CHAPTER

1
The Nature
of Ecology
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Elements of ECOLOGY Lecture Presentation by

NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION
Carla Ann Hass
Penn State University
Thomas M. Smith • Robert Leo Smith
 Chapter 1 The Nature of Ecology

 Ecology is the study of the relationships between

organisms and their environment
 What is meant by the term “spaceship Earth”?
 What demands does a growing human population
put on the environment?

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Figure 1.1

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Section 1.1 Ecology Is the Study of the Relationship
between Organisms and Their Environment
 Ecology is a science
 term means “the study of the household”
 how does this relate to “spaceship Earth”?
 Ecologists study the interactions between
organisms and their environment
 What are the components of an organism’s
environment?

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Section 1.1 Ecology Is the Study of the Relationship
between Organisms and Their Environment
 What are the components of an organism’s
environment?
 physical conditions
 chemical conditions
 other organisms, both the same and different species
 “Ecology is the study of all of those complex
interrelationships referred to by Darwin as the
conditions of the struggle for existence.” (Haeckel)

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 Organisms interact with their environment at many
levels
 What are some of the physical and chemical
conditions in an organism’s environment?
 How do organisms interact with other organisms in
their environment?

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 Physical and chemical conditions include:
 temperature
 moisture
 concentration of gases (O2 and CO2)
 light intensity
 Interactions with other organisms include:
 mating
 predator and prey

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 What is the environment in which an organism lives?

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 What is the environment in which an organism lives?
 It is a place
 a physical location in time and space
 can be large or small
 can be aquatic or terrestrial
 can be stable or transient
 Includes physical and chemical conditions and other
organisms

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 An ecosystem is a collection of parts that function as
a unit
 biotic – living components
 abiotic – nonliving (physical and chemical)
components
 A forest is an ecosystem
 What are the abiotic components?
 What are the biotic components?

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 Section 1.2 Organisms Interact with the
Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
 Abiotic – atmosphere, climate, soil, water
 Biotic – other organisms in the forest

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Figure 1.2

Precipitation (mm)
(c)

Temperature (°C)
350 35
300 30
250 25
200 20
150 15
100 10
50 5
0 0
J F MA M J J A S O ND
Year
(a)

(d)

(e)

(b)
(f)
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 Section 1.3 Ecological Systems Form a
Hierarchy
 Ecologists study interactions at different levels of
organization
 These levels can be arranged in a hierarchy
 All levels involve biotic and abiotic interactions
 The biosphere is the highest level of organization

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Figure 1.3 Step 1 Slide 1

Individual
What characteristics allow
the Echinacea to survive,
grow, and reproduce in the
environment of the prairie
grasslands of central North
America?

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Figure 1.3 Step 2 Slide 2

Individual
What characteristics allow
the Echinacea to survive,
grow, and reproduce in the
environment of the prairie
grasslands of central North
America?

Population
Is the population of this species
increasing, decreasing, or
remaining relatively constant
from year to year?

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Figure 1.3 Step 3 Slide 3

Individual
What characteristics allow
the Echinacea to survive,
grow, and reproduce in the
environment of the prairie
grasslands of central North
America?

Population
Is the population of this species
increasing, decreasing, or
remaining relatively constant
from year to year?

Community
How does this species interact
with other species of plants
and animals in the prairie
community?

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Figure 1.3 Step 4 Slide 4

Individual
What characteristics allow
the Echinacea to survive,
grow, and reproduce in the
environment of the prairie
grasslands of central North
America?

Population
Is the population of this species
increasing, decreasing, or
remaining relatively constant
from year to year?

Community
How does this species interact
with other species of plants
and animals in the prairie
community?

Ecosystem
How do yearly variations in
rainfall influence the productivity
of plants in this prairie grassland
ecosystem?

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Figure 1.3 Step 5 Slide 5

Individual Landscape
What characteristics allow How do variations in topography
the Echinacea to survive, and soils across the landscape
grow, and reproduce in the influence patterns of species
environment of the prairie composition and diversity in the
grasslands of central North different prairie communities?
America?

Population
Is the population of this species
increasing, decreasing, or
remaining relatively constant
from year to year?

Community
How does this species interact
with other species of plants
and animals in the prairie
community?

Ecosystem
How do yearly variations in
rainfall influence the productivity
of plants in this prairie grassland
ecosystem?

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Figure 1.3 Step 6 Slide 6

Individual Landscape
What characteristics allow How do variations in topography
the Echinacea to survive, and soils across the landscape
grow, and reproduce in the influence patterns of species
environment of the prairie composition and diversity in the
grasslands of central North different prairie communities?
America?

Population Biome
Is the population of this species What features of geology and
increasing, decreasing, or regional climate determine the
remaining relatively constant transition from forest to prairie
from year to year? grassland ecosystems
in North America?

Community
How does this species interact
with other species of plants
and animals in the prairie
community?

Ecosystem
How do yearly variations in
rainfall influence the productivity
of plants in this prairie grassland
ecosystem?

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 1.3 Step 7 Slide 7

Individual Landscape
What characteristics allow How do variations in topography
the Echinacea to survive, and soils across the landscape
grow, and reproduce in the influence patterns of species
environment of the prairie composition and diversity in the
grasslands of central North different prairie communities?
America?

Population Biome
Is the population of this species What features of geology and
increasing, decreasing, or regional climate determine the
remaining relatively constant transition from forest to prairie
from year to year? grassland ecosystems
in North America?

Community
How does this species interact Biosphere
with other species of plants What is the role of the grassland
and animals in the prairie biome in the global carbon cycle?
community?

Ecosystem
How do yearly variations in
rainfall influence the productivity
of plants in this prairie grassland
ecosystem?

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 Section 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and
Process at Many Levels
 At each level in the ecosystem hierarchy, different
patterns and processes emerge
 In order to study these different levels, different
approaches may be needed
 What are some of the subdisciplines in Ecology?

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 Section 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and
Process at Many Levels
 The effects of birth and death can be studied at
multiple levels
 Individual – birth and death are discrete events and
happen only once
 Population – birth and death are continuous
 measured as rates, such as births/year
 Community – focus shifts to relative abundance of
species within the community
 How do interactions among species affect birth and
death rates?

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 Section 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and
Process at Many Levels
 Ecosystem – emphasis shifts from species to the
flows of energy and nutrients through both biotic and
abiotic components of the ecosystem. Includes
questions such as:
 At what rate are energy and nutrients converted into
biomass, including new individuals?
 At what rate are energy and nutrients in organisms
broken down, including decomposition after death?

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 Section 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and
Process at Many Levels
 Landscape – a patchwork of ecosystems in which
spatial patterns are important
 How are energy and nutrients exchanged between
ecosystems?
 Global scale – focus on the distribution of different
types of ecosystems or biomes
 How do patterns of biological diversity vary in different
biomes?

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 Section 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and
Process at Many Levels
 Biosphere – emphasis on the linkages between
ecosystems and other components of Earth, such as
the atmosphere
 How are nutrients such as carbon exchanged
between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems?
 Subdisciplines in ecology are organized based on
these different levels
 identifying linkages to other levels is an important
goal

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 The scientific method is a process that begins
with observation.
 In order to be investigated by science, something
must be observable.
 This observation must be repeatable by different
observers.
 Why is this repeatability important?
 What are the steps in this process?

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 Once an observation has been made, the next step
is to form a question based on that observation
 observation: in a North American prairie grassland,
the rate at which plant biomass is being produced
varies across the landscape (measured as grams per
meter squared (m2) per year)
 question: What environmental factors result in the
observed variation in grassland productivity across
the landscape?

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 Once a question has been asked (the problem to be
investigated has been established), the next step is
the development of a hypothesis
 development of a hypothesis is guided by knowledge
of the system being studied
 Hypothesis: an educated guess about what the
answer to the question might be
 this is a statement of cause and effect that can be
tested

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 For the grassland question, a hypothesis would be:
 The observed variations in the growth and
productivity of grasses across the prairie landscape
are a result of differences in the availability of soil
nitrogen
 There may be more than one hypothesis, but we
must only test one at a time

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 Because this is a statement of cause and effect, the
predictions that follow can be tested. A prediction
would be:
 if soil nitrogen is the limiting factor, grass productivity
should be greater in areas with higher levels of soil
nitrogen than in areas with lower levels
 Testing the hypothesis involves testing the
prediction(s) to see if it holds true
 This requires collecting and analyzing data

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 The highest number of nesting songbirds occurs in
June and July in the northeastern United States.
This statement is most likely a(n):

A. hypothesis
B. observation
C. prediction
D. question
E. hypothesis testing

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 The highest number of nesting songbirds occurs in
June and July in the northeastern United States.
This statement is most likely a(n):

A. hypothesis
B. observation
C. prediction
D. question
E. hypothesis testing

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 Data to test a hypothesis can be collected in many
different ways.
 For the prairie grassland example:
 field study: take samples from different sites in the
landscape, then compare nitrogen availability and
grass productivity

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Figure 1.5

800

700
Productivity (g/m2/yr)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 2 4 6 8 10
Available N (g/m2/yr)
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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 A field experiment allows the investigator to
manipulate one condition in a field setting
 Take a single large field, subdivide it into plots
 Add nitrogen to some plots and not others
 controlling the independent variable
 Measure plant growth on all of the plots (dependent
variable)
 Experimental site must vary minimally in other
factors, such as moisture and acidity

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Figure 1.6

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 You have collected field samples of nitrogen and
determined grass productivity at each site. Which
statement best describes the results shown in this
graph?

A. productivity decreases as available nitrogen

increases
B. available nitrogen increases as productivity
increases
C. productivity increases as available nitrogen
increases
D. available nitrogen decreases as productivity
increases
E. there is no relationship between these two variables
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Figure 1.5

800

700
Productivity (g/m2/yr)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 2 4 6 8 10
Available N (g/m2/yr)
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 You have collected field samples of nitrogen and
determined grass productivity at each site. Which
statement best describes the results shown in this
graph?

A. productivity decreases as available nitrogen

increases
B. available nitrogen increases as productivity
increases
C. productivity increases as available nitrogen
increases
D. available nitrogen decreases as productivity
increases
E. there is no relationship between these two variables
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 When analyzing data, cause and effect are
important
 Available nitrogen is the cause
 independent variable
 shown on the x-axis
 Plant productivity is the effect, influenced by the
availability of nitrogen
 dependent variable
 shown on the y-axis

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 Do these data prove that nitrogen is the only factor
influencing plant productivity?
 What other factors could be responsible for the
relationship seen in the field study?

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 These data do not prove that nitrogen is the only
factor influencing plant productivity
 Other factors, such as soil moisture or acidity could
be responsible for the observed relationship
 What is another way to examine the relationship
between grass productivity and available nitrogen?

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 An experiment is a test of the hypothesis under
controlled conditions
 Unlike the field study, one factor can be examined at
a time
 How would you set up an experiment to test the
relationship between grass productivity and
available nitrogen?

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 Section 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature
Using the Scientific Method
 A laboratory experiment allows the investigator
greater control over the experimental conditions
 Grow the grasses in a greenhouse
 temperature, soil moisture, and soil acidity can be
kept constant
 investigate only the effect of nitrogen availability
 But greenhouse conditions are different than those
in a field so response may be different than in a field
environment

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Figure 1.7

(a) (b)

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 Section 1.6 Models Provide a Basis for
Predictions
 A model is an abstract, simplified representation of a
real system
 Developed from results of observations and
experiments
 Can be descriptive (qualitative) or mathematical
(quantitative)
 Why is a model useful?

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 Section 1.6 Models Provide a Basis for
Predictions
 Grassland example:
 Qualitative model – grass productivity will increase
with increasing nitrogen availability
 Quantitative model – plot data from the field study,
then develop a regression equation (statistical
model) to predict the amount of grass productivity
that will be present per unit of nitrogen in the soil

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 Section 1.6 Models Provide a Basis for
Predictions
 y  (x  b)  a
 b (slope)  75.2, a (y-intercept)  88.1
 What is the predicted productivity for a site with
available nitrogen (x) of 5 g/m2/yr?

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Figure 1.8

800
y  (x ⋅ 75.2)  88.1
700
Productivity (g/m2/yr)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 2 4 6 8 10
Available N (g/m2/yr)
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Section 1.7 Uncertainty Is an Inherent
Feature of Science
 The scientific method is a continuous process of
testing and correcting explanations to refine our
understanding of the world around us
 Usually simplify the system being studied in order to
establish cause and effect
 As a result, only part of the picture is seen
 What is meant by “science is essentially a self-
correcting activity”?

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 Section 1.7 Uncertainty Is an Inherent
Feature of Science
 Science is a search for evidence that proves our
concepts wrong
 There is often more than one possible explanation
for an observation
 develop multiple hypotheses
 test each one to eliminate those that are not correct
 Debate is an essential part of science and
uncertainty is an inherent part of the scientific
process

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 What are some of the physical and chemical
(abiotic) parts of the environment?
 How do ecologists gain information on these?

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 Ecologists must draw on information from other
sciences
 Geology
 Hydrology
 Meteorology

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 For example:
 plants take up water, influencing soil moisture and
surface water flow
 plants lose water to the atmosphere, increasing water
vapor and influencing precipitation
 the geology of an area influences the available water
and nutrients that plants need

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 Today, many ecologists are studying the dominant
role that humans are playing in earth’s ecosystems
 What are some impacts that humans are having on
the environment?

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 Today, many ecologists are studying the dominant
role that humans are playing in earth’s ecosystems
 There are four main areas of impact:
 human population growth
 biological diversity
 sustainability
 global climate change

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 Section 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to
Other Disciplines
 The environmental problems caused by humans are
ecological problems
 Ecology allows us to understand the causes and
identify ways to lessen their impacts
 Environmental science provides a broader,
interdisciplinary approach that includes social,
political and ethical dimensions to these problems

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 Section 1.9 The Individual Is the Basic Unit
of Ecology
 What is an individual?
 Why is the individual the basic unit of ecology?

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 Section 1.9 The Individual Is the Basic Unit
of Ecology
 The individual organism senses and responds to its
environment
 The individual reproduces, passing its genetic
information to future individuals that will be part of
future populations, communities, and ecosystems

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Ecology has its roots in plant geography and natural
history from the 1800s
 Plant geographers traveled the world and noticed
that similar climates had similar vegetation, although
the species were different
 Plant association: correlation of vegetation with
environmental characteristics
 realization that the form and function of plants reflects
their physical environment

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 New generation of scientists began to examine the
relationship between plant biology and plant
geography
 Integration of plant morphology, physiology,
taxonomy, and biogeography had a strong influence
on the development of ecology

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Other areas of natural history also played
important roles in the development of ecology
 Charles Darwin: theory of the origin of species by
means of natural selection
 Gregor Mendel: principles of inheritance of genetic
information from one generation to the next
 Works by these scientists provided the
mechanisms needed to understand the link
between organisms and their environment

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Early plant ecologists focused on observing patterns
of organisms in nature, understanding how patterns
formed and were maintained by interactions with the
physical environment
 initial ideas on succession and ecosystems
 Other early ecologists investigated the relationships
between aquatic plants, animals, and their
environment
 initial ideas on nutrient cycles, energy flow, and
feeding relationships

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Energy flow and nutrient cycles stimulated further
studies that became a foundation or ecosystem
ecology
 using radioactive tracers to measure the movements
of energy and nutrients through ecosystems
 using computers to analyze large amounts of data
 gave rise to systems ecology: the application of
general systems theory and methods to ecology

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Animal ecology was largely independent of early
plant ecology and developed later, in the early
1900s
 Emphasis on the interrelationship between plants
and animals
 Focus on the science of communities

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Includes contributions from natural history’s
observations on animal behavior; gave rise to
ethology, a discipline within biology that focuses on
behavior
 Behavioral ecology is an offshoot – focuses on
intraspecific and interspecific relationships

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Study of the growth of natural populations also
spawned:
 Population ecology: focuses on population growth,
regulation, and interactions, including competition and
predation
 Evolutionary ecology: focuses on studying the role of
natural selection in adaptations and speciation

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Other areas within ecology include:
 Physiological ecology: concerned with the responses
of individual organisms to environmental conditions
 Community ecology: focuses on species interactions

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Advances in the 20th century led to new areas of
study
 Landscape ecology: explores spatial processes that
linked adjacent communities and ecosystems; uses
remote sensing data
 Conservation ecology: applies principles from
different fields, including ecology, economics, and
sociology to preserve biodiversity

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 Ecological Issues & Applications: Ecology
Has a Rich History
 Restoration ecology: uses principles of ecosystem
function to restore and manage disturbed areas
 Global ecology: study of Earth as a system
 Ecology is a multifaceted discipline

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