising from the monolithic placement of floor beams and columns or due to accidental eccentricity from imperfect alignment and variable mat This chapter considers first the column having minimal bending ‘moment, commonly ca loaded, and later considers the effect cof medium and large amounts of bending. All design of beam-columns, whether according to the ultimai working-stress method of the present ACI bi nate-strength behavior, mins and rength method or the ing code, is based on 122. TYPES OF coLuMNs | A column is defined by the 1963 ACI Code (Art. 301) as “an upright | compression member the length of which exceeds three times itt heat | lateral dimension.” Shorter concrete compression members may be une 1 eated as pedestal footings (A | __sonerete columns ae principally of two types, lassified according te. the Which the longitudinal bars ar supported. A tied one, usually of square, rectangular, or circular shape, in which « longitudinal reinforcing bars are held in position by separate lateral as shown in Fig. 12.2.1a, A spirally reinforced column is one, usual of square or circular shape, in which the arranged in a Reinforced isone in which a steel or cast- member is completely encased in concrete reinforced with iron steuctura both longitudinal and spi reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 122.1e. A