A Grounded Theory of Academic Change

Author(s): Clifton F. Conrad

Source: Sociology of Education, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Apr., 1978), pp. 101-112
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2112242
Accessed: 27-04-2015 17:05 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Sociological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Sociology of
Education.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 101
Turner,RalphH. Weinberg,Meyer
1964 The Social ContextofAmbition. San Fran- 1977 Minority Students:A Researchappraisal.
cisco: ChandlerPublishing Company. Washington, NIE.
U.S. Commission on CivilRights Wellisch,Jean B., Ronald A. Carrier,Anne H.
1967 Racial Isolation in the Public Schools. MacQueen,and GaryA. Duck
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- 1977 An In-DepthStudyof Emergency School
ingOffice. AidAct(ESAA) Schools:1975-1976.Santa
U.S. Department ofHealth,Education,andWelfare Monica,SystemDevelopment Corporation.
No Directory of Public,Elementary and Sec- Wilson,AlanB.
date ondarySchoolsin SelectedDistricts,Fall 1959 "Residentialsegregation of social classes
1972.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government and aspirationsof high school boys."
PrintingOffice. American SociologicalReview(December):
Wagner,Alan,and LawrenceJ. Tenison 836-845.
1976 Descriptionand Specificationsfor the Winkler, DonaldR.
Linked NLS-InstitutionalData Base. 1975 "Educationalachievement andschoolpeer
Washington: College EntranceExamina- groupcomposition."Journal ofHumanRe-
tionBoard. sources:189-204.

A GROUNDED THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE*

CLIFTON F. CONRAD
College of Williamand Mary

Sociology of Education 1978, Vol. 51 (April): 101-112

A grounded theoryof academic change is offeredas an alternativeto existingmodels of

academic change. The constant comparative method, an inductivemethod of discovering
theory,is elaborated and applied to the emergenceof the theory.The theoryis thenpresented
througha series of theoreticalstatementswhichrelate a series of primarilypolitical concepts
and processes. Briefly,the theoryidentifiesseveral major processes whichlinkpressuresfor
change and a policydecision to change: conflictand interestgrouppressuresfollowedbypower
exertion, administrativeintervention,faculty leadership exercised throughinterestgroup
advocacy, and compromiseswhichare negotiatedthroughadministrativeleadership. Finally,
the theoryis brieflydiscussed and compared withalternativemodels of change, including
Baldridge's political model of academic change.

Duringthepast decade, theprocessof ten about the ostensible sources of

changeat thecollegeanduniversity level change,littleis knownabout the condi-
has beenthetopicofconsiderable debate. tionsunderwhich,orthedegreeto which,
Whatis change?How does itcomeabout? ''sources of change"are influential upon
Whatare the majorprocessesinvolved? those who make the decision about
Whoaretheagentsofchange?Allofthese whetherchangewillor willnotoccur.
arecentralquestionsthathavebeenposed modelshavebeendevel-
Fourprincipal
by thoseinvestigating academicchange. oped whichhave guidedresearchon aca-
Collegesand universities arefrequentlydemicchange:the complexorganization
discussedin termsof theirsusceptibility(Griffiths, 1969;Hodgkin-
1964;Hefferlin,
to externaland internalenvironmentalson, 1970), diffusionof innovations
pressures.Although muchhas been writ- (Mitchell,1970; Rogers, 1962), planned
* The data thatare used in thisstudyhave been change (Lippitt,Watson,and Westley,
adaptedfromthewriter'sunpublished dissertation, 1958;Bennis,Benne,and Chin,1961;Ro-
TowardA TheoryofAcademic Change. The Univer- gers, 1964), and the political(Fashing,
sityof Michigan,1975.I am indebtedto Professor 1969; Baldridge,1971; Lindquist,1972).
RobertT. Blackburn, UniversityofMichigan, forhis
supportand insightfulcomments on thispaper. Each modelhas centereduponsomepar-
Addresscommunications to Dr. CliffordConrad, ticularaspect of change(authority,com-
Schoolof Education,Collegeof Williamand Mary, munication, grouppressures),
interest but
Williamsburg, Va. 23185. explana-
nonehas provideda satisfactory

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
102 CONRAD

tionas to preciselyhowchangeoccursor METHODOLOGY

who and whatare finallychangedat the ConstantComparativeMethod
end of theentireprocess.
For the most part change has been The constantcomparativemethod,an
viewedas some mysticalprocessthatis inductivemethodof discoveringtheory
totallyunplanned.Kerr (1963:102)char- thathas been elaboratedmostsystemati-
acterizesthisview: callybyGlaserand Strauss(1967),served
Whenchangedoes come,it maybe by the as the majorresearchprocedure.In gen-
slowprocessofpersuasion, orbysubversion eral, the comparativemethodcombines
as through theinside-outsidealliance,or by systematiccoding and analysis with
externaldecision.Theacademiccommunity, theoretical samplingto generatea theory
regardlessoftheparticularprocessinvolved, thatis integrated, consistent,close to the
is morechangedthanchanging;changeis data, and in a formclear enoughto be
moreunplanned thanplanned. operationalized fortestingin quantitative
Therehavebeen,however, fewattempts research. Unlike most methods of
to isolatethosefactors,externalor inter- analysis,which are designedto ensure
nalto institutions, whichare mostcritical thattwo analystsworkingindependently
in originatingthechangeprocess.Neither withthe same data willachievethesame
has therebeen muchresearchdirectedat results,theconstantcomparative method
understanding the dynamicsand pro- is designedto permit thekindofflexibility
cessesofacademicchange.Moreover,the thataidsthecreativegeneration oftheory.
relevantliterature includes few attempts There are four stages includedin the
to generate,muchless test,a theoryof comparative method:(1) comparing inci-
academicchange.The fourmodelshave dentsapplicableto each category;(2) in-
sensitizedresearchers to different dimen- tegrating categoriesand theirproperties;
sionsofthechange process and these may (3) delimiting the theory;and (4) writing
proveto offerfurther insight.But there- thetheory(Glaserand Strauss,1967:105).
searchhas been largelydescriptiveand First,theanalystcodes each datuminci-
seldomcenteredaroundidentifying criti- dentintoas manycategoriesofanalysisas
cal variables in, and their relationship to, possible.As categoriesemergeor as data
thechangeprocess. emergethat fit existingcategories,the
The primary purposeofthisarticleis to analystbeginsthinking in termsof the
presenta groundedtheoryof academic theoretical properties of thecategory:its
changethatis baseduponresearchguided dimensions,its relationshipto other
by two majorresearchquestions:What categories, and the conditions under
are the major sources of academic whichitis pronounced or minimized. This
change?What are the major processes processincludesa continualreturning to
through whichacademicchangeoccurs? the data until the categories become
For purposes of this paper, grounded theoretically saturated.
theory is definedas theory generated from The analysisincreasingly moves from
datasystematically obtainedandanalyzed comparisonof incidentwithincidentto
through the constant comparative comparison ofincidentwithproperties of
method.Because thisapproachhas not the categorythat resultedfrominitial
beenexplicatedas a majorresearchmeth- comparisons of incidents.The further re-
odologyinthehigher education literature, finement of categories (or variables)and
theconstantcomparative methodwillbe theirinterrelationships graduallyleads to
elaboratedand applied to the research thedevelopment oftheory.The theoryis
problemstatedabove. A grounded theory continually delimitedas a smallerset of
ofacademicchange,whichis based solely higherlevel conceptsemerges.Finally,
on theapplication oftheconstantcompar- whentheresearcher is convincedthatthe
ative method, will subsequently be theoryis satisfactorily integrated,the
presented ina discussionformat. Thefinal theoryis presentedeitherin a discussion
sectionexaminesthetheoryin lightofal- formor as a set of propositions.
ternative modelsof change. Theoreticalsamplingis the processof

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 103
collectingdata forcomparative analysis, for theoreticallyrelevantdata, firstbe-
and it is especiallyintendedto facilitate tween similarand different comparison
thegeneration oftheory.Beyondthedeci- groups, continuesuntil all the critical
sions concerning the initialcollectionof variablesandtheirinterrelationships have
data,theprocessofdatacollectionis con- beentheoretically saturated. The criterion
trolledonlyby theemerging theory.That forsaturationis thatno additionaldata
is, the emerging theoryenables the re- can be foundwhichfurther embellishthe
searcherto selectcomparison groups(in- theory.
cludinggroupswithininstitutions) on the To summarize, thecomparative method
basis of theirtheoretical relevance,thus is notbuiltupona predetermined designof
avoidingthecollectionofa largemass of datacollectionandanalysisbutrepresents
dataofquestionable theoreticalrelevance. a methodof continually redesigning the
Put differently, the universeof data is researchinlightofemerging conceptsand
graduallydelimitedthroughthe use of interrelationships amongvariables.Using
theoretical criteria. a comparativetechniquethatallows for
The criticalquestionintheoretical sam- similaritiesand laterdifferences between
plingis: To whatcomparison groupsdoes groups,qualitative data are soughtfroma
one turnnextin data collection?Andfor varietyof sourcesto ensurea richcom-
whattheoretical purpose?The basic crite- parative data base. The comparative
riongoverning the selectionof compari- methodof continualcodingand analysis,
son groupsfordiscovering theoryis their controlled throughout bytheguidelines of
theoreticalrelevancefor furthering the theoretical sampling, lendsitselfto differ-
development of emerging categories.The entmethodsofdatacollectionwhichyield
researcher is throughout an activesampler a diversity of data,butdata thatare col-
of theoretically relevantdata as he/she lectedandanalyzedtotheextentthatthey
identifiesthe central variables of the are in the serviceof groundedtheory.
emerging theory;thustheresearcher must Thereare severalreasonsfortheselec-
continually analyzethedata to see where tionofthecomparative method.First,itis
the next theoreticalquestionwill lead. a methodology whichis particularly well-
When initially generating the basic adaptedto thetaskofgenerating, and not
categoriesand theirproperties,the re- simplyverifying, theory.Insteadof rely-
searcher minimizesdifferencesin the ing on preselectedgroups,as in most
comparative groups.Underthesecondi- methodologies whichplace relativeem-
tions,maximum similarityindataleadsto: phasis on verification,it includes the
(1) verifying the usefulnessof the vari- comparison ofsimilaranddifferent groups
ables; (2) generating basic properties; and to facilitate
thedevelopment oftheory.In
(3) establishing sets of conditionsfor a particular, the maximization of dif-
degreeof variation. ferencesbetweengroupspromotesthe
Withtheemergence ofa basic theoreti- embellishment of the theory.Thus the
cal framework, the researcherturnsto comparative method provides not a
maximizing differences amongcompari- methodwheredifferent slicesof data are
son groups. The maximizationamong seen as a test of each otherbut rather
comparisongroups(by maximizingdif- different modesofknowing whichmustbe
ferencesindata)stimulates thegeneration explainedand integrated theoreticallyby
and further refinement oftheoretical pro- addingslicesofdatato qualifythetheory.
pertiesonce the basic frameworkhas Coupled with theoreticalsampling,the
emerged.The maximization of thediver- comparative methodencouragesa multi-
sityinthedataforces:(1) thedensedevel- facetedinvestigation inwhichthereareno
opmentoftheproperties ofthevariables; limitsto thetechniquesofdatacollection,
(2) the delimitation of the scope of the thewaytheyareused,orthetypesofdata
theory.Theoreticalsamplingof differentacquiredexceptforthe requirements of
comparativegroups complementsthe theoretical saturation.
second and thirdstagesof the constant Second, the constantcomparisonof
comparativemethod.The active search variables(includingtheirpropertiesand

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
104 CONRAD
theirinterrelationshipswitheach other) was carefullyemployedto avoid forced
results in a type of "development" responses.In the latterstagesof the re-
theory.The grounded theoryis constantly search,as the theorygraduallybeganto
beingdelimited andmodified inlightofthe emerge,the formwas restricted almost
phenomena under investigation.The entirely toa deviceforrecording thedata.
comparative methodespeciallyfacilitates In additionto interview data,a consid-
thegeneration of theoriesof processand erableamountof primary and secondary
changethrough thejointprocessofcoding materialwas gatheredat each ofthefour
and analysisuntiltheoretical saturation (1) membership
is institutions: listsandmin-
reached. utesfromtheappropriate committees, ad
hoc groups,and facultysenates;(2) per-
Sample Selection
sonal files of committeemembers;(3)
campusnewspaperarticles;(4) published
According to theguidelinesoftheoreti- and unpublished reports;(5) personallet-
cal sampling,comparisongroupsor in- ters;(6) speeches;(7) publishedarticles;
stitutionsshouldbe selectedon thebasis and (8) tapes of facultymeetings.These
oftheirtheoretical relevance.In thecase documents wereextremely valuablein in-
of thisparticularresearchproblemonly terpretingdata gathered from inter-
institutionsthat had changedtheircur- viewees and constitutedan excellent
riculum metthatcriterion.Butthecompar- checkon theotherdata.
ativemethodalso calls fortheminimiza- The investigator was confronted by a
tionand the maximization of differenceslargebodyofdataduring andimmediately
between comparativegroups. In this following the initialfieldvisits.The col-
study,that criterionwas satisfiedby lecteddata wereexaminedin detailfrom
choosinginstitutions whichhad utilized all fouroftheuniversities duringand fol-
differentvehiclesto realizechange.For lowingthevisits.At thesametime,how-
example,formalcurriculum committees ever, the researcherimmediately began
wereused in some institutions, whileon thinking oftheemerging variables,includ-
otheroccasionsad hoc groupswereem- ingtheircentralproperties and conditions
ployed. underwhichthey were maximizedand
Four institutions were selectedwhich minimized, theirconsequences,and their
met the sample criterion.Two of the relationto other variables. Theoretical
schools,theUniversity of Rochesterand propertiesgraduallyemergedfromthe
Ohio State University,were selected dataas conceptswerefirstdevelopedand
primarily because the vehicleof change relationships firstrecorded.
was the formalcurriculumcommittee. The Universityof Rochesterwas the
Aquinas College and WesternMichigan first to be visited.The evidence
institution
University were selectedbecause theve- at Rochesterearly suggestedthatwhile
hicleof changewas an ad hoc group. underlying conflictseemedto be a pre-
condition ofchange,conflicts becamevis-
Procedure
ible only when external or internal pres-
suresthreatened the statusquo. Several
Duringthe initialvisitto each of the major pressures for change were
fourschools,data collectionwas guided suggestedby the evidence: curriculum
bya generalorganizational and sociologi- practices at other institutions, faculty
cal perspective.An extensiverange of subcultures, and organizational turnover.
qualitativedata was obtained,including It is useful to indicate how one
interviews and documents. pressure-curriculum practicesat other
Interviewswere the main source of institutions-wasidentifiedas a major
data.In theearlystagesoftheresearch,as sourceof change.
the researcherwas struggling to make The evidencewas compelling thatthe
sense out of the data, an open-ended majorpressureforchangewas curricular
interview formguidedthediscussion.Its innovation concurrently being im-
mainvalue was in systematizing the in- plementedat institutions thatRochester
quiryarounda broadset of questions.It considersin itspeergroup.For example,

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 105
examination of a numberof documents, evidencegatheredat Rochester.At the
includingfacultyminutes,revealedthat same time,however,it is important to
the Rochesterfacultywas sensitiveto note thatthe researcheralso soughtex-
changingacademicpracticesat selected planations foremerging conceptsandpro-
Ivy League institutions,
including Colum- positions,forgroundedtheorymustnot
bia, Yale, and Princeton.Moreover,in- onlybe inducedon thebasis ofevidence;
terviews witha widevariety offacultyand itmustalso includeplausibleexplanations
administrators supportedthe generaliza- forpurported relationships. In thiscase,
tionthata majorreasonforreviewing the therewere two such explanations.First,
curriculum was thatcertainIvy League administrators are likelyto have an over-
institutionshad modifiedtheircurricula. all perspectiveof theirinstitutions be-
The Dean oftheCollegeofArtsand Sci- cause of theirformalposition.At many
ence, who servedas the majoragentof institutions, sensitivity to pressuresfor
change,admittedthatacademicchanges change, sine qua non, is essential for
at Princetonwere a major impetusto maintaining an administrative position.
change.Thus on the basis of the initial Second,theadministrative leadershiphas
visitto Rochester,one tentative proposi- a vested interestin identifying and re-
tionwas: Curriculum Practicesat Institu- spondingto pressuresfor change. The
tionsPerceivedas Peer Institutions are a maintenance of theirpositionsis at least
MajorSourceofChange.Like manypro- partlydependentupon the accommoda-
positionsintheemerging theory, thisgen- tion of formaland informalcomponent
eralizationwas later modifiedbecause partsof theirrespectiveinstitutions. It is
additionalevidencedisconfirmed the im- oftenintheinterests oftheadministrative
portanceof the emphasisinitially placed leadershipto controlor guidethosepres-
on peerinstitutions;themodified proposi- sures by initiating the process of cur-
tionthatcurriculum practicesat otherin- riculumchange,regardlessof individual
stitutionsare a majorimpetusto change preferences eitherforor againstchange.
was eventually incorporated intothefinal This discussion of the gradual
theorybecause of strongsupporting evi- emergence of a theory of academic
dence fromeach of the sample institu- change,based on evidencefromRoches-
tions. ter,emphasizestheroleofbothevidence
The evidenceat Rochestertentativelyand explanationin the developmentof
suggesteda politicalperspectiveof the groundedtheory.At the same time,to
change process, and relationshipsbe- insurethatadditional or alternative expla-
tweeninterestgrouppressures,conflict, nationsof curriculum change were not
and changewere initiallyexplored.But overlooked,a concertedeffort was made
one aspectofthechangeprocessemerged throughout the fieldvisitsto avoid the
as central:the role of an administrativeearly delimitationof a theory which
agentwho providesthe impetusforthe would,in turn,lead onlyto thecollection
reexamination of the academicprogram ofdatasupporting, disconfirming, ormod-
by selectinga controllingmechanism for ifying thatset of explanations.
change. This caveat notwithstanding, the re-
The Rochesterevidence clearlyindi- searcheradopted a broad interpretative
catedthattheDean oftheCollegewas the framework, whichespeciallyguidedthe
centralagentin the changeprocess.For interview process,as he subsequently vis-
example,everysingleinterviewee, except ited Aquinas College,WesternMichigan
the Dean himself,admittedthat cur- University,and Ohio State University.
riculumreexamination probablywould Thisframework consistedofa broadsetof
nothave been seriouslyentertained with- questions which, based on the earlier
outhisinvolvement. Morethanone inter- data-collection, increasingly guided the
vieweerecalledthe Dean's judicioususe research.Especiallyduringtheinitialvis-
of information as a tool for promoting its,theprocessualand dynamiccharacter
change. of thisframework cannotbe overempha-
The criticalrole of the administrativesized. Not infrequently, for example,
changeagentwas firstsuggestedby the variablesthat seemed important in one

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
106 CONRAD
settingwere irrelevantin anotherand thepositiononlyunderthecondition that
wereomitted fromtheguiding framework.thecollegewouldengagein a self-study is
The roleofan outsideAdvisoryBoardat an indicationof the strongsentiment for
Aquinas College is a case in point.Be- changeat Aquinas. Thus whilethe new
cause outsideconsultantswere not in- presidentservedas thevisibleagent,the
cludedin thechangeprocessat theother hiddencriterion forhis selectionwas tied
institutions,there was insufficient evi- to quasi-interestgroup pressure for
dence to suggestthatconsultantsare a change.Without pressuresforchange,the
necessary component of curriculum new president mightnot have been
change. selectedundersuch unusualconditions.
To illustratethe ongoingdynamicbe- This interpretation was stronglysup-
tweendiscoveryand verification, it is in- portedby sevenof nineinterviewees. In
structiveto brieflyreviewsome of the any case; the new presidentwas hardly
evidencefromAquinasCollege,the sec- unawareofthissentiment forchangeand,
ond institution visitedduringthe initial coupledwithhiscommitment to self-study
roundoffieldvisits.It was at Aquinasthat whenhe acceptedtheposition,it proved
thepoliticalimageofacademicchangeas- tobe a powerful rationaleforembarking at
sumed a more prominent place in the onceon a majorreexamination oftheaca-
emerging framework. Based upona large demicprogram.
numberof interviews, the evidencesup- Regardlessof interestgrouppressures
portedtheinterpretation thatpriorto the for change, curriculumreexamination
initiationof effortsto bringabout cur- would not have come aboutwithoutthe
riculumchange,conflictsconcerning the newpresident. All fourteen personsinter-
academicprogram hadbeenemasculated. viewed at Aquinas,includingthe presi-
But increasingly the Aquinascommunitydenthimself, agreedthathe was theagent
becamedividedovertheissue of change of change.
in generaland curriculum changein par- The politicalimageof the changepro-
ticular.The circumstances leadingto the cess emergedas a usefulanalytical device
selectionofa newpresident committed to in explainingthe process of change at
curriculum changehelpedto illuminate a Aquinasfollowing the completion of the
relationshipbetween an increasingly self-study process.Morespecifically, the
fragmented social structure and adminis- conceptofpowerexertion, as opposedto
trativeintervention in theprocessofaca- morestaticnotionssuchas "powerhold-
demic change. Interviewevidence re- ing" or theinnocuousterm"power,"be-
vealed that the emergence of quasi- came a criticalvariablein accounting for
interestgroup sentimentfor academic thedecisionto changetheacademicpro-
changewas the mostcriticalunderlying gram.An interpretation oftheevidenceat
factorleadingto the selectionof a presi- Aquinassuggeststhatpowerexertionby
dentcommitted to change.As one inter- an interestgroupfavoringchangeis im-
viewee put it: "We wanted somebody portant fortworeasons.First,itforcesthe
who would shake the institution to its appropriate decision-making bodyto con-
politicalroots." An influential groupof sider seriously the recommendations
seniorlay facultyand manyyoungerfac- submitted by thead hoc committee. Sec-
ultyviewedAquinasas a staticinstitution.ond, power exertionby interestgroups
theyviewededucationalin- favoring
In particular, changecombinesadvocacywith
novationas a way of addressing impend- a powerbase which,ifusedresourcefully,
ingfinancialproblemsand responding to maybe sufficienttobringabouta decision
thetrendtowardmajor.curricular innova- to changecurriculum. In any event,the
tionsat otherliberalartsinstitutions. Be- evidence at Aquinas revealed a com-
cause theywereunwilling to seize theini- promise decision between competing
tiativeundertheheavy-handed leadership interestgroups,but one in which the
of theformer president, however,it was changesin thecurriculum-both in terms
not untilhis retirement thatan opportu- of direction and magnitude-reflected the
nityexistedforchange.The subsequent interestsof the groupexertingthe most
selectionofa president whowouldaccept power.

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 107
The emphasison discovery, as muchas lection and the universe of data was
verification, guided the data collection gradually delimited. Interviews were
processas subsequent visitsweremadeto orientedtowardtesting,elaborating, and
WesternMichiganUniversityand Ohio refining the theory.As a techniquefor
StateUniversity. Thusnumerous alterna- achievingclosureat each institution, the
tive explanationsof the changeprocess researcherasked several interviewees
were investigated as the researcherre- aboutpropositions thatwerebeingtested.
sistedthetendency towardpremature clo- This techniquerequiredcourage,but.its
sure.Indeed,severalnewconcepts,such dividendfor validationis immense.If
as "structural reorganization" as a major therewas agreement thatthepropositions
pressureforchange,were added to the were a reasonableinterpretation of the
framework. Interestingly, however,most process,thevisitwas concluded.If there
oftheconceptsand relationships derived was some disagreement,then it was
fromthevisitsto thefirsttwoinstitutionsnecessaryto conduct additionalinter-
were confirmed by evidencefromWest- views untila revisedinterpretation re-
ernMichiganUniversity and Ohio State; ceivedvalidation.
still,the evidence fromthe lattertwo Followingthe second fieldvisits,the
schoolsled to a considerablerefinementanalyticsummary sheetswereamendedin
of severalof theconceptsand theirrela- light of the new data. Afterfurther
tionshipto academicchange.Increasingly analysis,in-cluding validationof certain
rigorousand potentially moreusefuldefi- evidence,the researcherconcludedthat
nitionsweredevelopedas conceptswere no additionaldata could be foundwhich
continually revisedbased upontheongo- further embellished thetheory.
inginterpretation of thedata.
Followingthefirst fieldvisits,theinter- An Illustrationof theResearch Procedure
view data wereformally recordedand a
lengthy analyticsummary sheetwas pre- The sheervolumeofthedata collected
paredforeach institution. The broadin- duringtheinvestigation, as wellas a sub-
terpretativeframework, whichhad been stantial numberof institutionalpecu-
continually revisedduringthevisits,was liarities at eachofthefoursampleschools,
systematized in theselengthy summaries. precludesa thoroughdiscussionof the
By the conclusionof the firstroundof richness,complexity and movement that
field visits, a primitivetheoryof cur- characterized the applicationof the con-
riculumchangewas outlined. stantcomparative methodto thisinvesti-
Duringthesecondphase offieldvisits, gation.However,the readermightgain
the constant collecting, coding, and greaterinsightinto the dynamicof dis-
analysisconformed morecloselyto the coveryand verification by an illustration
guidelinesof theoreticalsampling.Two of how one conceptwas abandonedand
comparison groupswereselectedfortheir anotherwas modifiedduringthe second
theoreticalrelevanceon thebasis of pre- fieldvisits.
liminary analysisthattheprocessof cur- As the investigator began the second
riculumchangewas relatedto thevehicle roundof visits,the conceptof faculty
of change.The University of Rochester leadership in an ad hoc mechanism during
and Ohio State University,which had the policy-recommending process had
useda formal curriculum committee, were been incorporatedinto the primitive
comparedand contrastedwithAquinas theory.The concepthad beenfirstdevel-
CollegeandWesternMichiganUniversity oped duringthe initialvisitto Western
wheread hoc groupshad been utilized. MichiganUniversity wherea preliminary
Thismaximization ofdifferences between analysisofeventssurrounding thead hoc
comparisongroupsstimulated thefurther group suggestedthatthe chairmanand
refinement of thetheory. anotherfacultymemberexercisedan im-
A returnvisitwas made to all of the portantrole in the changeprocess.Five
schoolsexcepttheUniversity of Roches- interviewees had indicatedthatthechair-
ter.Duringthissecondphase,theemerg- manwas thesinglemostinstrumental per-
ingtheoryguidedtheprocessofdatacol- son in realizinga recommendation for

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
108 CONRAD
change.Followingthe establishment of tant role in accommodating substantial
theprimitive theory, theinvestigator con- differenceswithin theirrespective groups.
cludedthattheconceptshouldbe furtherThe leadersof studygroupson Teaching
testedat WesternMichigan;moreimpor- Resourcesand LearningResources,for
tant,evidenceshouldbe obtainedfrom example, accommodateddifferences of
the other institution (Aquinas College) opinionthatwould have otherwisesplit
utilizingan ad hoc mechanism in orderto thegroupsoverproposedchangesin gen-
support,disconfirm, or modify thetenta- eral education.Thus the evidencefrom
tiveproposition regarding facultyleader- Aquinas, like WesternMichigan,man-
ship. datedthatchairpersons of ad hoc groups
The returnvisitto WesternMichigan are essentialcomponentsof the change
yieldeddata whichtendedto disconfirmprocessin thebrokeragesenseofaccom-
theimportance previously placedon fac- modatingdifferences; in particular,the
ultyleadership.In particular,interview mythof collegialityis judiciouslyem-
datasuggested thatthecomposition ofthe ployedby powerbrokersto delegitimize
ad hoc group and the commitment to deviantsandmoldapparentconsensusfor
changeaccompanying an ad hoc vehicle, academicchange.
togetherwitha policy-recommending pro- Thisillustrationprovidesan instructive
cess relativelyfreeofinterest grouppres- exampleof howone conceptwas discon-
sures,werefarmoreresponsibleforthe firmed while another was modified
recommendation to changethanfaculty throughthe gradualdelimitation of the
leadership.In thetestingof thisproposi- theoryduringthe second roundof field
tion,however,data werecollectedwhich visits.At theveryleast,it illustrates the
shed furtherlight on the developing dynamicprocessoftheory construction in
theory.AtWestern Michigan, theconcept the researchsetting.The theory,which
of "collegiality"was further developed hadbeengradually developedand refined
andmodified as theinvestigator attempted throughout theentireresearchprocess,is
toverify theconceptoffaculty leadership. presentedbelow.
It was verifiedthatthechairman ofthead
hoc grouppromoted themythofcollegial- A GROUNDED THEORY OF
ity to mold apparentconsensusby ac- ACADEMIC CHANGE
commodating differences throughout the
processand duringthewriting ofthefinal Premises of the Theory
committee report.Thuswhiletheconcept 1. Conflictis a naturalprocessin col-
offaculty leadership was disconfirmed, an leges and universities whichmayor may
importantvariable in explaining the notlead to change.Change,on theother
policy-recommending process in ad hoc hand,willinvariably includesomeconflict
groupswas further refined.The concept betweenold and new social conditions
of collegialitywas definedas brokerage and theirproponents.Moreover,change
leadershipby the chairpersonwhereby mustalso involvetheexerciseofpowerby
potentiallydissatisfiedinterestgroupsare a group(s)favoring change.
persuadednot to exertpowerto realize 2. Colleges and universities are splin-
theirpreferred goals. teredintodivergent socialgroupshaving
The returnvisitto AquinasCollegeand variousinterests. Thatis, theyare made
the collectionof additionaldata furtherup of a loose assemblageof formaland
disconfirmed the earlierpropositionre- informalparts,withvaryingdegreesof
gardingfacultyleadership.Indeed, no integration. Although thegoalsofcolleges
singlefacultyleaderof the threevisible and universities, as in thearea ofgeneral
Aquinasfacultywas agreedupon by in- education,maybe statedso broadlyas to
tervieweesas havingexercisedan indis- be acceptableto nearlyeveryonein an
pensable role in the self-study. At the institution,how these goals are to be
sametime,however,pinpointed observa- achievedandpreciselyhowtheyareto be
tionsrevealedthattheleadersof several interpreted is a majorsourceof conflict
studygroupscomprising thelargerad hoc betweenvariousinterest groups.
groupat Aquinashadexercisedan impor- 3. Colleges and universitiesare not

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 109

characterizedby an authoritystructuremaylead to changesin thedistribution of

whichis centralizedvis-a-visacademic powerwhichin turnlead groupsto re-
policy.Theyare fragmented intointerest evaluate their preferredgoals. Other
groupsand potentialpower blocs, each major internalpressuresinclude orga-
attempting to influencepolicyso thatits nizationalturnover and the development
valuesand goals are givenconsideration.of facultysubcultures;major external
Insofaras it is possible,thereis a tend- pressures include fluctuatingfinancial
ency for interestgroupswithpower to conditions, newfacultyand students, and
excludeotherswithless power,such as curriculum practicesat otherinstitutions.
administrators excludingstudentsfrom 3. Conflictis oftenheightened through
the decision-making process. theclash of vestedinterests; groupswith
4. Although poweris diffuse, thereare conflicting values and goals seek to find
elementsof formalauthority in colleges meansforthe translation of thesegoals
and universities,and a recognizable intoeffective influencein orderto initiate
decision-making processdoes exist. Ad- action by the appropriate policy-
ministratorsare agents of academic recommending body.
change,thoughtheyare notas frequently 4. The administrative leadership,inthe
advocatesofchangeas theyareproviders personof an agent,respondsto interest
ofan impetusto thereexamination ofthe grouppressuresforchangeby selectinga
academicprogramand the negotiators of mechanism forthereexamination of aca-
compromises betweeninterest groups. demicpolicyand thereby providesan im-
5. To understand change,thegoalsand mediateimpetusforchange.
values of administrators mustbe taken 5. As interestgroupsexertpower to
into accountbecause administrators are achieve theirown goals, quasi-interest
the most frequentinterpreters of orga- groupsjoin together forcommonpurposes
nizationalgoals. as poweris exertedand countereduntil
thereare onlytwo majorinterest groups
The Theory
involved in power exertion. Conflict is
transformed intopolicyin thedirection of
1. Conflictexistsin thecollegeor uni- thegroupexerting morepower.Thusit is
versityto the extent that all interest thegroupor groupsthateithersingularly,
groupsbelievethattheyare participatingor inconcert,exertthegreatest amountof
in the decision-making process. Those power upon/againstthe administrators
interestgroupsin the social structure of due to theirnumbersor the voice they
collegesand universities thatdo notbe- have in the academic community that
lieve theyare in a positionof poweror is/aremostlikelyto have theirinterests
influenceor are not benefiting equally and goals articulated throughpolicy
fromtheacademicrewardsystemtendto changes. If the policy-recommending
be agentsofconflict and agitationagainst bodyis an ad hoc group,however,then
the statusquo. Administrators may be power is not exerteduntilthe recom-
seen as eitherthefacilitatorsofacademic mendations to changereachtheappropri-
change or the "establishment"holding ate legislativebody. Underthesecondi-
thepowerand unwilling to change.They tions,chairpersons ofad hoc groupspro-
maynotmerelybe "brokers"duringthe motecollegiality bypersuading potentially
processofconflict. In thecollegeanduni- dissatisfiedinterestgroupsto accept a
versity,how and by what methodsad- carefullyorchestrated proposalfor aca-
ministratorsare influencedby power demicchange.
groupslargelydetermines whether or not 6. Although decisionsdo notnecessar-
changewilloccur. ily take theformof bureaucratic orders,
2. Althoughunderlying conflictsmay administrators may indeed exercise a
be embeddedinthesocialstructure ofcol- brokeragerole betweencompetinginter-
leges and universities,theybecomevisi- est groups.In particular, certainmyths-
ble when one or more externaland/or such as collegiality-areused by power
internalpressuresthreaten thestatusquo. brokersto moldapparentconsensusand
Structuralreorganization, for example, delegitimize deviants.On theotherhand,

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
110 CONRAD
thefaculty at largeserveas advocatesfor justmentsby the organization to disrup-
interest groupsand forchangeproposals tiveforces.Althoughthismodelempha-
emanatingfrom policy-recommendingsizes externalsourcesof change,it does
bodies. notignoreinternal sources;changeis im-
7. Oncetheprocesshas proceededpast posed on the organization and is essen-
thepolicy-making stage,a new academic tiallyunplannedand unintentional.
policy is the officialclimax to interest Viewedintermsofthegrounded theory
groups'pressuresforchange,administra-discussedabove, the complexorganiza-
tive intervention and brokerage,faculty tionmodelis particularly usefulas a tool
advocacy,and powerexertionby interest to sensitizeresearchers to theunderlying
groupsfavoringchange. The new aca- sources of change, because academic
demic policy may in turncreate con- changeis initiallymoreunplannedthan
troversy, alienatecertaininterest groups, plannedandmoretheresultofimpersonal
and engenderanotherpowerstruggle and forces than intentionalactions. At the
movement forchange. same time,however,the modelassumes
8. Competent administrators,when that pressuresare nearlyautomatically
aware thatsuch a struggle existswithin accommodatedwithinthe institution as
the college or universityenvironment,minorchanges are made. Because the
mayfacilitate theprocessofchange,make modeldoes notfocuson theproblematic
itless divisiveand,at times,less destruc- outcomeofpressuresforchange,itfailsto
tivebyproviding channelsofcommunica- explainhow pressuresare linkedto a de-
tionbetweenvaryinginterest groupsand cision to changethe academicprogram.
byattempting to establishuniversity goals Thislackofattention to thedynamicpro-
and valuesin concertwiththeentireuni- cess is compoundedbecause the formal
versity environment. However,onegroup bureaucraticstructureis emphasizedat
or anotherwill periodicallyattemptto the expense of informal processes. For
exertits power to the maximumextent example,themodeldoes notsatisfactorily
possible withinits particularacademic accountforconflict, interestgroupforma-
environment. tion,theinteraction betweengroups,and
informal powerrelationships.
DISCUSSION The planned change perspective
suggeststhat the impetusfor change
Four different modelshave guidedre- comesfromwithinan organization, witha
search on academic change: complex changeagent servingas a catalyst;the
organization, plannedchange,diffusion of greateremphasis,however,is on thepro-
innovation,and political. This section cess ofchange,wherechangeis viewedas
evaluatestheutility ofthefirstthreemod- rationaland intentional. The searchfor
els in lightof thetheorydevelopedhere. the commongood of the institution-
Because Baldridge'spoliticalmodelmost whenaccompaniedbyinterpersonal trust,
closelyapproximates thetheory, itwillbe communication, and participation-
discussedintheconcluding summary sec- invariablyleads to change.
tion. The plannedchangemodelis especially
usefulin explainingthe immediateim-
A Comparison withAlternativeModels of petusto changein thepersonofa change
Change agent,and itis also a goodtoolforunder-
standingthe policy-recommending pro-
Proponentsof a complexorganization cess whenan ad hoc groupis appointedto
perspective viewchangeas a responseto reviewthe academic programof an in-
pressuresand demandsfromtheenviron- stitution. The policy-recommending phase
ment.Whenan institution is threatened by can fruitfully
be analyzedthroughusing
stressesandstrains, itactstoprotectitself thisapproach.But the modelfallsshort
by initiating compensatory actionswhich withregardto explainingthe sourcesof
oftenlead to changesin the programor change and the dynamicsof the final
structure oftheorganization. Put simply, decision-making process. Althoughthe
changeis viewedas a resultofminorad- processmayappearrational, itis mislead-

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE 111
ingto inferthattheimpetusto changeis nal social structuralforces,which fre-
the "conscious, deliberative,and col- quentlythreatenthe statusquo, are the
laborativeeffort to improvetheoperation underlying sourcesof academicchange.
of a systemthrough theutilizationof sci- 2. Conflictand InterestGroup Forma-
entificknowledge"(Bennis,Benne, and tion.In responseto one or moreofthese
Chin,1961:3).Moreover,theassumption pressures for change, quasi-interest
that the final decision is consensually groupsemergeas preexisting conflicts are
reachedrepresents a normative prescrip- forcedinto the open. Conflictis often
tionratherthana heuristic framework for heightenedthroughthe clash of vested
grapplingwiththe empiricalworld.The interests as groupswithconflicting values
model cannot account for the informal andgoalsseekto findmeansforthetrans-
processeswhichprompttheinterventionlationof thesegoals intoeffective influ-
of the change agent and which,in the ence.
decision-making stage,lead to a decision 3. AdministrativeIntervention. In re-
to changetheacademicprogram. sponse to interestgroup pressuresfor
The diffusion of innovations approach change,an administrative agentprovides
viewschangeas a resultofthediffusion of the impetusforthe reexamination of the
innovativeeducationalpractices.How- academicprogram by selectinga control-
ever, the focus is more on the process lingmechanism forchange.
thanthe antecedentsourcesof academic 4. Policy-Recommending Stage. A
change.The diffusion paradigmis useful recommendation is made to changethe
in alertingthe researcherto the role of existingacademicprogram.
interpersonal influence inthecommunica- 5. Policy-MakingStage. Finally,policy
tions process: Who (source) says what will be determinedin the appropriate
(message) to whom (receiver)through decision-making body.
what channels(medium)to what effect Throughout stagesfourandfive,power
(consequences).But the modelprovides is exertedand counteredthrough faculty
an incompletepictureof the process of advocacyuntilthereare onlytwo major
academicchange. Althoughdiffusion of interestgroupsinvolvedin power exer-
outside innovationsserves as a major tion.Administrators thenenacta broker-
sourceofchange,thereare otherexternal age rolebetweentheremaining groupsas
and internal sources.Moreimportant, the a compromisedecision is reached to
diffusionmodel assumes that interper- changetheacademicprogram inthedirec-
sonal influenceand communication are tionof thegroupexerting morepower.
sufficient to bringabout change. The The theoryhas manysimilarities witha
modelcannotaccountforotherinformal politicalmodelofacademicchange.In its
processeswhichfirstprompt' thereexam- generally accepted usage, a political
inationoftheacademicprogram and sub- modelfocusesexplicitlyon the political
sequently lead to a decisionto changethe dimensionssurrounding the process of
program. academicchange,givingspecialattention
All threeof thesemodelsofferinsights to theformation groupsandthe
ofinterest
into the sources and dynamicsof aca- ways in whichthese groupsattemptto
demicchange.But takenindividually or utilizepowerand influence in theshaping
collectively, theyfail to accountforthe ofnewpolicy.The theorycan fruitfully be
problematic outcomeof changewithout contrasted withBaldridge's(1971)insight-
distinctlypolitical pressures and pro- fulpoliticalparadigmofacademicchange
cesses. They also fail to investigate the and governance.
natureof academicpowerin the change Whilepoweris exertedduringall five
process. stages,it is stagethreethatbecomesthe
criticalstagein thetheory.It is therethat
the administratorbecomes either the
Summaryand Conclusions for change or resistschange.
facilitator
To summarizebriefly,the theoryfol- Thustheunderstanding oftheadministrat-
lows fiveoverlapping stages: ive rolenotonlyas a "brokeragerole" in
1. Social Structure.Externaland inter- the'processof academicchange,as Bal-

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
112 CONRAD
dridge'smodelsuggests, butalso as a ves- groundedtheoryof academic change,
ted interestgroup with a substantial generatedfromdata systematically ob-
amountof poweris a criticalelementin tainedand analyzedthrough theconstant
the process of change.The appropriate comparative method,nowrequiresfurther
choice by the administrative agentof a testing through theapplication ofverifica-
vehicleforchangewillthenaccountfora tionmethodologies. At the veryleast,it
changeinpolicyin stagesfourandfive.It offers a testedapproachto guideresearch
is this aspect of the theory,the under- on academicchange.
standing ofwhohas powerwithin theaca-
demicarena,and how thatpoweris used
to influence administrators in theirselec-
tionofa policy-recommending body,that REFERENCES
mostclearlydistinguishes thisperspective Baldridge,J. V.
fromBaldridge's political model. The 1971 PowerandConflict intheUniversity. New
focus shiftsfromthe mere "process of York:Wiley.
change"to howpoweris exertedto influ- Bennis,W. G., K. D. Benne,and R. Chin(eds.)
1961 The Planningof Change:Readingsin the
ence administrators, and the subsequent AppliedBehavioralSciences.New York:
outcomeof thatinfluence. Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
The theoryis a potentially usefultoolof Fashing,J. J.
analysisbecauseit appearsto explainthe 1969 The Politicsof EducationalChange:Ex-
processesthroughwhichmostdecisions perimental Educationin the College and
University. Doctoraldissertation,Univer-
are reachedin collegesand universities sityof Oregon.
concerning academicchange.It offersa Glaser,B. G., and A. L. Strauss
testedframework forunderstanding those 1967 The DiscoveryofGroundedTheory:Strat-
changes. Baldridge's use of political egies for QualitativeResearch.Chicago:
Aldine.
concepts-such as interestgroups,con- Griffiths, D. E.
flict and compromise-has alerted re- 1964 "Administrativetheoryand change in
searchersto thedynamicprocessof aca- organizations." In M. B. Miles(ed.), Inno-
demic change. The grounded theory, vationsinEducation.NewYork:Bureauof
however,suggestsa set of relationships Publications, TeachersCollege,Columbia
University.
between political concepts that Bal- Hefferlin, J. B.
dridge'smodelneglects.Accordingly, the 1969 The Dynamicsof AcademicReform.San
theorymaybetterexplainthe processes Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
through whichcontinually changing inter- Hodgkinson, H. L.
1970 Institutions in Transition:A Profileof
nal and externalpressureslead to aca- Changein HigherEducation.New York:
demicchange. McGraw-Hill.
To summarize briefly,by viewing Kerr,C.
changeas eitherplannedand rationalor 1963 The Uses of the University. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard UniversityPress.
simplytheaccommodation ofstressesand Lindquist,J. D.
strainswithinan institution, the existing 1972 PoliticalLifeintheStateUniversity: A Sys-
literaturefailstoaccountfortheprocesses temsandCommunity PowerAnalysis.Doc-
throughwhichpressuresare translated toraldissertation, Universityof Michigan.
into permanentprogramchanges. The R.,
Lippitt, J. Watson, and B. Westley
Dynamicsof PlannedChange.New
groundedtheoryidentifies severalmajor 1958 The York:Harcourtand Brace.
processeswhichlinkpressuresforchange Mitchell,W. G.
and a policydecisionto change:conflict 1970 Communication ofan EducationInnovatiOn
and interest grouppressuresfollowedby in an Institution of HigherLearning.Doc-
powerexertion,administrative interven- toraldissertation, MichiganState Univer-
sity.
tion,facultyleadershipexercisedthrough Rogers,E. M.
interest group advocacy, and com- 1962 Diffusion of Innovation.New York: The
promiseswhich are negotiatedthrough Free Press.
administrative leadership. Rogers,I. L.
1964 The Processof Institutional Change,with
Thetheory outlinedhereis offered as an Particular Referenceto MajorCurriculum
alternativeto existingperspectives, espe- Changein SelectedColleges.Doctoraldis-
cially Baldridge'spoliticalmodel. This sertation, Universityof Michigan.

This content downloaded from 168.176.5.118 on Mon, 27 Apr 2015 17:05:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions