Be sure with veto” SINCE 1960 Notes set-1 CONTENTS Chapter Topic Branches Pest ex | INST 1 Operational Amplifier Fundamentals vy |v V 2. | Cirevits with Resistive Feedback viv yu 3. | Active Filter viv - 4, | Static Op Amp Limitations viv ja 5, | Dynamic Op Amp Limitations v jv | 2 6 | Noise v | - | % 7. | Stability en 8. | Non linear Circuits vive 9. | Wevelorm Generators v : 10. | Voltage References & Regulators vivo q1, |D-A&A-D Converters en 12. | Non linear Amplifiers & Phase ~ Locked Loops | ¥ v . 13 Operational Amplifier Circuit Design ¥ ¥ . 14, | IC Fabrication ~[vi- * Included in Set IlVidyalankar Institute of Technology TE. Sem. VI [ETRX] : Analog Integrated Circuits & Applications Syllabus (Revised Course) Operational Amplifier Fundamentals: Basie Op Amp Configurations. Heal Op Amp Cots Ansa, Negative Fentiuc, Poftack i Op Aap Cres. the Loop Cai Op Amp Powering. Girne wth Restivetoeacke Caret-io-Vllge Converts. Vologeto-Carens Convers. Carat Ample. Dien Anphiis, siumentiion Ample. Tastumenaton Aplcuion. "Tansdacer Bdge Ane Active Titer: The Tiansfer fincton. Fint-Ordec Active Fite, Adio iter Applicalins, Sandard Secnd-Ordey Reaposts KRC Flr, Mulile-Peedhac Fier, Site-Varable and Biquad Fes Senstiviy. Filler apesinatons,cseade desig, generalized impedance convener det dssign, SHiched State Op Amp Limitations + Simpler Op Amp Cieiis Diagram. Input Biss and Offet Curents Low-Inpit-Bis- Curt Op-Anpa Input Ofc. Volioge. Low-inpucofsct-voliage Op Amps, Ing Offeror Compensation, Maxims Ratings Dynamic Op Anp Limitation Open Loop Response, Cased “Loop Response, Input and Opt npedances. Tarsest Rogen. Effet of Fite GUP on Integrator Cieuis. Effect of Pinte GBP on Filer Conent-Feedack Apis Nol 7 Noise prope, Noise Dynamics. Sues of Nuke. Op Amp Note, Nolse in Photodiode Amplifiers Low-noie Op Amps Sabi: The xabily Problem. Sail in coasta-GBP Op Amp circuits. Inemal Frequeny Compson. Extemal regency Compensation. Subiy In CFA Cie. Compost Amplifiers Nonlinear Clreuits * Voluge Comparator. Comparator Appcaons. Schmit Triggers. Precision Reiger Asalog Switches, Psk Detectors, Sapleand-HoldAmpliies ‘Waeform Genceniors Sine Wave Generators using Op-Amps. Mltvibrators sing Op-Amps. Morac Timer NESSS : Triangular Wave Generator asng Op-Anps. Saw toolh Wave Generator wsing Op Amps Monolithic Wavefons Generator = ICLEOSE, V-P and F-V Converters Voltage References and Regulators: Pesormance Spifetions, Voltage Refeences, Volage ~ Reference opis. Linear Replies Lisar-Reguitrapletions, withing Regulators Monolithic Switching Reza DA and A-D Converter = Sanple and Hoi8 Cis. D-A Conversion Tecniguss, Maliying DAC ‘Appleton. A-D Conversion Teeniqus. Perfomance Specifications oversampling Canverrs Nonlinear Amplifier and Phase-Losked Loops Log /Antlog Amplifiers Analog Malipis, Operation! Trans-cond.lance amplifies. Pate Locked Loops, Monolith PLLs Operational Amplifier Cireit Design: ntodasen, iferental Amplir,cuent minor, cup sage, Genel Op-Amp cieuit design. Detled ceil desripion and wotking of 74) Op-Amp. small signal alysis Frequeney responce. ao0090 ‘T.E. - Sem, VI [INST] : Linear Integrated Cireuits and Applications Syllabus (Revised Course) 1, Introduetion : _ Fabrication process for monolithic IC's, Process of fabrication for BIT’s Resigors and MOS-PETs in brief 2. Analog IC's: lea! and practical op-amp, Differential Amplifier-a.c, & dc, analysis , improving voltage ain using active load ete, current sourees, unbalanced op-amp frequeney response & stabilizing unbalanced operation, eieuit diagram of IC7S1 & working in dual, ae. and é.c, characteristics, specifications measurement of ‘op-anyp parameters. 3. Linear applications ofop-amp : Effect of source impedance, bias current, offset voltage, frequency response of all the applications as ~ voltage follower, inverting and non-inverting, Adder, Subtractor, Instrmentation amplifier. V ta 1 & 1 to V converter with floating loud and grounded load, Howland current source, 3 mode ‘neyrt differentiator and compensated differentiate, uyratr (simulation of inductance, 4 Non-tinear applications of op-amp : Precision rectifier halP wave, full wave, absolute value ciccits, clipping, clamping cieuts, practial clamping circuits, stmple & hold circuits (performance parameters), peak detectors, log anpiiers. cemperature compensated leg amplifier, antlog amplifier, multiplier, divider, comporater, threshold detector, 2270 erossing detector, window detector, Schmit tigger, free running multvibrator, Wein bridge oscillator, Phase shift ssillatoe 5. Voltage & Power Regulator : Functional block diagram of Series & Shunt regulator, break down protection, thermal shutdowsn, 78x series, negative 79xx series, adjustable IC regulator 723 & its applications, pulse width modulator volage regulator, TL 494 SG1524, 6. $88 Timer: stsble maltivibrator, monostable multivibrator (one application each) 7. PLL IC and applications + Functional block diagram and applications of Phase Lock Loop ICs LM 4046 and LM 565, 8 Activeflters: Low pass, high pass, band pass, band reject, 1" and 2% order filters (Butterworth and Chebyschev), slate vaviable filers 9. Miscellaneous ICs like temperature sesing ICs, LM34, LM 35, LM335, ADS90, Instrumentation amplifier ICs ~ ADS21 and ADS22, Function Generator IC8038 and ICSE, doago0 diodes, Capacitors, BEF e017. Tih Eng TESemVIAIC, LOSVidyalankar Institute of Technology Ch. : Operational Amplifier Fundamentals Op-amp is a direct coupled high gain amplifier. It is a differential amplifier that amplifies the difference between two ip signals. It amplifies ac. as well as dc. It is called operational amplifier because with its help we can perform mathematical operations such as addi subtraction, differentiation, integration etc. CIRCUIT SYMBOL OF OP-AMP: ‘The Op-amp is two input terminal and fone ouput terminal device. We can apply ip signal t0 any one of these Inventing +Voe terminals by grounding other or we esn—inpyt ge apply it differentially, outoput Non Inverting ota When vie apply signal o non-inverting Ph input, the output obtained is in phase with input, When we apply signal to inverting input, output is 180° out of phase, Vee OP-AMP TERMINALS : (Op-amps have five basic terminals i, two ilp terminal, one ofp terminal and two power supply terminal 1. Power supply terminals: The positive and negative power supply terminals are connected to two de voltage sources. +Vcc connected to the +ve terminal of one source and ~Vie connected to negative terminal of other source. The power supply voltage may range from +#5.V to 422 V. Usually +15V supply is used, 2, Output terminal : Op-amp has one ofp terminal. Load Rt is connected to this terminal ‘There is a limit tothe current that can be drawn from output terminal of Op~Amp, usually of the order of $ to 10 mA, There are also limits on the ofp terminals voltage level. These limits are set by the supply voltages. The upper limit of Vo is called positive saturation voltage +Vs« and the lower limit is called the negative saturation voltage ~Vau eg. for supply voltage of £ 15V, +Viu = 13V & Vag =—13 V. 3. Input terminal : There ate two ifp terminal of Op~Amp labeled as ~ and +. They ate called L—evo Thus it is non inverting amplifier with B= 1. ey ‘This circuit is called as voltage follower circuit. * tis non inverting amplifier, ive. olp is same as that of ip. So itis called as voltage follower. ‘The i/p resistance of non inverting amplifier is Ry = R+AB) Ry, = Rea) ‘Very high ip resistance, Output resistance Ry = 2 TeAp R Re = . Bo T+A 6 This circuit is used as buffer and isolator. It gives better performance as compared to emitter follower but because it has very high input resistance and very low o/p resistance as ‘compared to emitter fellower. . EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF OP-AMP : 1 Va mY Vo ‘The equivalent circuit of Op-Amp is as shown above. It includes differential i/p resistance “Ry the differential voltage gain ‘A’ and olp resistance ‘Re’. The Ri, A, Rp are reffered to a open loop parameter and are symbolized by lower case letters. The o/p voltage Vo is proportional to the differential ip voltage Ve AV: a(¥, ~ Va) whe A~ 2 ral hope npn foamy anise pan ; ‘906/955/0107/TEVAICINotes/Ch_l/P2.3IDEAL OP-AMP CIRCUIT ANALYSIS; ‘The ideaf op-amp should have following characteristics 1) It should have infinite gain. In closed loop application, if the gain of op-amp is infinity, the closed loop gain of circuit depends on extemal component connected to op-amp. It makes easy to design amplifier with differential gain, 2) It should have infinite input resistance so that amplifier draws little curren: from i/p source. ‘Therefore any source can drive it, Also if it is connected in intermediate stage, ther will be no loading on previous stage. 3) It should have zero o/p resistance-so that the entire amplified voltage a Ve appears at ofp terminal. As the ofp resistance is zero it ean source large olp current. So it ean drive many other devices without loading the opamp, 4) It should provide zero ofp voltage when applied input is zero. ic. it should have zero ofp offset voltage. 5) The bandwidth should be infinite so that any signal ranging from 0 to «0 can be amplified with constant gain, ‘) Infinite slew rate so thatthe o/p changes occur simultaneously with i/p changes. 7) Infinite CMRR so that it can amplify only difference ifp and reject common mode signal. Ry= oo & Ro=0 the circuit of ideal op-amp becomes Vio Vee a0 > Vo + vyo——44 To NEGATIVE FEEDBACK : Need for Negative Feedback : i) In open loop configuration, for supply voltage of +15V, the max. o/p voltage swing is +13V. Since open loop gain of op~amp is 2 x 10°. ‘Therefore max. differential i/p voltage required to produce +13V is ¥, +BV y= & 265 uv en 2x10" a" ‘So even noise can generate differential voltage in mV. ~ We can not distinguish whether o/p +13V is due to noise or due to differential i/p signal. So to avoid this there is need to reduce gain of op-amp. By using ve feedback we can reduce gain of amplifier so that it can operate in linear or active region. ii) Due to very high guin of op-emp, the open loop bandwidth is very small an i is near about SH, So to increase bandwidth, we use ve feedback. ii) Open lop gain is highly fequency dependent and it decreases at the rte of 20 dB/dee. With increase in i/p signal frequency. So to reduce faster roll off we require ~ve feedback. The following figure shows the basic strcture of negative feedback circuit. The arrows indicate signal flow, end the generic symbol x stands for either a voltage ora current signal Besides the source and load, we identify the following basic blocks. x Source ¥ Block Diagram of Negative feedback system. '906/955/0107/TE/AICINotes/Ch_1/P 3.4Notes on OPAMP Fundamentals (5) 1, An amplifier, also called error amplifier, which accepts the signal xy and yields the output signal, Xo=axy where a, the forward gain of the amplifier, is called the open-loop gain of the circuit. 2. A feedback network, which samples x and produces the feedback signal xr Bxo where f, the gain of the feedback network, is called the feedback factor of the circuit. 3. A summing network, denoted ©, which generates the difference xy=Xi~ Xe also called the error signal. ‘The destination negative feedback stems from the fact that we are in the effeet feeding portion of x back to the input, where it is then subtracted from x; to yield the reduced signal Xe FEEDBACK IN OP-AMP CIRCUITS : 1. Non-inverting Amplifier : Vig ——_] 1. Gain: Here Ry & Re form feedback network and ofp voltage is sampled and converted into Ve where R, v= Ly Vou ' RR, v= BM p= wok yh Gain of feedback network called feedback factor. This feedback voltage V; is applied in series opposition with Vi, ls = MinVi = Mane Ve = Va-BVb ‘This differential input voltage is amplified by this amplifier and gives the output. Vo = AVg = ALY. -BVo] (1+ AB)Vy =AVig v x wo A >I Vig 1 TAB 4B ‘This shows that ~ve feedback reduces gain by the factor (1 + AB)(6) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology Il, Input Resistance with Feedback : From fig. Re Ry = _Ri(l+AB) hg ‘Thus i/p resistance with feedback inereases by 1 + AB. Thus non inverting amplifier has very high ip resistance. IIL Output resistance with feedback : To find Ry short i/p and apply test source of V, to output terminal as shown. R, = % + of Ty Vee KCL at o/p node is ~ “is oth Sa wt = HU as \ ®FRITR, we + Ry Vo (R,+R,) IR, >> Ro a Ve Ry Vo-Roio-AVy = 0 This olp resistance decreases the factor 1+ AB '906/935/0107/TE/AICINotes/Ch_I/Pg.62. Inverting Amplifier g [ok I Val Vy Since the input signal and feedback signal enter the amplifier at the same point, this is shunt ‘ype feedback and since op volage i sampled and converted into I, voltage shunt feedback. L Gain: KCLat Vj is l= 1+ bt ho ‘ = lp Ve-Ve , Y=% o R & bt vy = A v=0 ye A Eqn.(1) becomes Ya+VolA QOKMOSSIMIOTTRATCINotesIC% Vibe 7(8) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE ~ AIC/LIC where K = Bia voltage atenuator factor RR, R, — gain of feedback Rene cireui ‘This shows that the gain of inverting amplifier is K times gain of non inverting amplifier where K <1 IL Input Resistance with feedback : By using Miller transformation, the feedback resistor R, can be considered to ilp and o/p side as ah Vee Be Ve lta AV ve ERA ER, isa ah Ry = R+SelR, Teal R, & Aare very large Ry Ry = ial =z 0 Ry Input resistance of inverting amplifier is very small ‘TH.Output Resistance with feedback : To find olp resistance short i/p and apply test source V, to ofp terminal co Yo Ry ~~ Circuit is same as that of non inverting amplifier = T+AB 906/95S70107/TE/AICINotesICh_1/PRSNotes on OP-AMP Fundamentals (9) OP-AMP POWERING : In order t6 function, op-amp needs to be externally powered, Powering serves the purpose of biasing the internal transistors and providing the power that the op~amp must supply to the o/p load and the feedback network. With the use of two Vec & Ver , we can power the op~amp, Current Flow and Power Dissipation : Since virtually no current flows in or out of the ilp pins of op-amp, the only current carrying terminals are the output and supply pins, we designate their currents @8 igs iccvige. ice always flows into & igz always flow out of the op-amp. However iy may flow either out of oF into the op-amp, depending on circuit condition. In former case the op-amp is said to be sourcing current and inthe latter itis sinking current. At all times the three currents must satisfy KCL so for op-amp sourcing current we have igc = ige +iy & for an op-amp sinking current we have ike * ice * igs When ip =0, icc = igg = Ig where Ig called quiescent current of op-amp. Moreover the flow of Ig and ig through the op-amp cause internal power dissipation. This dissipetion never exceeds the maximum rating specified in the data sheets. © @(10) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE ~ AIC / LIC Concept of Virtual Short and Virtual Ground : While analyzing different op-amp applications two important concepts have to be considered. They are virtual short and virtual ground, ‘At virtual ground ora] Ls @ Virtual Short : According to virtual short concept, the potential difference between two input terminals of ‘an op-amp is almost zero. In other words, both input terminals are approximately at same potential, This concept can be explained as follows. ‘The input impedance Ri of an ideal op-amp is infinite, So no current flows from one input terminal to other as shown in (a). Thus voltage drop across Rj will be zero and both the input terminals will be at same potential Virtual Ground : In figure (b), the voltage Vie = 0 implies that terminal 1 has same potential as terminal 2, Since terminal 2 is grounded, terminal | is also virtually grounded. The term “Virtual” is ‘used to imply that since Vis= 0, no current flows from terminal 1 to terminal 2, ‘Thus virtual ground point has zero voltage and draws no current. The inverting input terminal acts like aground as far as voltage is concemed. So the virtual ground has zero voltage and zero current unlike the usual ground which has zero voltage but can sink infinite current. In virtual Ground for closed loop op-amp, we can write Vo= AV ie A Vis where A is open loop gain of op-amp and itis very large. Vg = 22 = 0 =netigity sma ie V-, = 0 Lye 0 V=v, = 0 Y is at ground potential, V, is also virtually at ground potential‘, for voltage purpose input appears a short circuit and for curent purpose i appears as open circuit. goqa00 '906/955/0107/TEVAICINotes/Ch_1/Pg.10Vidyalankar Institute of Technology Ch. 2 : Circuits with Resistive Feedback Op-amap has large number of applications and it forms basic building block for many litiear and ‘non-linear analog integrated circuits. The circuits with resistive feedback are all linear circuits. In these circuits, the output varies linearly with input. There is a frequency independent relationship between input and output. The various linear applications of opamp with resistive feedback are as follows 1. CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR (TRANRESISTANCE AMPLIFIER): ‘The photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell gives an output current that in proportional to an incident radiant energy or light, The current through these devices ean be converted to voltage by using @ current to voltage converter and thereby the amount of light or radiant ‘energy incident on the photo device can be measured. Re A Vee Here (-) input terminal is at viral ground, no current flows through R, thus Is independent Of R,, I flows through Ry and produce drop across it with polarity as shown. : Wo =-LR, From this equation output voltage Ve becomes proportional to the input current or source current [, thus the input source current gets converted into output voltage. — This is called sensitivity of convercer because it gives the amount of output voltage change fora given input current change. Feedback element need not be limited to resistive, it may be impedance Z(s) -. V,(s)=~Z(s) [g(6) and circuit is called transimpedance amplifier. It ‘may be noted that the lowest current that this circuit can measure will depend upon the bias ‘current Ip of the op-amp, This means that HA 741 (Ip = 3 nA) can be used to detect lower current. Application : Measuring current from photo detectors. Photo conductive cell or photodiode is connected in series with (-) input Vas shown, ren = % photodiode —| , 4 % Ra The . Ver R.EVe(12) Vidyalankar Institute of ‘Technology : I — AIC /LI |) Photoconduetive Cell: The resstance of photoconductve cll is very high in darkness typically $00 kO and its resistance in bright sun is very low approximately §kO. If V, = $V then current through 3 Sv otoconductive cell is 1=—2—=10uA in darkness and 2M = ima is sunli ” 500K ~ THA im darkness and Se sunlight TERe = 10 kA then output voltages Vy =1Ry = 10x10 x10K =0.1V in darkness Vy =10KximA=10V in light condition ii) Photodiode ‘When switch is in position 2, photodiode is reverse biased, as it must be for normal operation, In darkness photodiode conducts a small leakage current ofthe order of nA but depending on the radiant energy striking on diode, it will conduct 50 4A or more. current I depends on energy striking the photodiode and not on Vj, this current is Converted into a voltage by Rr. Sensitivity 1 ~V converter : To achieve high sensitivity, we have to use large value of Re. The resistance of surrounding medium, being in parallel with Re, will decrease the net feedback resistance and degrade the accuracy of the circuit, To avoid this a widely used technique is as, shown, The circuit utilizes a T-network to achieve high sensitivity without requiring very high value of Re. Bev, Re eed Ve bO gee Ve Here I, Ril, KCL at Viis Mw where k= 1+ 224 Ba Re Ry ‘Thus this all increases Re by the factor k, we can thus achieve high sensitivity. 906/955/0107/TRIAICINotes/Ch_2/Pg.12Notes on Circuit with Resistive Feedback (13) ——_______________Notes on Circuit with Resistive Feedback (13) 2, VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER: ‘A voltage to current converter accepts an input voltage V and produces an output current Ip spd te = (2 we (2) dimensions of conductance. So the voltage to current converter is also called as cusp Tawa geass i ranma The load can be connected as floating and grounded. A dung lst te tr te gor a tre Point. Whereas, a grounded load is a load whose one of terminal is connected to ground or some reference point. @ V-1 Converter with Floating Load: fr? 179 Atanode a, ina ee al Vi= iR, {As Ip =0} I—v,— | Voc =X =f us nadp “S 1 oy, ‘Thus the input voltage V, gets converted ib \, Vee tocurent i, = ML vi (ii) VAI Converter with Grounded Load y, Writing KVL ata R R tie i Vee ty + S MMMM Ly hae 0 |_oy, R R > ° Vavyn2y = ik ven R y= MMR aly, Here op-amp is used in noninverting mode. -% 244k Gain = v 1 R 2 Wr MaV+Vy-igk Vie ik ipa © R 3. CURRENT AMPLIFIERS: Op-amp is basically a voltage amplifier. But it can be configured as current amplifiers as follows @ Current amplifier with floating load KCLat V gives Be v. Ri 4@ Veo ~~ = ToxD , “Vee(14) Viayalankar institute of Fechnology #1 ~ AI /LIC + R ‘Now current into op-amp terminal is almost zero because of its very high input impedance. Lei A= Gi) Current Amplifier with grounded load: ve R B® FR, + lie s upon From the circuit IER, = Re then A= =1, ‘That is circuit behaves as current reverser or current mirror. '906/955/01077TE/AICINotes/Ch_2/Pg.14 ~‘Notes on Circuit with Resistive Feedback (15) 4, DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER : ‘The difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals. This amplifier has application in instrumentation because (@ They have better capability to reject common mode signals such as noise than inverting and non-inverting amplifier (ii) Also they presenta balanced input impedance The difference amplifier can be built using one, two or three op-amps. (A) Difference Amplifier with Single Op-amp : Since the circuit has two input signals, we apply superposition theorem, @ Let vy, = 0 Re The drawback of difference amplifier using one op-amp is that input resistance of ot a nla ly me so as TEV; is grounded, circuit is inverting amplifier and its input resistance is Rig= Ry If V2 is grounded, circuit is non inverting amplifier and its input resistance is Rir = Ri (1+ AB). So drawback of difference amplifier ‘using one opamp is that it has (B) Difference Amplifier with two Op-Amps : Vee Vee Yoo Ve o— PN ve oR 4 >> Ay s Vea Vee Re Rs=Ri Ra=Re!(16) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE ~ AIC /LIC By use of two op-amp difference amplifier there is a improvement in gain and input impedance also. R For the first stage Vo'=|1+=2] V, wet W=(ieBt) So now the second stage has inputs V,, & Vy". So applying superposition we have (@ with Vs, =0 Va = BeyyrBefieB)y, my TR wit Vy'=0 Re Yo = (Bey, “he Hina outputs Y= Vat Ve R Re (6B), + (1B), If Ry=R, & R=R, “fieBe}y {ie So here the difference of the input signal (Vz,~Vs,) is amplified by a gain of 1422), Ri 5, INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER : In many industrial and consumer applications, the measurement and control of physical conditions is very important. Generally these measurements are done using transducer. The transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. The instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by a transducer and often to control the physical signal producing it ‘The following figure shows a block diagram of instrumentation system : ‘Transmission lines Physical__[~ Input Intermediate ‘Output quantity toe} Stage Stage Stage measured T 7 ‘Transducer + Instrumentation Indiestor and automatic pre amplifier amplifier process controller Block diagram of Instrumentation System ‘The input stage is a transducer and a preamplifier. The output stage may consist of devices like oscilloscope, magnetic recorders, display et. The signal input to instrumentation amplifier is the output of transducer. Many transducers produce output which do not have sufficient strength. To amplify the low-level output, produced by transducer so that it can drive the display or indicator is the main function of instrumentation amplifier. 906/955/0107/TEIAICINotes/Ch_2/Pg.16Notes on Circuit with Resistive Feedback (17) Notes on Cirouit with Resistive Feedback (17) Requirements of Instrumentation Amplifier ‘An instrumentation amplifier must satisfy following requirements : {Precise low level signal amplification ii) Low noise iil) Low thermal drift iv) High input resistance ¥) Accurate closed loop gain and easy gain adjustments vi) Low power dissipation, vii) High CMRR vili)High slew rate (1) Instrumentation Amplifier using tvo op-amps : "Rs Re Vee [ + Ry Veo om Or - Vee Vo vi val ‘The dual op-amp IA is as shown in figure above. ‘The OA; is a non-inverting amplifier. So its output voltage is given by For OA2 applying superposition theorem ( Consider Vs acting alone R R 12k, vs Wary fi. B ly, R Ry For true operation of circuit R,=R, & R,=R, +R, [ RFR, viet (RtR\y, oR ( R ji =(t+ Bay, R, Gi) Consider Va acting slone Ri Rs + vs lv, voy “Vee Rly,(18) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE - AIC /LIC . For getting final output we add V,’ and V," We can also get an dual op-amp by ang resistor Re as shown, R R Veo Ir Ry “Vee Va Val ‘The gain of the circuit becomes R,, RB, Ast Say "ROR, So by varying Ro we can vary the gain, Advantage : ‘This IA requires fewer components, The input resistance is very high and the output resistance is low. In this IA, the inputs are asymmetrical because V; has to propagate through OA before ‘being applied to OA2. This delay leads to degradation of CMRR with frequency. So three opamp IA is designed such that it has symmetric inputs and high CMRR is maintained over a broader frequency range. (2) Insrumentaion ample using cross-coupled difference amplifier Vee Vio—-NI yy oA R R “Vee 0A; >—1— vo le R, y, Ry OAz vo * Vex “The difference amplifier with 3 op-amp is as shown. OA, and OAs is often refered input or first stage and OAy forms the output or second stage. The OA; and OA; are connected in non-inverting mode and OAs act as difference amplifier. The drawback of difference amplifier using one op-amp is that of unequal input impedance. This is overcome by ‘connecting OA, and OAs to input of OAs as shown, '906/935/0107/TE/AICINotes/Ch_2/Pg.18Notes on Circuit with Resistive Feedback (19) ‘The output voltage can be calculated as follows. Consider op-amp OA. To find output voltage of OA, we apply superposition theorem, (®) Consider V4 acting alone, R Vee Be (uB)y + i) Consider Vg, acting alone y Vee PN -R. s y= By [ve 6 Rs Ro Me. ‘The total output of OA, is YW=V,+V, ‘The Vs and Vs act as input to OAs. For OAs we have to apply superposition theorem again, ‘The output becomes R A) vB 6 Ro woth p+B)n-By- -[oB) 2 +B R Re Ra 2R, Ivy = 22 [14 2Re|(v, - ea By varying Ro we can adjust gain of IA.‘ (20) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE. IC LIC (3) Instrumentation Amplifier using Transducer Bridge : Re ee Indicator [Ry “ 3 omme ls i Display Systems Va The above figure shows instrumentation amplifier using transducer bridge. The circuit uses transducer bridge whose resistance changes as a function of the physical quantity to be measured, Initially bridge is balanced and as the physical quantity changes, the resistance Rr of transducer also changes and causes imbalance. The 4ifference voltage gets amplified by three op-amp instrumentation amplifier. ‘The bridge is excited by a de source Vi. At the balance condition Ray, R,+k, * ie ReaRa Also vy= RyRy Generally resistances Ra, Re, Re are selected so that they are equal to Ry at some reference condition. The reference condition is the specific value of physical quantity at which bridge is balanced. “Ry & Rare fixed. -.Vp is fixed -. Vyvaries as a function of change in resistance. v= __y, « v,=_Ra_v, R,tR, FOR Ra+Re [Now bridge is unbalanced Va = Ve Vo R Va = Vee R, +R, aan * Let R= Ro=Re= y. | R 2R-2R-AR © R+AR 2@R+4R) |'* ‘This voltage is amplified by 3 ~ op-amp 1A and it produces output voltege Vy = SR __y,, | Rafi + 2s) FOR+aR * [RL Re R,(, , 2Rs AR tet A= Rafi 4 28s AR ay, a | * al 2@R +R) Now 2R>> AR ANe 5 7 ‘Thus V, oc AR. This voltage is given to indicator or display system. gQoqo00 {906/935/0107/TEVATCINotes/Ch_2/P 2.20Vidyalankar Institute of Technology Ch. 4 : Static Op-Amp Limitations In de application of op-amp, there are certain limitations on the performance of OPAMP and those limitations are noticeable in high dc gain application, The most common limitations are the input bias current (la), input offset current (los) and input offset voltage (Vos), power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) and thermal drift. 1) INPUT BIAS CURRENT (1y): ‘The input stage of OP-AMP is a differentiated amplifier made up of BIT or FET. These are to be biased in active region of operation by supplying bias current, Ideally we assume that this currents are zero but practically some base current flows through both terminals of op= amp. If the input stage is symmetrical, with all elements matched, then Ip = Isa. If input transistors are not identical then Tp, # Tea. The input bias current is defined as the average of two base current entering into the terminals of opamp, Vee 1B, — pe the Ver For 74IC itis max S00nA. For precision 74IC, itis # 7nA. Effect of ly ‘The input bias current produces an unwanted output voltage. Re We determine Vo as a function of Ip) and Ig: using superposition i) Forla:=0,Vi=V2=0 ~The output voltage due to Ip2 is = Rel ii) For Ino = 0, Vi = = Roose Fat = Va and the output voltage is R, Vol =[14+Be. . (+E) ( ia of eRe ve (+B Real the total output voltage is hye R, Ve=Wy $V" =I: - Re y= Vo +Ve = IaaRy Renato E hy If lo, = lea = Ip and if the combination of the three resistances can be adjusted to produce ‘Vo™ 0, above equation becomes Ry [R.-Rsne[ *)) ‘which means that R RR, we=Reae(iet) oe Regee BB WllRe Roome = ‘Thus we have to use Reowe resistor of value (R, | | Ri) to non-inverting terminal of op-amp to eliminate the effect of input bigs curent. 906/955/0107/TE/AICINotesiCh_4/Pg.21kee) vay ‘Input Bins current Measurement : Circuit to measure input bias current is 4) Short AB, measure output voltage Vor then 001 uF: I) INPUT OFFSET CURRENT (los) : tis defined as the magnitude of the difference between two input currents log la) ~Tus #115 ~ Ideally this must be zero but practically no two transistors are identical in their characteristics. I+ Ig and it will have some value. It has the value in the range of 20 nA to 200 nA of IC741C. The output voltage due to offset current is Vo =Relos TI INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE (Vos) : ‘Shorting together the input terminals of op-amp as shown give output voltage Vo= Aux 0=0, However because of inherent mismatches between the two transistors of input stage of different amplifier, the output voltage Vo #0. To foree Vo to zero, some voltage must be applied between the input pins. This is called input offset voltage, It is defined as the amount of input voltage required to null the output voltage. +Vce +Vce NO ve HK ves 0 i" Vee Vag OE Fig, Circuit to measure o/p offset voltage Fig. Circuit fo measure Up offset voltage Effect of Input Offset Voltage : In spite of bias compensation, the output voltage of op-amp will not reduces to zero. Duet to this voltage at the output, we get certain voltage (V2) at the inverting terminal of op-amp. So to neutralize its effect there is need to apply certain input voltage at the non-inverting terminal so that Vis = 0 and hence ovtput voltage Va = 0, this voltage is called input offset voltage. Re Considerthe iret pinta eget % 5 S ye By, 75 ie L ; weBitBey, Lh R Vox( 1+ Be ly Gan 906/955/01 077 BIAICINotes/Ch_4/Pg.22‘Notes on Static Op-amp Limitations (23) but R+R, ‘This much voltage we have to apply to non-inverting terminal of op-armp to make Vo = 0. ‘The output voltage in terms of Vers velit INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE COMPENSATION : There are two methods to null the effect of input offset voltage. @ an operational amplifier with offset null terminals i an externally connected offset compensation network. ( An operational amplifier with offset-null terminals : Many op-amps, including IC 741, have a pair of extemal offset null terminal as shown in figure. A 10 kA potentiometer is connected between the offset null pins 1 and 5 and wiper of the potentiometer is connected to pin No. 4 of op-amp 741, This potentiometer can be adjusted to get output voltage zero, This has to be done every time hefore nsing op-amp for some application, mi > Vga o 5 Re = BS (i) External Offset Compensation : Figure shows the network for offset voltage compensation in an inverting amplifier. The resistance voltage divider of Rs and Rs in conjunction with potentiometer Ry is used to make voltage adjustments of either polarity at the non-inverting terminal to cancel the effect of Vos. Fig, Compensation network for Inverting amplifier If Rs <> f the esi rolls off at a rate of -20 dBidec. From the phase plot, itis obvious that i) Atf=0 = 0° i) Atf=f =~ 45° (lagging) ii) Atf>2 o=-90" This shows that maximum phase change that can occur in an op-amp with single comer frequency is ~90°, 2, CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE : The open loop gain Aou(f) of an op-amp is constant only upto the first break frequency, therefore the bandwidth of op-amp is simply the first break frequency fy i.e. fis the ‘maximum useful frequency of the open loop op-amp. But this bandwidth fo is very small and therefore open-loop configuration is of very litle use practically. Ideally, the bandwidth of ‘the op-amp should be infinite so that gain will remain constant at all frequencies. To increase the bandwidth of op-amp and to decrease the gain roll off, op-amp is always used with feedback. ‘The maximum bandwidth of a single break frequency op-amp is its unity gain bandwidth. For instance, the IC741C has unity gain bandwidth of 1 MHz. This means that for 741 product of co-ordinates (gain & frequency) of any point beyond break frequency on open loop frequency response is 1 MHz, That is, given a voltage gain, the closed loop bandwidth can be determined using a frequency response curve. ‘906/95S/0107/TE/AICINotes/Ch_5/P 5.26Notes on Dynamic Op-Amp Limitations (27) @ Non-Inverting OpAmp + ‘The closed loop gain for a non-inverting op-amp is A Ape 1448 » ACL(E) = na Open loop gain is function of frequency Ag (f= = TT A 1+ j(f/f) Aalf= “em Ae _ i (AB) Ta Aci (f) = where ‘The graph of Acy(f) vs frequency is known as closed loop response of non-inverting opamp and is as shown below. R Re J (dec) From closed loop response, it is clear that the gain decreases from A to Ar (ie. f +8] and atthe same time frequency or bandwidth increases from fo fp. ‘But the gain bandwidth product remains constant. GBP=A, f,28) Vi inkar Institute of Technology : TE — AIC / LIC (i) Inverting Amplifier : For an inverting amplifier TFA OB ‘The open loop gain as a function of frequency is written as -kA Ay _-Ry/R, TFAB+IE/G I+it/ 1+it/t, where f= B f -Ry/R, MO Tae ‘Open ioop —_Non-inverting F (dee) Figure shows that bandwidth of inverting amplifier is same as that for non-inverting amplifier but the gain is reduced. Here the GBP is given by GBP =(1-B)f, ‘Thus the GBP of inverting amplifier is less than that of non-inverting amplifier. 3. TRANSIENT RESPONSE : If we apply a step input to the input terminals of op-amp, its output changes exponentially because of limited charging rates of compensation capacitor. The amount of time taken by output to reach steady state is the transient period and the response during this period is transient response. Thus transient response is response to a step input as a function of time. ‘The transient response varies with amount of feedback applied. ( Rise Time (te): Appiving step input of magnitude Vm to voltage follower, results in output as shown, Vots ‘906/95S/0107/TE/ATCINotes/Ch_S/P2.28Notes on Dy ic Op~Amp Limit 1s (29) ‘The output voltages given by Val = Valle") where + is the RC time constant given by 1 OnE, ‘where f, = small signal bandwidth. Rise time is defined as the time taken by Vo to swing from 10% to 90% of its final value (Va). ‘The rise time can be found out as =e") 10% ov =v(I-e") t= 0105 ¢ At 90% o9v=v(i-e) i) Slew Rate : ‘The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time. Cause of Slew Rate : ‘The main cause of slew rate is the limited charging rate of compensation capacitors used in op-amps. The capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously. This prevents the output voltages from responding immediately toa fast change in input, Fora capacitor For fast charging of capacitor, the current through C should be large and value of C should be small.(30) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE ~ ATC / LIC (iit) Full Power Bandwidth : ‘The effect of stew rate limiting isto distort the output signal wherever an attempt is made to exceed the SR capabilities of op-amp. In absence of SR limiting output is Vo = Vom Sin 2nt a, SB = 2nfVon cos 2nh, at a, OL = ant iL a To prevent distortion If we want to operate the opamp at high frequencies, then Voq, should be suitably small to avoid slew rate distortion. The full power bandwidth (FPB) is the maximum frequency at which the op-amp will yield an undistorted ac output with largest possible amplitude. This amplitude depends fon the particular op-amp as well as its power supplies. Assuming symmetric output saturation voltage of £Vsa. SR FPB BV For 741C, with Vix = 13 V ; FPB = 6.1 KHz, (Settling Time (t,) : The settling time is defined as te time taken by the response to a large step input to settle and remain within specified errr band usually symmetric about is final value. Setting times are generally specified to accuracies of 0.1% & 0.01% ofa 10 V input step. ‘The settling time is comprised of an initial propagation delay due to higher order poles, followed by an SR limited transition to the vicinity ofthe final value followed by a period to recover from the overload condition associated with SR and finally to settle toward the final equilibrium value, The setting time depends on both linear and non linear factors. In order to fully realize the settling time capabilities of op-amp one must pay attention to ‘component selection, layout and grounding, ‘This inctudes keeping component leads extremely short, using metal-film resistors, orienting components so as to minimize stray capacitances and connection inductances, properly bypassing the power supplies, and providing separate ground returns for the Input, the load, and the feedback network. Fast settling times are particularly desirable in high speed, high accuracy D-A converters, sample-and-hold amplifiers, and multiplexed amplifiers. a % Final value ° 0 5 906/955/0107/TE/AICINotesICh_S/P 5.30Notes on Dynamic Op-Amp Limitations (31) 4. EFFECT OF FINITE GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT ON INTEGRATOR : ‘An integrator circuit integrates the input voltage waveform. This circuit is built using inverting op-amp in. which feedback element is capacitor and input element is resistor c Tt B val Ngee +, Ne ‘The expression for Vs can be found out as follows. Applying KCL at node Vz L=h+l Since Vi = 0 ie. at ground potential :+ By virtual ground concept V2 = 0 Ve ot Mucive Rt Ye od Mecdu Rag (Me) Integrating both sides Le-fegewa rN JR ov + VA =14 Sf vasy, Fes E+ ‘where Vs(0) is integration constant and is proportional to the value of output Vo at time t= 0. ‘The transfer function of this integrator can be calculated as ‘ {jac Hyg Gt) = =I jecr x1 j2nERC 1 it Let fy = 5 = unly gain frequency 1 Hy (if) = coll a= ro) To investigate effect of open loop gain roll off we calculate feedback factor R PRK R i2nfRC - 1+ j2xfRC(32) Vidyatankar insutute of Leena, YE ANU) LU if/fy I+ if/f L_ lt iffy Bitty ‘As shown in figure below |1/ fj has the low frequency and high frequency asymptotes | 1/Bo|= 1/ (fi) and | 1/B. |= 0 4B and it intercepts the | A curve at f= fA and f= f, 1 1/Bo| B 1 MBe| F (dec) Fig. Transfer function of Integrator But the actual response is of second order because of the presence of two reactive elements, the extemal capacitance and intemal compensation capacitance, so the transfer function becomes oA Trif/(e/A) ith] ad According to equation (1), the integrator should provide a phase shift of 90°. But in practice, because of two breakpoints, the shift will depart from 90° at both low and high ends of ‘Athigh frequencies, equation (2) simplifies to = 1 jilfy Tite In this the error function is the usual low-pass function File, ‘The corresponding phase error is ey =—tan"(F/f,) Since a well designed integrator will have f<> 1. CR Ry e § = Ve Wal pL. @ o Fig. High-pass Filter with Gain 6. CURRENT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS : CFA makes use of a circuit topology which emphasizes on current mode operation. This operation is less prone to the effect of stray node capacitances so it is much faster than voltage mode operation ‘The CFA consists of three stages : () Auunity-gain input butter ) A pair of current mirrors, and (idan output buffer ‘The input buffer is based on the push-pull pair Qy and Qs, whose purpose is to provide very Jow impedance at its output node v,:, which also acts as the inverting input of the CFA. Qy and Qy are driven by the emitter followers Qs & Qe, whose purpose is to raise the impedance and lower the bias current atthe non-inverting input vp. The followers also provide suitable pn-junetion voltage drops to bias Q, and Qr in the forward-active region and thus reduce crossover distortion. By design, the input buffer forces vy, to track vp. This is similar to ordinary VFAs, except that the latter force vy to track vp via negative feedback, '906/955/0107/TEIAICINotes/Ch_5/Pg.34Notes on Dynamic Op-Amp Limi 5). © Vee % bh fs Si Any current drawn at node vy by the extemal network causes an imbalance between the ccurents ofthe push-pull par, iri =iy The current mirrors Q,~Q, and Q;~Q, replicate i, andi, end sum them at a common node called the gain node. The voltage of this node is buffered to the outside by another ‘unity-gain buffer made up of Q, through Q,. Ignoring the input bias current ofthis buffer, wwe can write, by Ohm’s law, Vo = 28), here 2G, the net equivalent impedance of the gein node toward ground, is called the open-loop trans impedance gain, This transfer characteristics is similar to that of a VFA, except that the emor signal iy is a current rather than a voltage, and the gain 2(f) isin volts per ampere rather than volts per volt. For this reason CFAS are also called transimpedence amplifiers. Fetus of CFA are summarized inte block diagram below, where zh been splint the transresistance component R,, and transcapacitance component C,, ZG) = Rell Kew zG-Fexen OR Kem where X, 4 cs Det, Ry! Pri 20= T R, a" paaiC Ra 1+ RRC + 1 Fig. CFA configured as non-inverting amplifier. et —) =, @ = TRC, & Rs (jf) = Fil where 2) = Ra, is the de value of 2Gf). The gain z(jf) is approximately constant from dc to 4,5 thereafter it rolls off with frequency at the rate of ~10 dec/dee. Typically, Ry, is on the ‘order of 10°02 (which makes z) on the order of 1 V/A), C,, on the order of 10°F and f, ‘on the order of 10°Hz. oog9000 GNGIOREINI DAPPER ATC INinacslh Ba AEVidyalankar Institute of Technology Ch. 6 = Noise Any unwanted signal or disturbance that interferes with a signal of interest is known as noise. ‘The noise can be de or 2c. Particularly ac noise can significantly degrade the performance of a cireut if no protection is provided. Depending on its origin, ac noise is classified as external or interference noise and internal or inherent noise. (@ Interference Noise : This noise is due to unwanted interaction between circuit and the outside environment oF between different circuit parts itself. There can be electric, magnetic, electromagnetic or even clectromechanical interaction. Electric and magnetic interaction is due to parasitic capacitances and mutual inductances between circuit parts between two circuits. ‘The interference noise can be reduced by minimizing electrostatic and electromagnetic, pickup from line frequency and its harmonies, radio stations etc. These precautions include filtering, guarding, shielding, reorientation of components and leads, use of smubber circuit, ‘ground loop elimination etc. (ld Inherent noise : ‘Though the entire extemal noise can be removed but the there will be some amount of inherent noise in the circuit. This noise is random in nature and arises due to thermal agitation of electrons in resistors and due to generation and recombination of electron-hole pair, Due to thermal agitation, there is vibration of electrons inside resistor and this generates, a minute current, ‘These currents add up to get a net current and a net voltage that is constantly fluctuating. NOISE PROPERTIES : Since noise is a random process, the instantaneous value of noise variable can not be predicted. So noise is measured and specified in terms of certain parameters as follows (RMS value and Crest factor : Let the noise be represented by x,(1), then the RMS value is given by Vom al” Xx, (th a(t) at where the averaging time interval The square of rms value X% represents mean square value. Physically X3 represents the average power dissipated by x, (t) in a 1 resistor. In many application, the instantaneous values of noise is more important than rms value, So in those applications, the peak value is considered. ‘The crest factor (CF) is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value. ‘Though all values of CF are possible, but the possibility of x,(t) exceeding a given value X decreases rapidly with X. i (i) Noise Summation : In noise analysis, the rms value of noise voltages in series or noise currents in parallel is required very often. Let the two noise sources produce x,,(t) & X,o(t), the mean square value of their sum is it Xa z [lead +x (OF at 3 906/935/0107/TEIAICINotes/Ch_6/Pg.36‘Notes on Noise (37) x XH fr Kall) 1ftwo signals are uncorrelated, then average of their product vanishes and rms value is given X= yXh + Xb This indicates that if the sources are of uneven strengths, minimization efforts should be directed primarily at the stronger one, (iNNoise Spectra : X_ represents the average power dissipated by X, (t) in a 1 Q resistor. But unlike ac signal whose power is concentrated at just one frequency noise power is usually spread all over frequency specirum beceuse of is random nature. Noise power depends on the width of frequency band and the band’s location within the frequency spectrum, The rate of change of noise power is with frequency is called as noise power density ay) aE acy) a =H ge aed =e rng where E2_& IE are mean square values of voltage and current noise respectively. Noise power density represents the average noise power over 15 Hz bandwidth as a function of frequency. ‘The quantities e4(f) and i,(f) are called as spectral noise densities and are expressed as Vili and A/JFz respectively. ‘The rms value in terms of power densities (ju) = (te. a J (iv) Signal to Noise Ratio : ‘The calculation of equivalent noise resistance of any device may be because of one of the ‘wo reasons. The first reason is comparison of two kinds of equipments for performance evaluation, The second reason is comparison of signal and noise at the same point to ensure that noise is not excessive. When equivalent resistance is difficult to obtain, the signal to noise ratio is used. ua Signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same time. S_X,_ GR ¢ - g Nox, GR et SX (ay Cy Signal to noise ratio must be kept as high as possible, NOISE DYNAMICS : In noise analysis, the total rms value at the output of a circuit, given the noise density at is input swell as its frequency response can be calculated, Consider a voltage amplifier. The noise density atits output eof) “1A, eq (8) Where e,(f) = Noise density at input A,(JE)= Noise gain(38) Vidyalankar Institute of Technology : TE ~ AIC/LIC ‘The total output rms aaise is then B= Jean at Eno (jacon Peii(t) «] ‘Similar considerations are true for current amplifiers. Now consider transimpedance amplifier. Let its input noi density be ig(8) and noise gain be Za(if) (jen PRO «| Similer considerations are true for transadmittance and current amplifiers Noise Equivalent Bandwidth (NEB) : ‘Consider a white noise of spectral density eyy is passed through simple RC filter. 1 14(f/f)° where fis -3 dB frequency. Fase} at a(R) Since |A, P= ef GID a7 F ‘This equation indicates as if the filter was brick-wall filter than RC filter. The 0.57 fraction accounts forthe transmitted noise above fy as a result of roll off ‘The quantity 1.57 fis called the noise equivalent bandwidth (NEB) of given circuit. In general, NEB of a circuit with noise gain Ay(f) is defined as NeB=—!—fia,cfPet an 3 ‘The NEB represents the frequency span of a brick wall power gain response having the same area as the power gain response of the original circuit. R Brick—wall + 1 equivalent es c T eo - 1.57% t '906/955/0107/TE/ATCINotes/Ch. 61.38Notes on Noise (39) SOURCE OF NOISE : ‘The noise is generated by any of the passive or active components in the circuit, The various sources of noise are as follows : (@ Thermal Noise + ‘The noise generated in a resistance or a resistive component is referred to as thermal, thermal agitation, agitation, white or Johnson noise. It is due to rapid and random motion of molecules (atoms and electrons) inside the component itself. Since this type of noise is random and has finite rms value but no de component, only the altemating, only the alternating current meter can measure it noise voltage is caused by random movement of electrons within resistor, which constitutes a current. In a resistor, as many electrons are present at one end as at the other end. But at any instant there are bound to be more electrons at one end than other end, because their movement is random, The rate of arrival of electrons is random or different and hence potential difference across two ends is different. Consider the equivalent circuit of resistor as noise generator. Re v al Let ey be the noise voltage. Assutning Rr to be noiseless and receiving maximum power generated by R. E, RAT OE where k= Boltzmann constant ‘T= Absolute temperature in °K, f= Bandwidth of interest, e, = VaRTOER So the square of noise voltage associated with resistor is proportional to absolute temperature, of the resistor, value of resistance and bandwidth over which noise is measured. i) Shot Noise : ‘The most important of all the other sources is the short effect, which leads to shot noise in all amplifying devices and all active devices. It is called by random variations in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears as randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output. When amplified, it sounds as a shower of Jead shot falling on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot. The shot noise has a uniform power density B=2ar where q = 1.602 x 10” C is electron charge, ‘9N6/955/0107/TEIAICINotes/Ch 6/239(40) Vidyalankar inst te oF Lechnology + 1 AIL / LIC Flicker noise is also called as 1/f or contact noise. It is present in all active as well as in some passive devices and it has various origins depending on various types. In active devices itis due to traps. When current flows, the charge carries are captured and released randomly and causes fluctuation in currents Flicker noise is associated with a de current and its power density is given by ‘The flicker noise is present in passive components such as carbon composition resistors. (iv)Avalanche noise : This form of noise is present in reverse biased pn junctions. Avalanche breakdown occurs when free electrons, under influence of strong electric field, collide with atoms of crystal lattice and thereby they acquire more kinetic energy and create electron-hole pair. The electron created in such manner can again cause electron-hole pair using avalanche method. ‘The resulting current consists of randomly distributed noise spikes flowing through reverse biased junction, OP-AMP NOISE : (Op-amp noise is characterized by three equivalent noise sources, a voltage source with spectral density e, and two current sources with densities ing and ie Noiseless (Mc tee Fig. Op-amp Noise Model ‘As noise is random in nature, the magnitudes end directions of ing igp and e, are continuously changing and while adding the thee they must be added in rms values For general calculations considering a resistive feedback opamp circuit, Fig. Resistive Feedback Op-amp Circuit and its Noise Model. 906/955/0107/TEIAICINotes/Ch_6/Pg.40Notes on Noise (41) Input Spectral Density : First ofall the total input spectral density ¢y is calculated using superposition theorem. But here forall sources rms values are considered. Thus for noise voltage source, it contributes e? to final input. ‘The currents j,, and igp flows through resistor Rs. Their contribution is Rug) (Ra, 3 i, +4kTR, (noise in resistor is 4kT R) Similarly, currents i,,siq) ig) flow through parallel combination of Ri and Ra. So their contribution is = (Ry IIR) (i, +i tia) Ry JRp)Pify +4KT(R, || R3) combining all the terms to get total input noise spectral density, eh 6, RG i, + (RNR)? ify + 4KTERS + (R, (IR2)] For op-amps with symmetric inputs and uncorrelated noise currents we have Also considering, Ry = R, ||Ry eh vel +2R4E +8KTR RMS Output Noise : x: is amplified by the noise gain A, (0) of the citeuit. This gain is not necessarily same as that of the signal gain The de value of noise gain is Ago = For constant GBP op-amps, the closed loop bandwidth of AaGi) is fy = BR FRR, where f= unity gain frequency of op~amp. ‘The output spectral density can be expressed as 1=R,/R, Toaery Tors) NOISE IN PHOTODIODE AMPLIFIERS : {An area in which noise is of more concer is photodiode amplifiers. The photodiode responds to an incident light with a current is that is converted to voltage Vo by op-amp. Consider the noise model of photodiode amplifier R; and C) represent the combined resistance and capacitance of photodiode towards ground, C3 represents the stray capacitance of Ry ni we will require B. To find signal gain As= Vo/ To and noise gain Ax= eo! Z 1 ‘Pak C, & ZR, ~~ 906/955/0107/TE/AICINotes/Ch_6/Pgal(42) Vidyalankar institute of Technology : TE ~ AIC/ LIC Ry /j2ntC 7 7, =Ralibat, (On simplifying we get L(y, Baybee R, isi fle, where f, = =—-———- & f, ee SR TRIG SG) | 2G ‘The noise gain is given by ( R,) l+j f/f, RUE )eit7e) | where f, = B fis crossover frequency The signal gain is given by Ae Ry E+ jf /f) gooo0o00 906/955/01 07/TE/AIC/NotesiCh_6/Pg.42