ENS AS Water and their ‘Hydrostaties —a branch of physics which deals with fluids at rest. Hydrodynamics or Fluid Dynamics ~ _ branch of mechanics which deals with fluids in motion Finids ~ are substances capable of flowing and having particles that easily move and change thei relative direction ‘without separation of mass. Liquid and gas es are classified as fluids. Density: ‘Specific Gravity or Relative Density: mass Density = | density of a substance: ie specific gravity of a substance = as in symbols, a v: in symbols, Pa 5 Weight Density = Weisht_ Piers, 0 Volume @4°C and 1 atm, in symbols, = | g/cc = 1000 kgim? ~ 1.94 slugs? ee oe 981 dynesiec = = 9810 Nim’ = 62.4 Ibs/ft” ¥4 =9.81 kNim’ but; W=mg B=e Hydrostatic Pressure: pe >» whereF LA “The pressure at a depth h ima liquid of density p due to the weight ofthe fluid above is P=peh= Bh h =e P= eS ms ve = PANE pgh= Yh‘of fluid is in an open container, the exerts P= Paw + ph tec ih, Setar ee ee Atmospheric Pressure (Py) ~ is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at : ‘sea of air in which we live. ‘This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation. Normal atmos z Pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm) defined to be exactly 101,325 Pa. Vatm = 101,325 Pa 14.7 psi ‘Note: 1 bar= 108 dynes/em? = 760 mm Hg I bar = 10° Pa ~76 cm Hg. = 29.921 in. Hg = 1.01325 bar = 760 torr Fluid Pressure Variation with Depth: Py= Pit pe O-¥) : Pi- Pa = pg (¥2-Y1) ay er } P)—P:= poh be ‘Common Devices for Measuring Pressure: a. pen tube Manometer Case 1:P > Pm P= Pmt pah P— Pam = pah P Pan Prise or P= Pant Powe Pam =P + eh P—Pam™ “PRE Po Pang -Powe = Pres'b. “Mercury Barometer - is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure « Poo ™ peh ‘Note; at standard condition 1 atm pressure; 0°C | Py = 15.6 glo = 13.600 ke/n? = 850 thi } Specific Gravity of Mercury (Hg) = 13.6 Buoyancy: Archimedes Principle * sates that any body submerged or immersed in a fui is subjected toa buayant force equal to the weight | of the fluid displaced. For body that floats, For body Submerges, FBD Reading of seale ‘Ww, = Reading of scale w ‘ WIBF. dr=0 Y) WW where: BAF. = Buoyant Force A ee ae Wr Weight of object in air orthe rue weight tae: Wat obj uo erat -w-w.ry, Wa Weisht of ip ois ile coy density of id o V= Volume of object Gays Ws YeeBernoulli's Principle: states that “In a streamline flow, the ira dpe haautewen cet ee Venturi Meter: P\>P or P Equation of Continuity Bernoulli's Energy Theorem it i very point in th 1, Neglecting fiction, the total head or total amount of enerBy Pet unit of weight, is the same at every point in tbe path of flow. ; Q * Total energy = velocity head + pressure head + elevation head ©. = elocity head Z= elevation head 2 ei © Q = pressure head aaWith continuous steady flow, the total head at any point i lownstream pointphs the loss of ead between wo ots, yaaa 3. With the aust pump ffom point 1 to point 2 2 2 wy key ten a ee aCe HLA = head or energy added vip = 28. (ouput horsepower fr pump) E=H. A. (energy added) With the presence of turbine or motor from 1 to 2 4 Qa=@ 2 vw SP ee LE ae ILE. = Energy given up HP.= oe (input horsepower for turbine) Efficiency = Fit E=HE. (energy given up) 5. Atthe nozzle: 2 E= i (velocity head atthe nozzle)HYDRAULICS ORIFICE —any opening having a closed measuring flow of fluids Perimeter, made in a wall or partition used for Note: When the area of tank is more than 16 times the area of orifice neglect tt the ‘an 16 times the velocity of For flow under atmospheric pressure: 0 1 ve + ee 29 o v,=,/2gh (theoretical velocity) v = C,v, (actual velocity) or actual velocity at vena contracta t__ coefficient of velooty ¥ t rea of orifice a= area of jet at vena contracta Co =e (coefficient of contraction) D 4 a=AcCe Q = av (actual discharge rate) Q=ACCy 29h Q=CA,J2gh C= C.Cy (coefficient of discharge) iTHERMODYNAMICSthe science which is concemed with the eee 3 “ oe Conversion of work into heat energy ot vice versa, ‘Conversion from one scate e a to another seate: Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine Reamur K or kelvin °R R 373 ~672- 80. —y}|«—— R-——}y r- Te ee |i ee 492 ro 0 ° 21 FSSR R=F+460 F=R~460 ir: aTr=-2 4Te , also AT; = ATe or SC* = 9F° 2. °C, °F, °K or K & °R — temperature reading 3, C®, F°,K°, & R°— temperature change or difference ‘Heat — form of energy transferred from one body to another as a result of temperature difference. Sensible Heat — is the heat absorbed or given off by a substance that changes its temperature, Q=mcAT Where: Q—sensible heat m—mass c~ specific heat AT =7,—T ~ change in temperature ‘Heat Units 1. calorie (cal) 2. kilocalorie (keal) 3, Joule J) 4, British Thermal Unit (BTU)‘For HO: For steam on 1 Bt wy Sal. oy cal Fo) gc gt = 0.49 BTU. ot ae Force: : Taek? MF gc “pac ) or / on 05 BtL-05 Sb ~os Se A DE cal & ek cn OS Rp MOS Foe = 0ST Change of State: ak ‘Latent Heat — is the heat that does not affect the temperature of the substance but changes its state, a. Latent heat of fusion (L,) ~is the amount of heat econsnry ietatnidesswianclicgysae: ae ti lanee « een eee ut «Gem Forice, 1;=80 2 = 144 BIU g 1b Note: tein = 51, in BU Lin S= 5 bein . Latent Heat of Vaporization (L,)~is the amount of heat per unit mass necessary to change a substance from liquid to vapor at its boiling point. Bw ant = 5402 2972 BI For water, Ly MoE 972 cl _5 BIU 180 gal -5 1 jn BTU Also Lyin <5 Loin By Specific Latent Heat of Sublimation of a Substance ~ is the hest per unit mass necessary to conver it from the solid to the gaseous state at a given temperature. Sublimation a change of state ffom solid to gaseous without passing the liguid state. For example, dry ice First Law of Thermodynamics: i “When work is totally converted into heat the amount of heat generated bears a constant rato to te work done, Similarly, ifa certain amount of heat is transformed into srechanoal energy bears a constant ratio tothe Rest which disappeared”. This is often called Joule’s Law: w cow Q where: |W = work done to produce heat or work produced by hest Q = heat energy J= mechanical equivalent of heat 186 joules per calorie J = 4,186 x 10” orgs per calorie J = 778 ft-lbs per BTU*, Law: ; Main tsi ts sample of gus i inversely proportional to the absolute pressure if T = constant, oes Vel yv-f Pr PV=C PIV, = P2V> PVa=C Db. Charle’s Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. ifP = constant, VaT v=cr ¥ = c se a er ne ae &. Gay-Lussac’s Law sometimes called as Amonton’s Law: ‘At constant volume, the pressure of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, if V = constant PeT P=cT zr. ale BR a Pg oe Be cies te ee te d. Combined or Perfect Gas Law: pVaT py=cT wv. : ‘ PAY, Pv, BN) - Pe = Det Te Ideal Gas Equation; PV =mRT where R= gas constant also, R= M ae pvt Rr but m=nM or n= m/M hence , PV=nkT Where: n=no, of moles M= molecular weight; 257 or R= universal gas constant m fie R= 1545.32 oR F-19858 — fj gmole-K om R=8314 kgmole-K Note: in chemistry, py=nR'T where: R= Ideal gas constant = universal gas constant © PY Latin (22.4 liters) R= qr > ~(mole\@73.K) * liter-atm R= 0.08205 “ole-KPapeg Th Ses Te 2. Wye =PdV=0 3. Q=AU=U-U, onsenation of Ee Pee cate ak 40+ oh aye We Qcau 4. eee eral OO AU =U,-U,=me,(T2-T) 5. Se 3 =H, —Hy,=me, (T2—T) 6. Change in entropy (AS): “proof, By definition, AS = S52 pate - 8=8,-S.= me, In mein ge as-si-siemel, meio AS = me, In = meyIn Bn" 7. For steady-Flow work (Wsr) —> open system Wse = V (Pi- Pa) Proof: By Law of Conseryation of Energy, a SBS yg + Avy Warsong AP AK =O Wse = as (Wn ~Wr) =—(P.V-PV)= PIV PY Wsr = V Pi-P) Another proof: AWs = Wor Wer =—Wor ‘Therefore, Wer=—AW:=— (P:V-P\Y) or Wse=V(P:-Pa) =me, (in T;~ 10 Ti)7. For steady-Flow Isobaric (Wsy) -> open system ge oe = here Ps Ps Wor=0 (if AP AK ~0) or Proof» 4° aos Q= ptt pK AU + AWe + Wor vo" Q= AH + Wsp Wer = 0 2. Wyr=PaV=P(V- Vi) ‘Anne yp Awe Wee Wer a 3. Q=AH=H)~H;=me, (T,-T)) P(V2~Vi) = P(V2— Vi) ~ Wsr therefore, Wer = 0 Prof vy e ~ Qe pts px" AU + AMG + Woe Q= AU + Woe Q=Uz-Uy + P(V2~ Vi) =U2—-U) + PV2—PVi Q= RN eso Bur = H=U * Q=H-H= oe me, (T:~Ti) 4. Change in internal energy (AU): AU = U;—U, = me, (T2~T)) 5 ee mient enthalpy (AH): =H, — Hy = me, (T,-T)) ‘Change in entropy (AS): “AS = me, In Fame Y on raf By definan, 98 =S:—S)~ s2 4 are omoetl = me, (In Ty~ IT) cB non (a tn‘Formulas: PiVi _ PaVa PoE oC eno a Meee TT Boyle’s Law: BV, ee 5 vs Weo- Srav-c f cmv ie ¥. Ws =C(inV2—InV))=Cn¥? i bout _C=P;Vs=PiV2, also PV=mRT Whe PV in =P. in =mRT ny 1 on We =PiVs nL =P,Valn gt = mRT 2 . AU=0 Proof; AU=U;~-U; =me, (T;—T)), since T= T2=T Q= Wie Proof: 0 Q- p+ O= Wee 5. AH=0 we yf ee Wor nF. Pe (Open-System) Wor= Wor = Q, (ifAP = AK =0) Proof 0 9 AH5o eps pals AU BWe + War Q=We but Q= War therefore, Wsp = Wxr = Q Another proof: AWs = Wye— Wsr Bx BAT Wa Wie ‘Wee = Wye = Q¥ \ 1. PIV = PsV'=P\V;*=C > is ai mur PV, =P,V2, Be aa but ei VE Ve = ao as Brey Vk Va Vin Viet Ty ~ pve Wat Wt hg taeretore, he. Myeo Fy vi) Co yi tv)Present . Q=0 ete ere, Se Biel ato Ae ‘But AU = War aoe . AH= me, (T2-T) ‘ octets ). Steady Flow Isentropic (open-system) en (EAP = AK=0) Conservation of Energy, arg int Wop1 PWS =P.V=PVy » Bay wr ; for derivation refer to Isentropic Process Derivation = Rage + for derivation refer to Isentropie process derivation 4. Wye = PAV = vot V7 AV. ; for complete detail of derivation refer to Isentropic Process Derivation We Be BY = = T) $. AU=me,(T2-T) 6. The heat transferred (Q), Q= AU + Wee = me, (T2-T) ‘Proof: Q=AP+AK +AU + Wye = AU + W, Sone ony + BR =TD. but R=o(k—1) therefore Qe ma cy TMD Q=me,cr,—T) 0+ ‘ © g=mt,-T6 A= ) Qe me, (TT)‘Way = Q—(AU + AWi) but AH=AU + AW, therefore, Wsr = Q-aH ‘Second Law of Thermodynamics: ‘Ina heat engine running between two temperatures, higher temperature (Ty) and lower temperature (T), it is impossible for the input energy at higher temperature to be completely converted to work without rejecting some ‘heat at (Ti). Heat Engine: ip = network = Wex ~ Wie Engine ‘ 1 | it Input Reservoir| ne Ta. Te By First Law of Thermodynamics, 2Q==W or ZQ==W Q-Q.=W Qu~ Quue= Wan Wa W=Qi-Q Qu QL= Wae Eficieney, = x 100% ‘ciency, = x 100% = S42 x 100% = (1) x 100% For Camot Cycle, Be 10% = Be 0m (1 Fyn 008 abet compet sen CRED a tered nnn koe“Barhc = is a reffigeration system that can be use to heat a house in winter and coo! it in summer. ‘ Qu cor.= Fe By first Law of Thermodynamics EQ=EW Q-Qu=-W eee i eee *C0P=Q, =O For Ideal Heat Pump (Carnot Cycle) a : Pek Qe Dy Te Tk Qu=KTiy also Q, = kT. pe et COR KT therefore, E COPR.= 7-7, ‘Therefore for Carnot cycle, Qn Ta COP. =W- Q-O Trt. Note: ‘Typical C.0 P. range from 2 to 32 COP.=y By first Law of Thermodynamics EQ==W Q-Qr=-W eee : oe : COP Oe for Camot Cycle, Qe T =k = eee eo Te Hence, C.0.P.= tt Ta -Th also for Carnot refrigerator/Ideal Refrigerator EO see TE Q-@ TT ore. cor. = Note: If the problem in (Ref. And Air condition) asked for Energy effy. Ratio (EER). upp — Heat extracted per hour (BTU/hr) _ 3 4; EER ao 3.42 COP. EER is expressed in unit of BTU/watt-hourCOMPUTER FUNDAMENTALSFor any number expressed in base-r system wherein the coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10: By Ma iM ng Bader NM, MMGAY oy satanic’ +a % eae + that tae tag? Fag agt + ses tg Example: 1, (for base or radix equal to 10) My get Ded Mg teense B3Ohlg. O.,2.205..,.-@m (€ach digit range from 0 to 9) = ay 10+ ay: 10" +093 10" +095 10 + +a; 10? + a, 10° +apl0” +a 10" +a; 107 +a; 107+. ag lo" (For base or radix equal to 2) 4h ye ged B yee ADAG. y Bg gooey (Each digit is either O or 1) SH ag2? tag DPE Mg Vt esvnee Hah? Haid! aD? + a+ a+ a Ht OZ” Table for Number of Various Bases Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal (ace 10) (base2) (base 8) (base 16) 00 0000 0 i) ol ono! a1 1 0 0010 2 2 m ool 3 3 o 100 ry 4 as p1or 05 5 0% oro 06 6 0 ont 7 7 On 1000 10 8 0 toot uy 9 0 1010 2 A a voit 3 B 2 1100 ry i. a ior 1s D 1" 1110 16 E is wit ” F Complements Two Types of Complement a, diminished radix complement or (r=1)'s complement b. radix complement or r's complement For diminished radix complement Given: ‘ 'N = number, r= base, n =no. of digit“(¢=1)'s complement of N = (r"— 1) —N For radix complement: Given: N= number, r= base, n= no. of digit r*s complement of N N,ifN#0 1's complement of N i Laws for Boolean Algebra Tnvolution (x")) =x ‘Commutative x+y=y +X5xY =¥* Associative x+ (x+ 2)= (x+y) +25 x02) = OY Distributive x(y +2) = xy* xz xt y2= (x + yXK +2) 9" sy) = De Morgan (x + ¥)' = Absorption x + xy =x5 x(x +9) =* Operator Precedence For Boolean Expressions, the operator precedence is, 1. parentheses 2. NOT() 3. AND() 4. ORG) Operation ‘Symbols Algebraic function ‘Truth Table x iE as wae AND sel Fex-y ee oO 10 0 W ¥ = nw OCO*F ue Ses Eee 0 0 OL 1 x io 1 E HsiaInverter, Butler =ph NAND NOR FxelusiveOR * I> (XOR) . Exclusive - NOR Or equivatence ‘Map Method = also known as the “Veitch diagram’ DD FE F= (xy)! ty Fey +xy xOy Fexytxy’ =xOy procedure for minimizing Boolean functions. y y on . os o | xy | xy x(t L xy) | sy Two Variable map xy 0 oO 10 W xy 00 ol 10 " xy 00 ol 10 u e--o7 xy 00 o1 10 ut -oo-n or the “Kamau map". It provides a simple straight forward i 0 _ot iieaanlD x 0 | xy | xy’ | xe | x xtibaye Love Lye Loe Reseed ‘Three-variable mapTHANK YOU AND GOD BLESS YOU