to such means with a of these things and eve" thubb). This is not ice. but. mark of its s such ugly things as But if a king should pd if the light of his foak becomes the friend the two worlds. }form. it is complete in ader would not be kept It is a prerequisite for t. because, when any pan nature over many settled despite the pas ld reading will not remove ee. The exaltedness of this casure that the reader’s fisoul of the pure and the i guardian is Hel” (3:73). worlds” (37:182). also under -n{Péiniya} The Practice of dhikr in the Early Islamic Community David Dakake Introduction he following essay is an attempt to discern the role of dhikr in the practices of the early Muslim community, from the time of the Prophet Muhammad through the first four caliphs. Of course, opinions have ranged widely on this issue within the Islamic world, from Sufi to Salafi per- spectives, but as regards scholarly studies within Western lan- guages, little has been written which attempts a thorough and direct examination of the carly sources regarding dhilr. ‘There are many studies that have been made by Western scholars of the teachings of various Sufis regarding “dhikr,” but these studies are really “after the fact” for our purposes, which is to determine what was the practice of dhilr in the earliest period of Islamic history. One major diffieulty with the study of this issue lies in the nature of the Arabic language itself. In Arabi 169 So170 Knowledge Is Light “dhikr” can mean many things, such as: to remember, to men- tion, to invoke; and this leads to a number of questions. Was dhikr, which can mean “remembrance,” simply a term referring to all those obligations imposed upon Muslims through the Divine Law and, therefore, not a specific practice? Did it refer to only certain practices which were recommended to the com- munity by the Prophetic Sunnah, for instance, repeating com- mon Islamic formulas such as: subhanallah, al-hamdu lilléh, Allahu akbar, i.e. the “mentioning” of God in various contexts of daily life? Was dhikr, as the Sufis claim, the repetition of God’s Name(s), performed both in seclusion as well as in majalis, a kind of pure invocation which transcends particular contexts such as times of ritual purity and impurity and even particular exoterie religious forms? It is these kinds of ques- tions that we shalll attempt to answer by appeal to some of the earliest texts, namely, the Quran, Hadith and select writings of the classical historians, Regarding our use of the Hadith, it may be objected that they do not represent a valid “historical source” in the case of our study, because of their supposed late compilation? It is supposed, for this reason, the Hadith cannot be taken to neces- sarily express the authoritative or original practices of the carly Muslim community, from a scholarly point of view. What this objection attempts to say is that the Hadith are only valu- able to scholars in rogard to the religions trends and practices of the second and third conturies of Islam, or in regard to those issues which Muslims wre reacting to and attempting to justi- fy by appeal to or fabrication of Prophetic sanctions. Obviously, such a claim might cast doubt on the relevance of the Hadith for our study of the first-century practice of dhikr, yet just as it is clear that the Hadith present certain problems for the his- torian of Islam, it is also clear that the Hadith were compiled in a situation which was not completely favorable to those who chose to do so,” and this lends a certain validity to their work which often stood in opposition to caliphal attempts to control Islam for political reasons. The hardships which many of the great muhaddithan were : : i } 4 i in Seta i ee ‘The Practice willing to endure at tht preservation of the inds suggests the possibiliti Hadith faithfully, vat! own needs.? Of course that matter, neither ca: suggested by Oriental Hadith is more practic: one of our best sourees early community of Isiat written by ‘Tabart, Ibn concern themselves ‘sit community. Instead, t!: sion of political and mii ‘Therefore, the hist.= in determining what ¥ come to the Quran, of ¢ of actual practices, 1: mony of witnesses, ete the doctrinal basis for is the performance of ali 1 made very clear wher 1 duties, ice. prayer. The! does not say exactly hes the sunnah of the Props duties of the faith: whst uation, Therefore, bec the Quran and the hist ing to do with the h’ believe it is both valid any study of the ear Dhikr In the Quran, there § the root dh-k-r, having *9 invoking. Among these. ! i» remember, to men- reer of questions. Was 'y uply a term referring Muslims through the yractice? Did it refer jevramended to the com- stance, repeating com- ph, al-hamdu Ullah, fa’s1m. the repetition of nision ag well asin sranscends particular 3 impurity and even these kinds of ques- appeal to some of the nd select writings of eray be objected that saree” in the case of ace compilation.) It is rot be taken to neces- pernnal practices of the -» point of view. What » Hadith are only valu- w tends and practices or in regard to those J attempting to justi- -anctions. Obviously, ‘mievaneo of the Hadith see of dhiler, yet just as 2 problems for the hi b.. Hadith wore compiled favorable to those who alidity to their work i attempts to control at muhaddithiin were b F ‘The Practice of dhike in the Karly Islamic Community 171 willing to endure at the hands of rulers, for the sake of the preservation of the independence of their scholarship, at least suggests the possibility that they did indeed transmit the Hadith faithfully, rather than fabricating them to suit their own needs. Of course, this theory cannot be proven and for that matter, neither can the theory of dishonesty which is often suggested by Orientalists. Another argument for our use of the Hadith is more practical, that is to say, the Hadith ave perhaps one of our best sources for learning about the practices of the early community of Islam. The classical histories, such as those written by ‘Tabari, Ibn Ishaq, Mas‘adi, ete., do not generally concern themselves with the spiritual practices of the early community. Instead, they concentrate more upon the progres- sion of political and military events. ‘Therefore, the histories of Islam do not really serve us well in determining what was early Islamic practice; and when we come to the Quran, of course, some areas of its narrative speak of actual practices, such as regards inheritance, hudiid, testi- mony of witnesses, ete. Generally, however, the Quran provides the doctrinal basis for Islam, rather than being a reference for the performance of all the various duties of Muslims. This is made very clear when we come to the most basic of Islamic diities, i.e. prayer. The Quran instructs Muslims to pray, but does not say exactly how it is to be done. Here the Hadith and the sunnah of the Prophet serve as an example of the everyday duties of the faith: what to do and what to do in this or that sit- uation. Therefore, because of reasons internal to the texts of the Quran and the histories, as well as external reasons, hav- ing to do with the historical compilation of the Hadith, we believe it is both valid and necessary to include the Hadith in any study of the early practices of dhikr. Dhikr in the Quran In the Quran, there are over 150 references to words from the root dh-k-r, having to do with mentioning, remembering or invoking. Among these, we have elected to study only those172 Knowledge bs Light verses which use some form of the root dh-lt-r and whi ings have at least the potential for establishing an actual prac- tice of dhiler that may, or may not, have exis the early Islamic community. In our analysis, we grouped these relevant, verses into various categories related to practice, and relied upon the Tafsir of Tabari for their further explanation.4 se mean- I. Dhikr is not necessarily with the tongue ‘This notion is stated in verse 3:41 in reference to the mira- cle which God afforded to Zakariya. In 3:41, God, responding to Zakariya’s request for a “token” (@yah), tells him that his token shall be that he shall not speak to men for three days, except by symbol (ramz). Then the Quran says, “And remember your Lord much (wa dhkuru-rabbaka kathiran) and praise Him in the evening and the morning.” In this phrase, God charges Zakariya, despite his divinely inspired muteness, to remember God in the evening and the m ig. Tabari confirms this inter- pretation, saying: He [God] means by that: .. . it came to you [Zakariya] that you did not speak to the people for three days . . . land you were] without malady or ill- ness, ‘And remember your Lord much’ {means and truly you were not forbidden His [God's] remem- brance [at that time]. ‘Therefore, the idea of dhikr suggested here is not something necessarily done aloud, considering that Zakariya was able to “romember* God, even in his muteness. Of course, this int pretation is very basic, but it does at least suggest that dhikr may indeed have been a practice rather than simply a synonym for adherence to shari duties. It might be objected that this idea of dhikr could mean a kind of daily presevibed prayer (salat), because like the description given here about Zakaviya praying in the morning and the evening, the Islamic gala? is something done in the “morning and the evening,” and at e tain times of the day, it can even be done in a fairly silent man- ‘The Practice « ner. But, the morning ans in fact, to be said aloud. that the reference here is will show even more cic refers to a practice other! II. Dhikr is not The fact that dhikr firmed in verse 7:205 « remember your Lord in: your breath from the me that this verse refers t believer in solitude. Thi: ly distinguishes dhikr gives another interpret sented in his comments In verse 3:191, the Qu ple of understanding -%&: the ones who “remember € their sides.” Tabari says: “Those who % and on their side (saldtihim) and Mashahhadihin:: | other than their ‘upon their sides: Here we see that * Tabari, is not to be con: prayers, nor to recitat evident in verse 4:103. «! fare. Here we see dhii after the prayers. The v¢ communal prayers of © near. The Quran then +t prayers, then rememierétaif-/-r and whose mean- wi lishing an actual prac- save existed in the early 1s rouped these relevant ity practice, and relied explanation.4 with the tongue es reference to the mira- 41, God, responding to 1 gells him that his token efor three days, except ses. “And remember your is and praise Him in = phrase, God charges eness, to remember ns this inter- came to you 1» the people for fat malady or ill- 4 [means:) and 4 {God's! remem- There is not something Zakariya was able to + OF course, this inter- ast suggest that dhilr han simply a synonym, be objected that this ily prescribed prayer «here about Zakariya x. the Islamic salat is the evening,” and at cer b> ina fairly silent man- The Practice of dhikr in the Karly Islamic Community 173 ner. But, the morning and evening prayers of the Muslim are, in fact, to be said aloud, which augurs against the possibility that the reference here is to that type of salat. Our next section will show even more clearly that dhilr in the Quran often refers to a practice other than daily prayers. II. Dhikr is not synonymous with salat ‘The fact that dhikr is not synonymous with “salat is con- firmed in verse 7:205 of the Quran, which commands “ remember your Lord in your self, imploring humbly and under your breath from the morning to the evening.” Tabari comments that this verse refers to the recitation of the Quran by the believer in solitude.6 This idea of dhikr as “recitation” certain- ly distinguishes dhikr from salat, proper; however, Tabari also gives another interpretation of the idea of dhikr which is pr sented in his comments on verses 3:191 and 4:103. In verse 3:191, the Quran is desc ng those who are “peo- ple of understanding (ali "Lalbab),” and it says that they are the ones who “remember God standing, and sitting and lying on their sides.” Tabari says: “Those who remember God standing and sitting and on their sides’ means: ‘standing’ in their prayer (salatihim) and. ‘sitting’ in their testification (tashakhidihim) \to become a Muslim) and [what is] other than their prayer (ghayr salatihim) and ‘upon their sides in sleep. (emphasis acl Here we see that the definition of dhikr, according to , is not to be confined to only what is done in the daily prayers, nor to recitation of the Quran, alone, This same idea cvident in verse 4:103, which refers to prayer in times of wai fare, Here we see dhikr taking on an almost required status after the prayers. The verse preceding 4:103 speaks about the communal prayers of the Muslim armies when an enemy is near. ‘The Quran then says “and when you have finished the prayers, then remember God (fa-dhkur Allah) standing, sitting174 Knowledge Is Light and lying on your sides.” In this way, during jihad, dhikr seems to have a kind of exoteric status, which it does not have in times of peace, for dhikr is, here, something commanded by God and at the same time, it is clearly something other than the sala¢ ‘This leads us to an interesting question: just what is this “dhikr” which God commands? We alrendy know something of what it is, ie., Quranic recitation, but is this all that dhikr is, or is it possible to obtain a yet more positive description of its form(s)? IIL. Dhikr as glorification, supplication and thanks ‘Tabari, in his commentary on 4:103, not only affirms the distinctiveness of dhikr from salat, but he also gives some fw ther indication of just what this hil is. He says, Oh believers, when you have completed the prayers, and you are amidst your enemies (mucagifur Saduwwakum) then remember God in all your states (fa'dhkuru Lah ‘ala kulli alvwwélikum), standing and sitting and lying upon your sides, with glorification of (bil ta‘zim tahw) and supplication, (du‘@) for your souls for the defeat of your enemies. ‘This commentary gives a possible explanation of the cor tent of the dhilr commanded by God in the Quran, ‘Tabari claims that it is “glorification” of God, and most likely, this means the invocation of certain litanies or formulae and the “supplication” of God for help and victory.® We can also note other similar possibilities for the practice of dhikr. Verse 2:200 says, “And when you have completed your devotions (mandsikakwm), then remember God (fa’dhkuru Liah). ...”Pabari’s comments on this verse, which refers to the rites of the pilgrimage (al-heyj), saying: We say that the dhiler which God commands the pilgrim to do, . could be the fakbrr. . because there is ‘The Practic. no dhikr that G after completir< * ‘Therefore, from Ts takbir—"God is greate: - is not only the glorifies" supplication of God £ ments on 4:103; dhihy = ‘Pabari’s comments speak of “befing) not ‘=: and of “rememberfing ‘Pabari's respective cv ‘Do nol be fi Do not become manded and f= remember Me ‘you remember too numerous ¢ “And remer with praise Ue what He has ble=* to accomplish th might save yous = In both of these ex" of the ni‘am of God. cation of Him. IV. Dhikr as the Verse 73:8 of the © your Lord and devote t this: “God says: And ¥ your Lord and supplist ment, again, clearly rduring jihad, dhiler seems ; 1¢ does not have in times commanded by God and other than the salat. fstion: just what is this eady know something of +s this all that dhikr is, onsitive description of its sleation, thanks :8. not only affirms the 2: he also gives some fun “is. He says, = completed the mies (muwagifu s all your states v2), standing and th glorification of ation, (du'@) For ies. explanation of the con- n the Quran, ‘Pabari 3. and most likely, this jae and the ies for the practice have completed your God (fadhkura which refers to the inds the there ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Karly Islamic Community 175 no dhikr that God has commanded for His servants after completing the hajj except the takbir. .. 10 Therefore, from Taba point of view, the formula of the takbir—'God is greater”—represents a form of dhikr, but dhiler is not only the glorification of God, as in the fakbir or as in the supplication of God for help which we saw in ‘Tabari’s com- ments on 4:103; dhikr is also shukr, or “thanks.” We see this in ‘Tabari’s comments on verses 20:42 and 62:10. ‘These verses speak of “beling] not faint (la taniya)” in God's remembrance and of “rememberfing] God much (wadhieuru Lith kathtran).” Tabari's respective comments on them are as follows: “Do not be faint in My remembrance.’ He is saying: Do not become weak in remembering what I have com- manded and-forbidden you . . . because when you remember Me Uiannakumma idha dhikartumani) you remember My gifts and My blessings and the gifts too numerous to be counted, And: ‘And remember God much’ means: Remember God with praise (amd) and thanks (shukr) to Him for what He has blessed you with, by way of allowing you to accomplish the obligatory acts of worship that you might save your soul.!2 In both of these cases, dhilr is a kind of shukr, a recounting of the ni‘am of God, rather than a strict glorification or suppli- cation of Him, IV. Dhikr as the calling upon God's Names Verse 73:8 of the Quran says, “And remember the name of your Lord and devote to Him a great devotion.”'3 Tabavi says of this: “God says: And remember, O Muhammad, the name of your Lord and supplicate Him (fa’d°whu) by it?™ This com- ment, again, clearly relates dhikr to the practice of du‘a’, yet,176 Knowledge Is Light it may also be a reference to a more direct form of dhikrullah, that is, the calling upon God’s “Name.” ‘This would be more akin to the forms of Sufi practice for Tabari’s comment does instruct. one to supplicate “by” or “with” God's Name, which could be a reference Lo a type of pure invocation. Of course, the transla- tion of the Quranic “wa’dhkur” as “remember” is somewhat arbitrary here, since it could also be rendered as “invoke,” and neither the Quran nor Tabani’s commentary makes clear this ambiguity. We can see, by this, that dhikr as a practice within the Quranic context is an open issue, which cannot be neces- sarily limited to one particular form or another. In fact, within ‘the Quranic context, the notion of dhikr as practice, cannot even be limited to the religion of Islam itself. V. Dhikr outside of Islam The Quranic notion of dhikr extends beyond the realm of what is Islamic practice to encompass other religious expres- sions. Verse 22:40 speaks of the necessity of repelling “sume men by others (ba“duhwn bi-ba"d),” lest injustice be done and “eloisters (sawtmi*), churches (biya), synagogues (salawat) and mosques (masijid), wherein is mentioned the name of God Gadhhuru fiha ismullah),” be “pulled down (a-huddimat).” ‘Phis seems to place dhikr, and particularly the dhikr of the “name of God,” in a kind of universal framework whieh tran- seends the various forms of religion, for dhifer is not only that which is done in masajid, or by Muslims, but it is something found amongst Jews and Christians as well. 'Tabart does not elaborate on the meaning of hil in this verse, but instead, he only comments on the meaning of the words: “eloisters, church- es and synagogues.” We therefore find it reasonable to assume that there is no meaning to “mentioning God” which Tabari thought to be significantly different from his comments on other verses related to dhikr; for if distinctions were to be made, this would certainly be a likely context for it, as we are speaking here of practices outside of Islam. ‘Salen together, all these verses of the Quran seem to indi- er ce ns a ‘The Practice «? cate that there is som “dhikr,” and whieh, in + from salat and perhaps: es, litanies of one type ~ name of God, either ins only one kind of pr churches as well, acon dews and Christians di Muslims, nor did they e+ All this suggests the point of view of the @ religious forms or, with Islam, It should also be can in certain verses ims can also be understovt daily salé¢ itself, and that the Quranic discs separate rite. VI ‘The relation of dit which says, “Verily, the and minor sins (al-fa’: brance of God is gre relates various possibl« ‘The Quranic + pretation fof tis God's dhikr of yew Others say th than everything possible. OF these interpret rst, and if we examine pretation, the verse the: dhikr. If Tabari’s point «vost form of dhikrullah, ts would be more akin + comment does instruct Name, which could be a «GF course, the transla- sember” is somewhat ved as “invoke,” and tentary makes clear this as a practice within schich eannot be neces- + another. In fact, within ier as practice, cannot self. ce Islam ds beyond the realm of other religious expres- sssity of repelling “some injustice be done and priagogues (salatoat) and ned the name of God +o down (a-huddimat).” inrly the dhikr of the ‘ramework which tran- + dhike is not only that ns. bub it is something = well. Tabari does not s verse, but instead, he words: “eloisters, church- 1 reasonable to assume sng God” which Taban from his comments on : distinctions were to be context for it, as we are iam. the Quran seem to indi- 6 ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Karly Islamic Community 177 cate that there is some kind of practice which could be termed “dhikr,” and whieh, in the context of Islam, is distinguished from salat and perhaps involves the recitation of Quranic vers- ¢s, litanies of one type or another and/or the invocation of the name of God, either in silence or aloud. Therefore, dhiler is not only one kind of practice. Dhikr is found in synagogues and churches as well, according to the Quran, and certainly the Jews and Christians did not pray in the same manner as the Muslims, nor did they even use the same name to refer to God. All this suggests the multiplicity of “dhikr” practice from the point of view of the Quran, whether we are comparing various religious forms or, within the particular religious form which is Islam. It should also be noted, however, that dhikr, although it can in certain verses imply a distinct and self-enclosed practice, can also be understood in many places within the Quran as the daily salat itself, and it would be wrong to give the impression that the Quranic discussions of dhikr always portray it as a separate rite. VI. Dhikr as salat The relation of dhikr to salat is suggested in verse 29:45, which says, “Verily, the prayers (salat) guard against the major and minor sins (al-fahsha? wa *Lmunkar), but the remem: brance of God is greater (wa la-dhikrullahi akbar).” Tabari relates various possible interpretations of this vers ‘The Quranic interpreters disagree over the inter- pretation {of this verse]. Some say that it means: God's dhikr of you is greater than your hike [of Him. Others say that it means: your dhikr of God is greater than everything else. Others say that both of these are possible. Of these interpretations, Tabari says that he favors the first, and if we examine 29:45 on the basis of this favored inter- pretation, the verse then seems to imply that salat is a form of dhikr. If Tabari’s point of view is indeed correct, and the verse178 Knowledge Is Light should be understood to mean that the character or quality of God’s remembrance of man is greater than the character or quality of man’s remembrance of God, then this suggests that the dhikr of man is salat, because it states that the prayers guard against the major and minor sins, but the remembrance belonging to God is greater, implying that salat is, itself, a kind of dhikr belonging to man. This same relationship between dhikr and salat is also found in verse 20:14, in which God speaks of those who establish (agim) the salat for His remem- brance (li-dhikri). What all these many references and comments point to is that there is a spectrum of dhikr in the Quranic context, from a practice which is done communally, to that which is done in seclusion and in silence, from the recitation of the Quran to (dua), from salat to the invocation of the “Name of your Lord,” from what is done by Muslims, to what is done by practitioners of other faiths. Dhikr is many things, and this notion is con- firmed in Tabar?’s comments on verse 87:15: “And he [the one who is successful] invokes the Name of his Lord and prays.” ‘Tabari says of this verse: ‘This means: he remembers God and affirms His unity (fa-wahhadahu) and supplicates Him (wa- duahu ilayhi) and inclines (wa-raghaba) {toward Him], beeause all of this is dhikru lah, and God did not single out among His dhikr, one form without variety (wa-lam yukhassis Allah ta°ala min dhikrihi naw*an dina nav) 16 Dhikr in the Hadith It is no doubt necessary to examine the Quran along with traditional commentary, as we have done, lest one read into the text anything which one desires to sec therein. In this sense, the Quran is no different than any other great sacred book, but if we leave aside the commentaries of Tabari, it is interesting that the Quran, in the immediately apparent. meanings of the verses we have studied, does not mention, specifically, a prac- ‘Phe Pract tice of communal di! salat.17 In these two « respectively, the takot ae associated with the Quran to support, fer dhikr whieh have come Even though we do fitié bering the “Name of (22:40) in the Quran. © auditional or commun When we survey th: site in regard to the appears as reference: tice, becomes in the H. and auditional perfor: litanies and/or the Hadith, that individu but nevertheless, the issue between the Quy. Hadith, we examineé Muslim, ‘Tirmidhi, At Hanbal, grouping som: major categories: (1) as praise (3) dhikr as is done alone (5) dhil: I. Dhikr in? Bukhari quotes 4 seek out the ahl al-di up to the earthly heav word “ahi” here does ily together when thes this hadith we find cle their practice, After the then return to God anc tices of the ahl al-dhitcharacter or quality of than the character or shen this suggests that states that the prayers: +, but the remembrance + salat is, itself, a kind + relationship between 20:14, in which God » salat for His remem- rd comments point to is + Quranic context, from .- that whieh is done in sation of the Quran to ‘ke “Name of your Lord,” = done by practitioners “And he [the one is Lord and prays.” ard 4 and affirms His cecates Him (wae waba) [toward "ah, and God did ne form without al min dhikvihi ‘adith the Quran along with lest one read into the therein. In this sense, er great sacred book, but Tabari, it is interesting, went meanings of the “on, specifically, a prac- % : ae r 4 ihm ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Barly Islamic Community 179 tice of communal dhikr outside of the context of the hajj or salat.17 In these two cases, the forms of dhikr referred to are, respectively, the fakbir and the Quranic recitations and formu- ae associated with the daily prayers. Little can be found in the Quran to support, for instance, the loud communal forms of dhikr which have come to be associated with the Sufi orders. Even though we do find clear references to invoking or remen bering the “Name of your Lord” (73:8) or the “Name of God” (22:40) in the Quran, these references do not necessarily imply auditional or communal practice. When we survey the Hadith, however, we find just the oppo- site in regard to the practice of dhikr. What in the Quran appears as references to a basically individual and silent pra tice, becomes in the Hadith, references to clearly communal and auditional performances, involving cither the chanting of litanies and/or the Name(s) of God. It is apparent from the Hadith, that individual dhikr remains an important p but nevertheless, the emphasis seems to have shifted on this issue between the Quran and the Hadith. In our survey of the Hadith, we examined the canonical collections of Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi, Aba Dawad and the Musnad of Ahmad b. Hanbal, grouping some of their relevant traditions into five major categories: (1) dhikr in majalis, other than salat (2) dhikr as praise (3) dhikr as other than praise (4) dhikr as that which is done alone (5) dhikr as “that which is done alwa I. Dhikr in majalis, other than salat Bukhari quotes a long hadith concerning the angels who seck out the ahl al-dhikr and surround them with their wings up to the earthly heavens (al-samd? al-dunya).18 The use of the word “ahi” here does not imply that these people are necessar- y together when they remember or invoke God, but later in this hadith we find clear reference to the collective nature of their practice. Aftor the angols surround the ah! al-dhikr, Uncy then return to God and are questioned by Him as to the prac- tices of the ahi al-dhikr. When the angels answer God’s ques-180 Knowledge Is Light tions, God says: “I make you [the angels] witnesses that I have forgiven (ghafartu) them [the ahi al-chikrl.” The forgiveness mentioned here is not in the context of a people who have erred in an action and then been forgiven out of God's Merey towards them, but in the sense that God is pleased with their actions and thus forgives whatever sins they may have committed in other ways. One of the angels objects to God's decree in this matter and says that among the ahi al-dhikr is “so-and-so (fthim fulany’ and that “he is not one of them (laysa minhum).” Here, the angel's objection clearly points to this dhikr as being some kind of gathering, and God's response also confirms this, saying, “They [the ahd al-dhikr] are the ones whose companion is not wretched.” The word which we have translated as “com- panion” is ‘jalis,” which is, more literally, “one with whom one sits together” or a “participant in a social gathering.” Both of these imply physical collectivity, rather than a kind of eategor- ical collectivity of persons who, in general, remember or invoke God, as might be understood by the term “ahl al-chiky,” alone. In Muslim’s collection we find a similar hadith, which reads: “Indeed, God has angels who travel about seeking gath- evings of dhikr (majalis al-dhikr), and if they find a gathering. . they sit amongst them and surround them on all sides... ."!9 ‘This is another clear statement of communal dhikr. Also, like the hadith from Bukhari, this one distinguishes between the practice of dhilr and that of the sala, because dhifr is that which is generally done seated, whereas the galat must not be done in a seated position, except in certain cases (e.g. in the case of illness or physical incapacity). This hadith also has God questioning the angels, but this time the angels inform God that among the ones who have gathered is a “servant of error abd al-khatta’).” God's response to them is basically the same as seen in the previous hadith. He says: “I have forgiven him,” and the same reason is given for this merey as was noted above. In Tirmidhi we find another reference to gathering for dhikr, but this time with an interesting addition. In this hadith, the Prophet says: “When you pass the gardens of Paradise (riyad al-jannah), then graze (fa°rta"a).” His companions then : ‘ t : i sha Z t ‘The Practic. say to him: “What are answers, “The circles 0! a circle does not refer « it aloud or inward). Anc with a similar idea. In = circle of people in the m: they have gathered and : God.” Mu‘awiyah then = of God came upon (such said [to them]: '. . .Gabr boasts of you to the anc: in Muslim,22 clearly st: salat as well as the vali within mosques. A fur: is done communally = Hanbal in the traditic remembering God exces them (haffat bi-him) that they are wrapped the practice of a group Given these ahadir the nature of dhilr— mosques) and how it ea? these findings suggest distinct rite within the i+ in the Hadith, vefere: communal sessions of now turn our attention I In Tirmidhi we ‘* nidhi cites two a “Whoever prays the then sits, rememberin.- of the sun, then pray= making a hajj and an [the companions] the £iy].” The forgiveness eople who have erred yod’s Mercy towards sed with their actions say have committed in God's deere in this abdhikr is “so-and-so them (laysa minhum).” to this dhikr as being nse also confirms this, 1s whose companion sve translated as “com- ¥, “one with whom one ssal gathering.” Both of than a kind of categor- cal, remember or invoke mi vahl al-dhikr,” alone. similar hadith, whieh ~ vel about secking gath- they find a gathering. sem on all sides, ..."19 smunal dhikr, Also, like singuishes between the because dhikr is that + the salat must not be vtain eases (e.g. in the ais hadith also has God che angels inform God Ais a “servant of erro zn is basically the same T have forgiven him,” rey as was noted above, senee to gathering for addition. In this hadith, gardens of Paradise His companions then a ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Early Islamic Community 181 say to him: “What are the gardens of P: 2,” and he answers, “The circles of dhikr (khalaq al-dhikr).”20 Obviously, a circle does not refer to salat, but to a collective invocation (be it aloud or inward). Another hadith from Tirmidhi presents us with a similar idea. In this tradition, Mu‘awiyah comes upon a cirele of people in the mosque. He inquires as to the reason that they have gathered and they answer: “For the remembrance of God.” Muawiyah then says to them: “. . indeed, the Messeng¢ of God came upon [such] a circle of his companions... . And he {to them]: *. . Gabriel has come to me and told me that God ts of you to the angels.”2! ‘This hadith, which is also found in Muslim, clearly states the distinction between dhikr and salat as well as the validity of performing dhikr as a group and within mosques. A further confirmation of dhikr as that which is done communally is found in the Musnad of Ahmad b. Hanbal in the tradition: “Phere is no group (gawm) that sits vemembering God except that there are angels hidden among them (haffat bi-him) and that peace descends upon them and that they are wrapped in merey. . ..”23 This clearly speaks of the practice of a group. Given these ahadith, it is possible to say something about the nature of dhikr—where it can be practiced (within the mosques) and how it ean be practiced (in groups). Furthermore, these findings suggest that dhikr was indeed a particular or distinct rite within the Islamie context, But, we have yet to see in the Hadith, references to exactly what was done in these communal sessions of dhikr. It is to this subject that we shall now turn our attention. II. Dhikr as praise n ‘Tirmidhi we find references to the form of dhikr. irmidhi cites two ahadith from Anas b. Malik which state “Whoever prays the morning prayer communally (jamd‘ah), then sits, remembering God Gadhkuru “Llah) until the of the stun, then prays two rak‘ahs, it has the reward for him of making a hajj and an “umrah,”24 and“, . have I not shown you [the companions] the group with the greatest booty and earl182 Knowledge Is Light return is the group who says the morning prayer, then sits remembering God until the sun rises... 25 These ahadith clearly suggest that dhifer is a practice after the salat as well as a practice which may involve a long span of time, since the morning prayer can be prayed over an hour before the rising of the sun, theoretically enabling one to practice dhikr through- out. It may be objected here that we are still not speaking about actual practices of dhikr, but aro continuing to discuss only its parameters. It is necessary, however, to cite the above hadith from Tirmidhi for the purpose of comparing it with hadith which we find in Muslim's Sahih on the same topic. This com- parison will allow us to make more detailed statements as to what actually goes on in dhikr. In the chapter on the “GSlueidation of dhikr after the Prayers and the Plainness of Its Qualities,” of Muslim’s Sahih, dhikr is understood strictly in the sense of short formulae recited after the sala in which God is praised and glorified. In fact, we even find one hadith quot- ed by Muslim in this chapter in which SA’ishah says: “He {the Prophet} sat no longer lafter the salat had ended] than it took for him to say: ‘Oh God, Thou art peace and peace comes from ‘Thee, blessed art Thou, Possessor of Glory and Honor.”26 ‘The entire chapter from Muslim clearly shows that a major aspect of dhikr is this short praise and glorification of God in various forms of takbir, takmid, etc. None of the recitations noted in this chapter are so long as to fill the time between the begin- ning of the fajr prayer and the rising of the sun, alluded to in the hadith cited above from ‘Tirmidhi. This leaves us in a kind of dilemma, as far as the issue of what was dhikr after the saldl, i.c., a long practice of some kind of invocation after the fajr ov a shorter supplication after salat in general, or both. The tenor of these ahadith from Muslim and Tirmidhi provides us with a partial understanding of the actual practice of dhiler, but at the same time, they also raise certain questions when we compare them with one another. II. Dhikr as other than praise We do find references in the hadith to dhiler in the sense of ot ese et cela: ‘The Pract: a pure invocation or re differ from the ones se ing or the glorification * with the simple act of « Titanies, without ree: Qualities. In Muslim. 7 are ahadith which spe we find references to tion in Muslim states: one, and whoever cour: ‘Tirmidhi quotes this J ahsaha28 One of the veis of the 99 Divine Names - actually use any form suggest that dhikr may the Divine Names. Thi= by another hadith why Ahmad b. Hanbal, whic All the versions of this * we have given only one = [the Prophet] said: “The is not said upon the eart a practice of the inves Allah—alone, and when dhikr which we have cite been a practice of invok: distinguished from the praise, practices which 2 collections. IV. Dhikr We have already =) ‘but we can also find rei« in the Hadith. Bukkh about dhikr practiced ¥ ing statement of the Pr Goal will give ~sing prayer, then sits "25 "These ahddith utter the salt as well as pan of time, since the nour before the rising of practice dhikr through- still not speaking about nuing to diseuss only its un cite the above hadith nparing it with hadith ze same topic. This com- ailed statements as to tn the chapter on the + and the Plainness of Its = understood strictly in y the salat in which God -» find one hadith quot- Vishah says: “He [the aad ended] than it took ‘and peace comes from story and Honor.”?8 The aws that a major aspect. ation of God in various the recitations noted in sme between the begi «the sun, alluded to i This leaves us in a kind at was dhikr after the of invocation after the in general, or both. ‘The «4 Tirmidhi provides us cctual practice of dhikr, sain questions when we :n praise ‘0 dhikr in the sense of 4 ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Karly Islamie Community 183 a pure invocation or recollection of the Divine. These ahadith differ from the ones we have just seen which speak of the prais- ing or the glorification of God, because they are more concerned with the simple act of calling upon Him by His Names, without litanies, without recounting God's favors or praising His Qualities. In Muslim, ‘Tirmidht and Ahmad b. Hanbal, there ave ahadith which speak of these acts. In Muslim and Tirmidhi, we find references to “counting” the Names of God. The tradi tion in Muslim states: “Verily God has 99 Names, 100 minus one, and whoever counts them (ahaha) enters Paradise.”2? ‘Tirmidhi quotes this hadith three times, each using the word ahsaha.28 One of the versions includes an actual listing of all of the 99 Divine Names.29 These ahadith, although they do not actually use any form of the root dh-k-r to describe this act, suggest that dhikr may have also been a kind of recitation of the Divine Names. This notion is, to a large extent, confirmed by another hadith which we find in Muslim, Tirmidhi and Ahmad b. Hanbal, which speaks about the Day of Judgment. All the vorsions of this hadith are practically the same, and s0 we have given only one representative example of it here: “He [the Prophet] said: ‘The hour shall not rise until “Allah, Allah” is not said upon the earth.” Here we have clear reference to a practice of Une invocation of the primary Divine Name— Allah—alone, and when taken with the other references to dhikr which we have cited, suggests that. there may indeed have been a practice of invoking God’s Name(s) which was, in fact, distinguished from the recitation of litanies or formulae of praise, practices which are commonly found in all the Hadith collections. IV. Dhikr as what is done alone We have alrendy spoken of the communal nature of dhikr, but we ean also find references to the opposite effect expressed in the Hadith. Bukhari, Muslim and ‘Tirmidhi all cite traditions about dhikr practiced in solitude. Bukhari recounts the follow- ing statement of the Prophet: God will give shade to seven [kinds of people] on184 Knowledge Is Light the day when there shall be no shade but His. . .fand one of them is} a man who remembers God in seelu- sion (khalt) and with his eyes filled with tears. Of course, we are not able to say here what “remembering God” is, since it is quite possible that it refers to the act of the recitation of the Quran, as we found in verse 7:205 of the Quran, or perhaps something else. It is possible that dhiler here may be and actual “invocation.” In any ease, it is a solitary act as is made clear by the word “khali.” Both Muslim and Tirmidhi quote akadith similar to one another over this issue of solitary dhiler. In Muslim’s version, the Prophet is walking to Mecea with some of his companions when he stops by a mountain. He then says: “Come, this is Jumdan [where] the solitary ones came before (sabaga al- mufarridan).” The companions ask him: “Who are the solitary ones, O Messenger of God?,” and he responds: “The men and women who invoked (remembered?) God much."32 ‘Tirmidhi’s reference is similar, except that in his version there is no men- tion of a context for this hadith, i.e., a journey at which time the Prophet spoke these words, and also the Prophet’s answer to the question of the companions is slightly different. Here the Prophet says that the mufarridan are “the ones despised (mus: tahtaran) on account of the remembrance of God,” and that “The dhikr takes from them their burdens (athgalahum) and they come to the Day of Judgment, light.”83 In this case, the mufarridan were clearly those who chose to live away from centers of social activity. They are praiseworthy, owing to their renunciation and dhikr. This hadith poses the possibility of a “secluded community” of dhakiran, those for whom the dhikr takes precedence over all else, and yet this hadith likely refers to the time before Islam (as indicated by its verbal stucture). So what is the possibility that such groups actually existed during the early history of Islam? The possibility is there, though not in the form of a community at Jumdan, and we shall turn to this issue when we examine the texts of the Histories. Soe The Practic V. Dhikr is“: Both Bukhari and 4 dhikr is to be done in x in which €A°ishah said states (“ala hulle aya also be translated “time used in the version cite! open the possibility th: (such as reciting the Nw time, “standing, sittin: Bukhari mentions this being in a state of pur’ sarily negate this intery “?ishah would use the i,e., the Prophet “made © had his ablution or not bered God in all his stav Abii Dawad also mentie: issue of ritual pu (adhkuru) God withow hadith makes up the ce: it is not possible to deter “ala kullt ahyanihi” act: the call to prayer, bu: Name(s) or to supplicat There are other ale dhikr in all states, and n interpretation here. In man comes to the Prophe the laws of Islam (she (kathurat “alayy?), 80 +t cling.” The Prophet re does not cease to be me God.”36 In this hadith we cation, be it communal acceptable in all states. ‘This notion is confirme2 but His. . land fous God in seclu- sith tears SE » what “remembering rs to the act of the in verse 7:205 of the fz ossible that dhikr here p case, ibis a solitary act adith similar to one » In Muslim’s version, same of his companions ten says: “Come, this is xe before (sabaqa al- Who are the solitary sponds: “The men and tied much.”82 Tirmidhi’s i-ersion there is no men- journey at which time the Prophet’s answer atly different. Here the che ones despised (mus: ance of God,” and that dens (athgdlahum) and 3 In this case, the to live away from sssvorthy, owing to their ees the possibility of a + se for whom the dhikr pchis hadith likely refers sts verbal stueture). So s actually oxisted during ty is there, though not and we shall turn to the Histories. ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Karly Islamic Community 185 V. Dhikr is “that which is done alway: Both Bukhari and Aba Dawad cite hadith to the effect that dhikr is to be done in all situations. Bukhari mentions a hadith in which €A’ishah said: “The Prophet remembers God in all his states “ala hulli ahyanihi).”34 The word for “states” here could also be translated “times,” and practically the same words are used in the version cited by Aba Dawid. These ahddith leave open the possibility that dhikr could be a form of invocation (such as reciting the Names of God) which could be done at any time, “standing, sitting or lying on one’s side.” The fact that Bukhari mentions this hadith in the context of a discussion of boing in a state of purity for making the adhan does not neces- sarily negate this interpretation because it seems strange that. «M’ishah would use the word “dhikr” if she only meant “adhan,” i.¢., the Prophet “made the adhén” in all his states, whether he had his ablution or not, rather than that the Prophet remem- bered God in all his states whether he had his ablution or not. Abit Dawid also mentions this hadith within the context of the issue of ritual purity in a chapter entitled: “Man Mentioning (adhkurw) God without Purity (ahar),"8 but here, this one hadith makes up the contents of the entire chapter. Therefore it is not possible to determine what the words “yadhhuru “Llah “ala kullt ahyanihi” actually mean. They could mean: to make the eall to prayer, but it could also mean: to invoke God’s Name(s) or to supplicate Him in some manne ‘There are other ahadith which are related to this issue of dhiler in all states, and may shed some light on the dilemma of interpretation here. In Tirmidhi, there is a hadith in which a man comes to the Prophet and says: “O Messenger of God, truly the laws of Islam (shara@7i* al-Islam) are weighty upon me (hathurat ‘alayyi), so inform me of a thing to which I may cling.” The Prophet responds by saying: “{That) your tongue does not cease to be moist (rathan) from the remembrance of God."86 In this hadith we have a reference to some kind of invo- cation, be it communal or individual, loud or soft, which is acceptable in all states, and theoretically, could be perpetual ‘This notion is confirmed by a hadith in Abmad b. Hanbal’s186 Knowledge Is Light Musnad, which says: “Increase (akthira) the remembrance of God until they say: [You are] crazy (maniin)."37 Just who are the ones who will say: “erazy,” the kafirtin or perhaps the mus- limiin, is not clear, but what is clear, is that this hadith could not refer to a practice which was silent or mental, because then there would be no possibility for the community at large to rec- ognize the excess of its practice and thereby deem one who wticed such a thing to be “crazy.” Taken together, all these ahadith point to the possibility of an invocatory practice with- in the early Muslim community which was not limited to the outward ritual forms of Islamic worship detailed in the shart“ah, but which was probably limited in terms of its praeti- tionors within that early community. This brings us back to the question which we posed at the end of the last section: was thore a “secluded” community of didiriin in early Islam? Dhikr in the Histories If there was a practice of dhikr—which seems clear from the Hadith, although this practice defies exact definition—it does not seem to have been something necessarily common amongst the early Muslims. Note, for instance, MuSawiyah's questioning of those gathered for dhikr in the mosque from hadith quoted in the Sahih Muslim, the references to the “soli- tary ones,” the plea of the lone man who could not follow the law, the reference to performing dhikr until one is “despised” and called “crazy.” Yet for all these references to the uncom- mon nature of this practice of dhilr, there are also many ref- erences which speak of gatherings or cireles of dhikr and of performing dhikr after the salat, which suggests a public or open practice. When we turn to the practice of dhifr as found in the histories of Islam, we find both of these somewhat. con- tradietory ideas confirmed. Dhikr, on the one hand, does not seem to have been a very common practice because, for intance, we find no references to it in the most famous biography of the Prophet, Ibn Hishim’s Sirah, and rather few references to it in the histories in general. On the other hand, we do find that 4 ‘The Practice»: dhikr is performed by ¢ erences to its individus! places where dhikr is appear to practice it and mostly involve a parti.- “group” is in one way ‘Talib, and in fact all ve! we were able to find wer reetly. This is not to = ers in the early comm greater concern with it : When we examine ©! wa ?l-mulitk which deai: we find only three dire:: from “Ali at the time of to dhikr made by ‘Ali wherein Ali advises his brance of God and seek ambiguous, but another + clarify ‘Ali's words her returned to Kufa afte: tain areas in the city b of the sorrows of man; Siffin, and he hears the who stayed behind in ! Syria. “Ali then recites # j their hypocrisy, after »? went on continuously until he entered the ps tion aloud. This may or tained within the lett: ‘Tabari recounts a story to the Kharijites, “Ali te ‘Thore are thr: Tong as you are +1 mosques of God‘k-! the remembrance of p.inan)."37 Just who are F-19 or perhaps the mus- = that this hadith could tr mental, because then unmunity at large to rec- t thereby deem one who en together, all these ~vocatory practice with- as not limited to the ip detailed in the ed in terms of its practi Tis brings us back to the the last section: was i-ea in early Islam? stories =chich seems clear from exact definition—it jo necessarily common ty instanee, Mu‘awiyah’s ir in the mosque from ts references to the “soli- 20 could not follow the until one is “despised” ‘erences to the uncom- are also many ref ¢ circles of dhikr and of isk suggests a public or irsatice of dhikr as found F these somewhat, con- she one hand, does not etice because, for intance, amous biography of the os few references to it in hand, we do find that spect ere ‘The Practice of dhikr in the Early Islamic Community 187 dhiler is performed by groups or publicly (though there are ref- erences to its individual practice as well). We also find in those places where dhiler is mentioned as a practice, that those who appear to practice it and those contexts in which it is mentioned mostly involve a particular “group” of early Muslims, Thi in one way or another associated with ‘Ali b. Abi all references to the practice of dhikr which we were able to find were related to “Ali either dircetly or indi- rectly. This is not to say that. dhikr did not exist amongst oth- ers in the carly community, only that there seems to be a greater concern with it amongst those who were close to “Ali. When we examine that portion of ‘Tabari’s Tarikh al-rusul wa *L-muliik which deals with the early part of Islamic history, we find only three direct references to dhikr, all of which come from ‘Ali at the time of the first Civil War. There is a reference to dhikr made by ‘Ali in a letter to Muhammad b. Abi Bakr, wherein “Ali advises him to". . .multiply (wkthir) the remem- branee of God and seek help from Him. . . .”88 Dhikr, here, is ambiguous, but another reference to it in Tabari may serve to clarify ‘Ali's words here. In this second instance, “Ali has returned to Kufa after the Battle of Siffin, and he stops at cer- tain areas in the city before proceeding to his palace. He hears of the sorrows of many families who have lost relatives at Siffin, and he hears the hypocritical criticisms of some of those who stayed behind in Kufa while the battle was engaged in Syria. “All then recites a poem to his critics, chastising them for their hypocrisy, after which, Tabari relates: “Phen, he {°Alil went on continuously invoking God (am yazil yadhkurallah) until he entered the palace.” Here, dhikr is clearly an invoca- tion aloud. ‘This may or may not be a clue as to the advice con- tained within the letter to Muhammad b. Abi Bakr. Finally, ‘Tabari recounts a story of “Ali mentioning dhifer in an address to the Kharijites. “Ali tells the Khan ‘There are three things we will not forbid you so long as you are with us. We will not deny you the mosques of God (masajid Allah), wherein you remem-188 Knowledge Is Light berfinvoke His name (tadhheri [tha ismahu), we will not prevent your partaking of the spoils so long as your hand is joined with ours and we will not fight you unless you fight us.40 ‘There is an ambiguity to dhikr in this quotation, unlike our previous example, which was clearly an invocation aloud. Dhikr could be construed here as salat, especially given the fact that the term salét replaces dhikr in the second recension this story quoted by Tabari (see endnote 38), but it could also be the invocation of the Name of God, perhaps an essential practice for the Kharijites. ‘The idea of “invocation” here may seem to be far: before the more reasonable interpretation of “Al’s statement as referring to the daily salat until we examine the account of the execution of the famous Kharijite assassin of ‘Ali, Ibn Muljam in the Kamil of Mubarrad. Here it tells how, as revenge for the slaying of “Ali, Ibn Muljam’s limbs were cut off, yet all the while he continued to invoke God without protest. ‘Then those who wore torturing him decided to cut out his tongue. At this idea, Ibn Muljam suddenly became distressed. They asked him why this should upset him, when he was relatively indif- ferent to the previous amputations. He said: “I desire that my mouth should continue to be moist (ratban) with remembrance of God"! Combining this account with ‘Ali’s offer to the jites above, it seems that this dhikr may have been a prae- tice particularly dear to the Kharijites. This is interesting, con- sidering that the Kharijites were originally followers of “Ali, and although they broke with him over the issue of arbitration at Siffin, they may have, nevertheless continued this form of spiritual practice, the invocation of the Name of God, which seems, in the historical sources, to be associated with ‘Ali and those close to him. Other examples of this relationship between ‘Ali and dhikr can also be found in Tabari in references to Muhammad b. Abi Hudhayfah and al-Ala? al-Hadrami. Muhammad b. Abi Hudhayfah is known to have been one of the supporters of “Ali, fetched ‘The Practic: and certainly one of « men of Egypt against “ interesting story abes: Muslim armada in the :1 When ‘Abd 21 ple fon the ship. », Abi Hudhayta raised his voice “Abd Allah. . = innovation and». + vation or novelty the greatn to do it again. fah was silenced prayers at sunse:. 9 claimed God's 4 before. [*Abd At boy. Indeed, by Commander of ts you away in fette + Here the proclaimir kind of dhikr which with Tbn Muljam, Furthermore, the inf ing such unusual for: + histories in general “Ali, is at least sugge>.-+ In other examples»: ing stories about a ¢e::4 sent with an army by wars to bring Bahra’ During the expeditior led by al-fAla” dure Arabia and Bahrain. 74 , Most Mei Mild-Tempered 4 One! O, Livin ©. +Es somal), we will Ly cpoils so long as + will not fight you ris quotation, unlike our Fs an invocation aloud, | especially given the fact se second recension this hut it could also be the taps an essential practice 1 seem to be far-fetched pation of “Ali's statement 1 examine the account of jt assassin of SAL, Ibn tceit tells how, as revenge cabs were cut off, yet all 4 without protest. ‘Then Esa ent out his tongue. At distressed. They asked = he was relatively indif- Ke said: “I desire that my tréan) with remembrance ith “Als offer to the i tr may have been a pr This is interesting, con- nally followers of “Ali, er the issue of arbitration 5 continued this form of che Name of God, which associated with “Ali and ae between “Ali and dhikr ces to Muhammad b. Abi ai, Muhammad b. Abi eof the supporters of “Ali, | : | The Practice of dhiker in the Barty Islamic Community 189 and certainly one of those who most strongly incited the tribes- men of Egypt against the CaliphUthman." Tabari cites an interesting story about him while he was at sea with the Muslim armada in the year 31 When ‘Abd Allah b. Sad b. Abi Sarh led the peo- ple (on the ship] in the afternoon prayer, Muhammad b, Abi Hudhayfah proclaimed: ‘God is most great.’ He raised his voiee until “Abd Allah. . .finished. . ... So “Abd Allah, . summoned him and said: ‘What is this innovation and novelty?’ [He replied): “This is no inno- vation or novelty, for there is no harm in proclaiming the greatness of God.’ [‘Abd Allah] said: ‘You are not to do it again, . .." Thus Muhammad b. Abi Hudhay- fah was silenced. But when ‘Abd Allah, . .led the prayers at sunset, Muhammad b. Abi Hudhayfah pro- claimed God's greatness even more loudly than before. {“Abd Allah] sent to him: ‘You are a foolish boy. Indeed, by God, wore T not uncertain that the Commander of the Faithful would agree, I would drag you away in fetters. ..."3 Here the proclaiming of the ¢akbir is obviously not the same kind of dhikr which we have already seen with “Ali or perhaps with Ibn Muljam, but it is nonetheless a form of dhit Furthermore, the infrequeney of these kinds of stories involv- ing such unusual forms of worship in Tabari’s history, or the histories in general, except in the cases of the “followers” of “Ali, is at least suggestive of a relationship. In other examples of this relationship we find fabari relat- ing stories about a certain al-“Ala’ al-Hadvami. Hadrami was sent with an army by Abii Bakr during the time of the Riddah wars to bring Bahrain back into the fold of the Islamic stat During the expedition, Tabari recounts the prayer of this army led by al-Ala? during the crossing of the waters between Arabia and Bahrain, The prayer is as follows: , Most Mereitul of Forgivers! O, Noble One! O, Mild-Tempored One! O, Unique One! O, Everlasting ‘One! O, Living One! O, Reviver of the Dead! O, Living.190 Knowledge Is Light One! O, Ete Lordt!4 ‘al One! Th is no god but Thee, O our Ina second incident, a monk recounts the prayer he heard from al-‘Ala’s camp, carried “on the winds by dawn." ‘The prayer is: © God, You are the Compassion there is no god but You; the Or before You; the Enduring, not forgetful; the Living, who does not die; Creator of what is seen and what is, not seen and each day You are [employed] in [some] affair; O God, You know everything without learn- ing 45 ite the Mereiful, In both these eases we have forms of invocation of various Divine Names in a communal setting, and at least in the first prayer, al-‘Ala” is leading the invocation—we cannot be sure of the second invocation, although he is likely leading there as well. This would not be so interesting except for the infrequen- cy with which such invocations of the Divine Names appear in the histories, coupled with the fact that al-‘Ala” al-Hadrami, as his name tells us, was from the tribe of Hadramawt, whose tribesmen, like most of the other southern Arabian tribesmen were generally strong supporters of “Ali and the Alid cause. We also cxamined the Muraj al-dhahab of Mas‘adi, but only found one reference to the praetice of dhiler in his account of the events during the time of the first four caliphs. Here, Sa‘d b, Abi Waqqas charges Salman al-Farsi, who has just been appointed governor of Mada‘in by the Caliph ‘Umar, to “remember God in your distress when you are distressed, and in your tongue when you judge and in your hand when you dis- tribute [wealth].” At this, Salman begins to weep and says: “I heard the Messenger of God say: ‘In the afterlife there is a steep pass which none shall traverse except those who are light (nukhiffin); and T see all of these [heavy] water vessels around me.” The text then goes on: “So they looked in his house ‘and found nothing but an inkwell, a small coffeepot and a wash yc aa senaguneiais i seater ‘The Practics basin.”47 This example 3 the practices of dhikr = references to Ali and fi ‘Abi Waqqas, a prominc: conflict between “Ali 3" Parsi to remember Gre that dhikr did not ex» seems to be primarily ret at least in the early hi presence of Salman = advice concerning dhikr of the closest of the « Finally, we exami Here we noted an inters: and the companions o! 1 text, in reference to the ¢ invoked their eyes filed and they swayed (més! wind, afraid of pur reward.”48 This statemes provides a context for tl ‘upon the translation of ¢ a kind of loud commu best way to account fet assume the invocation Second, it is a reference found in the most fan. might encounter the ¢ speeches is questionaé answered by our third that this quotation 29 Ibid, vol. 18. pp 30 Tirmidhi, Sat: ‘Musnad, vol. 4, p. 2 hadith 211 & 212. 81 Bukhari, Sab? 32 Maslim, Salti 88 al-Mubarakfur: 10, p. 54-55. 84 Bukhari, Sahih 85 Sulayman b. a (Beirut: Dar al-kutub « 36 al-Mubarakfur 9, p. 814-6 87 Ibn Hanbal. 38 Muhammad 6.” Matb‘at al-Istiqamah. 1°" 39 Ibid. vol. 4. p57 40 Ibid., vol. 4. p tion of by G. R. Havtir: ‘Tabart (Albany: SUNY gives two different reve’ © from Abd Mikhnat: tr particular recension. ' 3 deny the Kharijites is “r= prayer used in the ind 41 Muhammad b 1864), vol. 1, pp. 583-2 42 8, H. M. Jatr (New York: Langman. 2+ ‘| ae 44 Tabari, Tar! Donner, The Conques: a SUNY Press, 1994). p 45 Tabavi, Tart cit. p. 150). 4G Jafri, Origins. <= speculates upon the p= “Ald eause among thhe states: “Those who were ++ about the politieal respos 4. Inevitably, a sensitive eon. costa eorallary of the polit. sradition of fuith proved to be “eal opposition to the ruling, aut the relevance of a Srd- sre of Islamic practige in the wwe no other earlier sourees Lbayan ‘an toed aya" v1.2, p, 253, vamentary an verse 8:45 of 2M be vend: “And remember ‘analy: sine the Hadith, ecifie manner, which ‘.thrt: The Translation of #chammad Muhsin Khan, Him (bi-sharh al-lmam 4, 1994), vol. 17, p. 17-8, “dt (bi-sharh al-Imém Sawi, 1934), vol. 13, p, Tubfat al-ahwadhi (bi- 1 1968), vol. 9, pp, 820-1 fo ot-Fikr, 199, vol. 4, p. 67 ‘Egypt: Maktabah a Notes to the Bssays 349 riyyah al-kubra, n.), p. 98. 25 Sahih Tirmidhi, vol. 13, p.10. 26 Sahih Mustim, vol. 5, p. 92. 24 Ibid., sol. 17, p.8. 28 Tiemidhs, Sahih Tirmidhi, vol. 13, pp 29 Ibid., vol. 13, pp. 37-42. 30 Tirmidht, Salih Tirmiaht, Musnad, vol. 4, p. 214 (hadith 12043 hadith 21 & 212. 81 Bukhari, Sahth, vol. 1, p. 956. 32 Muslim. Salih, vol. 17, p.7 33 al-Mubarakfuri, Tuhfat al-ahwadhi (bi-sharh jami® al-Tirmidhi, vol 10, p. 54-56. 34 Bukhari, Saft, vol. 2, p. 346. 35 Sulayman b. al-Ash'ath al-Sijistani Aba Dawad, Sunan Aba Dawid (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-“ilmiyyah, 1996), vol. 1, p. 5. 36 al-Mubarakfui, Tuhfat al-ahwadhi (bi-sharh jami® al-Tirmidht), vol. 9. p. 31 ‘97 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad. vol. 4, p. 131, Uradith #11653). 38 Muhammad b, dari Tabars, Tarikh al-umam wa ‘emutide (Cave: Mathfat al-tstigqamah, 1939), vol. 4, p. 7 39 Ibid., vol. 4, p45. 40 Ibid, vol, 4, p, 63. Our translation is, in part, taken from the transla- tion of by G. R. Havting in The First Civil War, vol. 17 of The History of al- Tabari (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996), p. 112.) It should be noted that ‘Tuba ives two different recensions of this particular event. ‘The one cited above from Abi Mikbnaf; the second recension is that of Abi Kurayb and in this particular recension, the first of the three things which ‘AI! promises not to deny the Khavifites is “prayer in this mosque (salah fi hadha "masjid," with prayer used in the indefinite. 41 Muhammad b, Yazid al-Mubs 1864), vol. 1, pp. 951-2. 42S. 1. M. Jafri, The Origins and Barly Development of Shi“a Islam (New York: Longman, 1979), p. 87, 43 ‘Tabari, Tar“Tkh, vol. 3, p. 340-1. (This translation is taken from R. ‘Stephen Humphreys, The Crisis of the Karly Caliphate, vol. 15 of The History of al-Tabari. (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 75-6.) 44 Tabari, Tarihh, vol. 2, p. 526. (Translation is taken from Fred M. Donner, The Conquest of Arabia, vol. 10 of The History of al-Pabart (Albu SUNY Press, 1994, p. 148. 15 Tabari, Tarik, vol. 2, p. 5274'Tra it. p- 1501, 46 Jafri, Origins, see in general, chapter 1 of this work, in which Jafri speculates upon the possible ideological basis for the general support of the “Alid cause among the southern Arabian tribe ol. 9, p. 56-7; see also Ahmad b, Hanbal, ‘and Muslim, Sahih, Kitab al-man, vad, al-Kanil jon is taken from Don a er, op.cag 350 Notes. on the Contributors ‘ | 47 Aw "Hasan “Alb. Husayn b “AW Alas, Mura atehahab 4a 18, Abe) Baw ma“adin al-jawhar (Beirut: Dar al-Andalus, 1973), vol. 2. p. 307. It does at 1989), Vol. 1, p. 319. Cirat som slenngo that when Sad charges Salman with vgihne tn the iquren 228 | rss 20. Abo Dasa * heconunry poverty or “lightness to traverse the “steep path” of the afterlife ‘tsSunnah al: One should real however, he conection made between the practice of 21 Bulyrnmed 272 dir and Ue “lightness” requived to enter paradise that was established ( hay nd) Kitab aso 094 the hut cited envi ints paper seo p18, note 3 of this paper ' 22 hanes. ts 4] 48 al-Shavt all, Noh) a-btaghal (Dar Telhayee aKa i 601 “Arabiya, 1963), vo Ic wba 96, pp 2189. 23. Quean, 4:20 a ,rr~—”.._._._.—_:=siCrzsCC*s DH Atal op show a particular preominnnee of “pro-Alia” transmitters 2h Iattatoot Lato sisting 2] ‘The Living Will (wastyat al-hayy): Cre uaa vf A Study in the Light of Islamic Jurisprudence madhahib al-arba a. 5 ¥Y 1 Mukhtar Al-Mahdi, “The End of Human Human Life: Its 21. Sunan Abe Bs 854 a . =e renee Medical Sciences (LOM. 1989), pp. 316-317 3B Quran, Ss 2. Quran, 5:00. Bo. Quean2I8s 3. Muthu bin Ismail ALBuKhAv, Selth e-Bubhar. CaivoeDar al 30, Watiban 2 Shab, nal) “Kitab al-Wasaye.” Vol. 4, p. 2 $ ‘Thanh wa aiTavcat = 2% 4M, 8. Om, Introduction tothe Tle Lawof Secession (Durban ‘a Rewaution S Innpess 1882) 93 igh Beato in 5. ALRabi'nh, “Ali “Abd al-Rahman, “ALWagivah" in Majallat Majma® ‘Aeuitemy: Resalutiess = 34 al-Fighi, (Makkah al-Mukarramah: Rabiat al-‘Alam al-Islami. 1409/1989), al-Ilm li al-Tiba‘an Wot Bp 09. 32. Darah sl 6. Jorold Leonant-taitz, “Buthanasia, the Right to Die and the Law in 3, Quean, 52 South Africa,” The International Journal of Medicine and Law (1992). Vol. 34, Muhammad t ep 6 Shana, Kitab a2 7. There are many versions of the Living Will. This particular one was. 5. See “Qarar >. ‘2-0 ¥61 issued by "Save The Living Society” Westville, Durban, Saath Aen Majaitah at Mejne 8. “Euthanasia, the Right to Die and the Law in South Afviea,” op. ci. p. Islami, 1408 AHI 36. David Lamt dl ‘9. Quran, 1670, otnnon (ot) Death P 10. Quran, 2:178, 199: 11. ak abman AlJozayr, Kad abFigh “ala atMadhanid at 37. Rogaation 3 Arbatah (tra: Dara ke al"Avai ne) Vol 8.226 igh beady 3 0-2 12, Quran, 6:38 ‘cutee Resale 18: Quran, 1798 atti alba" a 14, Hassan Hathout, “Euthanasia,” Death and Dying: Advising Patient 38, For an aeeoats: 2 & Family Durban: Islamic Medical Association of South Afrien, 1996), p. 14 Figh “ala alMadhin * 1b. itl, pI 6h proves 1G. Quran, 29:2. . 17, Quran, 2:155-166.