| ARMIES OF THE | CALIPHATES 862-1098w+ Somcation of the ‘Abbasial ee = Moatadir Bila, traq => contury. (National seem Bsghdad) ARMIES OF THE CALIPHATES 862-1098 INTRODUCTION s divide history into periods dominated by on China, Western Europe and \eir moment in the sun, but from th 8th to 11th centuries the Islamic world led the way. Nevertheless Isla ilitary power pr fragmenta Greece, Rome, Ind have all had ked in the 9th cent ; after which politic 's technological and organisational jority could not be fully effective. At the start of this Islamic golden age the Sunni Muslim ‘Abbasid ph ital at Baghelacl, lly the € world. By the end ofit, the spiritual authority of the ‘Abbasiel Caliphs was still accepted by most Muslims, yet they had little politic: ‘tually no military power. The ‘Abbasid collapse was, however, the result of economic bankruptcy rather than military defeat, A sequence of military dictators followed, while distant provinces of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate continued to fall away. This pattern of history means that medieval Islamic history is best studied on the basis of ruling dynasties rather than on geographical Another characteristic feature was the “h sation’ of most da more limited “Turkification’ of their cavalry élites. Never= theless, many traditional Arab military values were retained by non-bedu s, such as physical toughness, wily warfare and an avoidance of ties. Arab ideals of manhood had also been inherited, above all the idea that men should do something to promote what they believed in, rather than aceept insult or injustice passively. Similarly, family origins counted for relatively little, a was given to indlividual faith tral to the motivation of soldiers, whether professionals or part-time sR an increasingly important role in most armies, for both legal and_ mor As authority fragmented, arr and more profession legated to urban militias and the from A fully developed ‘the appeared, with books written on alll aspects. k Tactika had been known since the 8th century, and other Byzantine and Greek military or naval ma neant that Isla supe swith its re Islamic I greater respect hievements. The Muslim mained ce volunte ious scholars also played @ reasons. ies became smaller 1, while pa ry of wart pic translations of Aelian’s C als were similarly translated. Treatises were also takeVOLGA BULGARS: ‘Khwarazm nsoiPoe Purian a = aN ‘Khurdsain a inva wulan.abaristan Siistan = cha avian » Ea. Kirman_Siad ‘BYZANTINE: Zazira axevosigon » Fars = = EMPIRE, gc “teag Hadhramaw "Misr 10 MAKURIA, = ETHIOPIA! WA THE ISLAMIC WORLD c.910AD = main provinces underlined ss from Persian, Indian and possibly oth updated to deal with current condi successor states of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate vied to continue exists military systems with Ii nd under differing Ic conditions. Weaker political foundations among such successor sta also meant that waging jifdd in defence of Islam became more impor as a way of conferring legitimacy to a regime. HEARTLANDS AND FRONTIERS ‘The decline of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate coincided with unrest in m: regions and a shift in trade patterns. One result was the decline of Irv wealth and potential, and an increase in that of Egypt. A virtual coll of central authority in 10th century Syria and the Jazira (Up; Mesopotamia) led to a revival in the power of Arab bedouin tibes w established several small though cultured states close to the Byzan frontier. In Egypt, as in Syria, Christians still formed the majority of population, but here civilians took almost no part in warfare. In f Egypt, Libya and Syria together formed the culturally brilliant, tho: militarily weak Fatimid Caliphate. lis armies were almost entirely i Egyptian and increasingly mercenary. Furthermore, they were between Sunni Mus m Turks, Armenian Christians, Africans (wlloyalty to. the 2s personal rather ious), and several stually antago- soups. Arabia, the 1s of the Islamic world, although in reality many of those called nn writte sources were not ethnically or even linguistically Many ghuldms from Islam’s north-eastern frontier were Iranian Beng Transoxan property of their masters until manumitted, these ghulams mportant that they were treated well. Loss of the ghulams’ loyalty problem for any ruler, and could result from inadequate insulting treatment. Homosexuality flourished t and was widely accepted in Persia, though not in Arab areas, » also caused problems of jealousy and cruelty, During the 10th he gheuiim system spread beyond Iran and Iraq even to vate Christian states such as Georgia and Armenia. Here some of those graced with the title of ghulam were mere aries of pagan Russian or Viking origin. ansoxania remained the uuldms, with Samarkand as the main market. A few were recorded in detail. One man, for example, called Alptegin, : commander of a mixed regiment of Turkish ghuldm cavalry and Z i freeborn infantry, but was defeated in one of Iraq's civil wars Se © wok his men to Syria in 974. There they operated as a band of ers before being enlisted by the Fatimid Caliph. Another » officer named. Anushtegin was probably a Transoxanian Iranian s who would today be called Tajiks, Though such an envi: in area for assembling the slaves who pecome han a Turk, He was captured around Khuttal, taken to Kashgar escaped and went to Bukhara where he may have surrendered oluntarily before being taken via Baghdad 10 Damascus. ‘ThereIvory plaque showing an Infantryman with a mail shirt, a large round shield and two ‘double-ended javetins, probably {rom Islamic Sicily, 11th century. (Musoum for Islamische Kunst, Inv. nr. K. 3101, Staatliche Museen, Bertin) he was sold in 1009 at the age of 20 toa Fain officer called Dizbar. Anushtegin adopted ti name alDizbari and for three years held useful but unexciting adminisu before being given to the Fatimid Caliy alHlakim as a gift. In the Galiph’s palac Anushtegin al-Dizbari received a comple education before becoming an office alHakim’s army, He served in Syria and Egyp crushed a bedouin revolt and was mac governor of Ba'albek where he purchased own ghuléms, He was made governor « Palestine in 1023 before being sent to de with an uprising in Aleppo, Feeling threatenc by political intrigues, he proclaimed h dependence, but was forced out by loyalis troops and died in 1042, the same year th thousands of miles away in western Europ. Edward the Confessor became king of Engl Slave soldiers of other origins hac on localised. impact. Indians, for example, on seem to have been found in the easter provinces. Sometimes the precise origins European slave troops is unclear, since all tended to be called Rim *Romans', or Sagaliba, ‘Stays’ by Muslim chroniclers. One such ma called Labib the Devout, became an infantry soldier then married | former master’s widow. Bitten bya snake and paralysed for awhile, Labi recovered, shaved off his ‘military moustache’ and. be religion ascetic. The Sagdiliba initially consisted of Slavs and Ugrians from th pagan regions of eastern Europe and the Balkans, but only becar militarily significant under the Aghlabids in Tunisia, the Fatimids igypt and in Islamic Sicily. A more abundant source of military manpower for Egypt ar North Africa was black Africa. The importance of such African troops often called ‘abid rather than ghudams, has been neglected. Though the impact was localised it was important. Substantial numbers of blac troops were seen in Egypt from the early 9th century and, like those w served in Aghlabid armies, were generally known as Siiddnis, renowne for their obedience. The Fatimid army relied on them to a substant extent following the move from T ypt, and they formed the army under the Caliph al-Hakim (996-1020). Men known as zanj1: largely have been freeborn African volunteers By the 10th and 11th centuries thousands of free Turki mercenaries were drifting south in search of military employment. Som came from pagan tribes who converted in order to be accepted, whi others came from tribes who already lived within the Islamic borders, b» as yet the only dynasty which depended entirely on Turkish troops w= the Turkish Qarakhanids. As the “Abbasid previous! aliphate fragmented, Arab troops who he been deleted from the official military registers rose ce once again within Arab-speaking areas. Amsdi nselves into local militias or religiously motivatS like Syria or Palestine, As a result, most = of the population in northern Syria and 2 were militarised by the end of the 11th Arabspeaking troops and naval marines played a major role in Egypt and North But to confuse matters, many Arabe Sng troops were lumped together with the African Berbers by eastern chroniclers as s or ‘Westemers’. “Tribal Arab troops i to Egyptian army lists in the later nd the becouin slowly settled down ing aristocracy whose military ace reflected their changing political alth and prestige. r speaking Persians, Daylamis, sand Tajiks had a major military impact in to Ith centuries, as the power of the sis (820.872) and Samanids (892-999) was = spon the indigenous minor aristocracy of while the second most important group Ghaznavid (962-1186) army were Iranians. ‘ost renowned were Daylami infantry in folk from northern Iran. Their profes- or mercenary éli esed infantry riding mules or camels, their sceristic weapon being the ziipin double- spear which could also be used as a javelin. ce they had become an established slamis attracted others into their ranks, nga young man from 10th century Ahwaz aving squandered his inheritance on wine sic, befriended the Daylamis, learned th ad used his remaining money to buy two 4 pair of horses, a set of javelin, armour ner necessary kit. He then dressed his b fashion, ate garlic to give himself bad. andl joined the garrison of Basra. Mther ethnic groups had a much more impact. Hindu and Buddhist Indians, for ted by the Ghaznavids. Br on of the heretical Pauli ie served as mobile ite eee many into supporting local Muslim rule: ‘of Malatya, Armenian infantry archers and armoured were also found in Hamdanid (929-1003) and } ©1079) forces in northern Syria, while others travelled further for work, particularly to Egypt where their importance increased erably in the 11th century. Other Christian mercenaries were few vbex, though Fatimid forces included some hired soldiers from and western Europe, ity of eastern , most notably TOP Vaulted audience chamber In the fortross-palaco of Alldabya, Libya, bull for the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'iz in 972. (Libyan Ministry of Antiquities photograph) ABOVE Wall-painting from \Nishapar, 10th century Iranian. (Archaeological Museum, Tehran)10 Kurds only emerged as a significant military force in the 11th tury, although other Kurdish cavalry had been recorded in 1 forces near the Indian frontier, Berber troops dominated North African armies and navies, though numer= ically, rather than in military prestige. Following the Fatimid conquest of Egypt, Berbers also predominated in Egyptian armies until the mid-l1th century. The Islamic conquests Sicily and southern Maly resulted in Italian, Lombard and Greek converts becoming Muslim soldiers. Black African infantry archers operating in 10th century Cilicia, called Aathiopians by their Byzantine foes, are unlikely to have come from what is now Ethiopia. The black zanj in the Fatimid army included free mercenaries who did not necessarily originate in the land of Zanj, the Arab name for much of the East African coast. An ancient population also existed along the coast of Oman before becoming Arabised around the LOth century. These Bayas traditionally came from Sind and were recruited as sailors or mar Christian Arabs still formed a majority in Syria, and one Mirdasid ruler of 11th century Aleppo employed a Christian army commander named Tadhrus [bn al-Hasan. The local Jewish population could also help defend Aleppo fror external attack. Indigenous Copts had long played a role in Egyptian navies, but the late 9th century ‘Tildnid ruler, Khumérawayh, also atempted to raise a bodyguard from the peasants of the Nile Delta. Part-time militias played a major role in medicval Islamic warfare. The terminology of such militias changed over the centuries. The term ahdath reappeared in the 10th century when it applied to a militia, as distinct from the governor's shurtah, garrison or police. The term shurtah came to mean a police force recruited from the urban poor, Several Syrian cities had their own ma'ina militia. In Egypt, meanwhile, aldath seems to have meant younger garrison soldiers, rather than mil Religious volunteers had been a feature of Islamic armies since the earliest days. Some now formed fundamentalist rebel armies fighting existing Islamic governments. The Khariji and Qarmati movements came under this category. TOP Gabri-ware jug showing Other frontier irregulars were the sa‘aliks who consisted of assorted foot soldier with a war-axe, adventurers who gathered around official and unofficial leaders. pee ae ee eee By the 9th century ‘Abbasid Iraq was importing horses from Central Asia, while Arabia and Somalia were exporting horses to Indi The price of mounts was varied and volatile, with huge differentials ABOVE Coramie from th-10% between paek horses and the best cavalry mounts. Wealthier successor century Nishapar showing a states attempted to copy the ‘Abbasid kidn alkhayl, or state stabling — S@valtyman with a lamellar system, but again in a more modest way. The “Abbasid st re en a eeawerer en bles we shirt. (Museum of Istamic Arts, centred upon a huge complex with a large staff and substantial Sharjan, UAE) administration, and only the wealthy Fitimid dynasty seemed able to ma anything on this scale, Camels were vital beasts of burden and were much cheaper than horses, single-humped dromedaries and tworht pecl Bactrians being used in different regionstower flanking the sewance to the castle of . frst built by the saran al-Rashid and ved by Sayt al-Dawi seth century. (Author's 20h) ORGANISATION The ‘ard, or military review, played a major role in 1g and equipment of ic armies. It gave commanders a the organisation, taini medieval Is chance to test theirabilities and enabled a ruler to assess the size ace of their forces. The pay xs also rose steadily along with increasing professionalisation and a reduction in numbers. Cavalry were normally paid twice or three times as much as infantry, since a horseman had his animal and its hi Guard regiments received even more, differentials between soldiers, officers and commanders could be staggering The early ‘Abbasid military structure was, in fact, contraction from the 9th century onwards obliged the later ‘Abbasids and successor states to find other ways of paying their armies, initially through tax farming by military commanders and eventually through the igtd system where a certain piece of territory was allocated to-a specific commander so that he could use its revenues to pay himself and his followers. The pa ops became the main consideration for governments in almost every comer of the Islamic world. The main variation was in successor states where the dynasty xceptionally expensive, But economic nent of depended on tribal troops. Here the ruler’s primary concern might be the provision of grazing for the flocks of such nomadic tribes. Never- theless, cash remained vital for all Islamic successor states and where it could not be raised by taxation, it would be raised by tribute from local towns, In fact, towns within amorphous tribal states enjoye¢ nove around with the autonomy, particularly when rulers tended to alf of cult ibal supporters, The result wa accent and scientific brilliance within a commonwealth of Is statelets. characteristic adminis- d civilian élites were separated where possible, with military families con- Each successor state also developed its ow tration, although the ‘Abbasids remained the model. Mil ‘Abbasid officer structure, 1 gad 1,000, a nagiés 100, and ceality th centrated in distinet suburbs. The traditic where an amirsupposedly ted 10,000 r an ‘ariften, remained the id been disbanded by the new Anir ai-Umava in 936. Instead, the new a but old ‘Abbasid army had consisted of regiments under virtually autonomous amirs, or nanders. Patterns of loyalty were different to those seen in the early im unit following the death of its orig’ a sensitive matter and was normally transferred to its own senior officer, This commander found employment for his regiment, while the younger soldiers were layal to him rather than the state. Such regiments, though dominated by cavalry, sometimes had infantry closely associated lieval Europe. Jstind’, or the allegiance of a | patron was "Gold medallion showing the ‘Buwayhid prince ‘Agud al-Dawla, late 10th century. (Freer Gallery of Art, Washington) with them, Specialist technical troops also existed, though it is «il to determine how they fitted into the system, For example, manjaniy mangoneloperators, were found within most cities and fortresses, lec anir and recruited from experienced soldiers, The same may h een the case with nafatin, fire troops. The famous ‘Abbasid fi hoypital had declined, but existed in some of the betterequipped | century armies, While ‘Abbasid traditions remained the ideal, local va ‘emerged. In Iranian-speaking or influenced regions, pre-Islamic Pers military terms reappeared in the 9th to 11th centuries, such as sadar sipalvsalar, meaning commander, isxpakbadl, army chief, and_sarhe junior officer. The shortlived Saffarid dynasty (867-903) was. s consciously Iranian, holding its military reviews during the Naw Persian New Year. Drums summoned men to parade where they a» their kit were inspected, each man being entered in the déwén (lis according to physical description in a manner recalling military para¢ in pre-Islamic Sassanian Iran. The rival Samanids (874-999) were equa! conscious of their Iranian identity, though in their last years a Turks general took control of the state and adopted the high-flown Arabic of air al-umara’ alomwayyad min at-sama’ ~*Commander of Commance with Heavenly Backing’. In western Iran and Iraq, the Buwayhids built their power up: Daylami mountain warriors as well as a corps of Turkish ghuldms. [tv probably tension between these two parts which necessitated separs reviews. In an attempt to bind their heterogeneous army together, « Buwayhids used complex chains of oaths of mutual loyalty and supp between leading officers and between officers and men, Away to the © the Ghaznavids fielded a mixed army in which each ethnic group generally commanded by an officer of its own origins. Ghaznavs ghulams were led by the Sali Ghuldman, who was second in rank to anny commander himself, while at the other end of the scale © commander of a frontier ribaf fort was the lowest officer rank. T) Qurakhanid state t0 the north was a collection of autonomous Tur fiefdoms, and its military administration was firmly based on Cene Asian tribal traditions. In the Anatolian shughiy, or frontier regions, highly militar towns had developed within agricultural areas inhabited by w farming militias descended from earlier Arab troops. Tarsus was « such town, and shortly before it fell to the Byzantines in 965 it deseribed in detail by an Arab geographer. It had two walls, the ow gates being covered in iron, while the inner gates were entirely of The large towers had manjanig, beamsling stone throwing machines top, and middlesized towers had ‘arrida, torsion-powered. sto throwers. Small turrets were defended by men with crossbows, while # walls were manned by archers. Some towers were inhabited by lo: residents or volunteers, while others were used as factories, Inside @ ity some barracks had resident armourers and blackmiths, or stab with resident vets. Many were financed by religiously endowed prope rents here and in Syria. Raids were announced on Fridays in the m mosque. Boys spread the message to: muster at a particular gate, whe banners were given to unit commanders and infantry were attache cavalry regiments, Each group carried appropriate weapons, incluous Anatolian frontier s. One of the weaknesses of the mount n isolated valleys rather de mutual n the fertile lands of northern Syria, the s that many of its fortified cities were ated by mountains, which m ies of upland oases sepa Aifficult, Further south mic dynasties had greater military potential, but their n cere similarly vulnerable to Byzantine attack. ¢ Aghlabid dynasty of Ifriqiya (800-909) relied upon the old din cash. Nevertheless, it sident garrisons whom they largely pa Aghlabids who introduced the igid’ system to Sicily following its A comparable system was used by the Tildnids in Egypt tof Qata’a” just 5), who also built the new military cantonmer hira (Cairo), Taldnid the Fitimids’ later palace-city of al-Qi ks all year, but went into the ing billeted with Coptic = did not, however, remain in ba a to pasture their horses, the troops b Another major Egyptian garrison centre was Alexandria, and nits were spread along the coast sation of the Fatimid army (969-1171) is one of the best nted in Islamic history. The force which conquered Egypt for the Caliph may have numbered up to 100,000 men, but was later aximum of 25,000, up to 15, en tribally organised, wh \¢ orga .000 of whom were ». The original army had be 1, these reforms being part of ne was regime policy {a military structure based upon that of their ‘Abbasid Fatimid ranking led amirs or qa’éds ass, which included af the Necklace of the Silver Cane snior amirs without of off sh was in command Vital Syrian gare where most later id wars were fought, the isfahsalar was arge of military cere- al. Special diwans, government depart- s included the diwan sh responsible for ws. The diwan atigid’ ined the increasingly e. The amir Carved wooden panels which originally formed one of the doors to the Fatimid Caliph’s Palace. (Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo) ‘The small fort in al-Rabadah, 2 10th century way-station on the strategic Darb Zubaydah road across Arabia from Iraq to Mecca ‘and Medina. 1314 A fully armoured soldier on a 10th century plate from Nish@pds. (Met. Musoum of Art, Inv. 66.176, Now York) The city walls of Diyarbakir were rebuilt in the early 10th century. (Author's photograph) important igtd’ system, and the diwdn als was responsible for paying the troops cig! twelve times a year. There lso have bec fourth diwan in charge of military pensions, « which seem to have been run by Christian cle To make things more complicated, payin differed depending on whether the unit question was an élite regiment, a garrison { ssimilated into a local population, the moves garrison ofa castle, or merely a semi-regular tr force. Iglas were often associated with a spec number of peasants rather than a piece of | and other igtas consisted of marginal land on desert fringe, allocated to tribal leaders in rev for help in war. Defence of the southern fr facing Nubia was largely delegated to the Kanz al-Dawla dynasty by the early 11th cent the Buwayhids, the Fatimids relied or system of patronage to cement military loyal Am inadequate performance on the battlefield was to some de balanced by ig ceremonies back in Cairo, where military pars were used as a way of projecting Fatimid prestige. These were important that special arsenals were created for flags, tents, decorate weapons and horse harnesses, uniforms, musical instruments, books Caliphal regalia, in addition to ordinary arsenals for arms, armc harness and food supplies. The treatment of prisoners during this period is well document It tended to be harsher in times of defeat than of victory, and the were more likely to be killed than the young. Higher ranks were me likely to be ransomed than lower, while those captured during n= raids normally survived. Prisoner exchange systems across the Islan Byzantine frontier were highly organised, and released Muslim prisone were interrogated by the Master of the Frontier Post to weed out sp Naval captives were ransomed at selected places along the coast, such Gaza, Mimas, Ascalon, Ashdud, Yubna, Jaffa and Arsuf in Pales na WEAPONRY Elite cavalry were of heavily armoured used horse-armour; subsequent willingness Islamic cavalry to the First Crusade close quarters suggests confidence in thei armour. Talis 2 amulets were also im ortant, particularly a soldiers, since there widespread belief in maswas itself divided to the “good” a he lawful and the un Naturally, there were ag from local trad regional variations ns and wealth, S generally known by Arabic rather avalry axes. y Tran and rANSOX: mil infan ry wore pink £ stone-thro\ nid armour tary equipment involved trade ials, especially as the main iron es of the Islamic world lay either close to iers or beyond them, As a result gow + took a close interest in trade in str ‘The Bab al-Nagr gate in Cairo, built in 1087. (Author's photograph) ‘This painted paper probably symbolised Turkish ghulim cavalry and Berber infantry in the 11th century Fatimid army. (ausoum of tslamic Art, Cairo) FST Y | ERE A 1516 ly bal materials. I \d timber was part need remarkably effective pattern of long distance de in raw mate n steel, for example, was made of iron, some of whic Zast Africa, Malaya and Indonesia. Inge reed Indian er brought from highly re ible steel were then re-exp: to swordsmiths over Long distance trade in finished weapons and harne was even more complex. Military equipment was made in major cities, but larger seale production was concentrate reas closer to sources of raw materials. Good qu: ity wea could also pass through several hands as booty. Incian blades were still sought after, though by the 9th century scem to have taken second place to those from the Rhine some of which were exported via the isolated I: of Volga Bulgar in Russia, ali arms, armour and basic raw materials to Eg despite consistent Papal bans on this trade. distribution of military equipment within Isla sates was largely controlled by governments fr their own arsenals. Wealthy governments also weaponry to less well equipped allies. The manufacturing methods used. by Islamic armourers seen been remarkably sophisticated and modern. Mild steel creasingly used for sword-blades and spearheads, and there w several recognised ways of making such steel. So-called Damaseene s seer reineeeeetinan — wasmade from ingots containing a great deal of cementite (iron carbs cewek bctoercee sim —castat-very:hi ature. The result was hard but brittle, and centuries (Castle Museum, pattern on the finished blade was achieved by breaking up this netw Bodrum). € - Pommel and of cementite with repeated hammering and bending at fairly aquitions from a bronze sword: temperature. Muslim swordsmiths used the colour of the metal as th ee esta, _ temperature guide, while European smiths, lacking exper forged at higher temperat ide high-carbon steel cru wwolved in the Is to highly specialised groups. Hence the ma plete sworel, scabbard and swordbelt involved numer men doing one small part cach. Western Europe 1 merchants brow A- Iron sword-guard, sth-9th cconturies, from al-Rabadah (opt. of Archaeology, King Sous University, Riyadh). B ~ Bronze h temp nee, nor s which +: legis Natio fo Other evidence suggests that crafismen Chamosen, 9th-10th centuries, dustry were ¢ with decorative strips across the facture of a con bowl (Schweizerisches Landes n armourers ‘museum, inv. 40514, Zurich). 2s An fonhelnat very simiarto _Pktved a role in the Egyptian arms industry during the Figimid perio« ‘te Chamoren exemple: felenke Bronze was used to a much greater extent than in Eurc Museum, Kayrawan. presumably because of the shortage of iron in the Is wor with sword hilts, scabb: mounts and items of he ha ness. being made or clay moulds sha from bror Gluing layers of harde leather was a natural of making effective shic} but the use of leat to make helmet, lame and splinted armour ag suggests a shortage of i in the region. © matricSwords ranged fro broad, non-tapering and almost bluntended » weapons, to slender curving cavalry sabres adopted from the Ssh steppe peoples of Central Asia. The appearance of the First real es in Islamic armies remains unclear, but a few such weapons might deen seen in eastern Ir n by the late 9th century. The earliest term arved sabres was probably gardjiléya, a word possibly derived from Turkish word kilij, meaniny A sabre with an 4 ption has also been found im a 9th-L0th cent hacological s <= Mongolia, while another with an 11th century Ar found in northern Russia. Its blade was hammer-welded ser than forged from steel, and is thought to have been ma sman in the Caucasus, The dagger used by many more like a short sword for use in close combi were said to have hilts partly made of red stone or crystal. A different form of dagger was the 11th ry Berber yéfrit, which was a slender thrusting weapon, Spears were so commonplace that they rarely attracted detailed tions, The most detailed information on spears and staff weapons cs from al-Tarsusi who wrote for Saladin in the 12th century but ‘his work on earlier Fatimid traditions, He stated that the gun- A was a standard cavalry weapon which could be used in the same as Crusader knights. The dariyah or sariyah was an try pike around four metres long, one third of which was the blade ‘ts long protective socket. The sabarbahah < with a blade approximately 17cms wide a form of infantry polearm. The most dis- ve javelin was the double-edged. siipin of wtami foot soldiers, whereas the khisht used by = bedouin infantry was a lighter javelin, The iyah or feranyjiyah used by Fatimid armies. Its 1 ifianji, or “Europ id suggest that it had nw the blade. nenian from 10th century eched mann another obscure were widely used as Maces and ax nonial court or parade weapons, coming in a of plain or decorated forms, mostly of iron 1es of bronze. The most distinctive was att, whieh had gated { designed to strike the legs of cavalry horses. nachakh, an axe with a halémoon blade, was scribed as suitable for cavalry fighting infantry. the fabarzin, or relatively small head at the back. Most bows were of comp angled composite bow seems to vred until the Hith century wh ually replaced by the smoothly rect ish bow. ‘The angled ears served as levers » made the bow easier to draw, but being they stored no energy and indeed wasted nfantryn fle-axe’, with La construction. ‘The Baghdad Gate in Raga, the Jazira area of eastern Syria, (uuthor's photograph)“The turban, woaponry and saddle of St. Eustace on ‘the lower panel point to the 9th-10th century and powerful Influence trom neighbouring Islamic iran. (Stone altar screen trom Teabelda Church, S.N. Djanashiya State Museum, ‘Tolisi) a 8 A~ Early medieval bronze ‘spearhead from southern Jordan. (islamic Museum, Mazar) B- Iron knife with wooden orip from Qasr Ibrim, Nubian éth-9th a aay energy when the bow was released, The sm recurved Turkish form was normally thicker, sli and capable of storing more energy, but cemay greater strength from the r ing the bow. rious shooting aids were used, most import a Persian form of semigauntlet called angushtvanah, or in ustuban, whieh. prote between two and four fingers. The qaws abbundi ‘pellet bow’, was a hunting weapon to stun bs ements, such as whe id court shat at the bottor nt who had been orderee an unfortunate serva kneel on the floor. The hushn, or ‘arrow-guide’, has sometimes confused with early references to crossbows. The reference to proper hand-held crossbows, called aLrijl or ‘foot bows’, was among ‘Abbasid infantr the second half of the 9th century. The fr mounted type were used by ‘Abbasid soldi battle in the late 9th century, while large and small crossbows were ts the Islamic Middle East during the 10th century, Among then nal jarkh or charkh was spanned by a windlass and shot arrows size of javelins. The crossbow used by 11th century fitimid Egyy s incorporated an early Arab form of bow and was. powe enough to shoot small bottles of nafl, or ‘Greek Fire’, Other siege weapons inchided the buy, a mova the dubbabah, a shecllike structure rolled forward to protect sappe nagh, or t ating tunnels at an angle to th so that the target remained unelear, and kabsh or sinnawr, rams. Sv throwing machines were designed to break parapets and elear the wa enemy troops. They included the ‘arrdda powered by twisted ropes m the beams acting Tike arms of a crossbow; the simple man-powered beamsling manjani mangonel; and the rufilah, which may have thrown several smaller ste ke grapeshot Defenders countered by tying to destroy the enemy's siege w or by hurling naft (‘Greek Fire’) at his wooden engines. Fire we were highly developed in Islamic armies during this pe Muslim engineers and chemists inherited the technology of Gree Rome, the Byzantines and the accumulated knowledge of Alexa They were also part of a civilisation which encor curiosity and experimentation s being in cor where gunpowder itself would soon be invented. Throughout 9th century naft became increasingly common in e variations. According to a 10th century poem, the blazing liquid propelled through a system of copper pipes and pistons involing crank or lever. The jet was ignited by a cotton wad impregnated (ed with wax to produce a jet of fire ‘as long as a lan ts alr and exc: ny's unted on a chassi yar with two sma ged intellecey as well ct with ( r more terrif ew the secret of distillation, and some m as well as the new ingredient of salip< Ee nniie meee cakes vse. the armour worn by Islami litle, though the ability to forge helmets beeame widespread from rds, Helmets made of two or with or without a reinforeing sces of iron nnued to be used, but the development cd helmet whose corrugated surface greater strength without increased semmed f ility to forge helmets and probably first appeared i ic Middle East in the Lith century. ~se. a warrior protected his neck and swith a hoodlike mail coif or a mail suspended from the rim of sal mail hauberk, called a dir i m the a helmet, the m: Pers € body armour, while the fabri zrally padded kaxdghand spread westward ‘gins in Iran or T ia during the otury. Being shaped like a ly uniden al sources, The lamellar jawshan cuir m the east where it had been most . It could be made of iron, horn or sed leather, wa ly laced with gut a t the side of the body. Jazushans from were heavier than those from Byzantium, and weight could be a problem for a 10th coat, it is prac sy cavalryman. Soft armours were widespread for climatic and memiic reasons since th were cheaper than metal or leather cs. The shi'ar, for example, may have been a form of soft armou ader mail hauberk. Limb defences seem to have largely been abaneoned during the chtury, perhaps because a greater variety of shields came into ust sting a new flatbased but essentially tall kiteshaped mantlet called ‘yah. This was used by ranks of infantry against arrows and its suggests a European Genoese origin, The lamt was another large stinctive shield made of layers of leather which originated among Saharan Berbers. rgusturwdn horse armour could be heavy and was used by a small of heavy cavalry in Transoxania and Iran. The Ghaznavids of nistan and northwest India do not seem to have used much horse- , presumably for climatic reasons, since the problem. of scarmour was not its weight, but that it caused the animal to cat. In 10th century Syria the best Hamdanid. ghulam cavalry rode ses with metallic armour perhaps captured from their Byzantine foes. quilted or felt horse-armour was used by some Lth century id heavy cavalry, with iron horse-armour for the élite few. An iron arhorse excavated at Soba, capital of the Nubian eiom of Alwa, was probably made in Egypt Strong Central Asian influence can be seen in surviving pieces of s from Iran, while decorative horse-collars A fragment of 11th-12th contury Egyptian painted paper showing pair of cavalrymen ‘shaking hands above the carnage ‘of baitle. (Keir Coll. L8, London) 19‘A full set of archery equipment from an 8th-9th century grave ‘at Moshehovaya Balka on the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. (Hermitage, St. Poteraburg) Asian. ing soon to be { far away as North The most common {« cavalry sadalle of Gentral Asian 0 from Khwaraem, a 1 south of the Aral Sea. I broad. and. somewhat with a slightly pommel, two girths Dreast strap: COSTUME AND func than fe Differentiation was by colour, design and quality of fabric, but sine al Islamic sc was fluid rather than class: imitate the hig developing new and mili In southern Arabi seemed close to the traditio’ .ecl, those of lower rank constantly ; while the higher constantly reinve shions. During the 9th to Llth cent 1 Iranian rather than the older Arab fash however, archaic pre-ts ed themsel: ies the po y élites adopt nic styles: persisted Various fabrics were av: Middle and Tunisi ble. Cotton had been grown ir ist since pre-Islamic times, linen was produced in Egypt, S ind the manufacture of silk increased consice was, of course, universal, Surviving textiles show considerable vari dyeing and embroidery, th expensive, The most distinctive form of Isla the fird, or inscription worn on the sleeve. It originally had a function, and the wording of a fird: normally consisted of the B isn or Invocation of God followed by blessings for the Galiph and some while the surrounding decoration could range from the magnifice the rudimentary. Fashion frowned upon mixing different textures of fabrics strongly contrasting colours, as subtlety was highly esteemed. ©: people used fashion in a different way by wearing the simple we garments associated with a religious life andl with “fighting for the F Some schools of religious law frowned on silk which was res Paradise, but a ed that it could be worn by soldiers provided some protection against the sintained th ugh the dyes themselves remained extre costume decoritio: os fectis of wounds. The Is t white was best for men and for b -y could be bh Green was associated with Paradise, descendants of the Pr Muha id and eventually with Islam itself. Black was thoug! protect the. we attitude to colo except for those who fell in battle since th ied as the rer from the ‘evil eye’, or envy, and was the colmourning, while turquoise also protected from the ‘evil eye’, Red was the colour of Satan, but was also associated with love and war, being suitable for women or military men. Yellow became associated with a pleasureseeking lifestyle, though yellow turbans were worn by the descendants of Muhammad's earlier helpers. Headgear could indicate a multitude of things. The most common forms were a cap and a turban which could be wound in different ways. The galansuzoah was a relatively stiff hat of cloth or fur, sometimes quilted, while the qalansuwah tawila Clong qalansiwah’) was taller, and son icknamed a danniya because it looked like ing trom an €th-Oth century wine jar, The qalansuwah shashiyah, or simply shashiyah, was a lower cap -¢ at Moshehovaya Balka. origin Spemitage, St. Petersburg) ting in Transoxania and widely worn by soldiers, some padding beneath a helmet Ceremonial mili It could simply be a matter of magnificence, as with cloth-of- gold turbans, or it could involve jewellery. The ‘robes of honour’ unifor to successful military leaders or officers could similarly include turbans, jeweled fawg necklaces and decorated hors The actual robe of honour was usually a traditional Arab durd’a with a4‘A horseman playing polo on ‘9th-10th century ceramics from Nishapar. (Museum fOr Kunst und Gewerde, inv. nr, 1956, 153, Homburg) braiding and buttons of gold o speaking, however, the old-fashioned loose Arab durra'a was replaced by the tighter she sleeved Persian qabd’ among military men in ( Mh century. Elaborate hor another mark of superior military statu shions were relegated to non- in the 1th century In broad strategic te ng lines of communication, try fer and less fertile areas. Adva ; While infantry garrisoned newly won territory and ¢1 d from different s with specialist ain or de ;, jor concern. ;, while considerable rab armies of 's put huge effort into securing and z to hem their enemy into es were slow and methodical dram: permanent or fielel fortifica sraphical arcas enabled commanders to use soldi ced in mou jons, “Troops recruil =. such as those exper warfal ic re. This w: re whe ibious landing or urban w ~enal soldiers dominat These skills remained after the ‘Abbasid state fragmented, ugh the armies became smaller, Islamic frontier defences were zthened at the peak of ‘Abbasid power, enabling the successor > to resist Byzantine counterattack more effectively than their sizes «i otherwise have warranted, Persistent m3 ned a favourite strategy among small fromtier forces, and. was faded to dermine the foe's economic stability rather than to defeat in open battle, Within the Middle East it was common for tribal ss 10 exert pressure on local governments by pasturing their flocks in Siclds which surrounded cities and to cut down their orcharels, In governments had to consider the cost of prolonged low intensity ist bedauin who also tended to be an important source of pro- dwar ling of enemy territory A set of do's clothes from Moshchevaya Balka including shirt and drawers. (Hermitage, ‘t Petersburg)24 ‘A.crescent carved from natural crystal and dedicated to the Fatimid Caliph al-ZAhir, Egypt 1021-98. The metallic stand! is ater medieval European. (Gormanisches Nationalmuscum, ‘Narberg) ed esses Battlefield tactics re ally me as those developed in the 8th cemu Tabiya close formations stood within ( waditional five-fold khanis of a cenure, vi rearguard and two flanks, Lightly a cavalry formed the vanguard. Heavy caval flanked by infantry archers and followed by ott ry, formed the centre along with | baggage train, hospital and other supp: services, Flanks and rearguard were probaty le any siege train came behind. I tacked before it was ready, its i had to kneel and use spears as pikes wh defending themselves with large leath until their cavalry could counterattack, althous this was recognised as difficult for inexperienc troops. If the army was ready, its infan remained standing and held their spe the upper part of th archers who shot at close intervened if ed. to fight on foot, and the tac horsearchers dismounting and shooting from 1g position having emptied thei the ground before them probably dated back this chests, supporte ange, while cavalry o» the infantry wavered. ( also wai knee quivers up an army in battle array idlered best to have hills at the rear or led ambushes to protect ack. It was best to place the centre was co establish conce: army's raised ground or to have the right flank raised any case, the commander should be on w' high ground was availabl possible he should build a raised wood structure or ride on a camel or elephant. It » best to fight when dust enemy's € their faces they should dismount, Ideally each u first wo fighting, the third protecting that unit's baggage, the fou consisting of light troops covering the baggage and the fifth serving a rearguard. Overall, the battle array would be in crescent shape. necessarily with its wings pushed forwards, but with the centre m numerous than the flanks. They should also have le a zariba, temporary field fortification of baggage and animals, in case they ha¢ retreat. Mubdriziin, ‘champions’, often duelled between opposing for before a battle began, but were urged not to pursue a defeated foe 1 than two-thirds of the way towards the enemy Tine in case they got cut Professional regiments had notably strong discipline, and w normally expected to await an enemy's move rather than initiating attack, Cavalry were expected to charge around the flanks or thro: lanes opened by their infantry, attacking then withdrawing to cither to break the enemy line or to disrupt an enemy attack. Whe and if this was nd sun were and if one’s own cavalry had dus1: Commanding officer, 10th century 2: Feld officer, 1th contury 3: Berber-Saharan infantryman with ‘banner camel’, 10th centuryanced, it did so with infantry ahead of cavalry and should not nore than one-third of the way to the enemy’s m: suit of a routed foe was 1 used to lure an enemy into a vulnerable position. Normally vas done by the flanks, with the centre following up more slowly vantry protected the cavalry from enemy horsemen. The total 1 of an enemy was to be avoided as this only provoked fiercer ce. Elite cavalry were also used for recor ewith the best sand only wearing a mail hauberk rather than a heavier lamellar Above all, scouting parties must avoid lling into naiss: 1g dust or ambushe infantry ensive left flank, while Turkish id are ore prominent role to Dayka aed to put these men on the de walry were concentrated on the & Otherwise, Day! behind its shi ditionally offensive right mi tactics were t lds, then Various detailed description eaknesses of such ta 's. When fighting for control of a st xe in 957, for e: of battles indicate the strengths and Day The former almost lost the battle when they r n cavalry, while the other relied charge by supposedly ‘inferior’ ps who broke through the tired amis then attacked th A few years earlier an ‘Abbasid mander placed naffatin fla ner troops, the wind ch & against his own mei n from the head of his front line, noke d the atin were then killed by archers, ged, blowing The Shahndmah, writen for a ler, described how war =phants formed up to the rear of ed cavalry who were themselves ind rows of infantry. Elsewhere, ihndmah states that eorected the elephants with archers their backs, w wntry with came behind, Je greater use of elephants, not only as mobile mmand posts, but having men ned with spears and bows either ing or strapped to their backs, or sing elephants ttering rams. Smaller Islamic armies in the iddle East had to use whatever was uilable to them, In 927/8 a Qarmati der had an ‘emmdriah, or ‘camel vdah’, as his command. position ‘A 10th contury ivory plaque from Fatimid Egypt, showing two ‘quardsmen. (Louvre, inv. 67048, Paris){An embroidered Coptic Dalmatic with the same sort of decoration ‘seen on egyptian Islamic clothing. (Historical Museum, Rouen) surrounded by his best cavalry, A late 10th ce: Kurdish leader fooled an enemy into backing from a direct assault by sending herds of cs onto the hilltops with a few infantrymen amoug them, flashing their swords in the sunlight so: ths from a distance they looked like a large ca force. A few decades earlier the governor « Caucasus town mounted local civil available fourlegged creature so thi looked like a great army from a distance, Fatimid tactics were essentially the s: those of the ‘Abbasids, and the abundance surviving information adds details such as unfurling of banners just before an ar marched, the agreement of a battle ery bef combat, the morale-boosting speech bs commander before battle and the selection officers to carry the commander's orde: arge of outlying units. The relative lack archery, particularly horsearehery, in Fatis forces was, however, a constant problem, On march, units remained beneath their « banners and had their weapons available but we not armoured, Men only donned armour if t commander expected an attack, and similarly those fleeing the encs were told to carry armour rather than wear it, A commander was adv to reinforce that side of his column which seemed most vulnerable attack, or to place scouts all around if he was uncertain where the ene was. Military pioneers played a major role on the march, position behind the scouting parties but ahead of the vanguard to improve re and remove obstacles. The vulnerability of an army marching throug pass or over a bridge was such that a commander supervised ‘operation personally. The nuziél (halting or reassembling of an army the end of a day’s march) was another vulnerable time, when infare were supposed to remain in defensive array while a fortif encampment was erected. During the 10th century, Islamic raiders into Byzantine terris used compact groups of mounted troops to protect those who scattes to plunder the enemy, Such formations also defended the bags camels which grazed outside their camp. Karadis squadrons of is cavalry were best for ambushes and they rode mares rather than stall: which tended to snort and give away their position. Raiders who ente Byzantine territory from Tarsus would, according to their enemies, le ambushes to catch those Byzantines who were shacowing them, Du such raids, a force of armed surveyors went ahead of the main bc arrange billets, quarters, measure out camp sites and locate water. The training of professional Islamic troops remained hig structured. Furisiyah meant ‘skill’, while shujd’a meant ‘courage’ famous ‘Seven Year Training Scheme’ auributed to the Simanics v theoretical ideal rarely, if ever, achieved in practice. Here, the re began as a foot groom and concluded as an amir, ‘officer’. In teat regimental leaders seem to have taken over responsibility for training»st LOth century states, Never nce of good quality yan training grounds outside the major cities remained essential for od military standards, The Fatimid Palace-Gity of Cairo included huyjra, arracks’, and parade grounds where young Hujariyal, ‘recruits’, were ined. By the later Fitimid period this involved three- to seven-year arses. The little that is known about the training of ordinary soldiers, uunteers or militiamen suggests that among the urban street enter- ners were bahiawZin, ‘champions, who were masters of one or more artial arts and perhaps instructed those wanting to learn. The skills demancledl of a cavalryman were considerable, involving w to attaek, maintain an attack, feign retreat, manoeuvre as a close- ked unit, evade an enemy charge and renew the attack. The Islamic ic of horse riding forms the foundation of Spanish or American hoy’ equestrianism and reached its peak in the 12th-13th century. A m seat was learned by riding bareback, before progressing to a suddle: id not involve rising in the stirrups, but instead remaining firmly veh ping manuals include about spears than other weapons, though these exercises heless, the mainten | to the saddle whatever the horse did. T ch more m design For foot soldiers, unit trainin -d to refine unit manoeuvre rather than individual skills. involved little more than an ability narch long distances, to ck, to ary, One interest cognise when an enemy was about to lopt formations rapidly, take cover, and check and pursue ng form of archery waining recorded in h century Syria involved the ‘ajala, a stuffed animal on a fourwheeled which was rolled downhill or pulled by a horseman as a mo The 12th century military writer aT id usi, repeating Fagi Abbasid sources, told an archer how to de: larget, opp nber of opponents with different sorts sending on whether he alone, in a group, voting 1 behind cover Combat techniques also describe! in verse Persian Shahnamah cavalrymen first using us to break the onent’s armour, They ) duelled with swords le protecting th ls with shields, and ly used maces until nis and binding broke s were coiled on Ule-bows and daggers eted in boots. From 9th to 11th centuries d_ fencing, and_pre- sbly the training which rchind it, emphasised and accurate cuts {An army of heavily armoured cavalryman, one on an armoured horse, attacking a fortress on a 9th-10th century silver plate mado near the Islamic front at Semirogye in Central Asia. (Hormitage, St. Petersbura)Goliath on the exterior of the ‘Armenian Church of Gagik, early 40th century, and represented as ‘a fully armoured Muslim ghulém Solaior. (in sit, Isiand of ‘Aght’amar, Lake Van. Author's photograph) than thrusts. The spear remained -d cavalry weapon, Arab horsemen relying ¢ the impetus of their horse to deliver a thrus Turks and Persians supposedly wh with both Khuvasanis, Persians and_ghaléms: normal used showershooting archery techniques which units of cavalrymen, their horses stanclir still, shot at an astonishing rate to shower arroy my, Archers had seve upon an advancing forms of draw, including the daniyyat, using thr fingers and the bazm, or ‘thumb draw’. Less known about infantry archery, although Juded an ability to shoot beneat a guige to keep the shield from s! the left arm, pping arour fea The buy or tower formed the m: of Islamic fort of their height, with only the top being u defensive purposes. The old ations. Most were solid for iachicolation w widely used, sometimes as an elongated w gallery, but a new feature was the bent entran, which came from the eastern frontiers of { Islamic world, It was designed to stop a caval break-in and was usually an integral part of ¢ gate’s structure, alth entrance was formed by adding new walls to t: exterior of existing gates. Islamic fortification generally more scientific than thi used igh in some places a be of ¢ Byzantines er_ masonry or brickwork. Ai Haruniyah are the bestpreserved ‘Abbasid castles on the / frontier, both being restored by oli l-Dawla in the L0th century usi jountain spur overlooking a p2 's march from the milita n elongated keep with a massive tower ar continuous galleries along the most vulnerable walls. Much of nd there is some contra stone for decorative effet Syri if arbakir had four alkiron gates in the inner wall, beyor which was a lower wall leaving a passage broad enough to move (roo) 1 city of Aleppo was walle illafter the 11th century through the str base of Ma It consists of or is covered in sn ing bla cities of norther and the Jazira were also stron, rapidly from one section to another. The g but could, however behind horse and pack saeldles wh Further from the Byzantine threat, 10th century Damascus only h: mud brick walls like those of Ragga and Baghdad, though vulnerability of the Mediterranean ports meant that they had sto: fortifications and stone-throwing machines peinting out to sea - Iran and the east continued to develop earlier styles whi again made considerable use of brick. Egypt felt litle need fortification, except along the Mediter defenc famous citadel hill was not fortified u ve as a refuge whi ‘e people barricaded themsels le an enemy looted the town bek ean coast where moxere ako of brick. Even the capital, once known as Migr, then as Fustat nd finally as Cairo, was not strongly fortified until the 12th century. The walls of the Fatimid palace city of al-Qahira (Cairo) were largely vmbolic, and were made even more magnificent in the late 11th ce sith the three decorated gates which remain one of Cairo’s glories. The Il 10th century forts in what is now southern Jordan served as tribal efuges, to protect harvests and water supplies, while the castles nentioned by chroniclers in what is now western Saudi Arabia may have served the same purpose. To th namah and along the Gulf oast, there were several towns fortified with mucL-brick or beaten earth. Siege techniques developed sieadily. Attackers would defend hemselves with trenches and place strong cavalry in front of the gates to sop sorties, First they used small stone-throwing machines, then built up » the largest to undermine the defenders’ morale and force their heads wn while miners excavated beneath the walls. Such machines could be ed on artificial mounds to dominate the defenders. Wooden siege owers and protective wooden sheds were, however, vulnerable to naft, or Greek Fire’. Armies could maintain remarkable rates of march over astonis tistances. The infantry probably kept up a steadly pace from sun sunset with brief stops for prayers and water, while cavalry coule move aster but were unable to maintain the pace for so long. They also had to nsadldle ancl water their mounts before they could sleep. Camels gave armies a distinct advantage in dry te carrying. baggage, siege machines and mounted infantry, though mules and donkeys were also ssed. Large bridges over great rivers were more characteristic of the slamic world than , yet they still formed choke points and were the site of many battles. Fords had a similar effect, hough given the seasonal nature of rainfall in the Middle East, even the iggest rivers could be crossed with relative ease when the water was low. Official comm but not ing e10 rly medieval Europ nications 1S were comparable to those in 18 So sophisticated could be found elsewhere. The sstonishing speed and distances of the ‘Abbasid governmental postal service could not be maintained by most successor states, though in ne 10th century the Buwayhid dynasty introduced runners for er secrecy and a pigeon-post for urgent messages. During battle, communication was by flags, trumpets, drums and_ battle-c shich also helped main- in _morale, Nevertheless, vilitary texts recognised at noise and show had ule effect on a deter sined foe. Espionage and uiclligence-gathering was smilarly highly developed, sing jasiis, ‘spies’, and “ayn, nilitary observers’. One ext mentions a message sritten in black ink on lack cloth which only ecame visible when the bric wet. Under ‘One of the most unusual ceramic plates from Sth-10th century Nishapor shows cavairy and {nfantry. (Museum of Oriental Art, Inv, 2629/3258, Rome) 37Ceramic from 10th century Iraq showing an apparently lunarmoured cavalryman wielding 8 sword with what might be & ring-pommel more commonly seen In Central Asia. (Keir Coll. London) howeve et agents. ag: al rivals. itwas more st external foes rather tl ime: NAVAL WARFARE Naval trade regulated, as were the construction ships and the responsibi jous office Such regulations also dealt with ca booty, and how to dispose of d depending on whether the ship was en the hi seas, near a coast and whether this coast was jx. ‘of an Islamic state. Coastal vibdts were al supposed to offer shelter and suppress pira N ded the q@iid or mugaddam command of marines and the ras, in charge the ship and sailors. On Islamic warships oarsine who were expected to join the fighting as and when t! essary. Islamic fleets suffered from a worsening shortage of timber. Woc ported from Italy, Dalmatia and Crete, while ready-made shi were purchased in Italy. On the other hand, the Muslims possessed t largest ships in the Mediterranean, including three-masted vessels by ¢ Lith century or earlier, and had access to advanced Chinese maritim technology. The change to frame-first, from skin or hullfirst co: struction, may have first been seen on the Arab side of th Medliterranean as a result of the Muslims’ shortage of timber, an recently this has been tentatively linked to changes in tacties. Th ancient ram is thought to have fallen out of use by the 7th century, the use of frame tion finally made this weapon obsolet since it had been designed to spring the watertight seams of a hullfirs ship, but normally bounced offa flexible frame-first hull. Although the Chinese did not normally sail the western India ‘Ocean until the 12th century, it was from China that Muslim shipwrigh: learned of the hinged stern rudder. This reached the Arabi: Red Sea by the 10th century, but why it did not spread to th Medite 1 remains a mystery. Sophisticated navigational aids we din on as well as on the high seas; upstream of 11 e were close were free me wi st constru Gulf an, ne: ver naviga wooden lighthouse gui gypt the famous a marshes of southern Iraq. In Alexandria was Hl with additional i ocean, captains used a simple a constant latitud cea the ope Ramal to measure the Pole Star and the same time Muslim naval engineers h ships using winches. nt Aroun jad learnt how to raise sunke Navies transports as well as fighting galleys, the high sides the biggest Fatimid transports baffling most enemies. The larg: shallans mple, was a decked cargo ship of up to 1,000 tonne capacity, able to carry 1,500 troops. Gi i, for © leys w e differentiated by weigh4 the number of oars rather than overall dimensions. The shini canclard galley had up to 150 marines, normally with 140 to 180 oars in banks, a boarding beak at the prow, and a substantial forecastle 10 srry stone-throwing machines or naff fire projectors. Coastal raiding formed the basis of naval warfare, and coastal ence remained paramount, particularly in the Mediterranean wher outburst of European slave-raiding prompted a revival of naval arfare by local North African dynasties in the 9th century. By the 1th atury, however, European naval domination became irreversible. The astal ribs and their garrisons were supposed to contain enemy clings until reinforcements arrived. Larger garrisons, however, tended withdraw inland when the seas were ‘elosed’ by winter weather. vertheless, harbours and coastal towns remained tempting targets snsequently some were greatly strengthened, such as Mahdia in Tenisia, whose harbour was actually cut from the rock face to ommodate 30 galleys It had been unusual to tackle the enemy at sea. Instead, galleys sited until merchant ships beached for the night. More ambitious astal raids included an attack on Thessaloniki harbour in 904. Here, © Muslims tied their ships in pairs, suspended platforms on the verdarms of their lateen sails or between th ists, and were thus able © shoot down upon the defenders. A North African fleet of 73 ships ended 500 horses and a far greater number of fighting men near Ostia 846. This force ravaged a large area including Rome before withdrawing laden with booty. The ability to transport cavalry horses further developed in Islamic Sicily and may then have been taught the subsequent Norman invaders of both Southern Italy and England. When fleets did clash at sea, horns, cymbals and drums commu- cated between ships, but control was so poor that such battles we sually avoided. Mediterranean naval tetics were designed for small ambers, the ships usually being in loose crescent formation and using abush or feigned retreat like their colleagues on land. After Aurmishing with archery, one crew would attempt to board the enemy. farines were trained to fend themselves with e shields rather than wearing heavy armour, and ce on the enemy's deck ey fought with swords and agers hidden within their velds. By the 11th century ties were changing, with fuslim galleys developing ¢ ability to launch attacks enemy ships at. se: ps.as a merchant ships wei fended by wargalleys, The Indian Ocea mained more peacefi i it was here in trans- ‘eanie voyages that Islan ch result, convoys ‘The intorior of the Bab al-Futubgate in Cairo. (Author's photograph)‘The back of an 141th-12th century bronze mirror trom {ran showing a cavalryman holding his Imost couched manner. (Louvre, inv. 6020, Paris) navig: Jongdista transportation of horses was also commonpla Nevertheless, the periodic dredging of a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea the ‘Suez Canal’ of the early medieval perioe may have been associated with Egypt to suppress piracy in the Red Se most Egyptian warships were based in Mediterranean reached its peak. Th AFRICA Military developments in medieval Afr ied almost entirely from contact with { Islamic world. Islam's presence on the E African coast also resulted in political control « few ports, but not the hinterland, Ethiopia « the kingdoms of Nubia remained Christi et, Ethiopia lost the Red Sea coast by | ntury and thereafter looked southwards rather than to South a where its language and civil 1 originated. After 97 on, led by a terrifying queen, ravaged the cou power collap ent capi was destroyed. During the following chaotic years Islam advances, though the highlands largely remained € 2 Tenth century Arab geogr formation about ‘The principal weapon ghow, sometimes with a cotton string. Long howe sation Ih Axi ite mili allawood Kk welins we used, but only the élite possessed shields and swords. C even in the eastern lowlands, where n rather than fr The Sea coast by the 9th century. W: ost horsemen used goat-sk ed saddles. largely pagan Beja formed a loose tribal state along the R. ike andl organisect into small far: groups, they used bows and poisoned arrows but not shiel Neighbouring Christian Ni Greek was still used for o a had a more advanced civilisation whew ial titles. Originally there were thr n ones merged into larger Makuria w t Dongola. Less is known about the southern kingdom kingdoms, but the ovo nerthe its cap Alwa whose capital was at Soba, near modern Khartoum. It was closer pagan regions from which most Afr 1 Alve interests were mainly turned southwards, Quite how far medieval Alw authority extended is unknown, but Christian communities existed Kordofan between the 8th ubian relations with Is an slaw re drawn, ai nd 12th centuries. » Egypt had been governed bya bag pact since the mie-7th century, though this was occasionally broken frontier squabbles, The military organisation of Nubian Makuria based on 13 sub-kings or Eparchs, of whom the most northerly 3 powerful had his capital at Faras or Qasr Ibrim. The Nubian Nile defended by an increasing number of castles, though probably a Beja nomads rather than Muslim Egypt. Nubian infantry archers a fine reputation, using longbows of acacia wood similar to those cient Egypt, and even as late as 950, Nubian armies were strh to capture much of the population of Egypt’s western oases. wre cavalry existed in the southern kingdom of Alwa, which was famous breeding horses in the 10th century. Another little-known Christian shoot of Nubia were the Ahadi who inhabited mountains west of the danese Nile, Their warriors shared several items of weaponry and »stume with the Muslim peoples of North Africa, including large lam ather shields and quilted armour FURTHER READING ‘The interfor ofthe Oth century isan, M.M., Social Life under the Abbasids 176-289 AH, 786-902 AD asa coasted etree ek cae (London 1979). ‘in Tunisia. (Author's photograph) an, J.W., Persian Metal Anology, 700-1300 AD )xford 1979) shtor, E., A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages (London 1976). xchrach, J.L., ‘African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East’ International Journal of Middlle Kast Studies, XIU (1981). Seshir, BL), ‘Fatimid Military Organ Der Islam, LV’ (19 sosworth, C.E., ‘Abii ‘Amr Uthman al-Tarsisi’s Siyar at Thi the Last Years of Arab Rule im Tarsus (Fourth/Tenth Century)" Graeco itr and Arabica, V (1993), sosworth, C.E., ‘Ghaznevid Military Organis Der dslam, XXXVI (1960) sosworth, C.E., “Mili ‘Organisation under the Biiyids of Persia and Iraq’ Qriens, XVIIEXIX 1965-66). sosworth, C.E., “The Armies of the Saffirids Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XXXI (1968). aPerseus in the Kitab al-Sufér, ‘or ‘Book of Stars’ by ‘Abd al-Ralyman al-Sarl, made {in ran traq or Egypt in 1009, (Godioian Library, Ms. Marsh 144, t. 111, Oxford) BoudotLamotte, A. (translation of archery chapters from Murdi I! "Ali Murdi al-Tarsusi), Contribution a UEtude de UArcherie Musulmane (Damascus 1968). Canard, M., ‘La Procession du Nouvel An chez les Fatimides’ Annatis Unstitut Orientales, X. (1952). Canard, M., ‘Mutanabbi et la Guerre Byzantino-Arabe. Interét Historique de des poésiés’ im ALMutanabbi. Mémoires de Unstitut Francais de Damas (Beirut 1936) Canard, M., ‘Textes relatifs 4 l'emploi du feu grégeois chez les Arabes Bulletin d'Etudes Arabes (Algiers), XXIV (1946). Christides, V., ‘Naval Warfare in the Eastern Mediterranean (6th-14th centuries): An Arabic Translation of Leo VI’s “Naumachica” Grae Arabica, 111 (1984). Creswell, KA.G,, ‘Fortification in Islam before AD 1250" Proceedings of t British Academy, XXXVI (1952). Fahmy, A.M., Muslim Sea-Pawer in the Eastern Mediterranean (Cairo 1966 Frye, R.N., The Golden Age of Persia: The Arabs in the East (London 1975 Gessler, E.A., ‘Der Kalotten-Helm von Chamoson’ Zeitschrift fiir Historische Waffen und Kostiimkunde, 11 (1930). Hassan, AY. ak, ‘Iron and Steel Technology in Medieval Arabie Sources Journal for the History of Arabie Science, (1978). M., Les Tulunids (Paris 1933). Hopkins, J.P, Medieval Muslim Government in Barbary, until the sixth century of the Hijra (London 1958). ur Geschichte des n Geschiitzwens, aus Orientalischen Quellen, ‘Studia Orientatia (Helsinki 1941). Ibn Miskawaihi, edit. and trans. D.S. Margoliout andl H.R. Amedroz, The Eclipse of the Baghdad Khalifate (Oxford 1921). Jandora, J.W., Militarism in Arab Society (London 1997). Jeroussalimskaya, A., ‘Le Cafetan aux Simourghs du Tombeau de Mochtchevaya Balja (Caucase Septentional)’ Studia franica, VL (1978). Kennedy, H., The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: ‘The Islamic Near East from the Sixth 10 the Eleventh Centuries (London 1986). Kohvad, A.A., Uniformes et Armes des Gardes des Sultans de Ghazna’ Afghanistan, VI (1951). Lambton, A.KS,, ‘Islamic Mirrors for Princes’ in La Persia nel Medioevo, Atti del Convegno Internazionale Roma 1970 Rowe W971). Le Strange, G., Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate (London 1900). Lev, ¥. (edit.), War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th-15th Centuries (Leiden 1996) “The Fatimid Army, A.H. 358-427/968- 1036 C.E.: Military and Social Aspects’ Asian and African Studies, XIV (1980). Ley,v,¥., State and Society in Fatimid Egypt (collected ticles, Leiden 1991) pardl, M., The Golden Age of Islam (Oxford 1975) fahdjoub, A., ‘Lhabillement des soldats ‘abbasides™ Bulletin des Etudes Arabes (Algiers), VII (1948). fas'{idi, Abt"! Hassan ‘Ali, edit, and trans, C, Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille, Muriij al Dahab ~ Les Prairies d’Or, eight vols, (Paris 1861-77). Mclikian-Chirvani, A.S,, ‘Notes sur le terminologie de la metallurgic et des armes dans I'Iran Musulman’ Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XXIV (1981). {clikian-Chirvani, A.S,, “The Westward Journal of the and’ Journal of the Arms and Armour Society, XL (1983). fottahedch, RP, Loyalty and Leadership in an Earty Islamic Society A fragment of lustre ceramic (Princeton 1980), {rom 10th-t 1th century Egypt Khusrau, ed Nameh: Relation du Voyage Provides one of the closrest de Nassiri Khasrau (Pi 1970). nal solder via ond Albert The Paintings of the Royal Palace of Oistrouchaina ——_jausaum study eolfection, ury Report); (English resumé)’ Sovietskaya Arkeologiya, IL London) ‘The mosque which formed an Yor, JH, “Transportation of horses by sea during the era of the eeu coin ie eoama ee. Crusades: Eighth Century to 1285 AD (part 1: to 41225) century riba at Monastir in Mariner's Mirror, LXV (1982). ‘Tunisia, (Author's photograph) Jalinisi, Ibn al, edit, and trans, HE, Amedroz, Bi Dhayl Tarikh Dimashg: History of Damascus (Beirut 1908), sulibi, K.S., Syria under Islam; vol. I: Empire on Triat 634-1097 (New York 1977). ih, A.HL., ‘Le Role des Bédouins d’Egypte a Vpoque Fatimide” Rivista degti Studi Orientale, LIV (1980), hwarzer If, .K., ‘Arms from an Eleventh Gentury Shipwreck’ Graece-Arabiea, IV (1991) oshan, B., “On Gostume and Social History in Medieval Islam’ Asian and African Studies, XXIL (1988). vers, P. Von, ‘Mili y, Merchants and Nos The Social Evolution of the Syrian Cities and Countryside during the Classical Period 780- 969/ 164-358" Der Islam, LVI (1979). ardel, D., “Questions de Cérémonial Abbasiele” Revie des Etudes Islamiques, (1960). ir, G.M. ale, “The Nubian Archers in Pre- Islamic and Islamic Periods’ Graeco-Arabica, V 1993). viikhi, Mubassin Ibn ‘Ali ak, trans, DS. Margoliouth, The Table-Talk of a Mesopotamian Judge (London 1922). lie, AA, Byzance et les Arabes, vol. | (Brussels 954), vol. IT (Brussels 1950), schw Field officer The junio’ 'eader has a simple tribal cloak with a North African shoulder-pin, worn over a businesslike ‘mail hauberk, while his silver-covered staff of rank is based (on written descriptions of Fatimid military parades. (Main ‘sources: wall painting of St. Phiobammon from Church of "Abd Allah Nirqi, Nubian-Egyptian 11th century, Coptic Mus... Cairo; carved wooden panel from Alt church, Nubia, ‘1th-12th centuries Egyptian, Nat. Mus., Khartoum; painted ceramic plaque from Sabra, 10th-11th centuries, Mus. des ‘Atts Islamiques, Tunis.) ©3: Berber-Saharan infantryman with ‘banner camel’ Berbers formed the loyal core of the Fatimid army, but used old-fashioned equipment. This man has a specialised pike called a sabarbanah, and his shield is decorated with animal-skin. Flag-carrying camels were used as rallying points in several Islamic armies and their hamess appears to have been very decorated. (Main sources: fragments of a carved ivory plaque from Aqaba, 8th-11th centuries, Archaeol. Mus., Amman; ceramic wall-plaque from Sabra, 11th century, Bardo Mus.,. Tunis: wail painting of a military saint from Faras Gathedral, late 10th century Nubian, Nat. ‘Mus., Warsaw; fragment of painted paper from Cairo, “1ith-12th centuries Egypt, H.P. Kraus Coll, New York: lustre- ‘ceramic bow! from Iraq, 9th-10th centuries, City Art Mus., St Lou's.) 1D: Buwayhid Armies (mid-th to 11th centuries) D1: Senior officer in a regiment of ghulm cavalry Here the commander of a cavalry regiment has a helmet of one- piece iron construction, maiined but fabric-covered kazdghand armour, and archery equipment designed for high-speed shower-shooting. He demonstrates his dexterity with a long-headed mace called a lat, while his horse has an early form of quilted of felt-lined horse-armour. (Main ‘sources: silver dish from Malo-Amkavkaya, 9th-10th century Semiregye, Hermitage, St. Petersburg; gold medallion ‘showing @ Buwayhid prince, late 10th century, Freer Gallery, Washington; Islamic helmet, Sth-10th centuries, Schweiz- ferisches Landesmus., Zurich; iron chamfron from Soba, ‘8th-12th centuries, Nat. Mus., Khartoum; St. Ptolomeus of Nikentor, Coptic Synaxary 9th-11th centuries, Peirpont Morgan Lib., M. 581. ftv, New York) 2 Junior ghulam cavairyman This young soldier wears a mail shit beneath his coat and is armed with a straight ‘sword, His double-ended spear might be a z0pin javelin. The horse is the commanding officer's paracie mount and has all the decorations and henna colouring mentioned in contemporary documents, (Main sources: 10th century wall ‘painting from Nishépdr, Archaeol. Mus., Tehran; horseman on ‘a gold pendant, Iran, 10th century, Art Museum, inv, 1953.70, ‘Cincinnati: pieces of bronze horse harness from Nishiapar, ‘8th-11th centuries, Archaeol. Mus., Tehran, and Met. Mus. of ‘Art, New York) D3: Parade elephant with mahout and ruler in howdah Elephant hamess, the howdahs and the way the animals were controlled stemmed from india. One of the most ‘Gramatic items were huge shields to protect the elephant’s, sensitive ears. (Main sources: Ceramic fragment, 10th-11th century Egypt. Benaki Mus. inv. 244, Athens; ceramic fragment, 11th century Egypt, Brooklyn Mus. inv. 68,122.1, New York: carved ivory plaque, 11th-12th centuries. Egypt, Walters Art Gall, Baltimore; ceramic elephant, 12th century ran, Freer Gall 67.26, Washington,E: Hamdanid Armies (10th and 11th centuries) Et: Arab cavalryman A revival in the importance af Arab soldiers in the Middle East was mirared by a retumn to ‘several forms of Arab costume and weaponry. This man has 1a very advanced form of one-piece iron helmet beneath his traditional turban, a mail hauberk beneath an Arab thawb and ‘2 sword from an old-fashioned baidric. (Main sources: 10th century painted paper fragment, Egypt, Bib, Nat. Ach. Vindob. 11416, Vienna; 11th-12th century painted paper fragment, Egypt, Mus. of Islam. Art, Cairo; 11th century fragment of lustre ceramic, Egypt, Mus. of Islam. Art, Caio; thawb, 11th century, Egypt, Coptic Mus., Cairo.) 2: Armenian ‘Paulician’ foot soldier This man has thickly quilted soft armour, with a sheet of rawhide on the front as a ‘hypothetical reconstruction of otherwise unexplained central ‘Anatolian wall paintings. He is armed with a narrow bladed ‘axe and has a quiver on his back. (Main sources: vall-painting, early 10th century in situ Togall Klise, Goreme, ‘Cappadocia; wall-painting, 10th-1 1th century, in situ Bahattin Kilisesi, Peristrema valley, Cappadocia ) Leader of a Qarmati raiding force The Shay is dressed in traditional Arab garb» and uses the howdah of a ‘camel as his command postin battle. (Main sources: painted Cling, in Fétimid style, early 12th century, ia situ Capella Palatina ceiling, Palermo; deccrative standard-head from the Serge Liman wreck, late 10th-early 11th century, Castle Museum, Bodrum) F: Later Fatimid Armies (11th century) Ft: Marine crassbowman Fatimid naval troops were Probably the first outside Chinato use hand-held crossbows: for fighting at sea. This marine is dressed in typical Egyptian from the early 11th century cchureh of ‘Abd Alldh Niral in Nubia. (Coptic Musoum, Cairo) style, has a tall infantry: man ‘and a helmet which evolved fr a late Roman type. His crossbo is of a very early form, consis of an Arab bow mounted o stock equipped with a sin trigger for fing the dart. (Mt sources: helmet, possibly century, Islamic Muse: Kayrawan; carved woos panels from the Fatimid Call Palace, 11th century, Museu Islamic Art, Cairo; illustration crossbows, manuscript of Tarsusi, 12th century, Bodie Ub., Ms. Hunt 264, Oxford.) F2: Palestinian infantry arch of the local Ahdath 1 miltiaman wears the lo: trousers common throughout ‘Arab areas, as well as rope-sc sandals and a cummerounc, carries an old-fashioned st sword and has an oki-fashio bow, which used to be used ‘Arab infantry. (Main sources: carved ivory plaque showin: ‘Arab warrior, 10th-11th century Byzantine, Hermits St. Petersburg: carved wooden panels from the Fat Caliphal Palace, 11th century, Museum of Islamic Art, Ca ‘carved wooden panel from the Church of Saint Barbara, ‘century, Coptic Museum, Cairo; carving of Islamic solci= mid-12th century. Siculo-Fatimid style, in situ Church La Martorana, Palermo.) F3: Fatimid infantry guardsman Fatimid Caliph's Pol Guard regiments were magnificently - and expensive! equipped, in this case with a fluted gided helmet, lacque=: leather lamellar armour over a mall hauberk, and a he: infantry spear. (Main sources: painted paper fragm Fatimid 11th-12th centuries, Keir Coll, London, and Mus. Islamic Art, Cairo; carved ivory plaques, 10th-11th centures Fatimid, Louvre, Paris, Bargello, Florence, Mus. fOr Is Kunst, Berlin, Met. Mus.,. New York; carved wooden pans from the Fatimid Galiphal Palace, 11th century, Museum Islamic At, Cairo) G: Ghaznavid Armies (late 10th and 11th centuries) G1: Ghaznavid bodyguard The feathered head-dresses = lite Ghaznavid guard units are described in written sources land appear on painted ceramics. Like this man's coat boots, it probably originated in Central Asia. Maces. im elaborate belt peciants, were another mark of dite stat (Main sources: wallpaintings from Lashkar Bazar, 17% century Ghaznavid, Archaeol. Museum, Kabul; ‘mace-head, 11th-13th centuries, iran, British Museum '838-89, London; feathered head-dress on a painted cera 12th century Iran, private collection.) G2: Qarakhanid cavalryman in ceremonial costume |= art survives from the Qarakhnid state, though therewritten descriptions and some isolated fragments which are ifficult to date. This man’s extraordinary head-cloth is. an example of a style which probably originated in pre-Islamic Turkish Central Asia and was eventually inherited by the Salldq Turkish Court. Otherwise he has been given Jurco-Persian and Gentral Asian garments, weaponry and. horse-hamness. (Main sources: ceramic figures. from ‘Transoxania, 11th-13th centuries, Turco-Isiamic, Hermitage, St. Petersburg; ivory chess-knights, 11th-12th centuries, Met. Mus. of Art, New York: ceramic horsemen, 12th century northern Iran, Met. Mus. of Art, New York, and Archaeol Museum, Tehran.) G&: Indian mercenary cavalryman This man reflects the unarmoured style favoured by members of the Hindu high military caste. Only the riding boots reflect the slow absorption of Iranian and Islamic fashions. Perhaps the ‘strangest item is the gold netting supporting his beard. (Main sources: mounted guards of Vishnu/Harikara, late 10th century central India, British Museum, inv. 1872.7-1.75 and 7-1.41, London; carving of a warrior, 10th century Rajastan, Fogg Art Museum, inv. 1961.134, Boston; carved memorial plaque, 12th-13th centuries, Gond, Mahant Kaasi Dass Memorial Museum, Raipur) { Nubia and the Sudan (mid-oth to 11th centuries) Ht: Sudanese mercenary late of Egyptian service This man has been a member of an élite palace regiment, as shown by the magnificent embroidery on his ‘aba’ cloak, his highly decorated shield and his gided infantry spear. (Main sources: ‘Vell of St. Anne’, in realty a late 11th century Ftimic ‘abd’, Treasury of the Church of St. Anne, Vaucluse: fragment of lustre ceramic, 10th-11th century Egypt, Victoria and Albert Museum study collection, Londen) H2: Nubian aristocratic. cavalryman Guited armour including padded trousers remained the standard form of protection in sub-Saharan Arica fora thousand years. Most iron items are likely to have been imported trom Islamic North Africa or Egypt. (Main sources: St. Menas in a Sth-tOth century Nubian manuscript, Brit, Lib. Ms. Or. 6805, London: ‘wall-painting from Faras Cathedral, 1th century Nubia, Nat. Mus., Khartoum; carved wooden plaque from Qagr lori, 12th- 13th eantury Nubian, Brit, Mus. inv. EA.71889, London.) Ha: Ahadi tribesman Since no pictorial evidence is known to ‘Survive from sub-Saharan Africa west ofthe Nile during these cconturies, this tribesman is based on detailed descriptions by Arab travelers and geographers, plus later costume and weaponry. (Medieval sources: St. Menas in a sth-totn ‘century Nubian manuscript, Brit. Lb. Ms. Or 6805, London: ‘carved capital showing African wariors, 12th century Siculo~ Norman, in situ, Cathedral Cloisters, Morreale.) ‘A Fortified building next to the caravanseral, 8th-oth centuries, al-Rabadah, central Arabia; B - Fortified house. ‘Sth-8th centuries, al-Rabadah, central Arabia; ~ The fortified reception hall built in 972, Ajidabya, Libys; D = Restored view of the gate at Harran built in 1059; E - Restored elevation of the gate of Harran showing relief carvings: F - Recenstructed section through the norther cate of Diyarbakir, bullt by the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mugtacir restored by the Marwanid Amir Aba Nowe Ahmad early in the 1th céntury; G - Reconstruction of the brick:built Ribatel Malik in Transoxania, 1008 to 1080. land extensi a