Yash Desai Group 1: Erin M. Sana B. Experimental Foods November 20, 2015 Evaluating the Functional Properties of Eggs Through Various Preparation Methods 5 And the Effects on Appearance, Volume, Stability and Texture o Purpose: The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the functional properties of eggs in hard cooked eggs, poached eggs, scrambled eggs, stirred custards, hollandaise sauces, and egg white foams in of variations of the recipes. Along with understanding the effects of time, temperature, method of ct preparation, and the addition or substitution of ingredients, such as the type of egg (deteriorated or fresh), part of the egg (whites, yolk, or both), addition of acids, salt, sugar, or milk, have in formation of eggs within these products. Introductio1 Eggs are a source of proteins that are found in a variety of foods that are consumed by individuals due to its innate functional properties within them. The three types of proteins found in egg whites are the ovalbumin, conalbumin, and ovomucoid. The ovalbumin is highly reactive with sulfur groups. The ovomucoid is a major component of the thick albumin and the ovotranferrin binds iron and is an antibacterial. The yolk is nearly equal parts of water, protein and fats (natural emulsion). Some of the functional characteristics of eggs include: that it is an emulsifying agent, thickening agent, coloring agent, gelling agent, as well as being used for coating materials, it is used to provide structure (shortened cake), aeration of batters and it can be whipped to a foam. (McWilliams, 2012). For the purpose of this experiment, only a few functional and physical characteristics were focused on. Physical characteristics such as being either fresh or deteriorated have an impact the type of product such as in boiled eggs. In deteriorated egg the thick albumin will be thinner than in a fresh, the yolk will move upwards, and the air concentration increases in the egg. Some functional characteristicsthat will be used in the following experiments include that eggs are emulsificrs, gelling agents, thickening agents, produce foams, and provide pigmentation. The yolk is a natural emulsifier due its high content of fats, proteins and water, which is used to help form the hollandaise sauce. They provide thickening and gelling agents in custards. A major function included the ability for egg whites to form foams, which are caused by electrostatic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic and reactive sulfur bonds. Egg foams require stability, which is the tendency of proteins to unfold and bond to each other when subjected to physical stress. By adding additional physical stress to the egg whites the stronger the bonds will form. However, foams are susceptible to destabilizers such as favoils, which compete with the protein for the water and air junctions, Another destabilizer is salt, which increase the time to whip. Sugar helps enhances stability, but delays the time for foam formation. ‘The final destabilizers, in terms of this experiment, are acids and copper. Acids and copper both disrupt the sulfur bonds in the egg foams thus making them weaker. This experiment being performed to understand the functional and physical properties of eggs. ¢ thod 0 Materials and Table 1: Materials Used for Basic Formula - Hard Cooked Eggs (Fresh, 85°C for 30 minutes) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Eges / 2 eggs Water \ 2 cups Table 2: Materials Used for Basic Formula - Poached Eggs (Control [A]) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Water ) ee 2 Cups Eggs 1 EggTable 3: Materials Used for Basi ic Formula - Scrambled Eggs (Control [A]) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Egg Legg (48g) Milk 1 tbsp (15 mL) Salt Vs Dash (1/16 tsp) Margarine 1 tsp (9g) ‘Table 4: Materials Used for B: ‘asic Formula - Stirred Custard (Control) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Milk 1 cup (237 mL) af Egg | 1 egg (48 2) Sugar 2 tbsp (25 2) Salt Dash (1/16 tsp) Table 5: Materials Used for Basic Formula - Hollandaise Sauce (Control) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Margarine 1/2 cup (112 g) Egg Yolks if 4 egg yolks (68 g) Hot Water 1/4 cup (60 mL) Lemon Juice 2 tsp (30 mL)Salt V/4 tsp (1g) Table 6: Material Used for Basic Formula - Egg White Foams (Control, rotary beater [1A]) Brand/Variety Quantity Used Egg White ia 1 egg white (33 g) This experiment had been broken down into six different experiments in order to determine the effects of the ingredients, time and temperature had on the product. The six variations of the experiments that Group | (or my group) was assigned to were: 1) the preparation of the basic, fresh hard cooked eggs at 85°C for 30 minutes, 2) The basic formula of poached eggs with a fresh egg (the control), 3) the basic formula of scrambled eggs at 200°F (the control), 4) the basic formula of stirred custard (control), 5) the basic formula of the Hollandaise sauce (control), and 6) the basic formula of the cgg white foam using the rotary beater (control). In order to prepare the fresh hard cooked eggs first 2 cups of water were heated to 85°C. Upon reaching the required temperature 2 fresh whole eggs with the shell were added into the water using a slotted spoon. The eggs had continued to be heated at 85°C for 30 minutes. After heating, one egg was cooled at room temperature and the other was put under a stream of cold running water for 3 minutes. In order to do this a pan was filled with cold water and the egg was left to cool in the pan, the water was changed whenever it seemed warm. Both of the eggs were then evaluated for the color of the yolk and the color of the white. (Table 1 provides a table with the ingredients used and the amount used for this experiment). To prepare the basic poached eggs in plain water, 2 cups of water were brought to a boil ina 1- quart saucepan. Then, one egg was broken into a saucer. After quickly noting the eggs characteristic on the saucer, it was gently slid from the saucer into the water. The egg in the water was maintained at a high simmer for 3 minutes (not at a boil). After the 3-minute period was over the egg was removed with aslotted spoon. The egg was then evaluated for the appearance of the yolk, consistency of the white, tendemess and flavor. (Table 2 provides a table with the ingredients used and the amount used for this experiment).In order to prepare the scrambled eggs first 1 egg, 15 mL of milk and a dash of salt were gently beaten together. After, ina small frying pan 9 g of margarine was melted with the thermostatic until sct at 200°F. The pan was heated until it was hot, but not so that the fat was smoking. Once the right amount of heat was acquired the egg mixture was added to the pan. The egg had continued to cook at 200°F and was stirred slowly to scrape large pieces from the bottom and the sides of the pan. Time of cooking was noted, and the egg was transferred to a funnel (supported by a ring stand) lined with filter paper positioned above a graduated cylinder. ‘The eggs had drained in the funnel for 10 minutes and were then placed on a plate for evaluation. The amount of syneresis was recorded. The egg was then evaluated for its cooking time, syneresis, appearance and tendemess. (Table 3 provides a table with the ingredients used and the amount used for this experiment). To prepare the control of the stirred custard, first 237 mL of milk, 1 egg, 25 g of sugar, and a dash of salt were combined by gently beating with an eggbeater just enough to blend, The mixture was then strained to remove the chalazae. After straining, the mixture was poured into the top of a double boiler, which was then placed on top of the bottom part containing | 4” water that was heated to 95° C. The time the mixture was placed into the top portion was then noted. ‘The mixture was then heated, while being stirred continuously with a wooden spoon. While in the bottom of the double boiler the water had maintained a high simmer. ‘Two tablespoons of the sample was removed when the custard was heated to 80°C, 84°C, 88°C and when it had curdled. A soup ladle was used to transfer the samples into glasses clearly labeled with the temperature and cooking time. While the mixture was heated, the cooking time at each temperature interval had been recorded, as well as when it had curdled. The product was then evaluated for color, consistency and the time it took to get to 80°C, $4°C, 88°C and the temperature it curdled. (Table 4 provides a table with the ingredients used and the amount used for this, experiment). The basic Hollandaise sauce or the control was prepared by first melting 112 g of margarine into the top part of the double boiler, with 60 mL of water added and heated in the bottom portion of the double boiler. The melted margarine was then removed from the heat and cooled to 65°C. Then 4 egg yolks were beaten and stirred thoroughly into the melted margarine. Upon adding the egg yolks to the margarine; 2 teaspoons of lemon juice, and 1 g of salt were added to the margarine and egg yolk mixture. The newly formed mixture was then heated slowly over simmering water. The pH was thennoted. The mixture was stirred continuously and the temperature was carefully watched throughout the cooking period. At 68°C, 72°C, and 76°C, of the mixture was removed at each interval. The products were then evaluated for the pH, appearance, flavor, color, and line spread. (Table 5 provides a table with the ingredients used and the amount used for this experiment). Before the egg foam with the rotary beater was prepared, a funnel was lined with filter paper that ‘was supported on a ring stand so that its stem drains into a 100mL-graduated cylinder. Once the apparatus was setup the egg foam was prepared. In order for the egg foam to be prepared, an cag was separated from its yolk (used in the hollandaise experiment) and white. The white was placed into a bowl and was beaten with a rotary beater so that peaks just bent over when the foam was pulled up with a rubber spatula. The time to form the foam was noted. Upon noting the time, the foam was gently transferred to the funnel using a rubber spatula. After the egg foam was placed in the funnel, a metal skewer was inserted vertically into the foam so that the tip of the skewer is even with the upper end of the stem of the funnel. The place on the skewer that marked the uppermost part of the foam was measure with a ruler and the measurement was noted. As the foam was draining for 1 hour, the drainage was recorded at 10-minute intervals. ‘The foam was evaluated for the time it took to form the foam, the volume of the height, the texture, and the drainage intervals. (Table 6 provides a table with the eel Ww ge ingredients used and the amount used for this experiment). Results: Table 7: Results of Eggs Cooked in the Shell (Hardboiled) Fast Cool | Room Temperature | Room Temperature Treatment Fast Cool Yolk White Cool Yolk Cool White Fresh, 85°C, 30 Snowy : Bright Yellow ; Dingy Yellow Muted White min, White Light Yellow, : Fresh, 95°C, 20 Bright | Bright Yellow, Gray Grey Circle : White min, White Outside Around YolkDeteriorated, 95° . Softer not Bright yellow, _ Bright Yellow A Rubbery White C, 20 min. hard, white Lopsided j Dark Yellow, Fresh, boiling, 13 naga Vall VY Bright Se oanwig right Yellow ‘surroun y green ul ite: min | white ane ring Table 8: Result of Poached Eggs Treatment | Appearance of Yolk | Consistency of White | Tenderness Flavor Fresh Bright Yellow, Runny Thick, Jelly like Tender | Eggy, creamy (Control) Salt in Water Dark Yellow Liquid Watery Tender, Moist | Bland Fresh Acid in Water | Hard Around Shell of Hard and Spon 12 Chews Egey Fresh Yolk Creamy Outside eae me Stringy, Webbed long at Bland, Swirling Water Rubbery, Off Yellow first then clumped together Tasteless, Fresh ‘ Chewy after some time Egey Table 9: Results of Scrambled Eggs Cooking Treatment ae Syneresis Appearance Tenderness imeVery Tender, W/ 200°F 4 mins 2mL Pale Yellow Slight Bite 325°F 2 mins OmL Slight Brown Chewy . ; . Creamy, Please Fast Stir 3-4mins | OmL | Fluffy, Pale Yellow texture Double Boiler 3 mins OmL | Flufly, Bright Yellow | — Very Tender No Milk 2 mins OmL Firm, Yellow 9.Chews 2X Milk 5 mins smL | Fluffy, Light Yellow | Very Soff, liquidly 7 Substitute Type: Shoprite Pale Yellow, Brown sans] O78 Creamy Great Escape Crust Uniform, Bright Yellow, Omega -3 7 mins Omi Very Tender Lumpy Table 10: Results of Stirred Custards Treatment Temperature (min.) | Color and Consistency Flavor 1.Control Creamy, White, Thin, 3 mins, Sweet, Eggy a. 80°C Watery b. 84°C 4 mins White, Smooth XXX ©. 88°C 5 mins, |/Slight yellow, Thick XXX d. Curd, 91°C 10mins. | Pale Yellow, Lumpy KK 2. Boiling Water 9 mins, Pale Yellow, Liquid Sugary a. 80°C eal Less Pale, Yellow, b. 84°C 16 mins. XXX Coats Spoon ©. 88°C 26 mins. Pale Yellow, Thick XXXPudding 4. Curd, 91°C 30 mins, Yellow, Lumpy XXX 3. Yolks only | 9 mins. Thick, Deep Yellow Rich | | a. 80°C I Thicker, Brighter | b.84°C 12 mins. XXX | Yellow | ©. 88°C 14 mins. “|” Thick, Deep Yellow XXX | | [a Curd, 88°C 15 mins. Deep Yellow XXX 4. Whites only 12 mins. White, Liquid a. 80°C b. 84°C 14 ming/ White, Liquid XXX ©. 88°C 20 mins. White, Liquid XXX Olt White, Small 4. Curd, 100°C 50 mins, XXX Curdles Table 11; Results of Hollandaise Sauce | Line - ‘Treatment pH Appearance Flavor Color Spread T.Control (Lemon juice, | ier a Acidic, Creamy | citric acid) 4 Liquidy, Curdled ” | | x Lemony, Bitter | Yellow | a. 68°C | b. 72°C XXX | Liquidy, Curdled sae} G00 2 | XXX] Liquidy, Curdled XXX 102. Vinegar (acetic acid) Light | 4 Thin, Liquidy NIA XXX 0, 68°C Yellow | b. 72°C | XXX] Thick, Curdled XXX XXX NIA | Thick/Small Curdled ©. 76°C XXX XXX XXX NIA | | Particles | | | | 3. Added acid | 4 | Watery, Some Lumps NIA Yellow | XXX a. 68°C 7 | b.72°C XXX | Thicker Lumps XXX XXX NIA | ©. 76°C XXX Thick/Creamy XXX XXX 9 4, Added Yolk Bright | 4 ‘Thick, Opaque NIA XXX | a. 68°C Yellow | | | b.72°C XXX | Clumpy, Scrambled XXX XXX NIA ©. 76°C XXX | Clumpy, Scrambled | XXX XXX NIA | Table 12: Results of Egg White Foams Volum Drainag | Drainag | Drainag | Drainag | Drainag | Drainag | Time | emean | e(mL) | e(mL) | e(mL) | e(mL) | e(mL) | e (mL) Treatment | Texture (min) | 10 20 30 40 30 60 | (mm) | (min.) | (min.) | (min.) | (min) | (min) | (min) 100.24 Airy, 1. Beater | second | 85mm | Bubbly} 4mL | 10mL | 12mL | 14mL | l6mL | 18mL a. Rotary | White c. | Convention Light, min | 8Smm 4mL | SmL | 6mL | 7mL | 7mL | 8mL al electric Stable | mixer | 2, Sugar Cream | ad | 6min | 80mm | sy, ImL | 2mL | 3mL | 3mL | SmL | 7mL | | | Beginning | | Glossy | | I | | Smooth | | cEnd | 8min | 80mm|” SmL | 6mL | 7mL | SmL | Om~ | 11 mL Cream | | y | | Thick, | g. Hot 100 | 4min Smooth| 9mL | 19mL | 25mL | 31mL | 35mL | 38mL syrup mm | | , Stable 3. Acid b. M4 tsp aa Sticky | 8 min | 60mm | lamb | A6mL | 17mL | 18mL | 19mL | 19mL cream of | Firm | | | tartar | | | [aoa | | | | | |Temperatu| Foamy, | | | Imin | 54mm 12mL | 14mL | 14mL | 1SmL | 1SmL | 15mL | } re | Soapy | | | a. Room | b. 15 | | 80mm | Fluffy | 10mE | 13mL | 4m | lamb | 4mb | 15 mL | Refrigerator | mins | | | uwThe six tables above represent the six different types of experiments performed by the entire section. The hard cooked eggs that were fresh and prepared at 85°C for 30 minutes had shown to have a bright yellow yolk and a snowy white colored white portion of the egg when it was fast cooled. When the hard cooked egg was cooled during room temperature, the yolk exhibited a dingy yellow color and the white portion exhibited a muted white color. The poached egg prepared with the basic formula (control) using a fresh egg exhibited a bright yellow yolk, a thick (elly-like) consistency, with a eggy, creamy flavor and being tender. ‘The scrambled eggs prepared using the basic formula cooked at 200°F had taken 4 minutes to complete cooking. The scrambled eggs cooked at 200°F had shown to have 2 mL of syneresis that was a pale yellow color that was very tender with a slight bite to it. The results of the basic formula of the stirred custards (control) preparation had shown that it had taken 3 minutes to arrive at 80°C, with a creamy white color, and a thin and watery consistency. It took the control version of the stirred custard 4 minutes to arrive at 84°C with a smooth consistency, and remained a white color. In order to arrive at 88°C, it took 5 minutes for the stirred custard (control) and it started to become thick, and slightly yellow in color. At 91°C the stirred custard (control) had curdled, thus leading to a lumpy consistency, and pale yellow color. The Hollandaise sauce prepared with the basic formula (control) had exhibited a pH of 4, with an acidic, lemony, bitter flavor, and creamy yellow color. When cooked until 68°C in the double boiler, the mixture was liquidy, and curdled. AU72°C the Hollandaise sauce (control) continued to remain liquidy, however the curdles had increased in size. At 76°C the control version of the Hollandaise sauce still had the liquid like consistency, but the curdle size had increased the most at this temperature. The preparation of the egg white foam beaten with the rotary beater had taken 24 seconds in order for the foam to be established, with an 85 mm volume height. The texture of this egg foam was airy, bubbly and white. As time went on the drainage had increased by 2 mL after the first 20 minutes at which the drainage was at 4 mL at 10 minutes and then 10 mL. at 20 minutes. Table 7 represents the preparation of the hard cooked eggs. Overall, the eggs prepared in the various methods had all presented that the fast cooled eggs had a bright yellow yolk and a bright colored white’s portion. While, the room temperature cooled eggs had remained a white (whites portion) and the yolk had turned a darker yellow with the exception of the hard cooked eggs prepared with a fresh egg at 95°C for 20 minutes and the deteriorated egg at 95°C for 20 minutes, which had a bright yellow yolk. 12In table 8, which shows the preparation of the poached eggs, the flavor of the eggs in the various cooking methods seemed to be similar, egey, and bland. However, the control version of the egg had the brightest yolk, and a creamier flavor. While the swirling water prepared egg was ranked the least tender, rather more rubbery. ‘Table 9 represents the scrambled eggs that were being made in the experiment. Here it was seen that the amount of syneresis was seen most in the eggs that contained 2 times the milk versus the rest of the preparations. While, the eggs prepared with the omega-3 ranked the highest in the longest cooking time in all of the preparations. Table 10 shows the results of the stirred custards. The stirred custard that was prepared with the egg white alone had taken the most time to curdle at 100°C. This version of the stirred custard had also ranked highest in having the smallest sized curdles in comparison to the other preparations of the stirred custards. Table 11 shows the data of the various preparations of the Hollandaise sauce variations. In each experiment it was seen that there was curdle or a scramble formation. However, in the hollandaise sauce prepared with the added acid had originally begun with lumps in the sauce and in the end tuned out to be the most thick and creamy version of all the variations prepared. i foam with the hot syrup variation had ranked the highest in volume of the height and had the largest ay amount of drainage. However, the egg white foam prepared with adding the sugar atthe egg and the 12!" .») egg whites foam prepared with the cream of tartar had taken the longest in foam formation. (4 Discussio1 Eggs are used in many products due to its functional properties and its physical properties that give the products its appearance, volume, stability texture and more. In this experiment it was shown that eggs had different impacts on foods when the recipes took on another variation. This was seen in all six experiments. In the first experiment, all stations had produced a different variation of the hard cooked egg cither with a fresh or deteriorated egg. The control group or station 1 had produced a hard cooked egg using the fresh egg at 85°C and cooking it for 30 minutes. ‘The result yielded in a bright yellow egg yolk 13that was fast cooled and the white’s portion was a snowy white. While when the egg was cooled at room temperature the egg yolk was a dingy yellow and the egg white was a muted white. However, the other variations such as the fresh egg at 95°C cooked at 20 minutes showed similar results except there was a grey outside of the yolk when cooled at room temperature. ‘The reason for this result is due to the fact that as an egg is cooled at room temperature it still continues to cook and the proteins continue to coagulate. This often leads to a gray circle around the yolk or a rubbery white. The deteriorated egg produced another interesting result, where the egg yolk was loop sided. This due to the natural oh characteristics of the deteriorated egg; the chalazae is unable to hold the yolk in place, while the air J concentration increases due the increase release of CO2 and water through eggs pores. In this type of egg the thick albumin begins to thin to a consistency similar to the thin albumin, which thus allows the yolk to move upwards. Finally, in the final variation of the fresh cooked egg for 13 minutes at boiling exhibited a green ring on the yolk. This is a ferrous sulfide ring caused due to excess cooking, The second experiment conducted were the different variations of the poached eggs. The eggs were evaluated based on appearance of the yolk, consistency of the white, tendemess, and flavor. The control version of the experiment resulted in a tender eggy/creamy flavored, bright yellow yolk, with a thick, jelly like consistency of the white, While the eggs prepared in the salt water had exhibited a dark yellow, liquidy yolk, which had a watery white. The reason for the whites to be water is because the salt causes @ delay in the gel formation on the egg proteins, which in turn inhibits the interactions between the water molecules with the acid. The eggs prepared in the acidic water have a hard (stable) exterior of the yolk and runny inside with a hard and spongy white. ‘The cause for this type of reaction is because the acid in the water helps coagulate the proteins, so as the eggs were inserted into the water the protein had begun to coagulate. The poached egg in the swirling water resulted in an off yellow color of the yolk, and stringy, webbed white. The constant stirring or agitation to the water did not allow the egg to coagulate as a whole. In the third experiment, all the stations had produced a different variation of the scrambled eggs. The control group had prepared the egg at 200°F with a cooking time of 4 minutes, syneresis of2 mL, with an appearance of a pale yellow and being very tender with a bite. Two variations that sticks out of the norm is the eggs prepared with the omega 3 fatty acid and the eggs prepared with 2 times the amount of milk. Both the variations had shown an the longest cooking times, this is due to the fact that fats increase the cooking time (fat is found in the milk). In addition, eggs prepared with 2 times the milk had 14the largest amount syneresis; the reason being that excess liquid included in the preparation of the scrambled eggs. ‘The fourth experiment conducted were the different variations of the stirred custards. In the contro] the time it took to reach 80°C was 3 minutes with a creamy white color and a thin watery consistency. To reach 84°C it took 4 minutes, with a smooth white consistency. To get to 88°C it took 5 minutes with a thick light yellow consistency. To curdle it took 10 minutes at 91°C with a pale yellow color and lumpy consistency. The two variations that stuck out were the stirred custards prepared with Y yolks only and whites only. In the yolks only variation the curdle temperature was the least, this due to the fats in the yolk which increases the curdling in the custard. While there was little to none curdle formation in the stirred custard formed with the egg whites (there is not fat, only protein in the egg). In the fifth variation of the experiment, all the stations had produced a variation of the hollandaise sauce. In the control version of the recipe the pH was 4 (acidic), it liquidy and curdled at all temperatures (68°C, 72°C, and 76°C) with an acidic, lemony, biter flavor with a creamy yellow color, / Due to many groups not having enough products, many line-spread tests were not performed. However, nearly all the groups that had added acid in the sauce had seen curdle formation. This is due to the excess amount of acid being added to the hollandaise sauces, The final experiment conducted were the different variations of the egg foams. The control group that had prepared the egg foams with the rotary beater had prepared the foam in 24 seconds, had an 85 mm volume height, and an airy, bubbly white texture, Within the first 10 minutes of the drainage there was 4 mL. At 20 minutes of drainage there was 10 mL of drainage. For the next 40 minutes of drainage the amount of liquid drainage increased by 2 mL every 10-minute intervals. When incorporating sugar to the egg foam mixture it took a longer time to produce the foam, in limited amount of drainage when added to the beginning, but had excess drainage in the hot syrup. In addition the hot syrup egg foam had a brown color, which was due to the sugars caramelizing when the boiling in the water. The sugar in the egg foam causes delays in foaming and reduces overall volume and lightness. As well as interfizes with protein unfolding and protein bonding. However, sugar improves stability by making the foams thick and cohesive and slows drainage from bubble walls of foam and coarse texture from developing. With the addition of acid in the egg foams caused an inerease in foam formation. This is due to the fact that acids control the sulfur bonds, thus when there is an increase in free hydrogen atoms it makes it harder to shed the S-H bond to form the S-S bond. Similar to sugar, acids create more 15,ne stable foams. When we take a look in the difference in the variations with the temperature of the egg | Ae whites, it shown that the room temperature eggs foamed rather quicker than those at refrigerator. temperatures. In all, the physical and functional properties of eggs provide appearance, volume, stability texture and more to foods however, they all provide different results when put in variations of recipes. tyoelonp a Summa 40g. — cudenunt References: MeWilliams, Margaret. "Chapter 1 :Eggs." Experimental Foods Laboratory Manual. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2012. N. pag. Print. /-| GL MeWilliams, Margaret. "Chapter 16: Eggs." Foods: Expesimental Perspectives. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2012. N. pag. Print. 5/ it dD yy 9 16