Beye O60 Curriculum Development in Language Teaching Jack C. Richards Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Language Cente, Singapore CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIOCE. ‘The Pic Building, Trumpington Sees, Cambeidge, United Kingdom ‘The Edinburgh Builing, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK +40 West 20d Sweex, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, VIC3166, Auszalia ‘Raia de Alnreén 13, 28014 Madirid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Aitica epsiiwwucambrge org (© Cambeidge Univesity Press 2001 This book isin copiright Subjecteo samtory exception snd tothe provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any pac may take place without the wren permission of Cambridge Universiy Press. Fist publishes 2001 Printed inthe United Stats of America ‘Typeface Times Roman 1044/12p¢ (AG) Library of Congress Cotloging-in-Publicarion Data Richard, Jock C CCorrculum development in anguage teaching /Jack C. Richards. = pcm. ISBN 0-521-80060-9 [Language and languages ~ Study and veaching 2. Cusvicalum planing. Te. 755.295.253.201 ‘e-oont= ett : oo-oss711 SBN 0 5280060 badtack ISBN 52180494 ppeback are Pe Cestrecaronrtert. 796 / 279416Contents Series editor's preface ix Preface xi 1 The origins of language curriculum development 1 Hisvorial background 2 Vocebulary selection 4 Grammar selection and gradation 9 Assumptions underlying early approaches to syllabus design 15, Discussion questions and activities 16 ‘Appendix 1 Eatres fom A Geral Service Lis of English Words 17 ‘Appendix 2 Eauies from Cambridge English Lexicon 18 ‘Appendix 3 Partof an early English grammatical syllabus 20 References 22 2. From syllabus design to curriculum development 23 ‘The quest fornew methods 23 Changing needs for foreign languages in Europe 26 English for specific purposes - 28 Needs analysis in ESP 32 Communicative language teaching 36 Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching 39 Discussion questions and activities 43 Appendix 1 Example of scientific writing 45 ‘Appendix 2. Words found often in academic reading materials 47 References 43. 3 Needs analysis 51 The purposes of needs analysis 52 What areneeds? 54.vi Contents The users of needs analysis 55 ‘The target population 57 ‘Administering the needs analysis 58 Procedures for conducting needs analysis 58 Designing the needs analysis 63 ‘Making use of the information obtained 64 Discussion questions and activities 67 Examples of needs analyses 68 Appendix 1 Designing a questionnaire 72 ‘Appendix 2 Needs analysis questionnaire for Cantonese Teamers 73 Appendix 3 Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English- ‘eckground students 80 References 89 - 4 Situation analysis 90 Societal factors 93 Projectfactors 95 Institutional factors 97 Teacher factors 99 Leamerfacrors 101 ‘Adoption factors 103 Profiling the factors identified in the situation analysis 105 Discussion questions and activities 106 Appendix 1 Situation analysis profile 108 ‘Appendix Matex for identifying factors in curriculum renewal process 108 References ML 5 Planning goals and leaming outcomes 112 The ideology of the curriculum 113 Stating eusticalum outcomes 120 Nonlanguage outcomes and process objectives 133 Discussion questions and activities 137 Appendix 1 Behavioral objectives 139 Appendix 2 Listening and conversation skills. 140 ‘Appendix 3 ESOL standards for grades ¢-8 141 References 142Contents vi 6 Course planning and syllabus design 145 The course rationale 145 Describing the entry and exitevel 146 Choosing course content. — 147 Determining the scope and sequence 149 Planning the course stucoure 151 Preparing the scope and sequence plan 167 Discussion questions and activities 168, Appendix 1 Proficiency descriptions for the domain of speaking 170 Appendix 2 Description of performance levels; writing _ 174 Appendix 3 Band descriptors for oral interaction skills "176 Appendix 4 Grammar items and their sequence in a first-year English course 178 Appendix S Threshold level syllabus 179 Appendix 6 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking 182 Appendix 7 Designing ecourse from texts 185, Appendix 8 Avnitfrom Passages] 187 ‘Appendix 9 Part of the scope and sequence chart from New Interchange, vol.1 195 References 196 7 Providing for effective teaching 198 ‘The institution _ 198 The teachers 209 The teaching process 214 ‘The learning process 2: Discussion questions and activities 225 ‘Appendix [Institutional mission statement 227 ‘Appendix 2 Best practice in English language teaching 228 ‘Appendix 3 Assessment criteria for teaching practice 231 Appendix 4 Checklist for evaluating a teacher's lesson 232 ‘Appendix 5 Qualities and competencies of a good English teacher 236 Appendix 6 Self-evaluation of a teacher's lesson 240 ‘Appendix 7 Student appreisal form 244 ‘Appendix § Peer appraisal form 246 References 249vii Contents 8 The role and design of instructional materials 251 ‘Authentic versus created materials 252 Textbooks 254 Evaluating textbooks 256 ‘Adapting textbooks 250 Preparing materials fora program — 261 ‘Managing a materials waiting project 267 Monitoring theuse of materials 270 Discussion questions and activities 271 “Appendix 1 Guidelines for developing reading activities 272 ‘Appendix 2 Checklist for evaluation and selection of course books 274 ‘Appendix’3 Case study of materials development project, 277 References 284 9 Approaches toevaluation 286 Purposes of evaluation 288 Formative evaluation 288 luminative evaluation 289 Summative evaluation 291 Issues in program evaluation — 294 Procedures used in conducting evaluations 299 Discussion questions and activities 304 ‘Appendix Examples of program evaluations 305 References 309 Author index 311 Subjectindex 314Series editor's preface ‘The activities of language teaching have often been viewed froma very nar- row perspective. This is evident from the fascination with teaching methods that has characterized the history of language teaching until relatively 2 cently, Methods have often been regarded as the most important factor in termining the success of @ language program, and advances in language teaching have sometimes been seen as being dependent on the adoption of the latest method. A perspective often missing froma the method-based view of teaching is that of how methods interact with other factors in the teach- ing-learning process. Who are the learners and the teachers? What expecta tions do they have for the program? What learning and teaching styles do they bring o the program? For what purposes is the language needed? What ‘goals does the program have, and how are these goals expressed? In what settings will teaching take place, and what organizational structure is in place to support and maintain good teaching? What resources will be used, ‘and what are their roles? What isthe role of textbooks and other materials? ‘What measures will be used to determine the success of the program? Choice of teaching method cannot therefore be made unless a great deal ‘known about the context for the language program ane the interactions be- tween the different elements involved. It is this perspective that character- izes a curriculum-based approach to language teaching, ‘This book presets an approach to the eaching-leamning process that sees successful language as being dependent upon the activities of curriculum evelopment, that is, the use of a variety of planning and implementation ‘processes involved in developing or renewing 2 language program. These processes include determining learners’ needs, analysis of the context for the program and consideration of the impact of contextual factors, the plan- ning of leaming outcomes, the organization of a course or set of teachin: materials, the selection and preparation of teaching materials, provision for and maintenance of effective aching, and evaluation ofthe program. These elements constitute a set of interrelated elements, and their nature and fone tion form the focus of this book. The book seeks to survey key issues and practices within language curriculum development in order to provide thex. Series editor's preface ‘pass for more effecive planning and decision making in language program development, implementation, and review. I hope that teachers and othec language teaching professionals will find thet this book helps them beer ‘indersuand and use the skills involved in developing effective language prO- stars. Jack C. RichardsPreface 1g as a classroom teacher, anticipating that as I accumulated experi- cece and professional knowledge, I would become abecter teacher. As many others have discovered, however, I soon came to realize that being an ef- fective teacher meant much more thaa becoming @ more skilful and knowl- ‘edgeable classroom practitioner. meant earning how to develop and adapt ‘materials, to plan and evaluate courses, to adapt teaching to stadens” needs, and to fanction within an institutional seting It became clear that effective teaching was dependent on understanding the context for teaching, the needs of teachers and leamers, the careful planning of courses and materi- als, as well asthe monitoring of teaching and learning, In shor, it was nec- essary to try to understand teaching as a part ofan interrelated set of factors and processes that are often referred to es curriculum development. ‘This book seeks to describe and examine the processes of curiculum de- velopment in language teaching in order to acquaint language teachers and teachers-in-training with fundamental issues and practices in language cur- Ficulum development. Curriculum development is an esseatially practical activity since it seeks to improve the quality of language teaching through the use of systematic planning, developmeat, and review practices in all as- ‘pects of a language program. The book tres to provide as many examples 1s possible of how some of the practical problems in language program de- velopment have been addressed by practitioners in many parts ofthe worl. ‘At the same time, the practices employed in developing and renewing lan- ‘guage programs themselves ceflect ongoing theories and developments in language teaching pedagogy, second language acquisition theory. educe- tional theory, and related felds; heace the book also seeks to bighlight im- ‘portant theoretical issues that can have a significant impacton language cur- reulum practices “The book is planned for use in in-service courses and workshops as well 1s to provide a sourcebook for teachers, program administrators, and other language teaching professionals. The book as a whole examines the key processes ia curriculum development, including needs analysis, plansingxii Preface goals and outcomes, course planning, teaching, materials development a2 valuation, Inthe earlier chapters, Ihave provided a historical perspective on how the field of curriculum evelopment in language teaching has evolved, since I believe itis important for language teaching professionals to have some sense ofthe history of the issues that have shaped the devel- ‘opment of language teaching, The subsequent chapters sock to survey KY {esues related to curriculum development issues and processes, ilustrating different points of view and providing detailed practical examples by 8 bf illustration. Discussion questions atthe ead of each chapter provide op portunities for furber reflection and application of some ofthe issues dis- cussed. “The book reflects my own 30 years of experience as a weacher, teacher educator, program director, and materials writer in many different parts of the world, Any expertise I can claim to have in curriculum development is a result of learning through the practical experience of developing curricu- um and materials and directing language programs. My intial explorations in language curriculum development took me from New Zealand, where I received my initial reacher training, to Quebec, where I completed my doc- oral esearch in eyllabus design with W. F. Mackey in the 1970s, Subse- {quently Lhave spent periods of time in universities and teacher tang een- irs in Indonesia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Hawaii, and New Zealand, ‘working in all aspects of language teaching from curriculum and materials, ‘evelopment, to teaching, to program administration. [have also served a5 f consultant to a numberof curriculum projects and institutions in different pars of the world, A cecent 10-year annual consultancy with the Ministry bf Edveation of the Sultanate of Oman also provided an inveluable oppor- tunity to provide input to currieulum and materials developraent projects at ‘national level. Atthe same time, experience as a writer of commercial lan- guage teaching materials with a worlwide market has provided opporuai- tiesto work regularly with teachers and teacher trainers in more than twenty ‘countries, an expetience that has given additional perspectives on problems {nvolved in developing and using teaching materials. Incecent years [ave ‘been ia the pleasant position of being able to divide my time between class- room teaching, teacher training, and writing, from the congenial eaviron- iment provided by the Regional Language Center in Singapore, whose Linique library resources and materials collection proved invaluable during the preparation ofthis book. ‘arlier versions of this book have been used in postgraduate and in-serv- ice courses at the University of Arizona i the United States; the University of Auckland, New Zealand; the National Institute of Education, Singapore: the Regional Language Center, Singapore; and the SEAMEO RegionalPreface xii ‘Training Center, Ho Chi Minh City, Viecaam. I am grateful for the com- ments and suggestions received from teachers and students at these institu tions. I am also grateful for detailed comments on the manuscriot from Dr. Jun Liu, University of Arizona, Dr. Ted Rodgers, University of Hawaii Geotirey Crewes, CEO of the Indonesian-Australian Language Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia, and several anonymous reviewers. Jack C. RichardsCredits age 17: Appendix 1 Eates fromA General Service List of English Words. Reproduced by permission of the University of London, Instinute of Edu- cation. Pages 20 and 21: Appendix 3 Part of an early English grammatical syllabus. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Prest. From Teaching Structural Words and Sentence Patems by A. S. Horby ‘© Oxford University Press 1959. Pages 45 and 46: Appendix 1 Example of scientific weiting, Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Lim- Sted. Pages 141 and 142: Appendix 3 ESOL standards for grades 4-8. From TESOL. (1997). ESL Standards for Pre-K-12 Students (p. 71). Alexandria, “Va: Author. Copyright © 1997 by Teachers of English t Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. Reprinted with permission, Pages 174 and 175: Appendix 2 Description of performance levels; writing, Reprinted from ESP Journal, Vol. 11, B. Paltridge, EAP placement testing: An integrated approach, pages 243-268, copyright 1992, with permission from Elsevier Science. Pages 187 to 194: A unit from Passages I. Page 187 (top row let 10 right) © David Hanover/Tony Stone Images; © Pete Saloutos/The Stock Market; © Mikki Ansia/Lisison Agency; (bottom row, left to right) © Mike Malyszko/FGP Intemational: © Rober: E. Daemmrich/Tony Stone Images; © Cluistophe LepetivLicisoa Agency. Page 188 © Mug Shots/The ‘Stock Market. Page 189 (top) © Ariel Skelley/The Stock Marker; (boom) © David Young Woltf/Tony Stone Images. Source (:op): From Eccensrics by David Weeks and Jamie James, Copyright © 1995 by Davie Weeks. Reprinted by permission of Villard Books, « Division of Random House Ine. Page 191: (bottom lef) Photo courtesy of 3M Company; Postit is a trademark of 3M; (ail others) © Richard Bachmann, Page 19: © Rick Rusing/Leo de Wys, Page 194: (lefta right) Couresy of Sony Blee- ironies Inc. Pages 731 to 232: Appendix 3 Assessment riteria for teaching practice. Reproduced by permission ofthe University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.@ The origins of language curriculum development volved in developing, implement: ing, and evaluating language programs. By a langvage progcam I refer to 2d course of language instruction, Second and foreign language teaching is one ofthe world’s largest educational enterprises and lions of children and adults worldwide devote large amounts of time and effort to the task of mastering 2 new language. Teachers too iavesta gest deal of their energies into planning language courses, prepariag teaching materials, and teaching their classes. What educational principles are these activites based on? What values do these principles cefiect? Whose interests do the sgive? Andean ou precices be improved trough ‘PaePAay te pecies ie operate from and cccally examining the practices that result fom them? The goal ofthis book is o provide some ofthe tools for his process ough and examining wa ie ues ts stand sxamining ways oft gang programs and language teaching ma- ‘ons, which provide the framework for this book: + What procedures can be used 10 determine. the coment ofa language program? Considered in planning a language program? + What isthe naruce of sims and objectives in teaching and how can these be developed? + What factors are involved in planning the eyllabus and the units of or- ‘ganization in a course? + How can good teaching be provided in a program? + What issues are involved in selecting, adapting, and designing insuc- “biel materials? + Howcdn one measure the effectiveness of a language progremn?2 Chapter t Language curriculum development is an aspect ofa broader field of educa- tional activity known as curriculum development or curiculum studies. Cur- fHealum development focuses on determining what knowledge, skills, and ‘values students lear in schools, whatexpetiences should be provided to bring “bout intended leaming outcomes, and how teaching and Yearning in schools or educational systems can be planned, measured, and evaluated. Language Curriculum development refers to the field of applied linguistics that ad ‘cesses these issues. It desribes an interelated set of processes tat focuses on designing, eevising, implementing, and evaluating language programs. Historical background “Tre history of curriculum developmentin language teaching stats with the notion of spllabus design, Syllabus design is one aspect of curriculum de~ ‘telopment but is not idenccal with it A syllabus is a specification of & Content ofa course of instruction and lists what will be taught and tested. ‘Thus the syllabus fora speaking course might specify the Kinds of oral sills that will be taught and practiced during the course, the functions, topics, or ther aspects of conversation that willbe taught, and te order in which they ‘vill appear inthe course, Syllabus design isthe process of developing asy- Jabus, Current approaches fo syllabus design will be diseussed in Chapter 6, Curriculum development is a more comprehensive process than syflabus vt includes the processes that ae used to determive the needs of a group of leamers, to develop aimis or objectives for a program to address those neuen deteraine an appropiate syllabus, course swear, teach- {ig titthods, and materials, and to carry Out an evaluation of the language program that results from these processes. Curiculum development in lan [uage teaching as we know it today really began in the 1960s, though is- Sues of syllabus design emerged as 2 major factor in language teaching uch earlier. In this chapter we will look at the approsches to syllabus de sign that emerged in the fist par of the twentieth century and that laid the Foundations for more broadly based curiculum approaches that ar used in language teaching today. Tf we look back atthe history of language teaching throughout the ewen- tieth century, much of the impets for changes in approaches to language teaching came about from changes in teaching methods. The method con- ceptin teaching ~ the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based ona particular theory of language and language learning ~is apowecful one and the quest for better methods has been a preoccupation of many teachThe origins of language curriculum development 3 cers and applied linguists since the beginning of the twentieth century. Many methods have come and gone in the last 100 years in pursuit of the “best method." asthe following chronology illustrates, with dates suggesting pe- ods of greatest dominance: Grammar Translation Method (1800-1900) Direct Method (1890-1930) Structural Method (1930-1960) Reading Method (1920-1950) ‘Audiolingual Method (1950-1979) Situational Method (1950-1970) Communicative Approach (1970-present) “Mackey (1965, 151) Commented that lchough tere has been a preference for particular methods at different times, methods often continue in some form Tong after they have fallen ou of favor, tis observations stil ue today, with ‘grammar translation stil alive and well in some parts ofthe world. Commer sch method is the belief that he reaching practices it supports Biowide a effective and theoretically sound basis for teaching than the methods ‘hat preceded it The characteristics of many of the methods listed above have ‘Been described elsewhere and need not concer us further here (©-g. Richards it is important to recognize that although methods cauee tats tie ey See sae oan Gamer ‘Tanladon Metodia tele ninetentacemrypresrbes nt onl th way language should be taught, with an emphasis on the exclusive use of the tar- get language, intensive question-and-answer teaching techniques, and Seon and damatatonts communica meaings of mors tls prescribes the vocabillary and grammar to be taught and the order in which it ould be proseted. The Dict Mead ence assumes a paras pe of syltbus Howere a ev mebinds emerged ease the Cranmnat s- (Bdon MeO Elda concern elt wn taba questions Pu ih approdcbies to teaching and methodological principles that could support an 1 oral-based target fanguage-driven methodology. Harold Palmer, the prominent British applied linguist who laid the foundations for the Struc- tnd Method in be 190i, summataed fe pcp of language etching methodology atta ne alos: 1, Initial preparation ~ orienting the students towards language learning 2. Habit-forming — establishing correct habitsChapter 1 ‘Accuracy ~ avoiding inaccurate language . Gradation ~ each stage prepares the student for the next Proportion ~ each aspect of language given emphasis ‘Concteteness-— movement from the concrete to the abstract Interest ~ arousing the student's interest a all times Order of progression —hearing before speaking, and both befoce writing Muleple lin of approach ~_many different ways used to teach the lan- guage peaeyae (Palmer (1922] 1968, 38-39) Once a consensus had emerged concerning the principles underly oral-based methodology, applied linguist then turned their tention 1 is- fues of the content and syllabus design underlying the’ Structural Method. Initial steps in this dizection centered on approaches to determining the VO- cabulery and grammatical content of language course. This led © proce-- dures that were known as selection and gradation. - Th any language program 2 limited amount of time is available for teach- ing. One of the first problems to be solved is deciding what should be se- fim the total corpus of the language and incorporated in textbooks and teaching materials. This came to be known as the problem of selection Mackey (1965, 161) comments: “Selection is an inherent characteristic of all methods. Since it is impossible to teach tie whole of a language, all “methods must in some way or other, whether intentionally or not, elect the part of it they intend to teach." The field of selection in language teaching Seals withthe choice of appropriate units ofthe language for teaching pur- poses and with the development of techniques and procedures by which the Tanguage cat be reduced to that which is most useful tothe learner (Mackey 1965). Allteaching, ofcourse, emands choice of what willbe taught from the total field ofthe subject, and the teaching of a language at any level and under any circunstances requires the selection of certain features ofthe Tan {guage and the intentional or unintentional exclusion of others. Two aspects Of selection received primary atention in the frst few decades ofthe wen tet century: vocabulary selection and grarimar selection. Approaches to ese two aspects of selection laid the foundations for syllabus Gesign in lan- gvage teaching. Vocabulary sélection ‘Vocabulary is one of the most ebvious components of language and one of the first things applied linguists turned their arention to, What words shouldThe origins of language curriculum development 5 betaughtina second language 4 and the amount of time availabl - Educated native speakers are” ‘thought to have @ recognition vocabulary of some 17,000 words, but this is ‘a much larger nuraber of words then can be taught in a language course. Not all the words that native speakers know are necessatily useful for seeond “Stil they ser obt to lear’ 500, 1,000, cr 3,600 words? Aad if o, whieh (ones? This i the issue of vocabulary selection in language teaching Is se~ lection something that should be left entirely to the intuitions of textbook writers and course planners or are there principles that can be used t pro- duce 2 more objective and rational approach? Leaving selection issues to the intuitions of textbook writers can lead to very unelisble resus. For ex- ample, Li and Richards (1995) examined five introductory textbooks used for teaching Cantonese (the language spoken in Hong Kong) inorder to de- termine what words the textbook compilers considered essential for for- cigners to learn and the extent to which textbook writes agreed on what constitutes the basis vocabulary of Cantonese as a second language. Each of the books was designed for a similar type of student and assumed no background knowledge ofthe language. Each ser out © teach basic com- runicative skils, though the methodology of each book varied. I: was found thatthe Five books introduced a total of approximately 1,800 differ- ent words, aldhough not al ofthese words occurred in each ofthe five rex “The distibution of words inthe five books is as foliows: Words occurring in one of the texts 1,141 words = 63.4% Words occurring in two of the texts, 313 words = 17.4% Words occurring in three of the texts 155 words = 8.6% Words occurring in four of the texts 114 words = 63% Words occurring in all of thetexts 77 words. = 4.3% - (Liand Richards 1995) From these figures itcan be seen that a substantial percentage of the corpus (63.4 percent consists of words that occurred in only one of the five texts, ‘These words could not therefore be considered to belong tothe essential vo- cabulary of Cantonese for second language leamers and would not be worth learning. Many are probably items that are specific to the topic ofa dialogue ‘or situation that was used to practice a particular grammatical item or struc- ture, The same could be said of words occurring in only two of the texts, ‘which constituted a further 17.4 percent of the corpus. Only words that oc-_ curred in thrée or more of the texts important vocabulary, because three oF miGt® Of the WERBGOK waters in ) Summarize your argument: the problem (2a), your eonciusion (3c), ‘and the reasons for accepting it (3a and 3b). Both the concepts of register and discourse type were the basis forthe first ageneration of ESP courses in the 1970s, such as the English in Focus series (Allen and Widdowson 1974). ‘Although one of the main directions of the ESP approach through the 1960s and 1970s was the development of language courses and materials that taught the registers and discourse features of science, business, or med {cine, the focus in ESP on the purposes for which learners need a language ‘prompted the development of approaches to needs analysis, one ofthe ba- sic processes of curiculum and syllabus design. Needs analysis wil be the focus of Chagter 3, but i wil be useful here to review how needs analysis is related to ESP. Needs analysis in ESP An important principle of ESP approaches to language teaching is that the ‘purposes for which 2 leamer aceds a language rather-than a syllabus re~ flecting the structure of general English should be used in planning an En- alish course, Rather than developing a course around an analysis ofthe lan- ‘guage, an ESP approach starts instead with an analysis of the learner's needs. Schutz and Derwing (1981, 30) point out that this was a new con- ‘cem with ESP: “most language planners in the past bevé bypassed @ logi- cally necessary first step: they have presumed to set about going somewhere ‘without first determining whether or not their planned destination was rea sonable or proper” Different types of students have different language needs and what they are taught should be restricted to what they need, TheseFrom sylabus design to curiculum development 99 ¥ sede aft speci; ty canbe identited and the i the cont of any course. Suevens 197 pointed ot ‘ese iatON ETE. “The content of [ESP] courses are thereby determined, in some or all ofthe following ways: () restriction: only those “basic skills” (understanding speech, speaking, reading, writing) are included which are required by the learner's ‘purposes: (i selection: only those items of vocabulary, paverns of grammar, fonctions of language are included which are required by the leamer’s purposes; i) themes and topics: only those themes, topics, situations, universes of iscourse, et, are included which are required by the learnes purposes; (Iv) communicative needs: only those communicative neds ... re included which face required for the learner's purposes. Jn SE eames ase rften decried items of paceman, ati Berane os aes eile ale inainic imgenearie Ee ee ee ane teat eae Se eet oeusanae tel ; ‘hese of ES i aly dying perform ole Te mew of ses deen ee oral crtiel wakes ke Bags nd cotgy. A ee cemagy sto vaceibegh armies they can act appropriately as food eechaologiss in English (and pass exams in food technology rather than exams in English). In order to determine the leamer’s needs as the starting point for develop- “nterviewing), the language functions involved (e.g., explaining, requesting, complaining), the situations (.g., face-to-face, ina work group), and which ofthe fe d .eded. Procedures suggested for con- ‘ducting needs analysis included questionnaires, surveys, and interviews. Munby (1978), in an influential book of the time, describes a systematic approach to needs analysis in ESP course design and focuses on two dimen o periawerty34 Chapter? we nr tga ent tive needs and is summarized by Schutz and Deewing (1981, 32) 2s follows: Profile of Communicative Needs 1, Personal Culturally significant information about the indi vidual, such as Tanguage background 2. Purpose Occupational or educational objective for which the target language is requised 3. Serting ‘Physical and psychosocial setting in which the tar~ got language is required 44, Interactional _Such as the role relationships to be involved in the variables target language use a 5, Mediam, mode, Communicative means and channel 6. Dialects Information on dialects to be utilized 7, Target level Level of competence required in the target Tanguage 8. Anticipated Micro- and macro-activities communicative 9. Key “The specific manner in which communication is actually certied out “An example will illustrate how the model could be applied in carrying out 4a needs profile. If one were profiling the needs of restaurant staff such as waiters and waitresses, the following information might be revealed through applying the Manby model: 1. Pertonal Who the employees are, heir age, nationalities, sen, educational background, work experience 2. Purpose The Kinds of outcomes expected, such athe types of communicative skills the clients need to develop 3. Sexing ‘The type of restaurant in which the employees swodk and the Kinds of customers who use te ‘restaurant a 4, Tnteractnal The role relationships, such as waiterwaitess to variables castomer, waiteiwaitess to restaurant manages, waiterhwaitress to Kitchen staffFrom syllabus design to curriculum development 35 5. Medium, mode, Whether spoken or written; face to face and channel 6, Dialects ‘Whether both formal and casual styles 7. Target level ‘Whether basic, intermediate, or advanced level 8. Anticipated For example, greetings, taking requests, clarifying communicative information, describing menu items events 9. Key For example, unhurriedly, quietly, politely “The needs profile is then translated into a statement of te list of specific language skills the students will need based on the skills txonomy Menby~ provides. Ths consists of some 300 subskills grouped into $4 categories. Forexample in relation tothe “macroskill” of reading, Monby lists th fol Towing skis: + Understanding relations between parts ofa text through lexical cohe- sion devices of: repetition synoayraity yporymity antithesis apposition lexical sevecollocation pro-forms/general words Understanding relations between parts ofa text through grammatical cohesion devices of: reference (anaphoric and eataphoric) comparison substitution ellipsis time and place relaters logical connectors “The skills taxonomy appears tobe little more than a compilation of then= currentopinion about the components ofthe different language skills. Whea it was published, the Munby model was welcomed asa systematic and ob- Jective set of processes for amving at a specification of student needs and selecting language to maich them. However, those who attempted to use the ‘model soon discovered that it depended on subjective and often arbixary judgments and decis r completing 2 two-day ‘raining session in the use of the Munby model during which they produced, profiles of imaginary students, 2 group of British Council specialists re-26 Chapter? ported “there was no evidence that groups would have been bener off using live informants” (cited in Robinson 1980, 30). Communicative language teaching ‘The emergence of ESP with its emphasis on needs analysis as a starting int in language program O&sign WAT aT TNPOPTAM Factor in the develop- tment of current approaches to language e Weave Was the Communicative approach to language teaching that emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s as a replacement for the structural- ivational and audiolingual methods. Communicative Language Teach ing (CU ipa roa approach to eacing hat eslied fom 8 {ETE Co oluaton____—5 haw We evcbotel, ‘As Lawton (1973) pointed out, this rather naive view of the curriculum process was act really intended by Tyler himself, whose book was a re- sponse to his observation that many teachers seemed unable to explain what40 Chapter 2 he gal oft cashing were, cent in most gene Te ‘RpLaTA Meir objectives, they might say, “We are trying to produce well-ed- cated and well-rounded students.” Such a statement, however, does not help identify the kind of teaching that might contribute to this goal or the of learning that would result from it. Tyler angus anal cb jectives should deseribe leamer behavior (foe teacher behavior) and should Gr changes have come about in leamers a5 a result of teaching “let's model or variations of W'S0Ow PETeTaTed Wide weas OF edueato thought and practice and curriculum and training manuals were scon full of smodels suchas the following Inglis 1975) 1. veep 2. SLAN Aims Objectives Surategies Tactics 3. DePLEMENTATION 4. review Z Methods Techniques ‘Evaluation Consolidation itis of the Tyler model (of which there were many) raised a number of objections, somie arguing thatthe notion of objectives represents a lim ited view of knowledge (see Chapter 5) and some criticizing the technical and rationalist approach of the model, which seemed berter suited to busi- ness of industry than education. Others criticized the Linear approach im- plied by the model, which leaves evaluation as the final stage rather than boilding it in at every stage. In its place they proposed a cyclical mode!, icholls and Nicholls (1972, 4), for example, describe curriculum de- ‘lopment as involving Four stages; (a) The carefs examination, drawing on all available sources of knowledge and informed judgement, oft objectives of teaching, whether in paricular subject courses or over the eurticulum asa whole (©) The development and tral use in schools of those methods and materials which are judged most likely to achieve te objectives which teachers agroed p00. ~ (c) The assessment of the excent to which the development work has in ft achieved its objectives, This part ofthe process may be expected to provoke new thought about the objectives themselves. (4) Tre final element is therefore feedback of all the experience gained, to provide a stating pint for further study. ‘This view of curriculum development processes has been widely adopted in language teaching from the 1980s. It has been described as an ends~ ‘means model because? it starts with a determination of the kinds of language skills the Jeamner needs in order to accomplish specific roles and tasks and then sets out to teach the language needed to get there. In the field of cur~From syllabus design to curriculum development 41 Ficulum studies the approach was sometimes reduced to a mechanistic set of procedures and rules known as asystems-design model. A system inthis context is “en integrated plan of operation ofall components (sub-systems) cof asystem, designed to solve a problem or meet a need” (Briggs 1977, 5). “The systems model belongs to an approach to educational planning that sees curriculum development as a raional and somewhat technical process. Is practitioners believed that this was the Key to the desiga of successful edu- cational programs. la the 1980s, fonding for large-scale curiculum projects in many parts of the world was often dependent oa their being couched ia this framework, Rodgers (1989, 27) observes: “The cusrigolarsystems-dosign model as beea prescriptive and rule-driven escribes a linear sequence of events comprising formulation of objectives, section of content, ask analysis, design of learning activities, definition of Detivioral outcomes and evaluative measures for determining the achievement or nor-achievement of these outcomes. ‘The Munby model has many of the same characteristics as a systems ap- proach and was found to be cumbersome, unrealistic, and impractical in a2- tual practice. However, since the 1980s the view that curriculum develop- ment processes are central elements in language program design has become more widely accepted in language teaching, though notin the nar- row prescriptive form of the systems model. In many countries, language curriculum development units have been established in miniswies of edu cation since the 1980s with a mandate to review and develop national lan- ‘guage teaching curriculum based on 4 curriculum development perspective For example, Lim (1988, 2, cited in Ho 1994) comments on such an init tive in Singapore aad notes that curriculum development now includes “needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, materials design, language programme design, teacher preparation, implementation of programmes in schools, monitoring, feedback and evaluation.” The debates over tesching methods that were common in the 1970s have been replaced by 2 focus on the interlinked processes that compose curriculum development, of which methodology is simply one element. “Comiglum development wed in th “These processes focus on needs analysis, siualonal analysis, fing es, CoUE Oraanivation, selecting and prepa = Na nunddiey foe Bactce uacking aa RIT ToS TEments ere viewed as forming a network of interacting systems. The no- tion of system suggests that change in one part of the systema has effects on other pars ofthe system. For example, whether oz not teachers are provided42. Chapter2 ‘with textbooks to teach from, itself reflecting 2 policy decision, may affect the kinds of classroom discourse and learning input that teachers are able to provide, Similarly, the amount of attention students give to learning ac- tivities may reflec their jadament ofthe relevance of te Kinds of learning experiences they encounter, which may depend on the adequacy of a needs analysis, In this book, no atierpt is made to present the classic systems ap- proach fo curriculum development. Such an approach typically depicts teachers as on the receiving end of a process controlled and dizected by oth- cers, The approach taken here seeks to place teachers and language teaching professionals at the center of the planning and decision-making process. ‘While the products ofthese decision-making processes are ensy to identify and analyze because they exist inthe form of policy documen's, syllabuses, tests, teaching materials, teaching programs, textbooks, and teaching and learing acts (lohason 1889), the processes that lead to them are mare dif- ficult to ideatify and analyze because they often reflect the contibutions of a varity of people with differearroles and goals. Johnson (1989, 3) xepre- sents these differeat decision-making roles and products in the following agra: TABLE 1 Stages, decision-making roles and products in curriculum, evelopment (from Johnson 1989) Developmental sages | Decision-making roles | Products 1. eumiculum planning | policy makers policy document 2. specification: needs analyst ends syllabus means methodologists materials writers teaching materials 3. pogamne ‘implementation teacher-aiting cher teacher wainecs ae teacher teaching acts 4, classroom implementation leamnee Teaming acts Clark (1987) emphasizes that ocesses of an developiieat, SCS ome sort of curiculum i assay. in place Teach- sand curriculum planners are engaged in Ongoing processes ofreview and.From syllabus design to curriculum development 43 evaluaon inorder to brixg about cuiclum renewal and charge, Cia _ ents te following companess fhe process of eure real + the review of principles to guide the language teachin/learing process ine igh of aple igus theory and classroom expeence + the evodting of slabuses embodying ais, cbecves, conten and broad mebodoiosy « the review of eastoom ttchinglearing steies 5 the choice, alptaton, and eeaton of resources embodying appropriate Teaming expences « thereview of essessnen designed to monitor, record repo an provide feedback on leer proses thovovew of cassoom schemes of worcreatng al of he abovetngeer the review and craton of cates designed t9 asc teaches 0 var te casroom practices and 9 improve them the dena of res forsee a deteine posible way forward In any ofthe sbove areas « theneview oc aising of in-service edeation designed to asst teaches to widn thls concep and pragmatic base ia parla arts, and find soludons odes ova classroom problems (Clark 1987, xii-xili) ‘The aim of the following chapters is to survey concepts, issues, and prac tices in each of these areas in order to beter facilitate the Kind of planning and decision making that is involved in developing better language pro- grams. Discussion questions and activities 1, Why were “new methods” criticized as a response to chenging language teaching needs from the 1960s? ‘2. Whatis the rationale behind the ESP approach to language teaching? In ‘what ways is this approach different from earlier approaches to language teaching? 3, How did the ESP movement contribute to the concept of neds analysis? 4, How can register analysis and discourse analysis contribute to ESP? ‘Suggest situations where they might be particularly important 5, Examine the sample of scientific English in Appendix 1 and the lists of Features of scientific English from Ewer and Hughes-Davies given inthis chapter, Which of these features are exemplified in the sample?44 Chapter2 6 Examine the Monby profile of communicative needs in this chapter. How might this apply to determining the needs of flight attendants who require training in English (or learners in another situation you are fa- miliar with)? Give examples of the kind of information that would be sought and suggest possible answers. _. What is the difference between grammatical competence and commu- nicative competence? How is this difference relevant syllabus design?” 3. What is meant by an ends-means model of curriculum development? ‘What are the limitations of this approach? Explain a “systems approach” to curriculum development. What eriti- cisms have been made of this approach?From syliabus design to curriculum development 45 Appendix 1 Example of scientific writing (from Ewer and Latorre 1969) Scientific method and the methods of science It is sometimes said that there is no such thing as the so-called ‘scientific method’; there are only the methods used in science. Nevertheless, it seems clear thet there is often a special sequence of procedures which is involved in the establishment of the working principles of science. This sequence is as follows: (1) a problem is recognized, and as much information as appears to be relevant is col- lected; (2) a solution (ie. a hypothesis) is proposed and the conse- {quences arising out of this solution are deduced; (3) these deductions are tested by experiment, and as a result the hypothesis is accepted, modified or discarded. Asanillustation of this we can consider the discovery of airpres- sure, Overtwo thousand years ago, men discovered a method of rls ing water from one level to another by means ofthe vacuum pump. ‘When, however, this machine passed into general use in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it was discovered that, no matter how per fect the pump was itwas not possible to raise water vertically more than about 35 feet. Why? Galileo, amongst others, recognized the problem, but failed to solve it. ‘The problem was then attacked by Torricelli. Analogizing from the recently-discovered phenomenon of water-pressure (hydrostatic pressure), he postulated that a deep ‘sea of sir’ surrounded the earth; itwas, he thought, the pressure of this sea of air which pushed on the surface of the water and caused it to rise in the vacuum tube of @ pump. A hypothesis thea, was formed. The next step was to deduce the consequences ofthe hypothesis. Torccelli reasoned that this ‘ait pressure’ would be unable to push a liquid heavier than water as hig as 35 feet, and that a column of mercury, for example, which ‘weighed about I¢ times more than water, would rise to ouly a four- teenth of the height of water, ie. approximately 2.5 feet. He thea tested this deduction by means of the experiment we all know, and found that the mercury column measured the height predicted. The ‘experiment therefore supported the hypothesis, A further inference was drawn by Pascal. who reasoned that if this sea of ais’ existed, its pressure at the bottom (ie. sea-level) would be greater than its pressure further up, and that therefore the height of the mercury col- umia would decrease in proportion to the height ebove sea-evel. He48. Chapter2 then cazried the mercury tube tothe top of a mountain and observed that the column fell steadily as the height increased, while another ‘mercury column at the bottom of the mountain remained steady (an example of another of the methods of science, the controlled exper iment), This further proof aot only established Torviceli’s hypothe ‘sis more securely, but also demonstrated that, in some aspects, air ‘behaved like weter; this, of course, stimulated further enquiry.From syllabus design to curriculum development 47 2. Words found often in academic reading Appen materials ‘Words not found in the General Service List but that occur frequently in academic reading materials, with frequencies of occucrence in ten first ‘year university textbooks (Eom Praninskas 1972). eee Cee ee eee eter eee anindicate weincicae 98 anindicaton aneemiston Hin te Ei tae tee eee eater eee an incerpreution pet —_ntepresve 2 amisinerpresion a eisterpemiion aninvolvenent —_toinvohe 103 aniovolvemeat __twimolye ametod rpetodoical as ~ methodology methodological segue negatively 6 : obvious obviowly 48 eS pritiveness rine paaaily 135 primacy primitive peineval ee procedure w proceed 7 proceedings ‘publication ‘publish 3 a pobliser ~w pobtice ange wrege 70 region ‘gional reionally 9 iteregional ee a requirement wo reguive 19 arguement wre a srry similar similarly 133 asimtaty St Ore a specification wwapedly. spec spesiicaly 199 ~specfccy specifble Tjoice —suficient ——suclently, 56 insoficent PE EEE eee ee Hee Pee terete eee Creer eee48 Chapter 2 References ‘Allen, Pj and H. Widdowson (eds). 1974. English in focus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Bloomfield, L, 1942. Outline guide forthe practical sudy of foreign languages. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America. Briggs, L. (ed.). 1977. Instructional design: Principles and applications. En ‘glewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. (Chiu, R. 1972. Measuring register characteristics: A prerequisite for preparing ‘advanced level TESOL programs. TESOL Quarterly, 6(2) (1972): 129-141, (Clack, J. 1987. Curriculum renewal in school foreign language learning. Ox- ford: Oxford University Press. Couneil of Europe. 1969. The work ofthe Council of Europe in the field of mod- em languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Darian, S. 1972. English as a foreign language: History, development, and ‘methods of teaching, Noreian: University of Oklahoma Press. Ewer, JR, and G. Latorre. 1969.4 course in basic scientific English. London: Longman. Ewer, J. R., and G. Hughes-Davies: 1971. Further notes on developing an En- ‘lish programme for suudents of science and technology. English Lan- guage Teaching 26(1): 65-70. Halliday, M.A. K. 1978, Language as social semioiie. London: Arnold. Ho, W. K. 1994, The English language cucriculum in perspective: Exogeneous influences and indigenization. In 8. Gopinatan, A. Pakir, H.W. Kam, and ‘. Saravanan (eds,), Language, socieny, and education in Singapore (24 ed). Singapore: Times Academic Press. 22-244. Hoey, M. 1979. Signaling in discourse: A functional analysis ofa common dis- course patter in writen and spoken English. Birmingham: University of Bicningbam, English Language Research Unit Hoey, M. 1983. On the surface of discourse. London: Allen and Unwin, Inglis, E1975. ldeology and the curriculum: The value assumptions of system builders. In M. Golby, J. Greeawald, and R. West (eds.), Curriculum de- sign. London: Croom Helm. Howatt, A. P.R. 1984. A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press Johnson, R. K. 1989. The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press. Jordan. R. 1997. English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press Jupp, T.C., and S. Hodlin, 1975. Industrial English. London: Heinemann, Kingsbury, R. 1971. A proposed model for eritcal discussion and study ofFrom syliabus design to curriculum develooment 49 possibie unitcredit system ia modern language learning ard teaching for ‘adults in Europe. In Councif of Europe, Linguistic content, means of eval uation and their interaction inthe reaching ond learning of modern lan- ‘guages in adult education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg: 10-16. Lado, R, 1978. Lado English series. New York: Regeats. Lange, D. 1990, A blueprint for a teacher development program. In J. C. Richards and D, Nunan (eds,), Second language teacher education, New York: Cambridge University Press. 245-268. Lawton, D. 1973. Social change, educational theory and curriculum planning. London: University of London Press. Mackay R., and J. Palmer. (eds.) 1981. Languages for specific purposes: Pro- ‘gram design and evaluation. Rowley, MA: Newbury Howse. Moris, P1995. The Hong Kong school curriculum. Hong Kong: Hoag Kong, University Press. Munby, J. 1978. Coramunicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambeidge Uni- versity Press ‘Nicholls. A. and H. Nichols. 1972. Developing curriculum: A practical guide, London: Allen and Unwi O'Neill, R, 1978. Kernel one. London: Longman. zolins, U. 1993. The polities of language in Australia. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Jnskas, J. 1972. American University word list. London: Longman. chars, J. C., and T, Rodgers. 1986. Approackes and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Richlertch, B., and J.L. Chancerel. 1978. Idemtfving the needs of adults learn ing a foreign language, Strasbourg: Council for Cultural Co-operation of, the Council of Europe. Rivecs, W. 1964, The psychologist and the foreign language leamer Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Robinson, P, 1980. ESP (English for specific purposes). Oxford: Pergamon. Rodgers, T. 1989. Syllabus design, curriculum development and polity deter- ‘mination. In R. K. Johnsoa (ed.), The second language curriculum, New Yorke: Cambridge University Press. 24-34, Schutz, N., and B, Derwing, 1981. The problem of needs assessment in En- slish for specific purposes: Some theoretical and practical considerations. In Mackay and Palmer (1981), 29-44, ‘Stern, H. 1974, Directions in language teaching theory and research. InJ. Jaard et al (eds), 1974, Applied linguistics: Problems and solutions. Hieidelberg. 61-108. ‘Strevens, P1977, Special-purpose language learning: a perspective. Survey a ticle. Language Teaching and Linguistics abstracts 10(3): 145-163. ‘swales, J 1971. Writing seiencfc English. London: Nelson.50 Chapter2 ‘Tyler, R. 1949. Basie principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press. Van Ek, J. L, and LG, Alexander. 1975. The threshold level in a European tuni/oredit system for madern language learning by adults. Oxford: Pers amon. Van Els, TT. Bongaerts, G, Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten. 1984 “Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign languages. London: Amold, White, R. 1988. The ELT curriculum. Oxford: Blackwell. Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press ‘Yalden, J. 1987. The communicative syllabus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall3 Needs analysis (One of the basic assumptions of curriculum development is that a sound ed- ucational program should be based on an analysis of learners’ needs. Pro~ Sadures edo elles: information about Hsammors” needs are kanal af. Feed analysis, Needs analysis asa isc aid necessary phase ia plancing ‘educational programs emerged in te 1960s as partof the systems approach to curricslum development and was par of the prevalent pilesophy of ed- ucational accouatablity (Stufflebeam, McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nel- son 1985). If providers of training programs ws If providers of waining programs wanted publicorotker sources of funding Ta order to provide different Kinds of taining programs, they were required to demonstrate that a Proposed program was a response to. zn (Pratt 1980). Subsequently needs analysis developed into something of an industry. Berwick (1989, 51) comments: “The need for convincing precision in educational needs assessment was also reinforced during tis period by the “behavioral objectives” movement in ‘educational planning, pariculaly ia North America, which insisted on spetfying in measurable fort all goals of importance within an ecvcational system. The ‘emphasis on precision and accountability clearly influenced the appearance of needs assessment asa form of educational technology aad is diversification into 4 collection of educational esearch methodologies. ‘Nezds analysis was introduced into language teaching. throu ent (see Chapter 2). From the 1960s, the demand for specialized Tanguage programs grew and applied linguists increasingly began to em- ploy needs analysis procedaresin language teaching. By the 1980s, inmany parts of the world a “needs-based philosophy” emerged in language teach- ing, particularly in relation to ESP and vocationally oriented program design (Brindley 1984). In this chapter we will examine approaches to needs analysis and consider the purposes of needs analysis, the nature of needs, who needs analysis is intended for, who the target population is, who collects information, what procedures can be used, and how the informa- tion collected can be used. (Examples of two different needs analyses are given on pages 68-21.) st52 Chapters ‘The purposes of needs analysis : Frmacity pues ale ba Cred ests ngogewachng ny bousd for abaref een puors or eae petit oranges ater alsin ert peor pe irl sch aes manages ogi orient « Gin socom if anotnang couse aes arses he ees portal suet eStemne wit acer om a group ate mot in ee finan ~ particular language skills « DiGany = chang of decin tha: pope na efrence gp fe important (Ct entity agp beoween what aden ae ale to do and wat hey ned Je, to beatieto do ES « tocallectlformaon about «paneuer problem lamer ate exper = ening Inthe case of K-12 ESL programs (eg. for ESL suudents in pubic schools) Linse (1993) identifies the following purposes for needs analysis to compile a demographic profile of all the languages and language ‘groups represented by the students to assess their level of language acquisition in their native language and in English to determine their communicative abilities in English to determine their formal knowledge of English to find oat how students use language on a daily basis to determine what English language skills are necessary to enable” students to participate inal school and community activities in English + to find out what prior experiences students have had with formal educa tion + to determine the artudes ofthe students and their families toward formal schooling and education + to find out what preliteracy and literacy skills the students possess + to ascertain the students’ level of cognitive development and acqui of academic skills in their native language(s) + to ascertain what cognitive and academic skills students have aquired in English + to determine the cultura, political, and personal characteristics of sedents ‘The first step in conductin is is therefore to decide exactly ht : of Festaurant aplepees fe Conducted, he purposes might be: ionNaeds analysis 53 + to determine curent levels of language proficiency of employees + to determine how many employees are in need of the language training + to identify senior restaurant staff's perception of language problems em- ployees have on the job + 10 identify employees’ perceptions of language difficulties they face on the job + to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform ia Ea- lish + to determine the language characteristics of those transactions, = toassess the extent to Which employees’ needs are met by currently avail- able programs and textbooks Jn many cases, leamers’ language needs may be relatively easy to deter: sine, particularly if learners need to leam a language for very specific pur~ poses, for example, employment in fields such as tourism, nursing, or the hhotel industry. In this case the tasks employees typically carry out in En- ‘lish can be observed and the language needs of those tasks determined. ‘The information obtained can then serve as a basis for planning a training program, In some cases, “needs” also includes students” rights. Linse com- ments: Its the school’s responsibilty to take ino account the cultural, politcal, and personal characteristics of students asthe cusiculim is developed in order to plan activities and objectives that are realistic and purposeful tis noc the Fesponsibiliey ofthe school ro act on politcal matters, but tis the schoe!'s esponsibility to provide equal access to school opporcnites and to validate the experiences of all sudens, regardless of their political and/or cururl backgrounds. (Linse, in Hudelson 1993, 46) In other cases, lamers’ needs may not beso immediate ~ for example, stu- dents learning English as 2 secondary school subject in an EFL context. Here English may be a compulsory subject thet is considered an important part ofa child's general education. However, even though the students may rot have any immediate perceptions of needs, curriculum planners wil gea- erally have consulted employers, parents, teachers, and others to find out ‘what knowledge of English they expect high school graduates to achieve. Ta many countries, the introduction of English or another foreiga language in elementary or secondary school is based on what curriculum planners consider best for students to study at school inthe same way that math, his- tory, and physical education are included in the school curriculum Lear; ers ace not consulted as to whather they perceive a need for such knowledge54. ChapterS ‘Needs analysis may take place prior to, during, or after 2 language pro- pram. Much of te lterasure on needs analysis is based on the assumption that itis pare ofthe plenaing that takes place as par ofthe development of ‘course. It assumes that time and resources are available to plan, eolect, and analyze relevant information for a planned program of instruction. This “a priori” approach to needs analysis requires long-term planning and as- sumes adequate time and resources to devote to needs analysis. Example 1 {pages 62-70) i a needs analysis ofthis type. Ta some cases, however, ong-esm planning isnot an option. Lite may bbe known in detail about a group of leamers apart from the fact that a group of forty-five Mexican civil secvants willbe arriving in3 weeks’ imeand want to work on their language sls. In these circumstances, needs analysis has to be caried out as part the delivery ofthe course. Goals, content, and the teaching approach are shaped by information collected during the teaching ofthe course. Example 2 (pages 70-71) is a needs analysis of this kind. ‘At other times, the bulk of the information that constites the needs | analysis may be collected after the course is finished. The information col- lected is then analyzed in order t obtain a more comprehensive view of the leamers’ needs as a bass for evaluating and revising the program (see (Chapter 9) What are needs? ‘The term needs is not as straightforward as it might appear, and hence the term is sometimes used to refer to wants, desires, demands, expectation, motivations, lacks, constraints, and requirements Brindley 1984, 28). Needs are often described in terms of a linguistic deficiency, thats, as de- seribing the difference between what a leamer can presently do in a lan ‘guage and whathe or she should be able to do. This suggests thatnecds have objective reality and are simply there waiting to be identified and analyzed. Porcher (1977, ia Brindley 1984, 29) offers a different perspective: “Need is nota thing thatexists and might be encountered ready-made on the street. It is a thing that is constructed, the center of conceptual networks and the product of a number of epistemological choices (which aze not ianocent themselves, of course).” What is identified as a need is dependent on judg ‘ment and reflects the interests and values of those making such 2 judgment. ‘Teachers, leamers, employers, parents, and other stakeholders (discussed in the next section) may thus all have different views as to what needs are. For example, in considering the needs of immigrants, representatives ofthe ma- jority population may see che immigrants’ needs as achieving cultural andNeeds analysis 55 linguistic assimilation as quickly as possible and hence may want @ nes analysis to identify the language skills immigrants require in order to sur- vive, and ulimately, assimilate into the dominant culture. The immagrants themselves, however, may ses their goals as concemed with communica- tion for survival and independence, paniculaly economic survival, but may have no wish to assimilate ino the dominant culture (Burnet 1998). Aver- bach (1995, 9) has pointed out that English Tanguage teaching has often been viewed as 2 “neutral wansfer of sills nowledge, or competencies” and that ich an approach is based on the needs of social instrution, rather than language leamers, and ignores questions of power: Pedagogical choices about euriculum development, content, materials, elassroom processes, and language use, hough appeacing to be informed by apolitical professional considerations, ae infect inherently ideological in narre, with ‘Significant implications for leamers’ socioeconomic roles. (Auecbach 1993, 9) Nesds are often deseribed in terms of language needs, that i, asthe lan- ‘guage sills needed to survive n an English-dorinant society. But ss Aver bach (1995) and others have pointed out, in many cases, particulary thet of jmmigrant minorities in Englsh-dominant societies, such persons also beve ‘ther Kinds of needs, Toese relate to housing, health care, access to schocl- {ng for theic children, access to community agencies and services, and ways of addressing exploitation and discrimination in the workplace. How ean the curriculum give leamers the Linguistic and other resources they need to ‘understand and access resources they have the right ro make use of in the ‘community and to articulate and defend their wn rights and intezests? Plan- ning on ESL curriculum in tis case not only involves identifying students’ Janguege needs, but seeks “to enable them to critically examine [the exist: ing order) and become active in shaping their own roles in ie” (Auerbach 11995, 15). This issue wil be examined in more detal when we consider al- temative curriculum models and their value, in Chapter 5. The users of needs analy: “Anneeds analysis may be conducted for a variety of different users. For &x- ample, in conducting a needs analysis to help revise the secondary school English cursiculum in a county, the end users include: + curriculum officers in the ministry of education, who may wish to use the {information to evaluate the adequacy of existing syllabus, curriculum, and materials56 Chapter 3 + teachers who will ach from the new curriculum + Teamers, who will be taught from the curriculum + writers, who are preparing new textbooks + testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-school assess- ‘ments + staff of terdiary institutions, who are interested in knowing wht the ex- pected level will be of snudents exiting the schools and what problems they face In the case of a needs analysis conducted by a private institute of language needs of trainee accountants in intemational accounting firms, the target users might be: + twainers responsible for designing trsining programs and materials + funding body, such as the local professional society for accountants who are interested in seeing a concrete product as an outcome of their funding + employers who are interested in improving the job performance of new staff ‘With small-scale needs analysis such as that carried outby asingle teacher con his or her class, the audience might consis ofthe teacher, other teach- ers, and the program coortinato. In cases of large-scale needs analysis, there will be multiple audiences forthe results of a needs analysis, Deter- ining the likely audiences is an important first sep in planning a needs analysis in order to ensure thatthe information they need is obtained and that the needs analysis will have the impact itis designed to have, Statfle- beam et al. (1985, 25) comment: “It is important to remember that not al key audiences are likely to be identified at the star of a seady Also, iis en- tirely possible thatthe relaive importance of various audiences will change during the study” [Needs analysis can thus havea political dimension. tan be used to sup- porta panicular agenda, for example, by giving priori to one group tthe exclusion of others within a population or in order to justi a decision that has already been made on economic or other grounds. For example, an employer might want to use information from a needs analysis wo justify replacing certain staff rather than investing in providing for euaining. In any situation where needs analysis is being undertaken, there are thus dif- ferent siakeholders, that i, those who have a particular interest oriavolve- ate Tages we, Connelly and Cla inn (1988, 124) define a stakeholder ga peson or sou of persons 3Needs analysis 57 an schools.” Different stakeholders will want different things from the cur siculum. Connelly aad Claadinin (1988, 131-132) suggest that when a group of persons are worklag on a curriculum committee or trying to solve ‘curriculum problem they should think of the planning process as a cur- eulum stakeholder situation and ask the following questions: “What is the purpose of the curriculum situation? TE there is a group, what is the makeup of the group? Who set up the project? |. How were the group's membership and purpose established? ‘From the answers to these questions, further questions follow: 1. How accountable am Ito this stakeholder? 2, How much will this stakeholder be affected by my decision? 3. How much risk is there in ignoring this stakeholder? 4. How much right has this stakeholder to direct my action? The target population ‘The target population in a needs analysis refers tothe people about whom information will be collected. Typically, in language programs these will be language learners or potential language learners, but others are also often involved depending on whether they can provide information useful in ‘meeting the purposes of the needs analysis. For example, in conducting & needs analysis to determine the focus of an English program in public sec- ondary schools in an EFL context, the target population might include: + policy makers + iministry of education officials + teachers FF + students + academics + parents + influential individuals and pressure groups + academic specialists + community agencies Within each treet group, subcategories of respondents might be needed to provide different perspectives on needs, Fo example, in conducting a needs58 Chapter3 analysis of students studying foreign languages at a New Zealand uaiver- sity (Richards and Gravatt 1998), the following categories of students were included to help determine students’ motivations for selecting a language ‘course, dropping @ language course, or choosing not to take 2 language course: + students currently enrolled in2 foreign language course + students previously enrolled but no longer studying a language ~ students who have never studied a foreign language determining the target population, an important issue is thatof sampling. In some cases, the population is small enough for every leamer to be in- ‘cluded in the sample. In other cases, this approach is not feasible and so decisions must be made about the size of the sample to be included in @ needs analysis, Sampling involves asking a portion of the potential popula- tion instead of the total population and seeksto create a sarnple that is rep- resentative of the total population, Elley (1984) points out that a number of factors influence the approach to sampling, such as the homogeneity of the population in termas of the kinds of skills, attitudes, or knowledge being ‘Sought or the need to study subgroups within the sample ~ for example, ‘based on sex, language group, or other factors. Where the target population is large, specialized advice is often needed to determine what approach to ‘sampling best suits the purpose ofthe study and the sources of information available. ‘Administering the needs analysis Planning a needs analysis involves deciding who will administer the needs ‘analysis and collect and analyze the results. Needs analyses vary in their scope and demands, from a survey of a whole school population in a coun- ny toa saudy of a group of thiny learners in a single institution. Sometimes ‘a team of personnel is assembled specifically for the purpose of doing the analysis; atother times two or three interested teachers may be the only ones involved. For example, in a needs analysis of the language needs of non- ‘English-background students studying ata New Zealand university (see Ap- pendix 3), the following were involved: + the research team made up of two academics and a research assistant colleagues in different depariments who discussed the project and re- viewed sample questionnaires + students who piloted the questionnaireNeeds analysis 59 + academic staff of the university who administered some of the question- aires + secretarial support involved in preparing questionnaires and tabulating data In some language programs, informal needs analysis is part of a teacher's ongoing responsibilities. Shaw and Dowsett (1986) describe this approach in the Australian Adult Migrant Education Program: Informal needs assessment desls with the informal negotiations that take place ‘beeween class teachers and etudents in the form of chats with either inividusl stadents, groups of studeats, of the whole class in onder to select a focus forthe ‘lass and create grocp cohesion by establishing 2 coincidence of leaning needs. Tafortoal needs assessment is normally the main tsk ofthe classroom teacher “uring weel one ofthe cours... [i] is a necessary component of information retcieval on students’ leaming seeds and shouldbe recorded. Ie can subsequently be used as an input for aims and objectives setng and for devising course atlines. (Shaw and Dowser 1986, 47-49) Information collected in this way may complement information collected ‘through more formal means. Procedures for conducting needs analysis ‘A vaiety of procedures can be used in conducting needs analysis and hf ‘Audr ermaton tained soften dependent onthe ype o procedure eid Sine ay one source of informatio is ely tbe icomplce or pactal, 2 iiangular approach (Le.,collecing information from two or more CICERO Many cterent souves of information should be Ou hor example, when enees anise ofthe wating problems ex ‘countered by foreign ‘students enrolled in American universities is con- Shot inforuation could be obtained fom the folowing sources: + samples of suident writing + tesedata on student performance report by teachers on typical problems students face ‘opinions of experss information from students via interviews and questionnaires analysis of textbooks teaching academic wating + survey or elated lterare ‘examples of weiting programs from other institutions examples of waiting assignments given to first-year university students80 Chapters Procedures for collecting information during a needs analysis can be se lected from among the following: Questionnaires Questionnaires are one ofthe most common instruments used. They are rel- atively easy to prepare, they can be used with large numbers of subjects, and they obtain information thet is relaively easy to tabulate and analyze. They can also be used to elicit information about many different kinds ofissues, such as language use, communication difficulties, preferred learaing styles, preferred classroom activities, and attitudes and beliefs. ‘Questionnaires are either based on a set of structured items (in which the espondent chooses from a imaited number of responses) or unstructured (i0 ‘which open-ended questions are given thatthe respondent can answer as he fo she chooses). Structured items are much easier to analyze and are hence nommally preferred. Appendix? illustrates a questionnaire designed as a ba- ‘is for planning courses in Cantonese for non-Chinese residenss of Hong Kong, It seeks information on the following + swans in whieh Camonese could be wed 1 felfassesrnnt of caret proficiency level in Cantonese 1 previous experience of Cantonese courses 1 Newson textbooks for Iaring Cantonese 1 News on approaches fo teaching Cantonese + Teaming-syle preferences 1 views on Cantonese a language (Adsnevantageof uesionsis Powee that he infraaon cba At) befall sopedtcil or imprecise and will fen need folo-up tga Gfities understanding of what respondents incend. It shoutd also be recog tized tht there are many badly designed questonmairs in educational e- veanchy and ite advisable to become famliaz with ti princptes of good ‘Ststbanaire design to ensure tat he information obtained ie relale.P- I fag ot quextonanices is excendal to identy ambiguities and oer prob- Tems before the questionnaire is administered Some issues iavlved inthe design of quostonnaizes ae given in Appendix 1 Self-ratings ‘These consist of scales that students or others use to rate their knowledge or abilities, (Self-ratings might also be included as part of a questionnaire.) For exemple, a student might cate how well he or she can kanéie a job inNeeds analysis 61 terview in English. The disedvantage of such an insirument is that it provides only impressionistic information and information that is not very precise, Interviews Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible ‘with a questionnaire, though they take longer to administer and are only fea- sible for smaller groups. An incerview may often be useful a the peelimi- nary stage of designing 2 questionnaire, since it will help the designer get a sense of what topics and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A “suructured interview in which a set series of questions is used allows more consistency across résponses to be obtained. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone. Meetings ‘A meeting allows a large amount of information to be collected ina fairly short ime, For example, a meeting of teachers oa the topic “saudens”prob- lems with listening comprehension” might generate a wide rage of ideas. However, information obtained in this way may be impressionistic and sub- jective and ceflest the ideas of mors outspoken members of a group. Observation Observations of leamers' behavior ina target situation is anothec way of 3- sessing ther needs, For exarple,obsecving clerks performing their job in a bank wil enable the observer to artve at cectan conclusions about theic language needs. ‘However, peopleoften do not perform wel when they are being ob- served, sothis has tobe taken into account. Inadéition, observation i s9e- cialzed sill. Knowing how to observe, what to look for, and how t make use ofthe information obtained generally requzes specialized taiing. Collecting learner language samples Collecting data on how well learners perform on different language tasks (eg,, business letters, interviews, tlephone calls) and documenting the typ- jeal problems they have is a useful and direct source of information about eamers' language needs. Language samples may be collected through the following means:€2 Chapter? + written or oval tasks: Examples of students writen or oral work are col- lected. + simulations or role plays: Stadents are given simulations to carry out and their performance is observed or recorded. + achievement rests: Students are tested for their abilities in different do- mains of language use. + performance tesis: Students are tested on job-related or task-related bebaviors, such a¢ “how well a job interview can be cartied out in English” Task analysis “This refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the learners will have to carry cut in English in a foture occupational or educational sering and assess- -ment of the linguistic characteristics and demands ofthe tasks. For exarn- ple, ahotel employee mighthave to perform the following tasks in English: inform them of accommodation available t the hotel + help them make a suitable choice of accommodation + handle check-in procedures Berwick (1989, 57) observes: “The emphasis of asgetsitvation analysis is on the nature and effect of target language communications in particular sit- ustions (in offices, on assembly lines, in meeting rooms, in content-area classrcoms, for example). Exper: analysis of communication establishes standards against which current performance can be gauged.” Once target tasks have been ideatified, their linguistic characteristics are determined as a basis for designing a language course or training materials. Case studies E ‘Wich a case study, a single student or a selected group of students is fol- Towed through a relevant work or educational experience in order to detet- ‘ine the characteristics of tha situation. For example, a newly arrived im- migrant might be studied for three months, during which time the student eps a log of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situa tions in which the language is used, and the problems he or she encounters. Although itis generally not possible to generalize from a case study, it pro vides a very rich source of information that may complement information obtained from other sources.Needs analysis 63 Analysis of available information In any situation where a needs analysis is needed, a large amount of rele~ ‘vant information is generally available in various sources. These include: + books + joumal anicles + Teports and surveys + records and files ‘An analysis of available information is normally the frst step in a needs analysis because there ae very few problems in language teaching thathave not been written about or analyzed somewhere, Designing the needs analysis Designing a needs analysis involves choosing from among the various op- tions discussed above and selecting those that are likely to give a corapre~ hensive view of learners’ needs and that represent the interests of the dif ferent stakeholders involved. Decisions have.to-be-made.on the practical ‘procedures involved in collecting, orgasizing. analyzing, and reporting Fifonmation collected IF Tportan to make sure thatthe needs analysis ees HoT proace aA information overload. There needs tobe a clear reeson ‘for collecting different kin 135 to ensure tat Onl infor ation that will acmally be used is eollecie FE of noo Englsb-background students at 2 New Zealand university (Graven, Richards, and Lewis 1997), the following procedures were usec: literature survey analysis of a wide range of survey questionnaires ontat with others who had conducted similar surveys interviews with teachers to determine goals {identification of parcipating deparuments preveatation of project proposal to participating departments and iden {fication of Baison person in each department development of a pilot student and staff questionnaire review of the questionnaires by colleagues piloting of the questionnaires Selection of staff and sudent subjects developing a schedule for collecting data administration of questionnaires64 Chapters 13, follow-up interviews with selected participants 14, tabulation of responses 15. analysis of responses 16. writing up of report and recommendations in smaller-scale needs analysis such as that ofa teacher or group of teach ers assessing the needs of new groups of students in a language progam, needs analysis procedures may consist of: + initial questionnaire follow-up individual and group interviews ‘meetings with students ‘meetings with other teachers = ongoing classroom observation + tests Making use of the information obtained ‘The results of a needs analysis will generally consist of information taken from several different sources and summarized in the form of ranked lists, of different kinds, For example, it might result in lists of the following kind: + situations in which English is frequently used simations in which difficulties ae encountered * comments most often made by people on learners’ performance + frequencies with which different transactions are carried out + perceived difficulties with different aspecis of language use + preferences for diferent kinds of activities in teaching + frequencies of ecors made in diferent types of situations or activites + common communication problems in diferent situations + suggestions and opinions about diferent aspects of leamers' problems + frequencies of linguistic tems or units in different texts or situations One of the findings of a needs analysis of problems of ESL students at- tending university lectures was a list ofthe frequency with which students experienced difficulties with speaking and listening skills (Gravett et al. 1997, 36). The most common difficulties reported were (by rank): 1. Iange-group discussions 2. class discussions 3. interactions with native speakersNeeds analysis 65 . out-of-class projects 5. small-group work demonstrator interactions. class participation However, such a listing provides litle useful information about the precise pe of problems the learners experience in relation to each event, Even if ‘more detailed information hed been provided, the resulis wand stil be im pressionistic, For example, in relation co event I (large-group discussions). {ore defailed information could have been sought, from which a further listing might have resulted ~ che most diffcalt aspects of taking par in {group ciscussions. Johns and Fokns (197) provide sucha lst based on @ deeds analysis of problems students have with discussions. The most quent difculties were 1. comarehension of spoken Eaglish (‘they speak too fast’; they mumble’ “Vocabulary is idiomatic’) 2, the pressing need to forraulate aconsbution quickly ('Tean't think what psy) 5. shyness about the value of a contribution (‘I might say something wrong’) 44, inabiliy to formulate an idea in English (1 don’t now how to say it in English’) 5, awareness that 2 given function may be realized in different ways (T don’t know the best way to say i) 6, feusttation about being unable to enter the discussion (‘some students speak too much’) (Johns and Johns 1977) ‘Yet even with this more detailed breakdown no direct application to pro- gram design is possible. in order to develop alms and objectives that ad- dressed each problem, more analysis and research would be needed to fur- ther understand whats implied by “comprehension of spoken English” and before the information obtained could be usediin course planning ae point ere is that there is no direct application of the information obiain 1eeds analysis. ARhough the information pamnered TsGlLhas 19 be bjected of iterpretation Before it can be usefully applied ia program planning. Tn the course of carrying cut a needs analysis, a large number of potea- tial deeds may be identified. However, these needs will have to be priori tized because not all of them may be practical to address in & language pro- ‘gram, or pethags the time frame available in the program is suitable for ‘adéressing only a portion of thera. And the mere fact that needs have been66 Ghapter3 identified does not automatically imply thet changes will have to be made in the curriculum, First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to be examined to see to what extent the needs that have been identified are being met. Decisions will therefore have to be made conceming which of the needs are ecitical, which are important, and which are merely desirable. {In addition, some needs will be immediate and others longer-term. For some, solutions will be feesible; for others, they may be impractical. also important ore sen objective facts but subjective interpretations of information from a large variety of sources, th the napious stakeholders 1 en sore thatthe conclusi priate and relevant. sappens that some of the information may be contradie- ‘tory, Stulflebeam ef al. (1985, 111) remind Us “eae process of analysis [of the results ofa needs analysis] involves efforts that ace thoughtful, investigntary, systematic, and careflly recorded so that they can be replicated and reviewed. The primary goal of analysis to bring meaning tO the obtained information and co do s0 ia the context of some philosophy, relevant perspectives, and value positions that may bein conflict “Thus, for example, in a needs analysis as part of curriculum renewal in 2 state education system, different views of problems in the curriculum emerged. A number of different points of view emerged as to what should be changed: + leamers’ views more support for learning needed and reduction of the amount of materials they had to study «+ academics’ view: beter preparation for tertiary studies needed in terms of reading and writing skills «+ employers’ view: better preparation for employment required in terms of ‘basic communication skills + teachers" view: better grasp of grammar necded by Jeamers Brindley (1989) discusses differences between leamers’ and teacheis’ views of needs and suggests the need for ¢ negotiation process in order w satisfy ‘and clarify each other's assumptions. The same is true of other stakehold- ers in the curriculum. "Were there are several different audiences for the needs analysis (e.g. teachers, administrators, a funding body), the information obeained will have to be analyzed ~ and analyzed in a form that suits each group's inter ests. One group may require a brief overview of the findings while another ray be interested in detailed findings. The format for reporting the findings ‘may also vary. For example, it might include:Neods analysis. 67 + a full written document + ashoet summary document + amecting + a group discus + anewsleter ‘Needis analysis thus produces information that can be used indifferent ways. For example: + It may provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing program or @ suponent of ROR Finay provide basis fr planning goals and objectives fora future peo- gram, eet «= Trim assist with developiag tests and other assessment procedures. + Itean help with the selection of appropriate tesching methods in a pro- gram. «= Temay provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials for acourse. «+ Trmay provide information that can be used 2s part of a course or pro- gram repor to an external body or organization. Tn none of these cases, however, is thece 2 direct route from needs analysis to application. Some of these applications willbe discussed in the chapters that follow. Although a major application of needs analysis is in te design of language programs, befoce a program can be designed additional infor- tnation is needed on factors that ean have an impact on the programm. The Fdentication ofthese factors andthe assessment of their ely impact form the focus of Chapter 4. Discussion questions and activities 1. Needs analysis is very applicable in situations where students have very specific language needs, However, ican also be used in situations where leamers’ needs are n0¢ So specific, as in the case of students learaing English asa foreign language in a school seting, What might the focus of needs analysis be ia this situation? 2. IF you were planning @ needs analysis for the situation in which you teach, what information would you seck to obtain? 43, Discuss the concept of “stakeholders” in planning a needs analysis inre- lation to a context you are familiar with. How can the concerns of dif- ferent stakeholders be addressed?68 Chapter3 4, Ityou were designing a needs analysis for secretaries working in busi- ness offices, what target population would you include in the needs ‘analysis? What kind of information would you need from each mem- ber ofthe target population? 5. Suggest four different needs analysis procedures that could be used to collect information about the language needs of hotel telephone oper tors, What are the advantages and limitatioas of exch procedure? 6. Suggest situations in which a case study would provide useful infor- ‘mation during a needs analysis 17, Design a short questionnaire designed to investigate the language neads of tour guides. What issues will the questionnaire address? What type of items will you include inthe questionnaize? 8, Critique the questionnaires in Appendixes 2 and 3 and suggest any ir- provements you think could be made to them. ~ 9, Prepare a set of questions to be used in a structured interview for use ‘in a needs analysis of the language needs of immigration officers at an airpor. 10. Choose an occupation that you are familiar with or that you would be able to observe and prepare a task analysis of the tasks typically car~ ried out by people in that occupation. Suggest the language require- ments of each task. Examples of needs analyses Example 1: Needs analysis of non-English-background students and their English language needs at the University of Auckland ‘This is an example of needs analysis conducted in order to evaluate whether ccurrendy available language courses meet the needs of non-English-back- ground learners at the university. context ‘The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. The largest of New Zealand's seven universities with a student population of some 26,000 ia 1997. BACKGROUND ‘The number of students for whom English is a second language has in- creased steadily since 1990, and continues to do so, In some faculties as ‘many as 30 percent of the students are ESL students.Needs analysis 69 ‘The English competence of these students on entry varies considerably {A previous small-scale report within the university, addressing the issu cof English-language skils of students and entrance cequizements, songly indicated that more data were needed regarding the problems experienced by ESL students, + This prompted a needs analysis inated to assess these problems, using two questionnaires to survey staff and ESL students’ perceptions across the university. + The stdy looked ar the language demands placed on ESL students, prob- Jems, experiences, and suggestions for improving the situation METHOD Staff questionnaire” This included some questions from similar instru- ments developed in other institutions, as well as others specific to issues at the university. The questions were organized into the following sections. + background information concerning the course or paper the lectures was, describing «+ overview of problems experienced by ESL students in the course/paper + linguistic demands of the course/paper in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, writing, as well asthe difficulties experienced by the students in these areas + suggestions as to which language skills should be focused on in courses for ESL students + modifications made in teaching or in examinations as a result ofthe dif- ficulties experienced by ESL students ‘The questionnaice was piloted and revised before it was distributed. Re~ spondeats were identified by the heads of al fifty-one departenents at the ‘university. The results were analyzed overall and by faculty. ‘Student questionnaire (see Appendix 3) The student questionnaize was ‘a modified version of the scaff questionnaire. The strucrure was similar but with less emphasis on language expectations and greater emphasis on prob Jems being encountered. The questionnaire was piloted before distribution. ‘The questionnaire was distributed to students enrolled in all courses thet ‘were identified in the staff questionnaire as having a high proportion ofESL_ students, In all, 302 student questionnaires were completed. pROOUCT ‘A Bifty-seven page report was produced that described the results of the two ‘survey questionnaizes together with a series of recommendations.70 Chapters Example 2: A curriculum guide and teaching kit for tutors of English as @ second language teaching Vietnamese refugees in London “This is an example of needs analysis “on the rus,” that is, conducted as part of the process of teaching and developing a course. context ‘As a result of the arrival of large number of Vietnamese refugees in Lone don, the Kensington Insite in conjunction withthe Inner London Eaduca- tion Authority Languoge and Literacy Unit planned an ESL program forthe refugees, Six teachers and a tutor in charge were appointed to manage the program, with ime budgeted to plana syllabus, develop materials and co- ordinate the program. ; METHOD ‘Syllabus frameworks On the basis of experience of students with similar needs, en topic areas were chosen as the basis for the program. Personal information Work Shopping Services Health and welfere Education House and home Sociat Travel Food and drink “This was a staring point fo the program tobe revised in the light of ongo- ing information about th snadents' needs identified during the teaching of the program. Situations were then selected from the topic areas and the an- {guage nents ofeach sitation predicted. This resulted in provisional sy {abas frameworks organized by topic Student profiles Inorderto develop the program, records were kipt of n- formation pethered during teachin, resulting in the building up of sudent nd class profiles. The cass profiles documented previous learing experi~ hoe, strengths and wealmess ofeach student, comsnonazeas of tres, i- ‘vidual and gsoup needs, and reflected areas that would be usefil to focus fon in that class. Cultural comparisons Information was also collected through observa don, discussions, and interviews on cultural differences between Viet rnamese and British people with regard ro such things es family relationNeeds analysis 74 ships, old age, work, and leisure to help identify differences between the so- cial norms inthe two cultures. This information then fed into he course con- tent PRopucT ‘The project resulted in the preparation of a 156-page tutors’ kit that con- tained the following elements: @) description of the planning process >) syllabus frameworks ©) discussion of teaching techniques and activities 4) lteraty guidelines 2) worksee's (f) aids and materials '2) discussion of problem areas in English for speakers of Viemamese72. Chapter 3 Appendix 1 Designing a questionnaire “The following questions need to be considered in designing a questionnaire. 1. Preliminary questions 2) Willitbe useful to camry out some interviews before designing the ques- tonnaice, in order to get a sense of appropriate topics and issues? ) How lerge will the sample be? Is it representative of the whole popula- tion information is needed about? ©) How will the questionnaire be piloted? 4) How will itbe administered (e.g., by mail, self-edministered, or group- administered)? 2, The types of information asked for 2) Is the question really necessary? How will the information it provides be used? 2) Are other questions needed on this issue? ‘¢) Can the respondents answer this question? Do they have sufficient in- formation (¢-g. 10 answer a question such as “How much English do your students use outside of class?")? 4) Should the question be made more specific and more closely related 10 the respondents’ persoma! experience? € Isthe question biased in one direction? (E.g,, “Do you agree that com _muunicative approach is the best way to teach a anguage?") A) Will the respondents be willing to give the information asked for? (Eg. “Does your teacher ciow how to teaca English”) 48) Is it appropriate to ask this question? (Exg., “How old are you?") 3. How the questions are worded - 4) Can the question be understood? Is the wording unambiguous? >) Can the question be shortened? (Aim for not more than 20 words.) <) Does it contain vocabulary likely to be kaown by the learner? @) Does the question contain any unstated assumptions? (E.g., “In your col- lege English course, did you. .. 7") @) Are there any prestige questions, thatis, which students are kely to ry to answer to give a good impression of themselves? (E.g., “Have you used the things you have been taught out of eless?”) ‘f) Is the wording bissed or emotionally loaded in any way?Needs analysis 73 8) Would a more personalized (or less personalized) version of the ques- tion be better? 1) Is the answer fo the question likely to be influenced by the content of preceding questions? 4, The type of items in the questionnaire @) Open question: one that can be answered freely and where no kind of choice is required in the answer 8) Closed question: one thatis answered by choosing alrematives provided 2) Checklist: a set of terms that describe different atrbutes or values Rating scale: a value is given on a scale (eg, between “strongly agree" and “strongly disagree”) e) Ranking: ems are ranked (e.g, from 1 to 9) according to some criteria 4) Inventory: a list that the respondents mark or check in some way Appendix2 Needs analysis questionnaire for Cantonese learners Questionnaire used in needs analysis of leamers of Cantonese in Hong, Kong (from Li and Richards 1995). Part In what situations is Cantonese (or would Cantonese be) useful for you? Please check the appropriete column, Very Not csefal Useful useful AL. Buying things ip stores and supermarkes. ‘AZ, Buying chings i the masket place. ‘A. Getting information about services and goods want to buy. ‘Ad, Ordering food ina estauranvcanteen/cafteria AS, Taking a tox AG, Taking other public transport. AT, . Asking for directions. AB, Talking to colleagues at work, |A9, Talking to office personnel at work, 10, Talking to neighbours. mooo0o0oo of0 onoo0o00oo0 ooo Qoo00000 of074 Chapters Not fol Useful useful ke All. Talking to children, AI2, Talking to friends ‘AIS, Having eatusl conversations with peopl. Alé, Talking to students, AIS. Talking to (Cantonese-speaking) domestic helper. |A16, Talking to workers in my place of residence, ANT, Tabking to electricians, plumbers, et, ‘ALS, Recziving telephone calls. AIS. Making telephone eas 'A20, Toining hobby or interest group. AQL, Playing spors and participating ia social clubs. A22, Watching TV or movies. A23,_ Listening othe radio, ‘A25, Listening to Cantonese music. (AS, Visiting fiends! homes. |A25, Visiting different pars of the tentory ‘AMT. Visiting Guangdong province. AWS, Making travel amangemeats. ‘A29, Using Cantonese in situations related to my work 00 ponoooconoaoooo 90000 Qoooo8nno8o0ooo oon! Oooooooooonosp oooo00 Please explain: Pan B ‘From the list above please choose five that are the most important for you. Wite the aumbers below.Needs analysis 75 PoC Ifyou already speak some Cantonese, please indicate your present level of ability in Cantonese: Cl. Basic (lower): know a few words and fixed expressions; cannot manage con versational exchanges; respond to question and answer exchanges on afew ropies; very limited vocabulary, grammar, and knowledge of idioms: pronun- ciation heavily influenced by mother congue C2. Basic (upper: know 2 limited number of common words and expression able to manage limited, shor conversations on a few predictable topics: sur- vival level Knowledge of voeabulary, grammar, and i¢ioms; pronunciation influenced by moter tongue. C3. Intermediate (lower): reasonable fluency on a restricted range of topics but Gifficolty outside a limited range of topes; many problems with words, id- ioms, grammar, and pronunciation. (C4 Intermediate (upper: can manage comfortably ia familiar situations and with llsome difficulty with vocabulary, idioms, grammar, ‘and pronunciation C5, Advanced: able to converse Quently and naturally on most topics: litle ditf- culty with vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and pronunciation 06, Ifyou bave suiied Canconese, please indicate undes what circumstances. G) Itock acourse. (&) Isnudied with a private rato, (©) Ipicked up Cantonese informally. Otter: C7. Ieyou attended a formal course, please indicate the length and frequency of the course (eg, 6 weeks, 3 hours per week). USEESESSEAMEEIESHEDHSEISSHOUnSeTeNNINOEIIONSIESNIDaMaeasatn C8, How useful was the course? (Please circle your choice.) Very useful Somewhat useful Notuseful Please explain: ———————___—___________ eee78 Chapter 3 C9, Ifyou have used one or more textbooks, please indicate the name ofeach text and how useful or otherwise it was: vey Not Name of text useful Useful useful ede nnn ee ooo otic a © ® © C10, To what would you atuibute your present evel of ability in Cantonese? ery Somewhat Not (@) Tatended a useful course. () Torudied with a private tutor. (©) Imake every effort to use Cantonese. (@) Teajoy smaying Cantonese. () Tneed Cantonese for my job. (9 Tama good language earner (@ Igetalotof help from Cantonese-speaking fiends. @) I spend a lot of time on Cantonese. oo 06 ooo0o0000 0 ooooo 0 oo00005 Oxber, ee PERE eeeeeeeeeee eee Het eee Perr beet a eS CLL, What activities or experiences were most helpful in your study of Cantonese? Please elaborats ee PE eeErE eee eee ene tbe Reet eee eee Pe eeeFor: D If you have studied Cantonese before, but have since stopped studying Cantonese, please complete Pax D below by ehesking the appropriate box. Needs analysis 7 have studied Cantonese before, but I stopped because ofthe following reason(s): Very Somewhat Not Di. D3. ps, Dé. pr. 1 did not have time t0 continue, I felt thot I was aot making any progress. was aot given any opporsity to use Camonese outside te classroom. ‘The lessons were it useful because: (@) We were noc taught ings thet Toute use () Tfound the language too difficult to master. {©) [found the pronunciation too citfcule (@ I found the grammar to dificult wo master. (© Hound the vocabulary too difficult to ‘The teacher did not know how to teach Cantonese. 1 di not like the teaching methods used, ‘The moatecials were (@) too citicue () not relevant ro my aces (© noc interesting. (© vocchallengTag. omer we ooo 0000 0 4 00 ooo mee tne qgonoo0 00 00 ooo ooo ooon oo 00 coo ooo78 Chapters Port E Here you ever used the following atvies in sadying Cantonese? Ifyou indicate vyes. how useful were they? Nery Not vsefal Usefol useful El. Practising dialogues from a book. og da 2, Practising dis on tones, sounds, and a prammascal pater. 3, Free comersation with native speakers. oga Bs, Free comversaon with other leamert of ooo ‘Camonese. ES. Memorzing bilingual vocabulary st. ogodgd B6. Srudying Cantonese textbooks at home. 8 ada ET. Snidying the grammar of Cantonese. go GO O ES. Studying the tone system of Cantonese. ood ED. Srudying the diffeence between En Telecel Cantonese. E10, Doing paie-work exercises. oGded ELL. Doing group-vork exercises. oo og E12. Doing translation exercises. oo oa His WategionCmmoccugeromnizea §=C! OF O system. E14. Watching TV in Cantonese at home. eel B15, Watching or Hstening t people epeaking oa0 Cantonese around me. E16, Using cassenes athome. oaao E11, Talking to fiends in Cantonese G08 E18. Trying o use Cantonese whenever Ihave O oO 0 the opportunity. E19. Punting myself in scvations i whieb Iwill Eee Cel Ce) be forced o speak in Cantonese. E20, Making myself understood even if Leake & ood locof mistakes Pi spake pcumeviiormans OC O 0 ristkes in grammar or pronunciation. ood 1522, Seadying with aprvate toNeeds analysis 79 Others, SEE oor oee eee cee Pee eee Eee eee cero eee creer Pant Taleo with uty T would ee my eche to: Fi. explain new grammar pins tefore oA sivng a. fraeusrteersceplaning new grammar No Ale ra. oman misakesImadeinfontof No Ae cites mec Fi, cometiny minaias of ganas se Alice BS. comutmymisatescf pocuncaion, No Alte Fe. wse cantons ol Be lie Fy. wetboth Engl an Cantonese, Bo hie Pan ‘atic your felngs about Canes 52 anguage? Gl. Cantneseatingage wikarch Yoyo vocab. 2. Canta inmade vp of many elogsial Yer cxpmsson. Gs, Chores is mae vp of macy iioms. Yer Gh Cantoreeiga very euntanguage. Yay GS. Canoneseisa language wihalocot Yer ums ccs, Enmore isa langage whee proms: Yee Gian is ery import or. Cantoasia language wher tytn Yee Sod intonation a expert. co, Camoeesina very seit tnguage ia Yeyine one Kong co, Cantonese a fascnadns aoguags, Vey Gio. Canoneseib besutifl sanding guage, Yer so Gin, Cananese ia pote nage Nome Gia Teetmvam and etonation of Cantonese Yoyo 2 plesng wy et 1s, Canoneas each soucing language, Vey Gis, Caner vtga sounding rgunge. Vey tae Tee Toe Toe oe Toe ‘the To Tre Tre Tre Tae ‘tre Best Bet Bes Best Neeowe Nore Nove Noceve Noteme Neteve Neer Noveve Neuve Neceve Netese eceve Neuve Note Other: Pre reece ee tee ete creer eer SEES ee He eee eee80. Chapter 3 Appendix 3 Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English-background students ‘Student questionnaite used at the University of Auckland, New Zealand (Gzom Gravatt, Ricbards, and Lewis 1997). Institute of Language Teaching and Learning NEEDS ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: STUDENT ~ STUDENT VERSION “This questionnaire is part ofa project being cared out by the Insrute of Language ‘Teaching and Learningto determine what the language needs of students whose frst cof dominant language is not English (ESL students) atending the Universiy are, ‘Whether these are being adequately metand, if not, what ean be done beter. For this ‘purpose the opinions of bots staff and sudents in 2 variety of departments are be- Ing surveyed, It would be appreciated if you could complete this questionnaire, whieh should take approximately 20 minutes. “The term "N/A’ i used in this questionnaire. It means ‘Not applicable’ and is the appropriate response if a question does not apply to You. ‘With which ofthe following groupe do you identity? (please tck the appropriaic bos): Cy Pest tsandwnien? (Td (Gy Asian which counsy? (= Ci otber tease speci: iow many years have you been studying at Auckland University Gacluing 1997? co wtis yourcorent couse of sody? [ ‘Please complete this questionnaire with regard to the course you have speci: Sed bere. PELE eee Hee Eee eet He eee beter eee eee rSte A, Overview of Skis Needed and Difficulties Encounterséc In your course of study, how often are you expected to use the following skis? (please ciccley Veryoften Often Sometimes Rarely Never Reading 1 2 3 4 5 Waiing 1 2 3 4 3 Speaking 1 2 3 4 3 Listening ‘ 2 3 4 3Needs analysis 81 How oftea do you have difficulty with each ofthese skills? (please circle): Very often Often Sometimes. Rarely Never Reading 1 2 3 4 5 Writing 1 2 3 4 3 Speaking 1 2 3 4 5 Listening 1 2 3 4 3 B. General Statements Please circle the appropeate respons: How important to success in your course of study are the following ebilities? ~ High Moderate Low 1. Listening o Englist eee et tates: 2. Speaking English i EEEaa SHEE a THEE S- 3. Weitiag English ieee Pa ee HateteHeHttes 4, Reading English 102 3 4 5 “How important to success in your field after graduation are the following zbilites? : High Moderate Low 1, Liseening to English rea ees 2. Speaking English ata tate Hate 23, Waiting English ieee aeeeeHa ete S 4, Reading English fee oat ete ©. Speaking and Listening Skils How often do th following happen to you? ‘Always Often Sometimes Never N/A 1. Receivelow gradesin = 1 2 3 4 5 tasks iavolving class participation. 2, Have difficulty working 1 2 3 in small groups during class. 3, Have difficulty working 2 3 ‘with other students of ou-of lass projects. 4, Have trouble leading 1 2 3 4 3 class disevssions. 5, Have difficulty partie 1 2 3 a 5 pating in arge group ‘Eiseussions or in debates.82 Chapters ‘Always Often Sometimes Never NIA 6. Have diticoley imeracting 1 2 3 4 5 with student demonstrators in labs, tutorials, et. 7. Stuggle with oucof-lass 1 2 3 4 5 ignments which requize interaction with native speakers of English. SEER eee eee eee eee bere eee cece D. Speaking Skits How often do the following happen 0 you? Always Often Sometimes Never NIA 1 Hovedificuly giving = 128 43 onl presentations 2 Havewobiewording = 123 soos what you want say apiekly enough 3. Worr/sboutamying = 2S aos something in case you make a mistake ia your English, A Notknowhowiomy = 12 3 45 something in English. S.Notknowthebestwayta 1 2 3 os say someshing in Engl 6. Havecitficuyy with your 12 3 45 pronurciation of wores 7. Finditaitmeukwenee 12 3 45 Aiscussion, 8, Other (please specify Listening Stile How often do the following happen to you? Always Often Somesmes Never NIA 1, Have wouble under standing leetares, 1 2Needs analysis 83 Always Often Sometimes Never NIA Have wouble ckiog 1 2 effective notes. Have to ask sat questions 2 3 4 5 toclaify matedal you bbave boon taught, 4, Have trouble under- 1 2 3 4 3 standing lengtty descriptions in English ‘5. Have rouble under- 1 3 4 5 standing spoken ngeructons. 6. Have'touble uncer: 1 2 3 4 s ‘standing informal Tenguage. 7, Have wovble under: 1 2 3 4 5 standing the subject mater of a talk, i.e, whatis being talked about. 8. Takobeve difficulty 1 2 3 4 5 ‘with (please specify): “Thave problems understanding lecarers or other students because: Ofen Sometimes Never 9. They tall very fast 1 2 3 10, They wll very quiedy. 1 2 3 LM. Theiesceemtsorpronun- 2 3 ciation are dffereat from what I am used to. 12, More than one pessonis 2 3 in group84 Chapter3 F writing Skits ‘With regard to written assignments, please indicate for each of the following: 1. How important the sili, and 2, How often you have problems with the ski: Importance Frequency of problems Using correct punctuasion and spelling. ‘Structuring sentences. . ‘Using appropriate vocabulary. ‘Organising paragraphs. ‘Organising the overall assignment. Expressing ideas approptietely. Developing ideas. Expresting what you want say leary, Addressing trie. ‘Adopting appropriate tone and style. Following inswuctions and diceetons. Evaluating and revising your writing, ‘Overall writing bility Completing written ticks (¢-., exams, tests) within the ve available. Other (please specify): 1 Ieee aE a eet lee oe RENN ONS ANNO Some Seu UEE Ew HE we yo Newer PR RRR R RRR RRR RE NA RE RRA NRK ON Important DORA REARS EERE D Notsure G. Reading Skis z ‘The following questions concer the reading tsks required of you during the ‘course. Please indicate: 4) which ofthe folowing types of material you are expected t ead, and 'b) how often you have difculty doing so (please circle) Expected Frequency of ditfeulties toresd? Often Sometimes Never 1, Journal anoles Yes No L 2 3 2. Newspaper anicles, Yes No t 2 3Needs analysis 85 Expected Frequency of difficulties oread? Often Sometimes. Never 3, Works of fiction Yes/No 1 2 3 4. Enre reference ortext Yes/No 1 2 3 books 5, Selected chaptersof Yes /No 1 2 3 books. 6. Photocopied notes Yes/No 1 2 3 7. Workbook orisboratory Yes/No 1 2 3 instructions 8. Computerpreseated —Yas/NO 2 3 reading materials 9. Other (please specify): Yes/No 1 2 3 Indicate how often you have difficulty with exch ofthe following: Very ofien Sometimes Never 10. Understanding the main points of text Ea tat Hae: 1, Reading 4 text quieldy in order to 123 4 5 cstablish a general idea ofthe coatent (kimming). 12, Readiag # txt slowly and cacefully in 123 4 5 ‘order #0 understand the details of the ext. 13, Looking through atextquicklyinorder = «123 4S to locate specific information (scanning). 14, Gazssing unknown words in a text. 1235 4 5 15. Understanding tex organisation. state stants: 16, Understanding specialist vocabulary 1203 4 5 ingtext 17, Reading speed. 123 4 5 18, Reading in order to respond critically 123 4 5 19, Understanding a writer's aritude and 1203 4 5 purpose. 20. General comprehension. 123 4 5 21, Other (please specify: 123 4 586 Chapter Hi. Skils You Would Like to Improve Ifyou were 1 take a course to improve your English skills, which of he following would be useful o you? Rate the importance of each (please circle): High Moderate Low 1. Listening to proounciation/inonatio’ «= «123 4S stress patems of New Zealand English. 2. Lecmre notetaking. 1 2 3,4 8 53. General isening compretension. 102 3° 4 5 4, Giving formal speeches/presentations. 12 3 4 & 5, Panicipating effectively indiseussions. 1 2 «3 4 8 &. Communicating effecdvely wih peersin. «1 2 3 4 small group discussions, collaborative projects, or out-of-class study groups. Ease aes 7. Communicating effectively with sta 1 2 3 4 5 inor outof class. 8, Library skills 1203 4 $ 9. Essay writing. 123 4 3 10, Lab report writing, 123 4 8 AL. Creative writing. 12 3 4 3 12, Writing ease srdies. 1203 4 5 13. Deteribing objects or procedures. 12 3 4 3 14, Weldng introductions and conclusions. = 1 2 3 4S 15. Weiting references and quotations. ee aes es A 16, Formulating cohereat arguments. eee ee ts 17. Summarising facral information. reas 18. Synthesizing information from morethan «T2034 S 19, Analysing writen materials. 20, Knowledge of vocabulary. 21. Reading quickly. 22. Reading cxticaly. 23, Reading for author's viewpoint 2A, Summarizing material 25. General reading compretension. 26, Other (please specify and rate): Ba pRaaaeNeeds analysis 87 1, Assistance Available ‘Are you aware of the course available atthe Student Learing Cectre for sudents for whom English is 2 second language? (please circle): Yes/No Ifyou have taken any of these courses, please slate which you bave taken and how ‘useful hey were: Course Vey useful Nose at ll 1 2 3 6 5 1 ae ety 5 1 SEA. 3 J. Catering for ESL Stucents ‘Do you believe any changes should be made to your course or the way iis tugt as acesult of difcules students such as yourself have with English? (lease circle): Yes/No I you have answered Yes, please tick the modification which should be made: 1 using overheads moreinlectares [) Having more maltpte choice tests 1D simpiitying the material covered (} Providing suramaries of important raters Having less class involvement ‘ring lectures. Providing more photccepied notes Giving atonal storals ‘Other (please specify) Reducing the amount of reading K. Additional Comments Do you have any other comments which might be helpful in asessing whet En- lish skills are expected of you by the University, what specie difficulties you en- ‘coantered in tis pape, how English courses could beter prepare students such 25 ‘yourself fortis paper, or anything else celating vo your English lsnguage skill and ‘needs? If 50, please write thera here:88 Chapter 3 L. Additions! information If we would like more information from you, would you be prepared to be inter- viewed? Yes/No Ito, please give your: Names ‘Contact telepbone nommber: PPE eee eee cr eee eee eet ei “THANK-YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE.Needs analysis 89 References ‘Avsrbach, E. R. 1995. The politic of the ESL classroom: Issues of power in pedagogical choices. In Tollefson 1995.9-33. Benwick, R. 1989. Needs assessment in language programming: From theory to practice. In R. K,Fohason (ed), The second language curriculun. New ‘Yorks Cambridge University Press Brindley, 6.1984, Needs analysis and objective setting in he adult migra cation programs. Syéney: NS. W. Adult Migrant Education Service Brindley, G. 1989. The role of needs analysis in adale ESL programme design. aR. K.Tolnson (ed), The second language curriculum, New York: Cam bridge University Press. BurnetiL. 1998 issues fn irmigran setlement in Australia, Sydney: National ‘Centre for English Language Teaching and Resear. Connelly, E. M, and D. J. Clandinin. 1988, Teachers as curriculum planners. ‘New Yorks Teachers College, Columbia University Eley, W. 1984, Tllovig the evaluation toftthe context In. K. Johnson (ed), ‘The second language curriculum. New York: Cambridge University Press 770-285, Gravatt, B., J, Richards, and M, Lewis. 1997, Language needs in tertiary studs des, Auckland: Occasional Peper Number 10, Universi of Auckland In- ie of Langvage Teaching and Learning. Heedelson, S. (#4). 1993. English as a second language curriculum resource ‘handbook. New York: Krause Intemational Johns, A. M, and T, F.Sohas. 1977. Seminar discussion suateges. fo A. P Cowie and J.B. Heatoa (eds), English for academic purposes. Reading: Universi of Reading, BAALISELMOUS. i, D. and 5, Richards, 1995. Carconese as a second languages A study of learner needs and Cantonese course books. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Linse, C.T. 1993, Assessing swdent needs. In Hudelson 1993. 35-46 Porctr,L. 1977. Uns notion ambigue: ls “besoins angagiers’ Les cahiers dx CRELEF 3. Prat, 1980, Curiculume Design and development. New York: Harcourt Brace Richards, J.C.,and B. Gravat. 1998, Seadens' beliefs abou: foreign languages. “Auckland: Oceasioaal Paper Number Ll, University of Auckland Insioe of Language Teaching and Learning, ‘Shaw J, and G, Dowset. 1986. The evaluation process in he adult migrant ed- ucation program. Adelaide: Adult Migrant Education Program. Snutiebeam, D. C. McCormick, R. Briakerhof, and C. Nelson. 1985. Con ducting edacational needs asressment. Hingham, MA: KhuwerNijtot? Publishing ‘Tollefson, J. W. (d.). 1995. Power and inequalityin language education. Came tre: Cambridge University ress. sdow 4. Situation analysis | is © Lysis or oe “The goal of needs analysis isto collect information that can be used to de- velop & PrOWIe of We language needs-of-« group of TEASE IH GREE wobe BIE 16 make UCESONE abou the goals AN Civenc Ut E THEUABE COU. ‘However, other factors apart ions TEaTSET DECGS are TeTevan othe design and implementation of svocesaful language programs. Language programs ‘are carried out in particular contexts or situations. Clark (1987, xi) com- ments: [A language cuiculm isa fonction ofthe interelationships tha hold beowesa ‘Subjecvspeife concerns and ther broader factors embracing socfo-politcal Sand ptilosophical mazes, educational value systems, theory and practice ia curiculu design, ache experiential wisdom and leamer motivation. force to understand the foreign langeage cxeiculum in any particular context itis therefore necesay to atempto understand bow all the various influences Jncerelate to give a particular shape tothe planing and excoution of the teachingfeaming procest. ‘The contents for language programs are diverse and the paticulac variables ‘at come into play ina specific Aiuation are often the key detecminants of ‘ie SuRceRE OF program. Some language curricula are planned for centrally ‘Seganized State school systems where @ great deal of direction and support for teaching is provided. Others take place in setings where there are lim jted human and physical resources. Some proposals for cucriculum change are well received by teachers, Bt others may bezesisted. In some situations, teachers are well trained and have time available to plan their own lessoa materials. In other situations, teachers may have lite time for lesson plan ning and materials production and simply teach from their textbooks. Each context for a curriculum change or innovation thus contains factors that can Serntally Hate the change or Hinder fs succesf implementation (QwtarRee T997) I's Vniporiant, WereTore, 6 WaeHUity what these facte ese FaCtGrs are ‘and What their potential fees might te when planning @ Guiclluin change (Bean 1993), Prat (1980, 117) obseeves ‘The designer should estimate both the direct and indirect effects a proposed, ccarrieulum will have onthe students, on other programs, and on other people ia 20political economic, saci : ssnbincne Situation analysis 91 and outside the institution. These effects must be taken into account in the design and made clea to decision-makers when the curiculum proposal is submited, ‘Thais the fous of svacion analy. Stuaton anspis ian ani of facorsia be conentfelaned cr pens cunioin prea TEARS er ese pte punta npaerat Re eee Thee He ay be political, social, economic, or institutional. Situation analysis comple Seelusadinenvore eed als andean Ane heaaded oe Some examples of language teaching changes that were attempted with- out an adequate analysis ofthe context ofthe innovation will clarity the ima portance of situation analysis in curriculum planning. Example 1: A team of foreign experts under contract to an intemational funding body i given a contract to write anew series of English textbooks for the state schoo] system in an EFL country. They base themselves in an aractve small own ina rural setting and se up their writing project. They do a series of interviews with educational officies and teachers to deere rine students’ language needs and make use of te latest thinking on lan- szuage teaching and textbook design to produce an oral-based language course that reflecs the recommended language teaching methodology of the time — Audiolingualism. Textbooks are developed and provided to seo- ‘ondary schoels ano cost and teachers are given the choice of using thenew books or ther old outdated goverment textbooks. After a period of inital enthusiasm, however, very few teachers end up using the new course and ost revectio using the old government provided textbooks. z Connon The project team members speat insufficient time familiariz- ing teméelves with the local choo! situation. Most English teachers bad @ limited command of English, Teachers found the new materials difficlt veach because thoy rezuired a high level of oral Bueacy in Eaglish and en English-only methodology tht was difficult o implement in large clases. ‘A more successful reception might have cccurred if the introduction ofthe new materials had beea gradual, so that problems were addressed as they occurred. In addition, there could have been more provision for teacher urining. Example 2: Te education department ia an EFL country decides to intro- duce English from the thd year of elementary school rather than in high school. New textbooks are required. A group of teackers is seconded from schools to join a curiculum enit inthe ministry to produce the books for the next school year. There is an element of secrecy in the work of the unit92 Chapter and few people have an opportunity to review the materials before they are published. When the books are published, they receive many complaints from teachers. They are found tobe difficult to teach, they contain coo much material, and they are prepared to poor standards of design and production. ‘Comment: Several factors had not been addressed in planning the proj- ect. None of the members of the writing team had experience or training in writing elementary language teaching materials. More consultation with classroom teachers should have been provided, as well a pilot testing of the materials. In addition, there was an unrealistic budget for design and pro- duction, And the time framework the writers were working with did not al- low for adequate development and review of the materials. Example 3: Alasge private university of en EFL country decides that, rather than use commercial matecials in its language instivte, it will produce its ‘own materials and publish them. [tis hoped that they will compete on the market with materials produced by commercial publishers. A large amount of money is invested in setting up a materials writing team and the books are prepared. When they are finally published, however, itis found that few other institutes or schools want to use them. (Comment: Private universities in this country are highly competitive, and the fact that the materials were produced by one institution meant that other institutions did not want to use them, Some basic market research should hhave been carried out atte intial stages of the project to determine if there vould be a commercial market for the materials. “These examples illustrate the kinds of factors that can have aa impact on the SUSCCHT Of a cunioulumm project and emphasize the importance OF Ceverair- |. ing he Potential influence of sued Tactow OF We implemenauon OT acl a ‘7, eutira change, Ia this chapter, we will consider societal Factors, project *” _Yesctog,Tasfonal factors, reacher factors, learner factors, and adoption // factors. (Some of these factors will be considered further in later chapters, ee? jarelationtoissues of teaching, methodology, and materials desiga) Analy- [QO sis and appraisal of the poten impact ofthese factor atthe iital stages of & curieulum project ean help devermine the kinds of difficulties that right be encountered in implementing a curticulam change. Procedures sed in Sisstion analysis ae snes to thse favolvd in needs. assis nazaely (a) consultation with Fepresentatives of as many relevant groups 6s OBbIG, Such asparents Sudentsy teachers, administrators, and gover ent OMTSIS. (sty ant analy oF Felevent documents, sichas CouRe appraisal documents, goveriment reports, ministry of education guidelines, anid policy papers, teachiiig Taterials.“camricolum documents; (c) observa ¥Situation analysis 93 tion of teachers and students in relevant learning settings; (d) surveys of ‘Splaions of relevant partes: (e) review of available lterarute elated Wo tie ue Societal factors _ Second or foreign language teaching is fact of life in almost every coun- try in the world. Yet countries differ greatly in terms of the role of foreign languages in the community, ther stats in the curriculum, educational a- ditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that mem bers of tae community have for language teaching and lesrning. Van Els, T. Bongaerss, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Jansser-van Dieten (1984, 156), for example, comparing foreign language teaching experience in Holland and the United States, point out that the circumstances of forcign language teaching are completely different in both countries. In Holland, a command GF one oF wore foreign languages tas long Been actepted asa necessiy Schools are expected to offer a range of foreign languages, and there is both a strong tradition and considerable expertise in foreign language teaching. [New proposals are therefore met with informed skepticism, In the United States, by comparison, there is much less collective wisdom or experience in foreign language teaching. The position of foreign languages in the school curriculum is neither stong nor secure. More promotion of foreign language teaching is consequently needed, and there isa greater interest in novel tcaching methods. In examining the impact of societal fectors oa lan- ‘guage teaching, therefore the aim is ro detecmine the impact of grouys in ‘the community or society at large on the program. These groups include: = policy makes in goverment { + Educaonl and otter goverment offal » employers MS the business community 3+ politicians / teriay education spcilins + educational organizations 1S pares > Geen \ smears In the case of projects of community or national scope, questions such as the following may be relevant:94 Chapter4 «What current language teaching policies exist and how are they viewed? + What are the underlying reasons forthe project and who supports i€? + What impact will it have on different sectors of society? 1 What language teaching experience and traditions exist in the country’? | How do members of the public view second languages and second Ten- ‘guage teaching? «. Whar are the views of relevant professionals such as academies and teacher trainers? «+ Whar do professional organizations such as teachers’ unions think of the project? ‘What are the views of parents and students? ‘What are the views of employers and the business community? {What community resources are available to support the innovations, such as radio, television, and the media? - “The following examples illustrate the impact of societal factors on language ‘curriculum projects. ‘Example 1: A new English cucriculum has beea prepared for English at se<~ “ondary level in an EFL context. The new curicutum is described 2s acom- nunfeadve curriculum end downplays the importance of gremmas which traditionally received a strong focas inthe English curriculums. When text Dooks to support the new cucriculum are published, concems ere expressed by parents and parents’ groups because they fel thet their children “are not being tught the basics” and the textbooks will at provide sufficient prepa- ration for school exams. ‘Commant: Mechanisms should have been established for comounicat~ ing the intentions of te new curriculum to parents and other interested pat- ties and eo identify and address theic oncems, Peshsps parents misunder- Stood the way grammar was addressed in the new curriculum and would be Satisfied one= they understood bester how the program worked. In addition, the textbooks should be reviewed to ensure that they address the skills €o¥- cred in the exams ‘Example 2: In an EFL country, anew 6-year English course is developed for ‘secondary schools. The course seeks to prepare studenis both for employ eat and for entry to English-medium universities. The course is based on an integrated-skilis syllabus that was prepared by 2 group of consultants and ‘materials writers and is carefully reviewed by teachers before itis published. ‘After the course has been in use for two years, however, employers complain that school leavers have insufficient language skills for work purposes.Situation analysis 95 Comment: The course was largely planned around the needs of stu- dents going on to university studies. The needs of learners going to voce~ tonal schools or into the employment sector should 02"- aay icsoureed wile others operate ona shoestring budget. The time fame foe a penject needs Co be carefully planned If a curiclum development oon bts on too ambitious ataskfor theme avaiable, he quality of theit Goce may be compromised. The working éynamics ofthe tam are also ceehtal to the smooth progress of the project, Lf de team members art gly comet oh project and share common vision, iis UREIY BERRY oe fewer difficulties than one where the projectizam expences it~ emalfeuds andpower suuggies—— aa Sealing poojest actos need to be considered: «+ Who constitutes the project group and how are.they selected? 1 What are the Haaiagement and other responsibilities of How are goals and procedures determined? 1 Who reviews the progress ofthe projectand the performance ofits mem- bers? + What expetience do members of the team have? + How do members of the team regard each other? 2 What resqurces do they have available and what budget to acquire needed resources? ere + Whatisthe time frame ofthe project? Is itealstic, ors more ores ine needed?96 Chapter+ “The following examples illustrate how these kinds of factors can affect curriculam planning; “Example A private institute decides to develop a set of course materials for some of fis major courses. A group of teachers is assigned to the task dnd given release time t0 work an the project as materials writers. Ons of the senior teachers is put in charge. However, the team members cannot ragree on the goals of the projector the best approach to take in writing ‘aatevals. There is constant tension within the team and a rapid tumover of ‘pniters. Consequently, the project takes much longer to accomplish than planned. ‘Comment: A petson who is a good teacher may not make a good mate- rials developer or project leader. Better direction ofthe project was necded through recruitment of someone with appropriate qualifications and expe- ence. In addition, better communication was needed so that different per- ‘ceptions of the project could be aired and differences resolved before they tecame problems. Clearer specifications of roles might also have Ted co fewer problems. “Example 2: A full-time textbook writer needs help in developing textbook: ferdes She hes tree graduate students who appear to have the necessary Sills and experience. A contact is signed and the project commences. It ‘oon emerges, however, that the graduate students do not have the skills eeded to wate independently and are able to undertake litle more thas seo- rexel roles within ce projoct. The experienced writer finds it necessary to take on the major part of the writing, lading to tension and bad feeling because the contract is already signed. Comment: The graduate students should have been given 2 ial period to prove their worth before they were offered a contact, Problems thet ‘Sreiged early on inthe project should have been aired so that replacement wwnters could have teen recruited if necessary. =~ ‘Example 3: A project team within a ministry of education is assigned to de- velop a national textbook project in an EFL country. Team members are re- cruited by a professional recruitment agency. There is litle difficulty reeruiting writers, but there are few appropriate applicants for the role of project director. As a consequence, 2 succession of inexperienced or une Suitable appointees fill the post of project director, leading to serious prob- lems within the team and to disruption of the project deadlines. ‘Comment: The role of project director might have to be reconsidered and the responsibilities assigned to members of the team, Altematively, termsSituation analysis 97 of employment forthe project director might need to be reconsidered to en- able a suitable candidate to be found. In addition, members of the project team should be consulted on how to resolve communication other problems within the team, Institutional factors ‘AJlanguage teaching program is typically delivered in an institution such 2s. ‘university, school, or language instinute Different types of institutions cre=_ ulnire, thats, settings where people interactand where pat tems emecge for communication, decision making, ole relations, and con duct, Morris (1994, 109) observes: FE Schools re orgenzations and they develop a culture, ethos o environment oihich might be fevorebe or uafworble to encouraging change and the {nplemenation of fanovaons.& school with aetstively open cima, werd the teaches cllaorste with ech otc an where the pinipl an sence teacher] er supportive of aches is more likely ow to iplement a change In contast a school where the pnp focuses on administrative mates, te teaches workin isolation ori arow subjecs use groups and where te is to meshanism to discuss end ey solve problems is es ikely change A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups, and departments, sometimes functioning in unison, somedimes with different components functioning independently, or sometimes with components in a confronta- tional relationship. Within an instcution there may be a strong and positive ‘climate to support incovation, one where there is effective and positive Iead- ‘ership and where change is received positively. On the other hand, there may bea climate where teachers distrust one another aad the administration and have no fiom commitment 10 the school. Instinuions-also-have theicown ways of doing things. In some institu tions, textbooks are the core of the curriculum and all teachee’ must use the prescribed texs. In other instnutions, teachers work from course guidelines and supplement them as they soe fit, Insicutions also differ greatly in their levels of professionalism, In some institutions, there is a strong sense of pro fessional commitment and a culture of cuality that influences every aspect ‘of the institution’ operations. In others, the driving force of the school may bbe ménetary. As acost-Saving measure, heavy reliance is made on parttime teachers or teachers with Lite training and experience. They are not paid for lesson preparation time and consequently teach their classes and thea depart for their next teaching assignment, perhaps in ancther school.98 Chapter 4 In addition tothe human side ofthe institution, the physical aspects need twbeconsdered, Warland of resources avalebe fortress {Fd teachers reference room? What access do teachers have fo the Bbo- seepiee? Who chooses textbooks and materials? Insttiona factors thas relate to the following Kinds of questions: «+ What leadership is available within the school to support change and to help teachers cope with change? « What are the school’s physical resources, including classroom facilities, ‘media and other technological resources, and library resources? + Whats the role of textbooks and other instructional materials? + What is saxf morale like among English teachers? 1 What problems do teaches face and what is being done about them? 1 What administrative support is available within the school and what is communication like between teachers and the administration? «What kind of reputation does the instinution have for delivering suceess- fel language programs? «+ How committed is the institution to attaining excellence? Example 1: A new directors appointed oa private language insite, The Gunes ofthe insdtute are concemed at felling student enrollments and feel that the insiute’s programs need to be reviewed to make them more COM pestve and attractive to potential clients. The director prepares an excellent Pitonale for revamping existing courses, for replacing the textbooks cur- rently in use with more up-to-date texts, and develops a plan for marketing few courses. However, she meets a wall of resistance from teachers WoO feel that they are endervalued, underpaid, and that proposed changes will not bring any benefits to them. ‘Comment Pethaps the teachers could have bees involved in rethinking the insdiste's programs from the start and ways found to buildin some in- tentives for the teachers themselves. This might invelve negotisting with the school’s overs for better service conditions for teachers 2s part ofthe (vera cusiculum renewal plan. Ia addition, some ofthe teachers may have fo be replaced with teachers who are more open to che kinds of changes the irector is proposing. ‘Example 2: There is an unaeceptebly high amount of stefftumover ina lan- guage instimate and several excellent teachers have moved on, claiming chat the school does nat provide them with the continued source of professional satisfaction they need. AS a consequence, the institute is short of key teach= brs. New teachers complain that they do not have the support they need fromSituation analysis 99 senior teachers ia orderto enable them to successfully carry out thei teach- ing and materials development responsibilities. ‘Comment: The institute should review its staff structure and consider cre- ating special roles for key senior teachers with appropriate remuneration, “These could be mentor teachers, teacher trainers, or teacher researchers. Teacher factors “Teachers ate 2 key factor in the successful implementation of curriculum _GhHges Exceptional teachers ean often cOmpensate for the poor-qualiy == Sources and materials they have to work from. But inadequately wained teachers may notbe able to make effective use of teaching materials no mat- ter how well they ace designed. In any institution, teachers may vary 2c- cording to the following dimensions: + language proficiency 1 teaching expedence : Sdllantenpetts — G wled oles re Heaok! ‘training and qualifications \ morale and motivation =|) Life teaching syle beliefs and principles tn planning a languege rogram itis therefore important o know the Kinds ttsachers the program wil czpend on aa the kinds ofeachers needed 9 fnsure that the program achieves its goal. ‘Wiehin schools, teachers also have many different kinds of responsibil des, Some teachers have mentoring o leadership roles within thet schools tad exsist orienting new teachers othe school o leading groups of each- tre in merits development and othec activities. Other teachers have time for little more then teaching. They may have very heavy teaching loads or teach in sever efferent instiions in order to make ends mest. Some teachers may Welcome the ehance to Lr Out 8 pew sylabus or mata. Others may reset irbecaise they see it as disrupting their routine and not offering them any Snancial or other kindof advantage. ‘Among the teacher factors cat need to be considered in situation analy- sis ace the following: «What kinds of teachers curently teach in te target stools or instia- ons? What is their typical background, taining, experience, and mot- vation?100 Chapter 4 + How proficient are they in English? + What kinds of beliefs do the teachers typically hold concerning key is- sues in teaching? ‘What teaching loads do teachers have and what resources do they make use of? 7 + What are the typical teaching methods teachers use and believe in? ‘To what extent are teachers open to change? + What opportunities do they have for retraining through in-service or other Kinds of opportunities? «+ What benefits are the proposed new syllabus, curriculum, or materials ely to offer teachers? ‘The following examples illustrate the potential impact of some of these issues. Example 1: As par of an overall reform of the school curriculum, the evr- feulum department in an EFL country decides to implement a new task~ based approach to teaching across the whole curriculum in all subject ar- eas, The new curriculum involves a greater use of teachermade criterion-refereaced tests that arc linked to graded tasks in differen subject ‘areas, However, when the plan is introduced to teachers, it meets with great resistance. Teachers ae happy with the current curriculum; they have great difficulty understanding the philosophy of the new approach and see it as Creating a much heavier workload. The teachers’ uaion organizes a nomber dofteachers' meetings to discuss and criticize the new curriculum, Inthe face ‘of public opposition, the euciculum department decides to delay the intro- duction ofthe new curiculum and to modify i, despite having spent large sam of money in developing the curriculum and supporting meterals. ‘Comment. Much wider consultation should have taken place before de- ciding to change the existing curriculum. Teachers should have been con~ sulted to see if they saw te need for change. Teachers should have been in~ volved in preparing the new curriculum rathec than imposing it on them 2s _ a fait accompli. Adequate provision should have been made to rain teach- ‘iio use the néw curiculom and the curiculum piloted first identity the demands it created for teachers and students. Example 2: A program director in a private institute believes that teachers {in his school should not use commercial textbooks but should prepare their ‘own teaching materials. Most eachers are untrained and on short-term con- tracts so they feel that they cannot contest his ruling and pay lip service to the policy. However, most teachers ignore the policy. They teach from pho-Situation analysis 101 tocopied sections taken from commercial materials or type out sections from textbooks and pass these off as teacher-made materials. ‘Comment: Tae program director's policy serves no obvious purpose. If the director wants teachers to prepare their own materials, he will need t0 ‘consider hiring better-qualified teachers or provide materials writing work shops for teachers. In addition, a set of goals related to materials writing needs to be agreed on to give some purpose to the requirement. Learner factors Leorners are the key partieipants in cursiculum development projects and it {s essential to collect a8 mauch information as possible about them before the peoject begins. In Chapter 3 the focus was learners’ language needs. Here the focus is on 0 relevant factors such as the learners’ back- grounds, expectations beliefs, and prefered learning projectde- Signet thay be operating from 2 set of assumptions about education, schools, teechers, and studeats that is culturally bound and at odds with the beliefs and assumptions of the learners. Numan (1989, 176) comments: the effectiveness of a language program will be dictared as uch bythe atudes and expectation ofthe leaner a by the specifications of he oficial uniculcm.., enmers have tei own agendas inthe Innguage lessons they end. These agendSt, aS MUEh ss tie teachers Obja=kives, deter iearnas take from any given prachingeaming encouster ‘Lamers may aftihe ovo oa project ia nent vm aumple, a textbook or et F materials may be engaging, ara suitable level, and provide a lot of useful practice but not be appreciated by students be- ‘cause they fail to soe any links between the book and an examination they fre. working towatd,-A language program that (s dependent on students’ ‘ringing to schoo! a student book, a workbook, and 2 dictionary may en counter difficulties because students’ schoolbags are not big enough to pro~ Vide space for three English books ia addition to books required for other subjecs, Ora program in busizess English for company employees sensi bly predicated on the assumption thatthe students really want tobe able to

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