160202c Millwright Plain Bearings Bearings and Seals Second PeriodTable of Contents Objective One Plain Bearings Journal Bearings. Types of Radial Loads . Types of Radial Bearing: Bushings. 8 Types of Bushingg........ 28 Hydrodynamic Bearings 13, Hydrostatic Bearings. 18 Oil Lift Joumal Bearing Hybrid Bearings Thrust Bearing: Flat PlateThrust Bearing: 23 Tapered Land Thrust Bearings. 24 The Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing 25 Oil Lift Thrust Bearing .28 Magnetic Bearings 28 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 31 Aerodynamic Bearings. Aerostatic Bearings. Construction of Gas Lubricated Journal and Thrust Bearings. Objective Two. Desirable Characteristics of Plain Bearing Materials .. Babbit Other Plain Bearing Metals Copper/Lead and Lead/Bronze Bearings. AluminunvTin and Aluminum Teflon... Objective Three.. Split Bearing Installation Installation of Bearing Inserts (Shells) in Housings Installation of Bearings Installation of Inserts in Connecting Rods Bushing Replacement .. Thrust Bearing Installation. Magnetic Bearing Installation Gas-Lubricated Bearing Installation Objective Four Personal Protection Working Environment Objective Five...... Introduction to Babbitt Bearing Pouring Fitting a Bearing Methods of Measuring the Clearance . Self-Test... Self-Test Answers.Plain Bearings Rationale Why is it important for you to learn this skill? Plain bearings are widely used in all types of rotating equipment such as turbines, generators, pumps, gearboxes, engines and compressors. In order to maintain machinery that runs on plain bearings, you need an understanding of how these bearings work. You may be required to replace or manufacture plain bearings. Outcome When you have completed this module, you will be able to: Describe the application, installation and remanufacture of plain bearings. Objectives 1. Describe the construction, function and application of plain bearings. 2. Describe the characteristics of the common plain bearing materials. 3. Describe the installation of plain bearings. 4. Describe appropriate safety measures applicable to Babbitt pouring, 5. Describe Babbitt pouring and fitting procedures Introduction In this module, you are introduced to the different types of plain bearings and how each type is used. You also become acquainted with the various materials that are used in plain bearings. The module describes how to install these bearings as well as how to pour and fit Babbitt bearings. ToodORepT 1 doe Copyright Alberta Learning,Objective One When you have completed this objective, you will be able to: Describe the construction, function and application of plain bearings. Plain Bearings Unlike anti-friction bearings, plain bearings have no rolling elements. Plain bearings can be either journal bearings to support radial loads, as shown in Figure 1A, or thrust bearings to support axial loads, as shown in Figure 1B, The joumnal.is the part of the shaft that is in contact with the bearing. It is usually machined to closer tolerances than the rest of the shaft with regards to the dimensions and finish. Stationary Thrust Bearing Housing Rotating Journal Thrust Bearing | — Journal Beating (+ Axial Load (Thrust) | Radial Load Housing Figure 1 - Journal and thrust bearings. Journal Bearings Function ‘The two main functions of a journal bearing are: © tohold a journal in its required location and to support the intended radial load. TeURORepI.T doe Copyright Alberta Learning,Types of Radial Loads Stationary Load Stationary radial loads are present on the bearings supporting a horizontal rotor (Figure 2). Typical applications would be turbines, fans, rotary compressors and centrifugal pumps. Figure 2 - Stationary load. The load generally acts in one direction and on one area of the bearing, as shown in Figure 3. The load-supporting lubricant film stays in one area of the bearing. Housing _— Journal —— Journal eo Bearing Lubricant Radial load Figure 3 - Load in one direction. To0Oeph doe Copyright Alberta LearningOscillating Load Oscillating loads act on the bearings in the wrist pin end of connecting rods in engines and the crosshead end of connecting rods in reciprocating compressors. The load shifts through an arc less than 180° (Figure 4). The load-supporting film must shift around the loaded area as the bearing oscillates. The fluid film is much thinner, but stronger than the film supporting a stationary load. Because the lubricant film is so thin, surface finish of bearings and journals and cleanliness of the oil are more critical than on journals with steady rotation. Bearings that support oscillating loads have much smaller clearances. Compression Loaded area oscillates J Connecting rod pushes down on journal — \ Ly oe ( UR)\ 1) il film \ oil film supports, L i | supports load here / Wwadhere f SY / Journal pushing up on bearing Figure 4 - Oscillating load. Reciprocating Load Reciprocating loads act on the bearings in the crankshaft end of connecting rods in compressors and engines. The load shifts 180° from one side of the bearing to the other (compare Figure 5A to Figure 5B). The film under the reciprocating load is similar to the film under the oscillating load; i.e. it is very thin, strong and operates in a smaller clearance than under a stationary load. Surface finish and cleanliness are also critical. The load supporting film must shift from one side of the bearing to the other (Figure 5). ToUORepI.T doe Copyright Alberta LearningCompression ‘stroke Loaded area reciprocates L) 7 oir fim supports / / load here Journal pushing Journal pulls up on bearing down on bearing oilfiim | \ supports | — load here Figure 5 - Reciprocating loads. Types of Radial Bearings Journal bearings can either be split in half, as shown in Figure 6A, or in one piece (called a bushing), as shown in Figure 6B. BN split Bearing Di Bushing Figure 6 - Split bearing and bushing. TovIDIepL doe Copyright Alberta LearningSplit Bearings (Thin Shell Type) Description of Split Bearings Thin shell split bearings have the following features. * They consist of a thin shell that is inserted in a housing. The wall thickness of the shell is about %o of its diameter and a minimum of %g inch. The shell is flexible. ‘The shell consists of a 0.005 in. Overlay on a steel backing. The most common overlay is Babbitt, although other soft materials are used. The shell can have intermediate layers of material to bond the overlay to the backing (Figure 7). «The shell must be seated in a strong housing that has a very accurate bore. Very Thin Babbitt Overlay Layer of Copper _ owe TenP Nes Tehel)> supper Steel Backing Figure 7 - Split bearing with a tri-metal shell. Applications of Split Bearings Thin shell split bearings were originally developed for automotive engines where a lightweight bearing capable of withstanding high loads was required. They are now used in large industrial engines. Advantages of Split Bearings Thin shell split bearings have the following advantages. © They have a very high load capacity because they are high precision. They allow a more compact housing. + They are relatively inexpensive to replace. © They are quick to change out. © They are available in oversizes and undersizes. This allows grinding of the journal for reuse. © They have very consistent quality for dimensions and strength of bonding to backing. * A wide range of materials can be used in their construction. TOORDREPT I doe Copyright Alberta LearningSplit Bearings (Thick-Wall Construction) The following points should be noted about thick-walled bearings. © They are not used in most engines, but are used in such things as gearboxes, turbines, fans and dynamic compressors. © They are not flexible. © They may have a plain seat, as in Figure 8A or a spherical seat, as in Figure 8B. ‘Spherical : Figure 8 - Thick-walled bearings. The spherical seat allows the bearing to align its bore with the sag in the shaft of a heavy rotor during installation (Figure 9). Rotor Rotor Causing Shaft Sag Causing Shaft Sag \ pr) Le | Ta Edge’ No Edge Loading Loading Bearing with Bearing with Plain Mounting ‘Spherical Mounting Figure 9 - Spherical and non-spherical bearing seats. The spherical seat allows the bearing to align during installation only, before it is clamped in position. This feature simplifies alignment and ensures that edge loading of the bearing is minimized. Spherical seated bearings are usually used on very large turbines with a long span between bearings. ToORREpT 1 doe Copyright Alberta LearningBushings Bushings are a type of plain bearing that has not been split (see Figure 10) and that can be designed to handle radial or axial loads. BiRadial Baxial ‘ = QO) Figure 10 - Bushings for radial and axial (thrust) loads. Load and Speed Capacity ‘The load and speed capacity of bushings is the same as those of split be: they are generally used for loads of about ¥, of a split bearing's capacity because they are used in conditions of poor lubrication. Engine rod bushings and floating bushings in high-speed turbochargers are exceptions, since they receive adequate lubrication and can operate at high speeds. Direction of Load Load direction is normally radial, but some bushings are flanged (see Figure 10B) or used with thrust washers to accommodate axial loads. Commercial Sizes Bushings are available in commercial sizes from Y, inch to 5 inch. Applications Bushings can be used in the same applications as split bearings. The choice will depend ‘on which is easier to assemble and which is more readily available. Types of Bushings Wrapped Bushing ‘A wrapped bushing consists of a thin steel shell lined with a soft bearing material such as lead bronze (Figure 11). Steel Shell___ Soft Liner — Figure 11 - Wrapped bushing. ToORO2EpT A doe Copyright Alberta LeamingAdvantages of Wrapped Bushings Wrapped bushings have the following advantages. ‘© Wrapped bushings have high fatigue strength. © They are available in pre-finished sizes that are oversize until installed. NOTE ished bushings should be used only in lightly loaded non- critical applications since there is wide variation on the diameter after installation. : Limitations of Wrapped Bushings Wrapped bushings are available only in stock sizes. Solid Bushing ‘These bushings are bored out of a solid piece of bearing material such as lead bronze or PTFE (Teflon) (see Figure 12). Figure 12 - Sol bushing. Advantages of Solid Bushings Some advantages of solid bushings are as follows. * Solid bushings can be bored out to non-standard sizes or they can easily be made from suitable round stock for emergency repairs. © They can accommodate deep lubricant grooves. NOTE Solid bushings must be reamed to their final diameter after installation since any bushing will be compressed as it is pressed into the housing, Limitation of Solid Bushings Solid bushings do not have the fatigue strength of wrapped bushings. ToOITepT Toe Copyright Alberta LearningFloating Bushings A floating bushing consists of an outer bushing containing a loosely fitted inner bushing as shown in Figure 13. These bushings are used to support lightly loaded very high-speed shafts, such as in turbo-chargers. Due to the light load at very high speed, these shafts are unstable. However, they can be stabilized by the film of oil between the inner and outer bushing. This film will allow the inner bushing to shift and dampen out vibrations or oil whirl (see Figure 21 and the following explanation of oil whirl). Another application of this bushing is in very heavily loaded slow speed journals. For example, some rod bushings in engines. In this case, the heavy, slow moving journal tends to force the bushing to creep in the bore to which itis fitted. This would not only damage the bore, but would also cover the lubricant port. By allowing the heavily loaded inner bushing to revolve freely, the outer bushing is relieved of the forces that would make it creep (Figure 13). Oil Passage Figure 13 - Floating bushing. Water-Lubricated Bushings These bushings are often made of rubber since it is slippery when wetted with water. In some applications, nylon or PTFE (Teflon) is used. Applications of Water-Lubricated Bushings Water-lubricated bushings are used: © where water is continually flushing the bearing making it impossible to retain other lubricants (see Figure 14) and © because water is excellent for heat dissipation, which makes them very durable. Limitations of Water- Lubricated Bushings ‘The limits to water lubricated bushings (Figure 14) are as follows. * Since water has a very low film strength, these bushings are suitable only for very light loads such as on vertical shafts without side loads. * Journals of corrosion-resistant material, such as stainless steel, are required. TeOR0SepT 1 doe Copyright Alberta LeamingSplined =a Rubber Liner Water Flow Figure 14 - Water-lubricated bushing. Pre-Lubricated Bushings Pre-lubricated bushings are either made of porous material soaked with lubricant (see Figure 15A) or have a lining made with pockets filled with lubricant (see Figure 15B). Lubricant Pockets: Porous Bronze Figure 15 - Pre-lubricated bushings. Features of Pre-Lubricated Bushings ‘These bearings are provided ready to install. A lubricant film is squeezed out under load pressure. The porous bronze bushing (also called a sintered bronze or oilite bushing) is pre-charged with oil by soaking the bushing in oil at 90 degrees Celsius for half an hour. The porous bronze can hold from 3% to 30% of its volume in oil. Porous bronze bearings are TomROzepl.T doe Copyright Alberta Learning, Biavailable with 3% porosity for higher strength or with 30% porosity for higher oil capacity but lower strength. Porous bronze is also available in round stock so that these bushings can be made to suit non-standard sized journals or housing bores. Applications of Pre-Lubricated Bushings ‘These bushings are used where it is not practical to supply lubricant from the outside, such as for the pilot bearing in the flywheel behind the clutch on a car engine. Limitations of Pre-Lubricated Bushings Pre-lubricated bushings have the following limitations. Since there is no circulation of the lubricant, the heat dissipation is poor. Therefore, pre-lubricated bushings will last longer in start/stop applications. © They are not suitable for high temperatures as the oil will evaporate. Pre-lubricated bearings are intended for light loads. Dry Lubricated Bushings Dry lubricated bushings are made of a slippery material such as graphite or PTF (Teflon). They can also be of a bronze matrix containing graphite or PTFE. which oozes from the matrix under load pressure (see Figure 16). Bronze Matix Liner Liner Surface Magnified Figure 16 - Dry lubricated bushings. Features of Dry Lubricated Bushings Dry lubricated bushings: © can run dry or with lubricant (he lubricant will increase their speed rating), * can be solid or lined and © are available with a very large range of liner materials to suit various loads, speeds, temperatures, exposure to chemicals and so on. T60R0RepI- doc Copyright Alberta LeamingApplications of Dry Lubricated Bushings Dry lubricated bushings are suitable for: © equipment positions where lubrication is impossible due to inaccessil temperatures and exposure to flushing and start/stop operations that make it difficult to maintain a lubricant film. lity, high Limitation of Dry Lubricated Bushings Dry lubricated bushings are not suitable for high speeds or heavy loads. Hydrodynamic Bearings ‘You will find that hydrodynamic bearings (Figure 17) are one of the most widely used types of plain bearing. They are designed to develop a full film of lubricant when the journal is up to operating speed. These bearings offer the following features. © A hydrodynamic bearing is a bearing that depends on the rotation of the shaft to drag oil into the loaded area. © Itcan be a split bearing or a bushing. © The oil inlet is located in the unloaded area, ‘* At normal operating speed the bearing is supported on a full film of oil (for an explanation of full film, refer to module 160207a Lubrication). LOAD Oll Wedge. Figure 17 - Hydrodynamic bearing. Minimum Speed It is important for you to understand that in order for a hydrodynamic bearing to get a full film of lubricant under the loaded area, the journal must tum at a minimum speed. When you operate at a lower speed, the lubricant film will break down and the journal will contact the bearing. The result will be severe wear on the bearing. You should be aware of the following points in the operation of these bearings. ‘© In order to drag oil into the loaded area, the shaft must rotate above a minimum, speed. «The load will determine the minimum speed. If the load is increased, the shaft will have to rotate faster in order to force the lubricant under the loaded area. ‘© At start-up, there is virtually no oil in the loaded area, which results in dry rubbing friction and boundary lubrication. These conditions cause most of the wear in hydrodynamic bearings. To0R03epT. doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 13Loads and Speeds With regard to loads and speeds, you can expect the following performance from hydrodynamic bearings. Hydrodynamic bearings can be designed to carry any load at very high speeds. For example, a 24 000 hp steam turbine can easily run at 22 000 rpm. The actual loads on the bearings can exceed 300 psi and the surface speeds can be up to 15 000 feet/min (80 m/sec.). © They can be designed to run at speeds over 200 000 rpm at lower loads, as in some turbochargers. Designs of Hydrodynamic Bearings For Steady Loads in One Direction For steady loads that are moderate to heavy, the bearing usually has a plain circular bore which may sometimes have a chamfer at the area of the split to assist in the formation of the oil wedge (see Figure 18). This is the most common plain bearing design. inet Chamfer Chamfer. Oil Wedge Figure 18 - Hydrodynamic bearing for steady loads. For Reciprocating or Oscillating Loads The following points describe what happens in a bearing that supports reciprocating or oscillating loads. The bearing at the crank end of a connecting rod is under reciprocating loads as the load shifts 180 degrees on the bearing. © Bearings that reciprocate may include a circumferential oil distribution groove in the middle of the bearing. Although this groove actually reduces the load rating to about half, itis used to provide a continual supply of lubricant to all areas of the bearing (see Figure 19). TOHORIepH A doe Copyright Alberta LearningCircumferential Groove Figure 19 - Circumferential groove in a reciprocating bearing. For Oscillating Bearing Loads The following points describe an oscillating load and use of a groove in the bearing. The bearing at the wrist pin end of a connecting rod supports an oscillating load that shifts back and forth through an arc that is less than 180 degrees. * Anaxial groove is sometimes used in this type of bearing to ensure distribution of the oil across the width of the bearing. For Very Slow Speed Bearings Very slow-speed bearings that require grease lubrication will also use distribution grooves in the unloaded area (see Figure 20). VS o uw Figure 20 - Groove designs for distributing grease in a slow-speed bearing. TeOxODep doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 15.For Bearings with Unsteady Loads at High Speeds At high speed and unsteady load, a condition called oil whirl can develop (Figure 21). © Anoil whirl can be visualized as a wave that circulates around the journal. © The oil whirl can lead to a condition called oil whip in which the shaft is whipped around in orbit by the pressure of the wave. ‘© Oil whip can cause the shaft to break through the oil film and wipe the bearing, that is, destroy the surface of the bearing. Bearing Shaft Hi Centre Centre Press Hi Hi Press Press Normal Position B shaft Deflects & Hi Press in (B) Whips il Wedge Shifts Shaft to the Right Centre of Shaft Whips ‘Around Bearing Centre Bearing Centre Hi Press in (C) Whips Shaft to Left Figure 21 - Oil whirl. ‘© The bearings in Figure 22 stabilize the shaft by creating oil wedges at different points around the shaft to hold it in position. ‘* The lobed bearing in Figure 22A is sometimes used in light applications such as turbochargers and gas turbines. ‘© The tilting pad style (also called pivoted shoe) in Figure 22B is commonly found in heavy turbine compressor units as well as in the gearboxes that are used in these applications. Lobes, Titing Paa g oO oO Figure 22 - Bearing designs to stabilize the shaft. Te0203epT 1 doe Copyright Alberta LeaningNOTE Clean oil is very important in tilting pad bearings, not only to prevent abrasion of the bearing surfaces, but also to prevent deposits from building up around the pivots, If the tilting pads are not free to pivot, oil whip can occur at light load conditions. ‘An added feature that has become widely used on tilting pad bearings is directed lubrication (shown in Figure 23). . " Oil Inlet Orifice Directed a Flow (separate supply for each shoe) Bearing Housing Tilting Pad y, — Pad Screw Anti-Rotation Pin Cap Screw Figure 23 - Directed lubrication in the tilting pad (pivoting shoe) radial bearing. (Courtesy TransCanada PipeLines Limited) Directed lubrication has the following four advantages over oil bath lubrication. * Itreduces the surface temperature on the pads by 20°C. © It increases the load capacity by maintaining a stronger oil film. ‘* Itreduces power consumption. © It reduces the oil flow, allowing a smaller lubrication system to be used. Applications of Hydrodynamic Bearings Although other types of bearings may be found in the following machines, plain hydrodynamic bearings are commonly used in: © turbines of all sizes, * gearboxes of all sizes, © engines of all sizes and * compressors of all types and sizes. TeoTORepT Taos Copyright Alberta Learning 17Hydrostatic Bearings Hydrostatic bearings (Figure 24) are found on equipment that operates too slowly to form a hydrodynamic film or operate with heavy shock loads that break through a hydrodynamic film. The following points describe how these bearings operate. «Hydrostatic bearings depend on an external pump to provide a pressurized film of lubricant to support the loaded shaft. This bearing does not depend on shaft rotation to drag oil into the loaded area. * Hydrostatic bearings can be split bearings or bushings. © Oilis admitted through holes or a slot into pockets (also called recesses) in the loaded and the unloaded areas. * The inlet holes or slots are fitted with restrictors to regulate the pressure in the oil film, * The restrictors are usually just threaded plugs with an appropriate diameter orifice drilled that will ensure an adequate oil supply pressure. * By regulating the pressures of the oil at each inlet, the shaft stability and position can be accurately controlled, Pressurized Oil Figure 24 - Hydrostatic bearing. NOTE ‘The small orifice in each restrictor must be kept clear of debris through careful filtration and maintenance at shutdowns. If they | become blocked, pressure imbalances will occur in the bearing and the | shaft will deflect and become unstable. eae a Minimum Speed You can expect the following performance with respect to operating the speeds on a hydrostatic bearing. There is no minimum speed. A load-supporting film can be provided at zero speed. © A hydrostatic bearing ensures start-up on a full film of oil with no dry rubbing, friction or boundary lubrication. The result is no wear at start-up. ToorDIepT T doe Copyright Alberta Leaming,Loads and Speeds On a hydrostatic bearing, expect the following. ‘© Loads and speed limits are generally lower than for hydrodynamic bearings. This is due to turbulence that increases at the pockets as the speed increases. Turbulence reduces a lubricant's film strength. + Very high loads (8 000 psi) can be supported if the speed is zero or only a few feet per minute (fpm). Applications Hydrostatic bearings are used where the shaft load may change suddenly, but shaft position must be accurately maintained, as in the following applications. * On spindles in production machine tools, interrupted cuts during machining would deflect the spindle unless it was accurately guided by a hydrostatic bearing, which distributes the pressure to both sides of the shaft (see Figure 25). * These bearings are used under the support of a follower rest on a large lathe. Hydrostatic bearings are used where the speed is too slow for hydrodynamic lubrication and/or the bearing must be compact but carry a heavy, unsteady load, as in the following cases. * Inthe 21 000-seat Mile High Stadium in Denver, the platform supporting the seating can slide back on low-pressure hydrostatic water bearings to convert from a football field to a baseball field. © Ina larger ore crusher that has limited space for high load capacity bearings, a hydrostatic bearing supports the load with 8 000 psi oil pressure. * Where shaft instability due to oil whirl or vibration is a problem, it can be controlled using a hydrostatic bearing. * Where there is frequent starting and stopping, the hydrostatic bearing eliminates, wear that would occur under these conditions with a hydrodynamic bearing. Hydrostatic Hydrodynamic (self-acting) Load * ¥ Was iia _ (Cy + Ny +— Oil Pressure Distribution Figure 25 - Pressure distribution in a hydrostatic bearing and hydrodynamic bearing, TOROREpT.T doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 19A comparison of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic bearings is shown in Table 1. Cu euch ei Genieksr eae Hydrodynamic Bearing Hydrostatic Bearing Load capacity Higher Lower at high speeds Comparison of Lar Can be more compact if the oil sizes arger pressure is increased Maximum speed _| Higher Lower _| Minimum speed __| Higher Zero Controlled higher pressure supply Lubricant supply | Low-pressure supply or low-pressure, depending on the bearing size and the load Inlet porting Single Port at the unloaded | ¢ 15 § ports around the shaft Design complexity | Simple [Complex - Cost Less Expensive More expensive More reliable since it can retain a lubricant film | Less reliable since it is highly start-up. Reliability Tongerin case of supply | dependent on a pressurized failure supply of oll Less durable due to wear | Virtually no wear if lubricant Durability at start-up and shutdown _| supply is maintained Can operate easily with very poor lubricants such as gases or water since the film strength does not / Must have high film depend on the lubricant, but on Lubricant strength, low friction and | depend on the lubricant, but requirements good wear protection for Pr Also, the journal never contacts the bearing while it is moving, so there is no need for wear protection. Table 1 - Comparison of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic bearings. ToOTOapT Toe Copyright Alberta Learning,Oil Lift Journal Bearing The oil lift journal bearing is a special type of hydrostatic bearing with pressurized oil entering under the loaded area only (Figure 26) Lt Pressurized Oil J Figure 26 - Oil lift journal bearing. The application and operation of the oil lift bearing is as follows. * Oil lifts are commonly used on large turbines and compressors. This bearing uses hydrostatic pressure to lift the shaft off the bearing surface before it starts to tum and to continue to support it until it reaches a speed at which hydrodynamic lubrication can take over. © Anoil lift is necessary for bearings that support heavy rotors that squeeze out the oil film when they have been shut down. CAUTION It is critical that the jacking oil is up to pressure before the shaft is turned, Failure of the jacking oil at start-up can result in immediate destruction of the bearing. T60D0REpT-T doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 21Hybrid Bearings Hybrid bearings depend on both hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication. The differences between a hybrid bearing and a hydrostatic bearing are that hybrid bearings: * eliminate the need for pockets at the ports, * have lubrication ports used only around the loaded area (see Figure 27), ‘© can support a full load only when both hydrodynamic action and hydrostatic action are operating together and ‘* cannot support a full load at start-up because there is no hydrodynamic action until the journal is up to operating speed. Pressurized Oil Oil Entry Grooves Hole Entry in Loaded Area Hybrid Bearing ‘Short Groove Permissible Figure 27 - Hybrid bearings. Applications Hybrid bearings are used in situations where there is an imbalance, such as an eccentric weight on the rotor that causes the radial load to increase as the speed increases. Thrust Bearings Function of Thrust Bearings The function of a thrust bearing is to hold a shaft axially in the required position. Thrust bearings consist of one or multiple support surfaces perpendicular to the shaft axis. A thrust collar attached to the shaft rides against the thrust bearing to limit axial movement. The thrust collar may also be forged and machined as part of the shaft or rotor in heavy thrust applications. ToOROREpT 1 doe Copyright Allerta Leaming,Types of Thrust Bearings There are various designs of thrust bearings used including: * flat plate, © tapered land and © tilting pad. Flat PlateThrust Bearings The flat plate type thrust bearing (Figure 28) is the simplest and cheapest to manufacture and is limited to relatively light loads. Radial grooves are usually machined into the thrust washer to improve hydrodynamic lubrication. Vertical shaft bearings mtay be oil submerged but if the bearing is oil fed, the feed should be to the inner diameter so the flow is outward along the grooves. Radial grooves > Runner or thrust collar Te a Thrust washer Figure 28 - Flat plate thrust bearing. TedRORepT. doe Copyright Alberta LeamingTapered Land Thrust Bearings ‘The tapered land thrust bearing (Figure 29) (sometimes referred to as a profiled pad thrust bearing) provides a greater load capacity than the flat plate thrust bearing due to its superior hydrodynamic lubrication. Lubricant is fed from the inside diameter via oilways to the convergent section on the pad. The flat land on the pad prevents excessive contact pressure when the shaft is stationary or on start-up. Thrust load cS Runner or thrust collar BAL | est Thrust washer H | Oil ways Sector shaped pads on the thrust washer Runner Figure 29 - Tapered land thrust bearing. T60R03=pI I doe Copyright Alberta LearningThe Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing The tilting pad thrust bearing (also popularly called Kingsbury or Michell bearings after the two people who simultaneously invented this bearing), is a stationary base ring with tilting segments of bearing material attached to its face. The thrust collar transmits the axial load against the tilting pad assembly (Figure 30 and Figure 31). Body (Carbon Steel) Pivot (Hardened Steel) Housing oil Babbit Face Rotating Stationary Thrust Collar: Base Ring vy Gil Out Figure 30 - Tilting pad assembly. ToORORepl doe Copyright Alberta Learning,The following points describe the parts and the operation of a tilting pad thrust bearing. * The base ring (Figure 31) fits in the housing. It is fitted with pivots that support the pads. + The tilting pads have flat surfaces made of Babbitt on a steel backing that is fitted to the pivots on the base ring. They are designed to tilt as the thrust collar rotates and force an oil wedge between the two surfaces. © The thrust collar is either accurately fitted to the shaft or forged and machined as part of the shaft, Its surface is accurately ground to a fine finish and at right angles to the shaft. Its two functions are to transmit the thrust load to the tilting pads and base ring and to draw the lubricant into the loaded areas. If the bearing is not designed with directed lubrication (Figure 32), the thfust collar turns in an oil bath and draws a film of oil into the loaded area of each tilted pad by hydrodynamic lubrication (see Figure 31). Oil Wedge owe Exaggerated) Thrust — Rotating Stationary Thrust Collar————— Base Ring Housing IL —— Oil Out Figure 31 - Hydrodynamic lubrication between the collar and the pads. Te0203epT doe Copyright Alberta LearningExtra Features ‘You may work on tilting pad thrust bearings with the following features. * Some assemblies consist of tilting pads on both sides of the collar to provide thrust control in both directions. These are used in dynamic compressors and gearboxes that experience reversing loads. * Some have levelling links to ensure that each pad takes equal loading (Figure 32A). * Directed lubrication has become widely accepted since its development in 1969. This system replaces the oil bath with spray nozzles between the pads (Figure 32). B 8 il Flow Directed Across Pads Lubrication K 2 a Thrust Pad Leveling Links Pad Spacing \ Ua Thrust Pad ~ Oil Inlet Channels | oil Discharge Figure 32 - Directed lubrication. (Courtesy TransCanada PipeLines Limited) ToOIDRERT T doe Copyright Alberta Learning 27Oil Lift Thrust Bearing Oil lifis are required on tilting pad thrust bearings on axial inlet centrifugal compressors. On these compressors, the start-up loads on the thrust bearings can exceed 300 psi. At these start-up loads, jacking oil is required to separate the pads from the thrust collar until higher speeds are achieved. Oil lifts are also required on thrust bearings supporting heavy loads on vertical shafts. Special Types ‘The bearings described up to this point are referred to as conventional bearings. The term conventional bearing means that the journal is supported on a film af oil. Because oil is used to suspend the journal in the bearing, they are also called oil bearings. Special bearings support the journal with something other than oil, such as a gas (usually air) or a magnetic field. Magnetic Bearings ‘The bearings that you have learned about so far use oil to support the loaded journal. This is a very old technology that has undergone refinements since the 1800s. The magnetic bearing uses a magnetic field to provide this support (Figure 33). This technology was introduced to industry around 1988. After working out problems in controlling the magnetic field over a period of about 20 years, these bearings are now performing better than the oil bearings. They are used on large high-speed centrifugal compressors. Magnetic Thrust ‘Bearing Stator lecromagnets for Joumal Bearings Back Up J Bearing Assembly BackUp or Coreressor Bearing AssemDIy eee cor / Ths! Collar + Note: Postion Sensors not NN 4 ‘Shown for Simphoty 74 Laminated Steoves Figure 33 -Active magnetic bearing. (Courtesy TransCanada PipeLines Limited) ToOR02EpT 1 doe Copyright Alberta LearningOperating Principles of Magnetic Bearings Ina basic active magnetic bearing, the rotor is held in position by electromagnets located on the stator. The rotor to stator position is constantly monitored by position sensors, which are shown in Figure 34. These position sensors are connected to an electronic control system that adjusts the current to the electromagnets to bring the rotor to its proper position. Construction of a Magnetic Bearing An active magnetic journal bearing assembly has the following components (refer to Figure 33). . * A rotor fitted with a laminated sleeve helps reduce power losses due to drag from magnetic currents. © Four stator magnets fitted to the bearing housing and connected to an electric power supply provide the magnetic forces to hold the rotor in suspension. * Four position sensors inside the stators are connected to a controller that varies the current from the power supply to the magnets. © Backup bearings (angular contact ball bearings) have a 0.010 inch clearance between the inner ring and the shaft so that they remain unloaded while the magnetic bearings hold the rotor in suspension. They are mounted face to face and clamped with an axial preload to prevent rotation of the balls and inner ring while the shaft is turning in the magnetic bearings. These bearings allow for coast down of the rotor in the event of a power failure. : - | Power | AMPUFIER \ x + rndSton + = | ~ Position \ Sensors REFERENCE \ _____| power \ AMPLIFIER Figure 34 - Construction of an active magnetic journal bearing. (Courtesy TransCanada PipeLines Limited) ToORORepT Toe Copyright Alberta Leaming 29:An active magnetic thrust bearing (shown in Figure 33) consists of the following components: * A solid thrust disc attached to the rotor. ‘+ A stator on each side of the thrust disc, The stators are attached to the housing and are powered from a power supply that is separate from the power supply for the journal bearing. * A position sensor (located anywhere along the axis of the shaft) connected to a controller that regulates the power supply to position the rotor axially. Applications of Magnetic Bearings Active magnetic bearings are used in the following applications: large precision lathes, centrifugal compressors, steam turbines, boiler feed water pumps, scientific and aerospace applications such as gyroscopes, revolving mirrors, centrifuges and vacuum pumps and * pharmaceutical mixers. Advantages of Magnetic Bearings Magnetic bearings have the following advantages: © elimination of all lubricant problems, © elimination of the entire lubricating system, * elimination of frictional resistance, * elimination of mechanical wear completely, © can operate at speeds two and a half times as fast as an oil bearing, © can operate in environments that are hostile to oil bearings, such as extreme temperatures (-253°C to +450°C), vacuums, oxygen and sea water, * elimination of the need for heat shields and seals, ‘* improved rotor stability and * continuous monitoring of rotor location, speed, bearing loads and balance to a higher degree of accuracy than was previously possible. Disadvantages of Magnetic Bearings Magnetic bearings have the following disadvantages. * They must be isolated from all dry gases to comply with electrical code requirements. They require extra space because they cannot support as much load per square inch as an oil bearing. © They require specialized knowledge to set-up and tune before start-up. © The control cabinet is very bulky and, in some cases, must be in a non-hazardous location, remote from the compressor. * This is a new technology and has proved very costly to use in the field due to unexpected failures on large compressors. Te0R0zepi.T doe Copyright Alberta LearningGas-Lubricated Bearings Instead of oil or a magnetic field, pressurized gas will also support a loaded journal for lightly loaded high-speed applications (Figure 35). This topic describes gas bearings, how they work and where they are used. Compressed Air Film of Compressed Air Figure 35 - Gas-lubricated bearing. Types of Gas-Lubricated Bearings There are three types of gas-lubricated bearing: journal (Figure 35), thrust (Figure 37C and Figure 37D) and air lift bearings (Figure 36). Gas lubricated journal and thrust bearings are essentially the same as their oil-lubricated counterparts except that pressurized gas is used as the lubricant. The airlift bearing operates in a similar manner to the lubricated bed on machine tools except that the lubricant is forced between the two surfaces under pressure. Features The journal and thrust types of gas bearings can be pressurized aerodynamicall aerostatically or by combination of the two methods in the same way as conventional oil film plain bearings can be hydrodynamic or hydrostati Aerodynamic Bearings Aerodynamic bearings have the following characteristics. Aerodynamic bearings are sometimes called self-acting gas bearings. ‘The supporting layer of gas is pressurized by the speed of rotation of the shaft. Loads are restricted to less than 5 psi and speeds can exceed 500 000 rpm. * Aerodynamic bearings have been restricted to very specialized uses, such as ‘gyroscopes used in aerospace navigational systems. Aerostatic Bearings Aerostatic bearings have the following characteristics. © Aerostatic bearings are pressurized by an external source. © Small sizes have an interference fit between the journal and the bearing when stopped. * Gas pressure expands the bearing just enough to allow the shaft to rotate. © Load capacities are typically around 100 psi and speeds can exceed 500 000 rpm. © In most cases, aerostatic bearings are lubricated with shop air at 100 psi. ToOOiepl. doe Copyright Alberts Learning 31© The airlift bearing can be in the form of a flat perforated plate and used as an airlift for moving heavy objects with little effort (see Figure 36). The airlift has also been used to replace the conventional slide bearings under the tables on milling and grinding machines. ‘* Air or oxygen is the preferred lubricant since they will cover a surface much faster than any other gas and also stick to the surface better than other gases, Steel Plate with Air Supply to Holes on Underside 100 psi Air Supply Air Supply Figure 36 - Airlift. Construction of Gas Lubricated Journal and Thrust Bearings The following points describe the construction of gas lubricated journal and thrust bearings. © Journal and thrust bearings are identical to oil lubricated plain bearings except that the clearances are much smaller. «The gas-lubricated thrust bearing can be the tilting pad or disc style (Figure 37C and Figure 37D). «The disc style can be the pocket, spiral groove or the step type (Figure 37D). * Instead of Babbitt, gas bearings must use materials such as low alloy steels in the journal and special composites of PTFE in porous bronze for the bearing liner. Pocket Type Spiral Groove Type — sector or 5 Step T) B 5 p Type TILTING PAD 360° CYLINDRICAL TILTING PADS osc Figure 37 - Gas-lubricated bearings. Teox0RepTT doe Copyright Alberta LearningSpeeds and Loads Gas lubricated journal and thrust bearings: * can operate at very high speeds (at least 500 000 rpm) and © are limited to very light loads. Advantages The advantages of gas lubricated journal and thrust bearings include: * very low friction (one seventh of the resistance of a ball bearing and less than one two hundredth of the resistance in a hydrostatic journal bearing), * very high speeds can be handled easily, very low power consumption, © very low vibration, © gas lubricant is unaffected by high temperatures or radiation and © amachine such as a gas circulator in a nuclear reactor can be sealed in place and run without maintenance for 20 years. Limitations Gas lubricated bearings have the following limitations. + The load carrying capability is typically about one hundred times less than that of a similar sized conventional bearing, © The film stiffness of gas is only a fraction of that of oil since gas is a compressible lubricant, Applications Gas lubricated bearings are used in the following applications: * textile spindles, * flow meters, small high precision grinders, dental drills (was one of the first applications of gas bearings in 1962), © micro drills, instrument bearings, gas circulators in nuclear reactors and aerospace guidance systems. ToOsOsepH I doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 33Objective Two When you have completed this objective, you will be able to: Describe the characteristics of the common plain bearing materials. Desirable Characteristics of Plain Bearing Materials Compressive Strength ‘The bearing material must be strong enough to support the shaft loads at maximum operating temperature. Since wear resistance decreases as compressive strength increases, the compressive strength must not be so great that the wear resistance is inadequate. Fatigue Resistance Fatigue resistance is the resistance of the bearing material to cracking and flaking by loads that increase and decrease in rapid cycles, such as in the connecting rod bearings in engines and reciprocating compressors. Fatigue resistance can be increased by keeping the liner material as thin as possible to allow the backing to handle the stresses. High Embeddability Embeddability determines how well a material will handle contaminants without failing. High embeddability allows abrasive contaminants to become embedded in the material. Since embeddability is greater in soft materials, it must not be so great that the compressive strength is inadequate. Deformability (Conformability) Deformability allows the material to yield to misalignment or imperfections in the shaft, such as changes in diameter. It ensures that all parts of the bearing carry their share of the load. Wetability Wetability is the ability to retain a film of lubricant. Good Thermal Conductivity Good thermal conductivity allows rapid removal of heat due to fluid friction in the oil and prevents local hot spots that may cause seizure. Good Corrosion Resistance ‘The bearing materials should resist corrosion from the acid in oxidized oil Bondability The bearing materials should form a good metallurgical bond to the backing material. The bond should not be brittle and should resist breakdown under operating conditions. Compatibility Must not seize or weld to journal under rubbing conditions such as during start-up. Wear can be adhesive (parts touch, adhere and are tom off), ToOROZepI T doe Copyright Alberta LearningBabbitt Babbit, also be referred to as white metal alloy, is a composed of a group of soft alloys that are either tin-based or lead-based. It is used as a liner material in plain bearings. Tin-Based Babbitt In Table 2, the ASTM alloy grades | to 5 are classified as tin-based Babbitt (65% to 90% tin plus copper and antimony). This type was the most popular bearing liner material throughout the 20" century (although industry switched to lead-based alloys whenever the price of tin went up). ro | vero ‘Antimony | Lead | seer | 212%F 452_| none | 12850 | 6950 | 170 | 80 | 43 | 626 74 | 003 | 14900 | 8700 | 245 [ 120 | 466 | 795 82 | 003 | 17,600 | 9900 | 270 | 1405 | 408 | 016 116 | 102 | 16,160 | 6900 | 245 | 120 | 363 | 7 t1_| 162 | 15,050 | 6750 | 225 | 100 | 368 | 001 p46 | a7 | 14550 | 8050 | 210 | 105 | 368 | 655 7 | om | too | 145 | 760 | 15650 | 6150 | 26 | 105 | 464 | 600 {-8 [om | s2 | tao | 704 | 15600 | 6150 | 200 | 05 | 450 | 646 wo | o12 | 205 { 157 | #20 | 15450 | 5750 | 175 | 90 | 468 | 630 ("i [or [ooo | tas | ea7 [12,800 [5.100 | 50 | 70 | at | a0 [2 [ore [om [99 [04 | 12000 | 5100 [| m5 | 65 | 473 | a2 Table 2 - Composition and properties of various types of Babbitt. Lead-Based Babbitt In Table 2, the ASTM alloy grades 6 tol2 are classified as lead-based Babbitts (75% to 90% lead plus copper and antimony). Advantages of Babbitt The advantages of Babbitt include: ‘adequate compressive strength, high embeddability, high conformability, high wetability, good thermal conductivity, good corrosion resistance, excellent bondability and low cost. ToOROIepT. Toe Copyright Alberta Leaming 35Limitations of Babbitt The limitations of Babbitt include: © low fatigue resistance. lowest load capacity of the bearing metals (see Table 3) Other Plain Bearing Metals Properties of various types of plain bearing metals are shown in Table 3 eda uu ee i 2 |Fe 3 i ae lee) 3 i j Hi Hil HN TinBase Babb | 2050 wor | ap = tt] | Lead-Base Babbitt | 15-20 aoo-ra0 | 30 | 3] ifs) ‘Alkali Hardened Lead | 22-26 1200-1600 [ so | 3 | 7 | 1 Cadmium Base 30-40 1500-200 | 500 | 3]1 1/1 ‘Copper Lead 20-30 1600-2500 350 2{2{2] Tin Bronze 6080 Above 4000 | s00+ | 1 | 3 | 3 Lead Bronze 4070 30004500 | 450500 [1 | 3 | 3 Phosphor Bronze | 75.100+ | 65100 | 400 | Above 000 | S00 | 1 | 3 | 3 ‘Aluminum Alley | 4550 | 40-85 | 300 | Abovedooo | 75300 | 2 | 2 | 3 Silver overplated) | 2 2% | 30 | Aboveaod | s00- | 1 | 2) 3 Copper-Nickel Matrix | 10 7 | 1500rkess | 2000 Ec a Tri-Metal and Plated 7 230 = 2[1/[2| Grid Type 7 | 160-225 2,1 [2 (ooze 180 or ess 2}1 {2 ominenimney | 1s0orless | 1500 go f2j1]2 Table 3 - Properties of various types of plain bearing metals, TeORORepI Toe Copyright Alberta LeaningCopper/Lead and Lead/Bronze Bearings In copper and bronze reinforced lead bearings the lead remains in a free state in a bronze or copper matrix. Lead provides the bearing properties while bronze or copper provides the strength. Advantages The advantages of copper/lead and lead/bronze bearing metals include: © higher load ratings than Babbitt and © greater fatigue strength (Table 3). Limitations The tations of copper/lead and lead/bronze bearing metals include: require hardened journals, less conformable than Babbitt, less embeddable than Babbitt, less resistant to acid attack than Babbitt and more expensive than Babbitt. Aluminum/Tin and Aluminum/Silicone Alloys The aluminunvitin and aluminum/silicone alloys were developed specifically for bearings. The aluminumvtin alloy consists of a mixture of free tin in an aluminum matrix (see Figure 38). The tin provides the bearing material and the aluminum provides the strength. The aluminum/silicone alloy was developed for extra strength. Figure 38 - Aluminum/tin alloy magnified 1000 times to show free tin. Advantages These alloys have the following advantages: ‘* more embeddable than copper/lead or lead bronze, more corrosion-resistant than copper/lead or lead/bronze, less expensive than copper or bronze, can be run with softer shafts than the copper or bronze alloys, higher load rating than Babbitt (Table 2) and can be bonded to steel backings. TOOOIEpT 1 doe Copyright Alberta Learning 37Limitations The limitation of aluminum alloys are that they have less embeddability and conformability than Babbitt. Teflon Teflon is used for light duty bushings and is used in a bronze matrix for extra strength. Advantages ‘Teflon has the advantages that it: + is self-lubricating (will run without lubricant if lightly loaded), * is chemically inert (withstands chemical attack) and © can be used with soft joumals. To0203epi doe Copyright Alberta LeamingObjective Three When you have completed this objective, you will be able to: Describe the installation of plain bearings. Split Bearing Installation Importance of Proper Seating ‘As with all bearings, accurate seating in the housing is critical to performance. In Figure 39A and Figure 39B, you can see how a small chip or burr can cause a bearing to support the load on only part of its surface. This condition is called false loading. It results in premature wear. Thick Walled Bearing Bearing Insert | False Loading — Housing Burr artic Housing article Properly Seated Bearing ToddDIepl Toe Copyright Alberta Leaming 39Installation of Bearing Inserts (Shells) in Housings Crush and Spread Crush is the distance (only a few thousandths of an inch) that a new insert protrudes above the split line of the bearing housing (see Figure 40B). Spread is the amount that the insert diameter is wider than the bearing housing diameter. Crush and spread ensure that the insert is mated tightly to the bearing housing bore. The crush should be measured on new inserts to ensure that it is within specification. Crush and spread and shown in Figure 40. Crush |<— Bearing Diameter —> Spread = Seat Diameter - Bearing Diameter Figure 40 - Crush and spread. Preparation for Bearing Installation Follow these steps to prepare for a bearing installation, 1. Always match mark the top half of the housing to the bottom half before disassembly; also match mark bolts on large assemblies. 2. Thoroughly clean the housing, including the lubricant passages and the bearing seat. Inspect the paint on the housing for cracking or flaking, 4, Ifany cracking or flaking is found, the old paint must be completely removed and the housing re-coated with a coating that is compatible with the lubricant. NOTE a The coating in a housing is required to prevent sand from migrating out of the casting and destroying the bearing, as well as to prevent corrosion that could also contaminate the bearing, 5. Carefully inspect the bearing seat in the housing for burrs or any signs of wear or damage. 6. Inspect the journal for grooves or burrs. 7. If the journal is grooved, it will have to be resurfaced and ground to the correct diameter. 8. If there are any burrs on the journal, they can be carefully removed with a stone. After removing the burrs, the journal should be polished with crocus cloth (not, emery). TomRDzpT doe Copyright Alberta Leaning,9. Where applicable, check the shaft or rotor for straightness by rotating it in V blocks on a surface plate or between centres and placing a dial indicator against it in several places (see Figure 41). NOTE On larger units where rotors may weigh many tons, it is often not practical to check for straightness between centres. Instead, the straightness check is done with the rotor supported in the bearings. 10. If the shaft is not straight within the manufacturer's specifications, it will have to be straightened or replaced (Figure 41). Figure 41 - Shaft straightness check. To0dOzepl 1 doc Copyright Alberta Learning 4111. Using a vernier micrometer (Figure 42), check the journal for taper and out-of- round. To check for out-of-round, three measurements are taken at 60° intervals around the journal. To check for taper, these three measurements are taken at both ends and in the middle of the journal. Always record any measurements that you make. These records are valuable for determining wear rates, for failure analysis or for warranty claims. 12. Compare the diameter measurements to the specified diameter, If the dimensions are outside the specified tolerances, the shaft must be repaired or replaced. ToO20REpT.T doe Copyright Alberta Leaming,Installation of Bearings After preparation is complete, follow these steps to install bearings. 1. Seat the inserts firmly in the top and bottom halves of the housing. If anti- rotation tabs (Figure 43A) are used, check that the tabs are properly fitted to the notches. If a dowel is used (Figure 43B), check that that the hole in the insert fits properly on the dowel Clean and lightly lubricate the insert. Clean and lightly lubricate the journal. 4, Carefully lay the journal in the bearing, ee Dowel Hole Locking Tab Figure 43 - Anti-rotation devices for inserts. Housing Fit Check The object of this check is to determine if the housing fits tightly to the insert without distortion of the insert. NOTE This housing fit check is not valid on new inserts that have a crush dimension. Refer to Figure 44 for the following steps. 1, Set 0.005-inch shims next to the bolts at each bearing. 2. Lay a 0.006-inch piece of lead wire on top of the bearing insert. 3. Carefully set the top half of the housing in place; install the dowels and torque the bolts in sequence and to the specified torque. NOTE Careful assembly of the housing is important. The dowels are seated before the bolts are tightened to ensure accurate alignment of each half of the housing bore. Correct tightening sequence and torque values are important to avoid distortion of the housing. TooOepl- doe Copyright Alberta Learning 434. Loosen the bolts in reverse sequence and remove the top half of the housing. 5. Measure the thickness of the lead wire. The crushed thickness should be 0.005 inch. Dowels Installed Lead Wire Bolts Crushed to 0.005" Torques Bearing Bolts Loose i Journal Figure 44 - Housing fit check. a J If the crushed thickness of the lead wire is not the same as the shim thickness, the housing is not providing an accurate seat for the bearing insert. In this case, you will have to correct one or more of the following problems: * a burr or chip is under the insert, * the housing bore is out-of-round or oversize, ‘© the housing bore is not straight or * the insert dimensions are not to specification. CAUTION The housing fit is critical to the performance of the bearing. If the housing does not fit correctly, do not proceed with the assembly until the housing has been repaired. Clearance Check After you have established that the housing fits the insert correctly, the next step is to check the clearance between the journal and the insert. 1. Lay three strips of Plastigage™ across the lightly oiled journal, as shown in Figure 45. 2. Carefully set the top half of the insert in place. 3. Carefully install the top half of the housing, install the dowels and torque the bolts in sequence to the specified torque. 4. Loosen the bolts in reverse sequence and remove the top half of the housing. TURODEpI T doe Copyright Alberta LearningFigure 45 - Clearance check. 5. Check the clearance against the specified clearance, using the Plastigage™ scale, as shown in Figure 46. Set aed Figure 46 - Checking clearance using Plastigage™. 6. If the clearance is incorrect, then check for and correct the following problems: © the journal diameter is not to specification, © the insert is for an undersized journal or «there is something interfering at the mating surfaces of the top and bottom housing halves. TooOepl. 1 doe Copyright Albert Leaming,Final Assembly The final assembly steps are as follows. 1. If the clearance is correct, remove all traces of the Plastigage™ and apply a generous coat of lubricant to the journal and the bearing, 2. Carefully fit the top half of the housing, install the dowels and tighten the bolts in the correct sequence and to the specified torque. 3. Rotate the shaft by hand (or with a barring device on large assemblies) to ensure that there is no binding Installation of Inserts in Connecting Rods In order to avoid catastrophic failure, it is critical to install the inserts correctly Preparation Note the following points when you prepare a connecting rod for the inserts. * Always match mark the caps with the rod and the rod with the journal before disassembly (Figure 47). The preparation for installing an insert in a connecting rod should proceed with the same steps of cleaning and inspection as for installation in a housing. The inspection of the coating will be omitted since connecting rods are not usually coated. ‘© Drilled oil passages will have to be thoroughly cleaned to ensure that there are no traces of contamination and no obstructions. Figure 47 - Bearing insert in a connecting rod. WoO Rept doe Copyright Alberta LeamingInstallation Connecting rod inserts are thin and flexible. They have a slightly wider diameter than the rod bore. As a result, the insert will compress slightly as you fit it into the bore (see Figure 40A). You will also notice that the insert protrudes very slightly above the split line of the bore. To install an insert, follow these steps. 1, Check that the rod bore is very clean. 2. Carefully press the insert into the bore with your fingers so the dowel fits the hole in the insert properly or the tab fits the notches in the rod bore (see Figure 48). Dowel Hole Locking Tab | NM 2 S Dowel /S 8 Figure 48 - Dowels or tabs and notches. 3. Lightly lubricate the insert and the journal and lay a piece of Plastigage™ axially across the middle of the insert (see Figure 49A). Plastigage BN Before Assembly E\cushea Figure 49 - Lay Plastigage™ across the middle of the insert. TourOzepI doe Copyright Alberta Learning 474. Assemble the rod and caps to the journal so that the match marks are on the same side and correspond to the correct rod (Figure 50). The connecting rod should be assembled to the journal from which it was removed. It is very important to make sure that the rod caps are marked before sassembly. They will only produce a round bore when assembled with the original rod with which they were manufactured, 5. Tighten the cap bolts to the specified torque in three stages. 6. Remove the caps and check the clearance indicated by the Plastigage™ (Figure 49B) against the specified clearance. If the clearance is correct, proceed to step 7. 7. Remove all traces of the Plastigage™ from the insert and the joumnal and reassemble the rod to the journal as in step 5. 8. If the clearance is incorrect, check for the following problems: © insert caught on a tab or a dowel, © dirt under the insert * distorted rod bore or + wrong size insert (or example, the insert may have been for an undersize journal). ToOROEEpTT doe Copyright Alberta LeamingBushing Replacement As with split bearings, care must be taken when replacing bushings. Removal Use a driver and an adapter when you remove a bushing to avoid damage to the housing, bore. The adapter must be sized correctly for the bushing and the driver must fit the adapter (Figure 51). Adapter Driver =) Jd) Figure 51 - Driver and adapter for removing bushings. Preparation When you replace a bushing, you must observe the following steps. 1. Thoroughly clean the housing bore and the surrounding surfaces. 2. Deburr and slightly chamfer the outer edges of the housing bore. Inspection of the Housing Bore These are the steps to follow when you inspect the housing bore. 1. Look for grooves, burrs or corrosion in the bore. 2. Remove any burrs or corrosion being careful not to damage or enlarge the bore. 3. Check the bore for taper, out-of-round and bell mouthing. NOTE On bushings up to 2 inches in diameter, small hole gauges or telescoping gauges can be used. On larger sizes, you may find that it easier to use an inside micrometer. In either case, you should always measure the telescoping gauge or inside micrometer with an outside vernier micrometer that has been zeroed, 4. Check the measurements against the manufacturer's specifications. 5. If the bore is damaged or out of specification, the housing must be bored oversize and sleeved. Installation Remember the following points when you install a bushing. ‘* Bushings are easily damaged on assembly. They should never be driven in with any type of hammer. * Bushings must have the correct interference fit in the housing to ensure that the bushing is securely seated but not so tight that it could damage the bushing or the housing. Teos0sephT doe Copynght Alberta Leaning, 49Installation requires the following steps. 1. Measure the outside diameter of the bushing and check the measurement against the specifications. 2. If the outside is correct, slightly chamfer the outside and inside edges of the bushing. 3. Lightly lubricate the bushing inside and out and press or drive it into the housing using an adapter. NOTE The adapter prevents the bushing from collapsing or being.distorted. It can be used with a driver (Figure 52), a press (Figure 52B) or a draw bolt (Figure 52C). Driver Adapter —— Bushing — Housing — Housing Bushing Draw Bolt & Pusher Plate adapter Figure 52 - Bushing installation methods. 4. After the bushing has been installed, its bore will be compressed by the interference fit in the housing. Therefore, the installed bore diameter will have to be measured and checked against the specifications to ensure the correct clearance to the journal 5. Ifit isa wrapped bushing or a pre-finished bushing, the installed diameter may be within the specifications. However, if it is a solid bushing it will almost, always have to be reamed to the specified diameter. ToORO2epT.T doe Copyright Alberta Learning,Thrust Bearing Installation The following points should be observed when installing a thrust bearing. * Be meticulous about cleanliness of the housing and the bearing components. © Thrust collars must be checked for runout with a dial indicator on the face of the collar. Be aware that any axial shaft movement will affect the dial readings. © Thrust bearing assemblies must be set to the specified clearance and in the correct axial position. * As with all conventional bearing assemblies, the bearing surfaces should be coated with oil Magnetic Bearing Installation All the procedures for setting the alignment and the clearances on conventional bearings must be applied to magnetic bearings. In addition, the following procedures are required. © The backup bearings (also called landing bearings or auxiliary bearings) must be installed in the housing. These are paired, single row, angular contact ball bearings that must be installed in the housing face to face so that they can be preloaded to prevent rotation. © The magnetic bearings must be tuned electronically to position the rotor in the bearing and to stabilize it at operating speed. Gas-Lubricated Bearing Installation Gas-lubricated bearings have very small clearances (typically 0.001inch). To ensure running accuracy of the journal within the bearing, extra measures must be taken to minimize distortion of the shaft and the housing during installation. The manufacturer should be consulted for installation procedures for the particular bearing that you are using. This could involve the use of specialized instruments to measure the location of the shaft within the bearing to an accuracy of 0.0001inch and for checking for side loads that cause distortion of the housing or shaft. Miniature hydrostatic bearings will often have an interference fit until the gas has been brought up to pressure. The gas pressure expands the bearing to give the required clearance. Therefore, no attempt must be made to turn or move the rotor in any way until the gas is at its correct pressure. Gas-lubricated bearings must be assembled with great care because the shaft is supported on a very thin gas film that can easily be broken by a slight displacement of the shaft or an irregularity on the surface of the bearing. Also, because the gas film is so thin, cleanliness of the gas is critical. If a shop air is used, an efficient filtration and drying system must be installed and maintained. A good quality 10-micron filter is usually recommended, along with an after cooler and desiccant dryer to remove liquid and solid contaminants. TeOaOsepTT doe Copyright Alberta Leaming StObjective Four When you have completed this objective, you will be able to: Describe appropriate safety measures applicable to Babbitt pouring. DANGER Be aware of the following hazards when you pour Babbitt! © When working with molten metal, there is always the potential for severe bums from splashes, spills or explosions. * Explosions occur when molten metal contacts water or even moisture. Some of the moisture is trapped between the metal and the surface on which it rests. The high temperature of the molten metal instantly converts the entrapped moisture to steam, producing a violent explosion. © Metal fumes are harmful if you inhale them. This is especially true of lead-based Babbitt. Heavy metals will not leave your system once they have been ingested but will accumulate and may result in serious health problems. Personal Protection Adequate protection against contact of molten Babbitt against your skin is the main concern, You must wear the following items of personal protection: © full face shield, * fireproof insulated jacket, * fireproof insulated pants or apron, * pant legs that go over the tops of the boots and sleeves that are full length, ‘* welding gloves that have gauntlet-style cuffs, © leather high-top boots, welding goggles for use when heating the shell and mandrel and safety glasses. Working Environment An environment for pouring Babbitt should be set up to avoid: ‘© explosions from contact with moisture, * spills and splashes, © inhalation of fumes and * accidental fires. To avoid these hazards, the Babbitt pouring area should be set up in the following way. * Provide a fume extraction system that complies with the Occupational Health and Safety requirements. ‘© Make sure that a fully charged fire extinguisher (Class ABC) is on hand. * Keep the area perfectly dry so that the floor and bench tops are free of moisture. This will mean avoiding the use of an area that has dripping pipes or condensate formation. © Keep all trash in a covered metal disposal container. ToorDRepT doe Copyright Alberta Leaming© Set up the shell and mandrel conveniently close to the Babbitt pot (Figure 53). © Remove all tripping hazards. + Keep other people out of the immediate pouring area to avoid bumping or jostling. When ladling molten Babbitt, use careful, deliberate movements to avoid spilling. Do not hurry! Heavy Protective Clothing Ladle Mandrel Shell Pyrometer Tube Babbitt Pot Figure 53 - Set-up for Babbitt pouring. TaIRRepT Tae Copyright Alberta Leaming 53Objective Five When you have completed this objective, you will be able to: Describe Babbit pouring and fitting procedures. Introduction to Babbitt Bearing Pouring If Babbitt pouring is done at a plant maintenance shop, it is usually on low speed bearings that have a relatively high Babbitt thickness. Babbitting of high-speed bearings is done using sophisticated spin casting techniques by shops that specialize in the manufacture and repair of plain bearings. : Ifyou are pouring a bearing at a plant maintenance shop, you should observe all the safety measures described in Objective Four of this module. Pouring a Babbitt bearing involves the following five steps: 1. Preparing the shell and mandrel. Setting up the shell and mandrel. Heating the Babbitt. Preheating the shell and mandrel. Pouring the Babbitt into the shell. Preparation of the Shell and Mandrel Preparation of the shell involves the following steps. Melt out all the old Babbitt. ‘Thoroughly clean the shell down to bare metal. Apply enough tinning compound to cover the surface of the shell and heat the shell until it melts (see Figure 54). 4, Immediately wipe the tinned surface with a wet rag to remove any oxides. yee Figure 54 - Shell and tinning compound. ToURORepT.T doe Copyright Alberta Learning,Use the following steps to prepare the mandrel. 1. 2. Select a mandrel smaller than the bearing bore. This is to allow for machining to the specified diameter. Coat the mandrel with carbon. This is done with a smoky acetylene flame before the shell is assembled around it. The carbon prevents the Babbitt from sticking to the mandrel. Setting Up The Shell and Mandrel The steps to set up a mandrel! for pouring Babbitt are as follows. 1 Clamp the shells together around the mandrel with separators between them as, shown in Figure 55. The mandrel should be centred in the shell and parallel to it. The jig shown in Figure 55 is suggested as one way to hold the shell and mandrel in position. Seal the split between the shells and around the base of the shell with Babbitt putty. Also, plug any oil entry ports with wood and seal the plug with Babbitt putty. Be careful to make a good seal. Build a dam of Babbitt putty around the top of the shells. Figure 55 - Mandrel and shell set-up. To0R03epT 1 doe Copyright Alberta Leaming 55Heating the Babbitt There are two concerns when heating Babbitt. ‘© Be sure to heat it to the correct temperature. Too high a temperature results in severe shrinkage and a porous and oxidized lining. Too low a temperature results in a coarse and grainy structure in the Babbitt lining. © Stirit to prevent the heavy elements from settling out and the lighter ones from rising and oxidizing at the surface. To heat Babbitt, you will need the following equipment: ‘* a container that is at least 30% larger than the amount of Babbitt that you intend to pour, ‘* aladle as large as possible to minimize interruptions of the pour. a pyrometer to monitor the temperature of the molten Babbitt, ‘© a heat source capable of raising the temperature of the Babbitt to around 480 degrees Celsius (900°F) and © gas-fired pot with a thermostat, as shown in Figure 56, is very convenient for maintaining the correct temperature Stir Over ‘and Under Correct Wrong Figure 56 - Heating Babbitt. Heat the Babbitt in the following steps 1. Check the pouring temperature of the Babbitt that you are using. T higher than its melting temperature. 2. Heat the Babbitt gradually to its pouring temperature. 3. Stir the Babbitt using the over and under method shown in Figure 56. Do not stir it around and around. 4. Do not skim off the film of slag that forms on the surface. The film protects the Babbitt from oxidation. will be T6OR0RepI T doe Copyright Alberta LeamingPreheating the Shell and Mandrel Preheat the shell and mandrel to about 120°C (250°F). If the temperature is too low. blowholes will develop and the lining will shrink away from the shell. If the temperature is too high, the Babbitt will cool too slowly and the heavy metals will separate and sink. DANGER It is important to heat the shells and mandrel to remove all traces of moisture. This will avoid the possibility of the molten Babbitt blowing back in your face. Pouring the Babbitt ‘The three main concerns when pouring Babbitt are that: * the Babbitt is at the specified pouring temperature, © the shell and mandrel are preheated to the correct temperature and «the pour is completed with no interruptions. Babbitt is poured in the following steps. 1. Heat the Babbitt to the required pouring temperature. Preheat the shell and mandrel to 120°C (250°F) (Figure 57). Use a ladle large enough to complete the pour in one step. Push the film of slag aside with the ladle as you dip it full of Babbitt. Immediately pour the Babbitt into the preheated shells until the level is near the top of the dam of putty. This should be completed in a single pour to avoid the possibility of layering or lamination, 6. After the Babbitt has solidified, cool the shells with water and remove them from the mandrel. ween Figure 57 - Checking the temperature of the shell and mandrel using a Tempilstik, ToorOIepT 1 dos Copyright Alberta Learning STFitting a Bearing Fitting a bearing involves the following four steps: 1. boring it to the specified diameter, 2. making any ports, chamfers or grooves as specified, 3. checking the contact area and scraping to remove the high spots and 4. checking and setting the clearance. Boring Out the Bearing The object of boring out a bearing is to bring its bore to the finished diameter. 1. Clamp the shells together and centre them in a lathe chuck: 2. Using a boring tool, bore the bearing out to the specified diameter. 3. Face off and chamfer the end of the bearing. Chamfers, Oil Pockets, Lubricant Entry Ports and Lubrication Grooves ‘The location and dimensions of the chamfers, ports and grooves (Figure 58) are specified by the original equipment manufacturer and should not normally be modified. These features are important for lubrication and can be drilled, milled, scraped or filed. Oil Inlet Oil Groove 4 Upper Half Do not add to or modify grooves, chamfers or ports in any way. | Ensure that they are made to specification, Failure to do so can lead to | lubrication failure. | ToOROREpI.T dos Copyright Aberta LearningChecking the Contact Area The reason for checking the contact area on a bearing is to ensure that the journal load is supported on all parts of the bearing. The contact check is done in the following steps. 1. Clean the bearing and the journal. 2. Apply a light coating of Prussian blue (also called mechanic's blue) to the entire surface of the journal. Make sure that the coating is even and thin enough that it appears sky blue (Figure 59). Thin "Sky Blue" Coating Shell Journal of Prussian Blue Before Scraping ‘ ’ Se Prussian Blue igure 59 - Checking the contact area. NOTE On heavy assemblies. it is more effective to blue the bearing surface and allow the journal to wipe the blue from the high spots, leaving them shiny. 3. Set the journal in the bottom half of the bearing and rotate the bearing. 4. Remove the mandrel and note the contact area (Figure 60A). This will appear where the blue has transferred from the journal to the bearing surface. TOTP Tae Copyright Alberta Leaning 59Scraping ‘The purpose of scraping is to remove the high spots from the bearing surface so the entire bearing surface supports the journal load. When scraping, use this procedure. 1. Scrape off small amounts, being careful to remove material only from the high spots indicated by the bluing. 2. When you have scraped the area indicated by the bluing, wipe the bearing down and assemble the shells on the journal to get another imprint of the bluing (Figure 60B). 3. Remove the shells and observe the new pattern of blue. It should cover a larger area in smaller blue spots, indicating a larger area of contact. 4, Repeat the scraping process described in steps 1. 2 and 3 until you get a pattem of blue spots about % of an inch in diameter over at least 85% of the surface (Figure 60C). Bearing ‘Rounded Back Even Distribution Scraper of High Spots Honed ~ Edges BB scraping High Spots BD atter First Scraping Satisfactory Contact Figure 60 - Scraping to remove the high spots. Setting the Clearance Correct clearance in a journal bearing is critical to the formation of an oil film. The total clearance is carefully determined by both engineering calculations and by experimental research. Ensure that the total clearance between the journal and the bearing matches the specified values. Methods of Measuring the Clearance Lift Check A lift check (also called a bump check) is shown in Figure 61. It is a quick, convenient method of checking clearances without disassembly. Although not considered an accurate method of measuring clearances, it is very useful for the following purposes: ‘* asan initial check to determine if a bearing is worn badly enough to disassemble for further checks and * asa check to see if there is any error in the assembly of the bearing, such as incorrect alignment in the housing or incorrect seating of the bearing. To0rOsepT 1 doe Copyright Alberta LeamingDial Indicator Jack or Pry to Lift pL Figure 61 - Lift check. Plastigage™ Check Use the procedure described for installation of bearings, which is also illustrated in Figure 45 and Figure 46. Adjusting the Clearance ‘Some bearing housings or caps on connecting rods can be shimmed to set the clearance, as shown in Figure 62. This simply involves adding or removing the thickness of shims as determined from the clearance check. Note that this procedure is limited by the fact that the clearance shims only affect the diameter at 90° to the joint faces. The diameter at the joint will not be changed. Clearance Shims Figure 62 - Setting clearance using shims. TeUROREpT.T aoe Copyright Alberta Leaming 61Self-Test 1 10, ul. 12. 13. What are the two main types of plain bearings? What are the two main functions of journal bearings? Will a bearing with a spherical seat in a large turbine be self-aligning while the turbine is operating? Is a hydrodynamic bearing suitable for very slow speeds? Is a hydrostatic bearing suitable for very slow speeds? Is a hybrid bearing suitable for full loads at start-up? What must be done before start-up to ensure no damage to an oil lift bearing? What are the three main components of an active magnetic thrust bearing assembly? a ‘ What type of loads and speeds are gas-lubricated bearings intended for? Why must great care be taken to avoid damage to journal and bearing surfaces when assembling gas-lubricated bearings? Which plain bearing material has the highest embeddability and the highest conformability? Besides cleaning the housing, what else should be cleaned before installing a split bearing? Besides the surface condition of the journals, what three other checks should be performed on a shaft before installation? Te0s02epT 1 doe Copyright Alberta Learning14, Why should the dowels be installed in the housing before the bolts have been torqued? 15. What is the purpose of dowels, tabs or notches on a bearing assembly? 16. What tool should be used when removing or installing a bushing to avoid damage to the housing and bushing? 17. What are four hazards to guard against when pouring Babbitt? 18. What safety concer is addressed by preheating the mandrel and shell before pouring? 19. How is the contact area of a bearing checked? 20. What is the difference between stationary, oscillating and reciprocating load 21. Do stationary loaded bearings have more or less clearance than bearings with reciprocating or oscillating loads? 22. What is an example of a bearing with a reciprocating load? 23. What is the most common overlay or liner material used in split plain bearings? 24. What is the purpose of the spherical seat on thick-walled bearings? 25. Where are spherical seated bearings used? 26. Why does a solid bushing have to be reamed after installation? ToOIORepT.T doe Copyright Alberta Learning 6327, 28, 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39, What are two applications of floating bushings? Why are water-lubricated bushings suitable for vertical shafts? Are pre-lubricated bushings best for continuous operation or start/stop operation? Why does start/stop operation produce more rapid wear on a hydrodynamic bearing than continuous operation? Why is a circumferential groove required in reciprocating plain bearings? What is the purpose of tilting pads or lobes on plain bearings? Are hydrostatic bearings suitable for heavy loads and low speeds? What is critical to ensure before start-up with an oil lift bearing? Can a hybrid bearing support a full load at start-up? Why are the pads on a tilting pad thrust bearing designed to tilt? What are the four main components of an active magnetic bearing assembly? Are gas-lubricated bearings more suitable for light loads and very high speeds or heavy loads and low speeds? TeOaOzepT doe Copyright Alberta Learning40. 4. 43. 45. 46. 47, 48. 49. 50, St. 52, List at least four advantages of Babbitt as a plain bearing material. What is the advantage of copper/lead materials and aluminum alloys in plain bearings? What is the advantage of a Teflon overlay on large engine bearings? What is the cause of false loading on a newly installed bearing shell? What should be done to the housing before disassembly? What are three reasons for recording journal and bearing bore measurement? Why is a housing fit check necessary? Ifa Plastigage™ check indicates the wrong clearance, what are three problems to check for? What is the reason for crush and spread on connecting rod inserts? What is the advantage of using an adapter to install a bushing? How should a thrust collar be checked? How should the backup bearings in an active magnetic bearing assembly be arranged? What can result from molten metal contacting moisture? TooRORepT Toe Copyright Alberta Learning, 65,53. Why must an adequate fume extraction system be used when melting and pouring Babbitt? 54. What type of fire extinguisher should be on hand? 55. What are five items for personal protection that should be worn while melting and pouring Babbitt? 56. What is applied to the shell to ensure good bonding of the Babbitt? 57. What is done to the mandrel to prevent the Babbitt from sticking to it? 58. How should Babbitt be stirred to prevent segregation of the heavier and lighter metals in the alloy? 59. What is the safety reason for preheating the mandrel and shells before pouring Babbitt? 60. Why is it important to make lubrication ports and grooves to engineered specifications? 61. How can you check the contact area on a bearing? 62. How are high spots removed? 63. What are two advantages of measuring bearing clearance with Plastigage™ instead of a lift check? 64. How can clearance be adjusted on some connecting rods? TooaDRepT. doe Copyright Alberta LearningSelf-Test Answers 10. 1. 12. 13, 27. journal and thrust bearings to support a radial load and hold a journal in location accurately no no yes no Jacking oil must be brought up to pressure. thrust dise stators position sensor light loads and high speeds ‘A damaged surface could break the very thin gas film. Babbitt the lubrication passages straightness out-of-round taper . to ensure that the housing and bearing assembly is held in accurate alignment . to prevent rotation of the bearing in the housing . a bushing adapter . explosions from contact with moisture spills and splashes inhalation of fumes accidental fires removal of moisture to avoid explosion of molten metal . by lightly coating the journal with Prussian blue and rotating it inside the shell A stationary load generally acts on one area while oscillating and reciprocating loads shift through an are. Bearings with stationary load have greater clearance. bearings in connecting rods in engines and reciprocating compressors Babbitt . to allow the bearing to align with the shaft during installation in large turbines where there is a long span between bearings . to bring it to its specified diameter, since it was compressed after being pressed into the housing to support high-speed shafts in turbo chargers where oil whirl might develop, or in heavily loaded journals where the load might force the bushing to creep TeOsSEpT doe Copyright Alberta Leaming, 6730. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41 43. 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. . because water lubrication can only support light radial loads 29. stop/start operation no because there is dry rubbing at start-up to cool the lubricant to dampen oil whirl and stabilize the shaft when the load is unsteady at high speeds yes Ensure jacking oil is up to pressure. no to facilitate the formation of an oil wedge rotor stator magnets position sensors backup bearings light loads and very high speeds Any 4 of the following are correct: adequate compressive strength high embeddability high conformability high wettability good thermal conductivity good corrosion resistance excellent bondability inexpensive higher load ratings than Babbitt provides run-in protection on bearings inaccurate seating Match mark the top half to the bottom half of the housing. to determine wear rates for failure analysis for warranty claims to ensure that the insert is supported without distortion The journal diameter is not to specification. The insert is for an undersized journal. Burrs or dirt are interfering with the seating of the inserts or the matting of the housing halves. to ensure the insert is tightly seated to the rod bores It will prevent collapse or distortion of the bushing. for runout with a dial indicator TOR ZERIT doe Copyright Alberta Leaming,Sl. 52. 53. 54, 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. face to face explosion and possible injury to avi hazard inhalation of heavy metal fumes which constitute a serious long-term health class ABC heat-resistant face shield leather welding jacket or fireproof coat long sleeves high-top boots and pant legs covering boot tops s tinning compounds It is coated with carbon from a smoky acetylene flame. stir over and under to remove all traces of moisture that could blow the molten Babbitt back at you Altering the ports and grooves from specifications can result in lubrication failure or loss of load-carrying capacity. by lightly bluing the journal and rotating it inside the shell with a bearing scraper Plastigage™ provides a more accurate measurement of clearance and will also reveal changes in clearance along the bearing, . with shims Toux0zepT Tdoe Copyright Alberta Leaminga = a = —- ——" Alberta Apprenticeship Excellence Through Tromung and Experience Module Number 160202c Version 1.1 The Individual Leaming Modules Project is committed to continuous updating and is interested in your comments regarding technical accuracy and clarity of presentation. Please visit our web site to register your comment. To view the ongoing discussion, go to the Bulletin Board, www.tradesecrets.org/ilm The Individual Learning Modules Project would like to thank the many companies for their contribution and gratefully acknowledges their valuable input. A complete listing of contributors can be found at our web site. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 1008, Her Majesty the Queen in right ofthe Province of Alberta, a represented by %, the Minister of Alberta Learning, 10” oor Commerce Place, Edmonton, Alber, & Canada, 15) 4L5. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in Printed in Canada ‘any form or by any tears, without the prior written consent ofthe Minster of on Recycled Paper ‘Alberta Learning,