SECTION 2.10 Designing for Torsional Loading 1. NATURE OF TORSIONAL LOADING ‘Torsional loading is the application of a force that tends to cause the member to twist about its structural “Torsion is usually referred to in terms of torsional moment or torgue (T), which is basically the product of the externally applied force and the moment arm or force arm, The moment arm is the distance of the centerline of rotation from the line of foree and per- pendicular to it, This distance often equals the distance from the member's center of gravity to its outer fiber (radius of a round shaft, for example), but not always. ‘The principal deflection caused by torsion is mea- sured by the angle of twist, or by the vertical move- ‘ment of one comer of the frame: Stecl, in rolled structural shapes or builtup sec- tions, is very efficient in resisting torsion. With steel, torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the use of stiffeners. Here are the threo basic rules for designing struc- tural members to make the best use of steel where torsional loads are a problem: 1, Use closed sections where possible. 2, Use diagonal bracing, 3. Make rigid end connections 2 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA When a round shaft is subjected to a twisting or tor- sional moment (torque), the resulting shear stress in the shaft is— TRE ccc tneer eee) where: 1 = shear stress, psi © = distance from center of section to outer fiber T = torque, in-lbs. J = polar moment of inertia of section, in =L+h= ‘The angular twist of a round shaft is— EJ where: @ = over-all angular twist of shaft, in radians (1 ndian = 573° approx.} L = length of shaft, in inches E modulus of elasticity: in shear (steel E, = 12,000,000 pst) Tn most cases, the designer is interested in holding the torsional moment within the materials clastic limit, Where the torsional strength of a round shaft és re- quired (i.e, the stress it can take without fatlure), the polar section modulus is J/c, and the allowable torque is thus— T= where, lacking test data, the ultimate shear strength of steel (7) is assumed to be in the order of 75% of the material's ultimate tensile strength. ‘The above three formulas are true for solid round or tubular round shafts. For non-circular sections the shear stresses are not uniform, and therefore the stand- ard torsional formulas no longer hold, 3. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE Values of torsional resistance (R)—stiffness factor— have been established for various standard sections and provide more reliable solutions to torsional rigidity problems. Values of Rare expressed in inches to the fourth power. Table 1 shows the formulas for shear stress and torsional resistance of various sections, The formulas for solid rectangular seetions call for values, of a and B, ‘which are derived from the ratio of section width (b) to depth (4), as shown in the table. Actual tests show that the torsional resistance (R) of an open seetion made up of rectangular areas, nearly equals the sum of the torsional resistances of all the individual rectangular areas. For example, the torsional resistance of an T beam is. approximately 240-4210-2 / Load & Stress Analysis equal Fe R = R +R +R, 9 am PS FIGURE 1 ‘equal to the sum of the torsional resistances of the two flanges and web (Fig. 1). Figure 2 shows the results of twisting an I beam mace of three equal plates. Caloulated values of twist by using the conventional polar moment of inertia (J) and the torsional resistance (R) are compared with the actual results. This shows greater accuracy by using torsional resistance (R), ‘This means that the torsional resistance of a flat ethos an R Terlonat eatones 2 21.8° | 73° Actua! 22° 9.5% FIGURE 2 TABLE 1—Torsional Propertics of Various Sections eaagaaeaaeaeeey Section | Shear Seress (Gor steel) Raorsional Resistance Ome R= oneat Os |e aha R= 982 de ~ as") R=1omed | R= nea | Rape 300| 400] 6 | 8 [10] = 307 [313/333] cube erace R061 Lor | eyagoral brace‘angle of fist © T= all loodings Q identical r Caentagat ae ° | 008°] .04° 0459| ty dew] 01° | 008°] Wetbed ang tonBaas | 95° | 9.72) 10° | .04° | .06° a iE ‘ems! te 1 9.57] 11 “ah all FIGURE 3 plate is approximately the same whether it is used fs such or is formed into an angle, channel, open tube section, ete, This is illustrated in Figure 3, Samples of different sections made of 16-gage steel are subjected to torsion, The flat section twists 9°, The same piece of steel formed into a channel (b) twists 934". When rolled into a tube with an open beam (c}, it twists 11". When the same section is made into a closed section (d) by placing a single tack weld in the middle of the open seam, the torsional resistance increases several hundred times. When the tube becomes closed section, the torsional stresses are distributed more evenly over the total ares, thus permitting @ seater load, Notice the error in using polar moment of inertia (J) for the angle of twist of open sections, and the good agreement by using torsional resistance (R). Design Rule No. 1: USE CLOSED SECTIONS WHERE POSSIBLE The solid or tubular round closed section is best for torsional loading since the shear stresses are uniform around the circumference of the member Next to a tubular section, the best section for re- FI Ue Z Oe FIGURE 4 Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-3, sisting torsion is a closed square or rectangular tubular section Table 2 provides formulas for determining the torsional resistance (R) of various closed tubular see- tions. It also provides the basic formulas for determin- ing the shear stress (1) at any given point along the sidewall of any closed section regardless of configura tion or variation of thickness, and for determining the section's torsional resistance (R). ‘The poorest sections for torsional loading. are open sections, lat plates, angle sections, chanel sections, Zar sections, T-bar sections, T-bear sections, and tubular sections which have a slot. Wess «CE [— ec FIGURE 5 al” After the R values of all areas in a built-up section have been added together, their sum is inserted into the following formula or a modification of it seer) Torque (T) in in-Ibs may be obtained from one of the formulas in Table 3, such as— p= 63000 x HP RPM oT =Pe where HP = horsepower REM = speod of zovolution P = applied force, Ibs e = moment arm of force (the perpendicular distance from the center of rotation to the line of force} Problem 1 ‘As an example, consider the torsional resistance of 1 closed round tube and one that is slotted. The tube has an O.D, of 4", and LD. of 3”, @ length of 100”, and is subjected to a torque of 1000 in.-Ibs.2.10-4 / Load & Stress Analysis Case From Table 1, the torsional resistance of the closed round tube is found to be— R = 0.0982 (ds — dt) 0.0982 (4¢ —3*) = 1719 ins and the angular twist is— TL _ __(1000)(100) ER ~ (12 x 10°)17.19 0.000485 radians, or 0.0278" cont oie 2 FIGURE 6 Case 2 From Table 1, the torsional resistance of the slotted round tube is found to be— TABLE 2—Torsional Resistance (R) of Closed Tubular Sections TA] = grea onlooed within mean dinerlone (Sh feign oF ponialor sagmons of secon he = sievaye theknese of segment ot point Boer ean ot pie 1h foronal tvitorc, et Ey odolee of atstiy in shear esi = 12,000,000 6 = angelar twist odio) 1S gtk of member inchs) yt sheor force ReaeeeR= 1omed 10472. (34)> 36 = 0.59 and the angular Quist is— TL ER (1000) (100) 12 10°).450 = 0.018 radians, or 1.04" o= Thus, the tube without the slot is many times more rigid than the slotted tube. Problem 2 Two 6” x 2” x 10Mb channels are to be used in making 1 100’-long frame, which will be subjected to a torque of 1000 in-lIbs. In what relationship to each other will these channels offer the greatest resistance to twist? Case 1 ‘These two channels when separated but fastened. together by end plates do not have much torsional resistance. 4(36"* 2) = dks aa 2056 * 6) FIGURE 7 From Table 1, the value of R for each of the flanges is found to! be~ Ry = 0.0306 int and that of each web is— Re = 010586 in.t and thus the total angular test is— 1000. 100 (2 OY (4X 0308 FD X 0586) = 0.0348 radians, or 2.0° o= Designing for Torsional Loading / 2:10-5 TABLE 3—Formulas for Determining Safe Torque Under Various Conditions eee Based on tangential load: T=Pe Based on horsepower transmitted: op = 95080 x HP ar RPM Based on strength of shaft: 19635 5, (dst cn ays) T= where $, = 15,000 2045 dat — dt de v Based on safe twist of shaft (.08°/ft): T = 1ST (ds — a) Based on fillet weld leg size around shaft or bub: Based on butt weld size around hub: T = 2420 dt Case 2 When these two channels are securely fastened back to back, there is suitable resistance to any slip or movement due to horizontal shear, Here the two webs are considered as one solid web, and the top and bottom flanges are considered soli. 2(%"x#) Sr alee aa Bon azz Hie" * 6") FIGURE & i \210-6 / Load & Stross Analysis From Table I, the value of R for each of the two composite Ranges is found to be— R, = 0.066 int and that of the composite web is— Re = 0.459 ins and thus the total angular twist s— o- 1000. »¢_ 100 TEKH EK 08 FA) = 00141 radians, or 081° which is much less than in Case 1 Case 3 If these two channels were welded toe to toc to. form a box section, the torsional resistance would be sreatly increased. FIGURE 9 From Table 2, the value of R for a box section is found to be— Rae BE | where: pe 7 b= 6— % = 5625" d = 4— %e = 3.6875" ‘and the angular twist is— 1000 100 ~ (2X 10") 30.01 0.00027 radians, or 0,015" ki which is far less than in Case 2, which in tum was much better than Case 1. Torsional Resistance Nomograph A panel or other member may be sufficiently resistant to deflection by bending, and yet have very low torsional resistance, ‘The nomogeaph, Figure 10, permits the designer to quickly find the torsional resistance of a proposed design. The total torsional resistance of a built-up design equals the sum of the resistances offered separ- ately by the members. On this nomograph: Line 1 = Type of section, or clement of a built-up section, Observe caution as to meaning of letter symbols. For a solid rectangular section use the ratio of width (a) divided by thickness (b); for a hollow rectangular section use width (}) divided by depth (c). Line 2 = Dimension (a), in. Line 3 = Pivot line Line 4 = Dimension (b), in. Line 5 = Torsional resistance of the section (R), in These values for each clement are added together to give the total torsional resistance of the section, and the resistances of the sections are added to give the total torsional resistance of the frame or base. This 5s used in the design formula for angular twist, or in the next nomograph, Figure 14, Jn the ease of a member having a builtup cross- section, such as a Tor I beatn, read the Figure 10 nomograph for the R value of each element or area making up the section. Start at vertical Line 1 in the nomograph, using the seale to the right of it that expresses the rectangular element's a/b ratio. In the case of solid squares or rounds, and closed or open round tubes, go directly to the point on the scale Indicated by the visual representation of the cross- section. Notice that the meaning of a and b varies. In the case of a rectangular element, a is the longer dimen- sin; but in the case of a hollow rectangle, a is the ‘wall or plate thickness. The valne of a or B on Lines 1, 2 and 4 must correspond, according to the type of section or element for which torsional resistance (R) is sought, For hollow rectangular sections (of uniform wall or plate thickness), use the scale along the left of vertical Line I that expresses the ratio b/e. Here b = the section's width and c = its depth, 4, MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS IN BUILT-UP SECTIONS ‘The maximum shear stress of a rectangular section in torsion lies on the surface at the conter of the long side. For the maximum shear stress on a narrow rec- tangular section or section element—Designing for Torsional Loading / 210-7 iO fae 94198 “EY ru op.g PoD« ; 2ovug /pyoborp 391 au | aobug /OLOBDP o) 27D 2609 4 (@) furpibrs s0u0res0 “purs| ‘da30.9 bu your $ 97 s04g-20000 poucborp 9qrip yarn 9E0G 790K S, ‘WIEWAW JO JDNVISISTL TYNOISYOL-OL BNDId2.10-8 / Loud & Stress Analy where: 6 = unit angular twist of whole section (each clement twists this amount), in radians linear inch of member t= thickness of rectangular section R = torsional resistance of entire member, not necessarily just this one fat clement ‘This formula can be used for a flat plate, or the flat plate of a built-up section not forming a closed section (i.e. channel, angle, T- or I-beam section). In such a built-up open section, the unit angular tovist (@) of the whole member is first found: rie g= and then the maximum. shear stress in the specific rectangular element. oie + FIGURE 12 Shear stresses tend to concentrate at re-entrant comers. In this case, the maximum stress value should be used and is— Toe = (1 + 4) where a = inside comer radius. Problem 3 A.6” X 2” X 10%1b chamnel is subjected to a torque of T = 1000 incths. Find the shear stress along the web, See Figure 13, ‘Applying the formula for rectangular sections from ‘Table 1, find the torsional resistance of each of the two identical 2” 58” flanges (Ri) and of the 6” X 5/16” web (Ra) Ri = .0306 ins Re = 0586 int / R= 2R Re 2 (,0806) + .0556 = 3208 ins ‘Then: Problem 4 ‘Two 6” X 2” X LOb chamels are welded toe to toe, to form a short box section, This is subjected to a torque of T = 100000 inths. Find the horizontal shear stress at the toes and the amount of groove welding required to hold these channels together for this torsional load. Sco Figure 1. From Table 2, the shear stress at mid-length of the short side is found t0 be— r where: T= 3Tare 6 — % = 5.605" 4 — %o = 30875" fa] = ba — 100,000 = SSeS x 3687 ye 6420 psi Ft QQ CaeeezzaezzZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZA led y gute 13 BUDesigning for Torsional Loading / 2.10-9 | |» ——+| Two 6” x 2" x 1D) channels FIGURE 14 wo? The horizontal shear force is then— fart 6420 x 375 = 2410 Ibs/linear inch Since weld metal is good for 18,000 pst in shear, the throat or depth of the continuous butt weld must be £ 2410 = 2410 ort = T3000 = 189” or 9/16” ‘The groove weld connceting the channels must have a throat depth of at least 3/16”, OF course, sf the torsional load is applied suddenly as an impact load, it would be good practice to add a safety factor to the computed load. This would then necessitate a deeper throat for the butt weld, Check the following built-up spandrel beam supporting a wall 12’ high, made of £” of limestone and 9” of brick. The beam’s span is 20’, and the dead load of the wvall is applied 6” off the beam’s centerline pose Fg FIGURE 15 i d=" 9 ape wf a + 2 4 limestone ++ 9” brick = 140 Ibs/sq ft Since the wall is 12’ high, this is a load of 1680 Ibs/linear ft or 140 tbs/linear in, Or, use w = 150 Ibs/lin i, to include beam weight bending resistance (moment of inertia) (40) (10) (9)(8)° ci 2 = 4493 ins L= torsional resistance 2 (85)2(9)? 35), ay + T) = 42 ins ‘The eccentricity of the dead load applies torque to the beam. From torsional member diagrams in Refer- ence Section 82: = 900 inbevin TEP Torque diagram r ‘uniform torque t = 150 Ibs/in. x 6” = 900 in-lbs/in. angular twist ot center of beam tL __c900) 240) 2 = SER * WE K 1K = .00122 radians (or 07°)210-10 / Load & Stress Analysis torque at end th + {900) (240) 2 T= (08,000 in-Ibs torsional. shear stress where: thickness of single web, eTaTe — (108,000) 2(85 x 9) 1410 psi unit shear force from torque heart 1410) (48) = 700 Ibs/in unit shear force along N.A. from bending VewL 150) (120) 8,000 Ths 2 in tN NAsH-- 5-5 - mt SEELEY FIGURE 16 Y (ar yi + ae ya) Ta =. £118,000) (10 ¢ 4.5 + 1X 2.0; a (HOS) (2 webs) = 860 Ibvin, total unit shear force on beam web (each) Baht h 700) + (860) = 1560 isin. OK ‘Then to determine the required size of fillet weld between flange and web: Nanth FIGURE 17 unit shear force at weld from bending vay TH — (18,000) (10) (44) 493) (2) = 900 ibsfin, unit shear force at weld from torque f = 700 Ibs/in. total unit shear force at weld 700) + (900) 1600 Ibs/in. required leg size of fillet weld (E70) actual force ' allowable force (1600) 1,200} = 148" or Ho" N ‘However, because of the 1” flange, AWS Bldg. 212, AWS, Bridge 217 and AISC 1.17.4 would require a He" Be5, BUILT-UP FRAMES ‘The principles of torsion which determine the best sections for resisting twist apply to built-up frames Just as the torsional resistance of the section is equal to the total of the resistances of its individual arcas, so is the torsional resistance of « frame approximately ‘equal t0 the total resistance of its individual parts The torsional resistance of the frame whose long tudinal members are two chemnels wauld be approxi- mately equal to twice the torsional resistance of cach channel section, Figure 18, The distance: between these menibers for purpose of this example i considered to have no effect. Since the closed section is best for re- sisting twist, the torsional resistance of this frame could be greatly inereased by makings the channels into reo tangular box sections through the addition of plate. Problem & A frame is made of two 6" standard pipes, spaced 24” botween centers, and having a length of 60", This frame supports @ 10-hp motor running at 1800 xpm and driving ‘a pump. Find the approximate twist of the frame under the load. FIGURE 19 ‘The 6" standard pipe hes O.D. = 6625" and LD. = 6.065", In finding the tsional resistance of each tube: R = .0982 (dat — di) = .0982 (6625 — 6,065+) 56.30 int ‘The torque is casily found: 19 for Torsional Loeding / 210-11 1800 = 350 in-Tbs ‘Then, adding together the R of each tube, the angular twist is TL 7 E.R 350 X60 (2 Xx Wey) (2X 56.30) (0.0000156 radians, or 0.00089" Maximum deflection in the frame is the vertical displacement (A), which is the product of angular twist (8) and frame width (W) between centers A=oW 0,0000156 24 2.00037" 6 DEFLECTION OF BUILT-UP FRAMES Tn analyzing the resitince and strenath of 2 bnilt-np. frame asginst twistiog, consider the torque applied as two forces in the form of « canple at cach end of the frame. ty this mxuner. itis seen that these same forces apply a toryue transverse, to the fraine as well as fone situcinal to it ‘This helps to show that the overall resistance against twisting is the sum of the resistances of all the members, longitudinal as well as transverse. His usually more convenient to express the resulting angular tseist {in terms of vertical deilection of the frame cornex which receives the vertical loxd.210-12 / Lood & Stress Analysis Support Support FIGURE 20 Action of ie mrambers pS & 02s. Action of Sb lonaitcines members The longitudinal members are now considered to th Tr make up a frame of their own, When the vertical force w ae L (PL) applied at the comer reaches the proper value, the frame will deflect vertically the given distance (4) and substituting for PL and Pr — and each longitudinal member will twist (6). ‘The same separate analysis is also made of the transverse Be member. AE, ur Rr and Pr= SE nu Re WL Since the external force (P) applied at the comer By observation we fnd— is the sum of these two forces: A=0W= a oe Pe &Esme Re, AE, or Rr ‘Then: eee L iy a mR, ne Rr a = and on (mae 4. OF RE) Using the common formula for angular twist— (4) ‘ cae L = length of whole frame, in, ee te i= oe W = width of whole frame, in RL = torsional resistance of longitudinal member, Then: int my = SBemt Re ay pp = A Eee Re Rr = torsional resistance of transverse member, = A ERE and Tr = SB ine nL = number of longitudinal members ener a momber of transverse members Th = PL Wand Tr = Pr P = load applied at comer, Ibsa ee ZZ FIGURE 21 = modulus of elasticity in shear (steel: 12 10°), psi vertical deflection, in. a {It can be seen that the torque on a given member is actually produced by the transverse forces supplied by the cross members attached to them. These same forces subject the eross members to bending. In other swords, the torque applied to a member equals the end moment of the cross member attached to it, There is TABLE 4—Torsional Ri pe Designing for Torsional Loading / 210-13 LIES or LZ SY some deflection due to bending of all the members, and this would slight frame, For simplicity this has been neglected in this analysis. Problem 7 To illustrate the use of the preceding deflection formal, consider a small elevator frame 15” wide and 30” long, made of standard 9” channel, Figure 21. Find the jance of Frame and Various Sections Deflection of Frame Under Torsional Lood Torsional Resistance of Common Sections wey aoe Lea 5 | e+e ets abit dip f a aieeg Ra oy9210-14 / Load & Stress Analysis 34" X19" box section = vertical deflection of the unsupported comer when under 2 load of 5 Ibs Using the appropriate formula from Table 4, torsional resistance of the U channel cross-section = Bb + dist _ 2 R= it 2 (1975) 3 = 0846 int Substituting actual values into formula #4: PLW Hace E |i, oe Re W L (5) (30) (15) sssstes =a x 10") | BC0B) a0] 30 B ox” The actual deflection when tested was — A = 030" me of Figure 29, simply supported at three comers, is designed to support a 17-kip Toad at its unsupported comer. Here the width between Consider os simply 8" X 8” box section Wall load aM" x13" box section FIGURE 22 conterlines of the longitudinal members is 34.75”, and the latter are 82” long, Determine: 4) The approximate vertical deflection of the un- supported comer, 'b) the shear stress in longitudinal and transverse members, and. c) the size of the connecting weld between the Jongitudinal and transverse members. torsional resistance of longitudinal members a4 1” FIGURE 23 3)? (11%)? ~ (8) 5. G94) (i) Ete (%) = 1875 indtorsional resistance of transverse member (only one in this example) Designing for Torsional Leading / 210-15 Jong side of its cross-section is — nee el = Fale — __ (202,500) = 35 x 1H) (%) = 8820 psi pa weet 7% shear stress in transverse member 1 In a similar manner it is found that the applied FIGURE 24 torque on the transverse member is — AE. m RB Te = Ae See formula development, p.2.10-12 __ (.35)(02 x 105) (1) (2983) ie (380 (82) 2(75)*(9.5)* = 498,500 in-Ibs 95 a t+ oy Since the cross-section of the transverse mem Ga) + (5) a : is a hollow rectangle of uniform thickness, the shear ean stress at mid-length along either side of the section vertical deflection of frame ita aa PWY i w E mae zhalt 498,500. nam (827 eat = yet 8%) ~ U2 x 10°) | CTS: = oe + Wee = 6160 psi = 35" shear stress in longitudinal member The applied torque on only one longitudinal mem- ber is— AB. nm Ry Wi (35)(12 x 10°) (1) (197.5) _ (348%) (82) 202,500 in.-Ibs, each member om See formula development, p.2.10-12 The shear stress at midpoint of the longitudinal member, on the short side of its cross-section is — Th Tale (202,500) (SX UR) TR) = 2800 pst and the shear stress at midpoint of the member, on the size of connecting filet weld ‘Treating the weld as a line — a l L FIGURE 25 ba e pata: S00)" L 10)" 6 = 5687 in‘2.10-16 / Load & Stress Analysis ba, b Peace score nia (8)2(20) 4 (8) = 00 4 = 405.8 in? and the polar moment of inertia is — We=h+h (5667) + (4053) 972 ins Assuming just two vertical welds transfer vertical shear (V), the length of the weld is— Ly = 2X 10 = 20” torque on weld From the standard design formula for torsion — Ee T the conesponding formula for total weld force is obtained — . Ibs/in2 (stress) aa 7° Ibvin. (fore per near inch of weld) FIGURE 26 ‘The horizontal component of this torque is — (498,500) (5; (waa) = 2850 Ibs and the vertical component of this torque is— Ta f= Eo Jw (438,500) (4) aeaee = 1805 Ibs/in. ws vertical shear on weld Sinee the vertical shear on the joint is— P = 17,000 Ibe FIGURE 27 +2 ee fe 5895 Ibs the resultant force on the vertical welds is — ae =— : Ae = Ly — (5825) ~ 207) = 290 Ibs/in, Notice that, if the load (P) is applied to the end of the transverse member instead of the longitudinal mem- ber, the portion going back into the longitudinal mem- ber (P, = 17,000 — 5825 = 1,175 Ibs) must be transferred through the connecting weld and the re- sulting unit force from vertical shear ist fan = = (175) ~~ (80y = 560 tbs/in. instead of 290 Ths/in. moment on weld Since the bending moment on the joint is— M=Th = 202,500 in-lbs the resultant force on the weld is — Me (202,500) (5 (8667) = 1785 Ibs/in,Resolving combined forces on wold at point of greatest affect — Tronsverse member ert FIGURE 28 f= VAP TEE + (fe + PnP Vv CaO) + (17e5)* (1805 + 390) 3560 Ibs/in. Since 11,200 Ibs is the accepted allowable load per Jinear inch of fillet weld having a 1” leg size, the minimum leg size for this application is — aaa 200 ~ (1E70-weld allowable) 318” or use Ho” fet weld, 7. BRACING OF FRAMES ‘The two main stresses on a member under torsional loading are (1) transverse shear stresses and (2) Tongitudinal shear stresses. “These two stresses combine to produce diegonel tensile and compressive stresses which sre maxinam at 45° At 45°, the transverse and longitudinal shear stresses cancel each other. Therefore, there is no twist- ing stress or action on a diagonal member placed at 45° to the frame. In a frame mado up of fat members, the transverse shear stresses cause the longitudinal members to twist The longitudinal shear stresses cause the cross braces and end members to twist. On a diagonal member at 45° to axis of twist, the transverse and longitudinal shear stress components are opposite in direction to each other and cancel out, but in line with this member they combine to produco diagonal tensile and compressive stresses which tend Designing for Torsional Loading / 210-17 Lengthwise memoers and cross members are subject - to twisting action of the \. shearing stresses & \ There is no twisting action on 45° diagonal \ member since shear components cancerast \\< oy. Only diagonal tension and \EX Apa” comprassion are formed, \\ hich place member in banding | 7 member i3 very rigid, Ma Figure 29 to cause bending rather than twisting. See Figure 29. Since these two shear stresses cancel out, there is no tendency for 2 diogonal member placed in this direction to twist. The diagonal tensile and compressive stresses try to cause this diagonal member to bend; but being very resistant to bending, the diagonal member greatly stiffens the entire frame against twisting, Design Rule No. 2: DIAGONAL BRACING Stiffening the Braces Previous experience in designing longitudinal side members for bending is now used to design these diagonal members It is mportant that the diagonal members have a high moment of inertia to provide sufficient stiffness so there will be no failure from local buckling, under severe torsional loads. Sinee the diagonal brace is not subjected to any twisting action, itis not necessary to use a closed box section. For short diagonal braces, use a simple flat bar. ‘The top and/or bottom panel of the frame will stiffen this to some extent (Fig. 30). As the unsupported length of the diagonal brace becomes longer, it may become necessary to add a flange (Fig, 31). This is210-18 / Load & Stress Analysis FIGURE 30 done by flanging one edge of the brace or using an angle bar or T section. The flange of the brace may also be stiffened to keep it from buckling, For open frames with no flat panel, use a channel or I beam section having two anges (Fig. 32). Relative Eft Tests were made on scale models of typical machine frames to illustrate increase in resistance to twist as a result of the diagonal bracing, sness of Bracing os ee FIGURE 92 FIGURE 33TAT 45° F P ae Fp F Designing for Toriscnal Loading / 2,10-19 FIGURE 34 ‘The top frame in Figure 38 has conventional cross bracing at 90° to side members. It twisted 9° ‘The above frame is little better in resistance to ‘owist than a flat sheet of the same thickness, as shown in the middle, The plain sheet twisted 10° ‘The bottom frame has diagonal braces at 45° with side members. It twisted only %°. It is 36 times as resistant to twisting as the fist frame, yet uses 6% less, bracing material. 8. DIAGONAL BRACING (Double) (See Figure 84) ‘An approximate indication of the angular twist of a frame ‘using double diagonal bracing (in the form of an X) may be made by the following procedure. Here each brace is treated as 2 beam. FIGURE 35 Since T = F L, then F = ty see A Since Y = V2 L also @ and R ve For fixed ends, R = 21.21 For the usual frame, the following is suggested: R= 1061 which appeared in Table 1. Therefore: For 2 double diagonal brace use R= 10.6 1 and substitute this value into the standardoe 210-20 “/ Load & Stress Analysis formula: to get the frame's angular twist (radians), Problem 9 ‘Two ¥” X 10” plates, 40° long, spaced 20” apart to make a frame 40” long, are subjected to a torque of T= 1000 in-tbs. Find the relative angular twist on the frame, when using conventional and diagonal bracing, Case 1 (Conventional bracing) FIGURE 36 Here the torsional resistance of the plate section is known, from Table 4, to be— ‘The total angular twist is thea — TL ie (1000) (40, ™ (18 7108) (104) be 6 = .104 in (both sides) = .0821 radians or 184° FIGURE 37FIGURE 38 Case 2 (Diagonal bracing) Since this is “double” bracing, the Table 1 formula for this type of frame is used — R= 1061 First find the moment of inertia for the cross-section of a brace, which is a simple rectangle, assuming the brace also is %” X 10” bat fogs where b = the section width (plate thickness), and d= the section depth 25(10)* ry = 2083 int then substituting into the formula for R— R = 106 (2083) 291 int ‘The angular twist on the frame is then— Th ER (1000) (40) _ THB 3 10") (221) = 0000152 radians or ,00087° @ uniform load 12" WE 274 beam 25° long 9. END CONNECTIONS OF TORSION MEMBERS When a member having an open section is twisted, the cross-section warps (see b, in Fig, 37) if ends of the member are free. The flanges of these members not only twist, but they also swings outward (see c), allowing the member to twist more. If the ends of the flanges can be locked in place in relation to each other, this swinging will be prevented. Design Rule No. 3: MAKE RIGID END CONNECTIONS There are several methods of locking the flanges together. The simplest is to weld the end of the member to the supporting member as in (d). If the supporting member is then neither thick enough nor rigid enough, a thin, square plate may be welded to the two flanges at the end of the member (e). Another method is to use diagonal braces between the two Banges at the ‘ovo ends of the member (Ff) Either of these methods reduces the angular twist by about %. Members having a box section, when butt welded directly to @ primary member, have the fully rigid ‘end connections required for high torsional resistance. Problem 10 A 12” WE 27-1 beam, 95° long, with a uniformly dis- tributed load of 8 kips, is supported at each end by a box girder, See Figure 38. If the beam is continuously welded to these girdors, estimate a) the resulting end210-22 / Load & Stress Analysis 1 x wrk poy t i, or C 20% equivalentto | ZA sar # eae | pa tT ja = 1088" FIGURE 39 moments in the beam, b) the torsional stresses in the girder, and c) the weld size required to hold the box girder together. torsional resistance of box girder 2rd b ad nea 2(13.38)4(10%6)* asa), (0% mC) (See Figure 39) = 910 ins ‘Torque in the central section of the box girder support is equal to the end moment of the supporting Dear, end moment of beam See Sect. 8.1 Beam Formulas. “fh SS] If the beam is simply supported without any end restraint, the end moment (M,) is zero, and the slope of the beam at the end is— WL uEL (8°) (257 x _12”)* ABO X< TO Y(B0AT) = .0049 radians & = Now, if the ends of the beam are so restrained that it cannot rotate, the end moment becomes — Wis @ — (8) (25" xX 19”)? = B torque on box girder See Sect. 82 Torsional Member Formulas. Determine what torque must be applied to the central section of the supporting box girder to cause it to rotate the same amount as the end rotation of the supported beam, if simply supported (8, = .0049 radians): Th °G = TER ot = iB R oe 4(12_ x 10") (910) (.0049) Cae = 4780 in-kips A momentzotation chart shows the relationship; see Figure 40. A straight line represents the end moment (M,) and end rotation (8) of the supported beamDesigning for Torsional Leading / 2.10-23 5000 | T 1780" Sf 1 | 00 i ' z 1 “3000. i 5 Vv ' 5 ! Z i 7a =g ! i ; & Result i FIGURE 40 1h ‘M, = T = 190 inckips J i the sie ! Supported 12" we 21¢ boom ' ‘001 Mm = 200" under all conditions of end restraint, A similar straight line, but in the opposite direction, represents. the applied torque (T} and angular rotation (@) at the central section of the supporting box girder. "These two lines aro plotted, and where they inter- sect is the resulting end moment (M,) or torque (T) and the angular rotation (0): M, % T = 190 in-kips 0002 radians torsional shear stresses in box girder FIGURE 41 ee = Tale caso" sh BES TORIC 1880 psi cD) 002 003 905 Rotation (@ rodians 04 0049 radians torsional shear force on fillet weld hank (1830) (%) 690 Ibs/lin in. which must be transferred by the fillet weld joining the top and bottom plates to the side channels, to make up the box girder horizontal shear force on fillet weld due to bending FIGURE 42 T= 2(1080) + 2(4875)(5%6)* 468 ins Half of the Skip load goes to each end of the beam, or a 4kip load is applied to the central section of each box girder. And V = 2 kips.2.10-24 / Load & Stress Analysis Vay Ta (25) (4.515) (5%) (488) (2 welds) 54 Ibs/lin in, of total shear force on weld Faith (600) + (54) 744 Ibs/lin in required leg size of fillet weld (B70 welds) * allowable force = .066” (continuous) However, AWS and AISC would require a min- imum fillet weld leg size of Yo” (See Section 7.4). Th intermittent fillet welds are to be used, the length and spacing of the welds would be— calculated leg size of continuous weld ~ ‘Getual Teg size of intermittent weld used (066) * Cie) 35% or use eo" V3” a Alternate Design As a matter of interest, consider the support to be provided by a 10” WF 891b beam. fesuaegl 94" aie FIGURE 43, torsional resistance of supporting beam 2b dts Sarcnis 2(7.99) (.528)? cars R (9:94) (.318)* 3 0.89 in. torque on supporting beam Determine what torque must be applied to the central section of this supporting beam for it to rotate the same amount as the end rotation of the supported beam, if simply supported (0, = .0049 radians) Thy O=TER 4E,RO Te 4(12 10%) (089) (0049) (it %) = 467 in-kips T The moment-rotation diagram, Figure 44, shows the resulting end moment on the supported beam to be (See Figure 49) 4.67 in-kips. Thus, this beam could be connected as a 200 { |S rng | 1 = 467 inips Le" be {0049 radions FIGURE 44 Supporting 10” WE 3938 baom 001 002 003 Rotation (), radians End moment (Ma) or torque (7, in kipe ‘04‘with just vertical welds on the far reaction. The simply supported web sufficient to cory the 4kip she end restraint is about 2.3% 10, MEMBRANE ANALOGY Membrane analogy is a very useful method to under: stand the behavior of open sections when subjected to torsion. To make use of this method, holes are cut into a thin plate making the outline of various shaped sec- tions. A membrane material such as soap film is spread over the open surface and air pressure is applied to the film, The mathematical expressions for the slope and volume of this membrane or film covering the open- ings representing different cross-sections are the same as the expressions for the shear stresses and torsional resistance of the actual member being studied, It is from this type of analysis that formulas for various types of open sections subjected to torsion have been developed and confirmed. If several ontlines axe cut into the thin plate and the same pressure applied to each membrane, the fol lowing will be true: Designing for Torsional Leading / 2.1025 1, The volumes under the membranes will be pro: portional to the torsional resistances of the correspond- ing sections. 2. The slope of the membrane’s surface at any point is proportional to the shear stress of the section at this point 3. A narrow seetion (thin plate) has practically the same torsional resistance regardless of the shape of the section it is formed into, Notice a, b, and c in Figure 45. For a given area of section, the volume un- der the membrane remains the same regardless of the shape of the section, It is possible to determine the torsional resistance of these open sections by comparing them with a stand ard eizele on this same test plate whose torsional re- sistance can readily be calculated, By comparing the membrane of the slotted open tube, (e) in Figure 45, to that of the membrane of the closed tube {e), it is readily seen why the closed tube is several hundred times more resistant to twist, when it is remembered that the volume under the membrane is proportional to the torsional resistance. FIGURE 45