Manufacturing systems

analysis and improvement

ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics and health and safety
• Not only it is important to engage and develop
worker capabilities, it is also necessary to keep to
provide them with adequate working conditions
• Therefore, ergonomics, as well as health and
safety are important concerns for management
Ergonomics
• The primary guideline of work design is to design
the workplace to accommodate most individuals
with regard to the structural size of the human
body
• The purpose is to ensure a comfortable working
posture for workers

• See video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QeDUCXfzl6U
Anthropometry and design
• Anthropometry is the science of measuring the human
body
• A kth percentile is defined as a value such that k percent
of the data values are at or below this value and 100-k of
the values are at or above this value

• It is possible to find tables with data showing the standard

measures a given population
Anthropometry and design
• There are three approaches to design are

• Design for extremes

• Design for adjustability

• Design for the average

Human capabilities and motion economy
• Achieve maximum muscle strength at the midrange of
motion

• Astronaut’s position
Workplace design
• Determine work surface height by elbow height
• Upper arms should hang freely and the elbows flexed at 90°, so
that forearms are parallel to the ground
Workplace design
• Adjust work surface
height based on the
task being performed
• (a) For fine assembly it
is more advantageous
to raise the surface by
20 cm.
• (c) For rough assembly
involving lifting heavy
loads it is better to
lower the surface by 20
cm.
Workplace design
• Adjust work surface height based on the task being
performed while seating
• Same principles apply
• Seated work stations should have adjustable chairs and adjustable
footrests
• Feet should rest on the floor
• The workstation should also be adjustable

For more details on this

picture see the textbook
Workplace design
• Provide a comfortable hair for the seated operator
• Seating helps reduce stress on feet and overall energy expenditure
• It is very important to provide lumbar support to maintain lumbar
lordosis
Workplace design
• Overall optimal working
posture and workstation
Workplace design
• Encourage postural flexibility
• A workstation should be adjustable so that work can be performed
standing or seating

• The human body is not made for spending long periods of time
sitting down

• Postural rigidity reduces blood flow and induces fatigue and

cramping

• Provide anti-fatigue mats for standing operations

Human capabilities and motion economy
• Begin and end motions with both hands simultaneously
• Move hands symmetrically and simultaneously to and
from the center of the
• body
• Use the natural rhythms of the
• body
• Use continuous curved motions
Human capabilities and motion economy
• Use the lowest practical classification of movement

Classification Movement Speed

First class Fingers High
Second class Fingers, wrist
Third class Fingers, wrist, lower arm
Fourth class Fingers, wrist, lower arm, upper arm
Fifth class Fingers, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, trunk (body) Low
Workplace design
• Locate all tools and materials within the normal working
area
Workplace design
• Locate all tools and materials within the normal working
area
Workplace design
• Use gravity bins and drop delivery to reduce reach and
move times
• Arrange tools, controls and other components optimally to
reduce motions

• See video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGKLorZNIiU

Rest Cycles: How much is needed?
• Rest may be needed if:
• Average energy expenditure is too high,
• Heart rate is too high,
• Environment is too hot to allow body to rid its self of heat
• Short, frequent rest cycles are best
W – 5.33
R=
W – 1.33
R= Time required for rest as % of total time spent working
W= Average energy expenditure for task
5.33 kcal/min is max allowable energy expenditure for men,
(substitute in 4 kcal/min for women)
1.33 kcal/min is the energy expended during rest.
Energy Expenditure
Work/rest cycles
• Estimate how much rest needed for an average male
performing a shoveling task:

• Task: shoveling dirt; with approximately 16 lb in each shovel.

• Energy expenditure = W = 8.5 kcal/min (from previous slide)

• Percent rest required

W – 5.33 8.5 kcal/min – 5.33

R= = =0.414
W – 1.33 8.5 kcal/min – 1.33

41 percent of the time needs to be rest

Lower Back Compressive Forces
• The Lower Back is a Critical Region that is Easily Injured
during Work

The lumbar area is

particularly
vulnerable!
Lower Back Compressive Forces
 NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
Horizontal Distance
between load center
Recommended and body center Total vertical distance
Weight Limit traveled between
Vertical starting start and finish of lift.
location of load;
Load Constant e.g. height off of ground
= 51 lb

• RWL = LC * 10/H * [1 - .0075|V – 30| ] * [0.82 + 1.8/D] *

[1 – 0.0032*A] * FM * CM

Coupling Multiplier
Angle of “twist” (From Table 4 – 8, pg. 168)

Frequency Multiplier
(From Table 4 -7, pg 163)
NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Health and safety
Figure 8-1 Accident Prevention Process

Identify Problem

Monitor Results Collect Data

Implement Remedy Analyze Data

Select Remedy
Domino theory of an accident sequence

• Injuries, or damage losses, are the result of accidents involving contact with
a source of energy and subsequent liberation
• Accidents are the result of immediate causes such as:
• Unsafe acts from personnel
• Unsafe conditions at the workplace (management’s responsibility)
• Immediate causes are the result of basic causes:
• Unsafe acts resulting from personal factors such as lack of knowledge, skills, or lack of
motivation or care
• Unsafe conditions caused by factors such as inappropriate labour standards, use and disposal,
deficient work environment or lack of maintenance
• Basic causes are the result of general lack of control or adequate
management, that is, absence or failure of a health and safety program
Domino
Figuretheory of an
8-3 A domino
igniting a fire
accident
sequence for a sequence
grinder spark

1: Separate gas, grinder 1: Increase ventilation

2: Better inspection 2: Grinder material

Lack of Basic Immediate Accident Injury

Control Causes Causes (Explosion/ (Burns)
(1:Solvent (1: Less (Sparks ignite fire)
stored at volatile fumes
grinder, solvent,
2:Poor identifi- Fire protective suit
2:Grinder
cation of work creates 1: Use spark arrester
activities) sparks) 2: Less concentrated fumes

• It is possible to apply remedies at different points in the sequence

• The most effective approach is to establish controls at the beginning of
the sequence for the multiple factors that could intervene in causing the
accident and injury or damage
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
• Unsafe Act
• Performance of a task or other activity that is conducted in a manner that
may threaten the health and/or safety of workers
• An element of unsatisfactory behaviour immediately prior to an accident
event which is significant in initiating the event
• About 88% of accidents are caused by unsafe acts
• Unsafe Condition
• A condition in the work place that is likely to cause property damage or
injury.
• Unsatisfactory physical condition existing in the workplace environment
immediately prior to an accident event which is significant in initiating the
event.
• Around 10% of accidents have unsafe conditions as the immediate cause
• The remaining 2% of accidents are unpreventable “acts of god”
• Put together unsafe acts and unsafe conditions and you will very
probably see (or have) an accident
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
Examples of unsafe acts
• Operating without qualification or
authorization.
• Lack of or improper use of PPE.
• Failure to tagout/lockout.
• Operating equipment at unsafe speed.
• Failure to warn.
• Bypass or removal of safety devices.
• Using defective equipment.
• Use of tools for other than their intended
purpose.
• Working in hazardous locations without
adequate protection or warning.
• Improper repair of equipment.
• Horseplay.
• Wearing unsafe clothing.
• Taking an unsafe position.
Examples of unsafe conditions
• Defective tools, equipment, or
supplies.
• Inadequate supports or guards.
• Congestion in the workplace.
• Inadequate warning systems.
• Fire and explosion hazards.
• Poor housekeeping such as slippery
floor and improper storage.
• Hazardous atmospheric condition.
• Insufficient illumination.
• Excessive noise.
• Poor ventilation.
• Misplacement or blocking of fire
protection equipment.
Information from :
http://www.safetyportal.info/safety-at-work-unsafe-acts-
vs-unsafe-conditionsunsafe-act-unsafe-condition/
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
Accident ratio triangles
• If a major injury occurs, it is quite possible that many more accidents
have already happened.
• It is important to maintain vigilance of events and be proactive in
investigating no-injury incidents and unsafe acts in order to reduce
potential injury and property damage costs
Figure 8-4b Bird and Germain (1985)
Figure 8-4a Heinrich Accident Ratio Triangle Accident Ratio Triangle

Major injury Major injury

Minor injuries
Minor injuries
Property damage
Accidents
Near misses
Problem identification
• For this purpose it is possible to use the tools of problem
selection previously considered at the beginning of the
course
• Pareto analysis
• Fishbone diagram
• Gantt chart
• Job/worksite analysis guide

• Additionally, statistical chi square analysis can be used to

determine whether one department is significantly more
hazardous than the other
Collecting and analysing data
• The basic tool used at this stage is Job Safety Analysis
(JSA)
• Also called Job hazard analysis or methods safety analysis

• The JSA process

1. Break down job into major components in sequential order
2. Examination of each component in search of potential hazard
of the possibility of accident occurrence
3. Identification of ways of improving safety

• Major factors to focus on

• Worker
• Methods
• Machine See video, click this box

• Material
Collecting and analysing data
 Job Safety Analysis form

Job description: Prepared by:

Issuing department: Reviewed by:
Location: Date:

Key job steps Potential health and Safe practices, apparel

injury hazard and equipment
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis and decision making
• Treatments for potential risks
• Avoid:
• Involves not performing the action or operation associated with risk. It
may imply a cost of opportunity
• Control / mitigate:
• Reduces impact or likelihood (or both) through intermediate steps

• Transfer:
• Share risk to third parties that can manage the outcome. e.g. financially
through insurance contracts or hedging transactions, or operationally
through outsourcing an activity
• Accept:
• Take the chance of negative impact (or auto-insurance), eventually
budget the cost (e.g. via a contingency budget line)
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis
Figure and
8-8 -decision making
Risk analysis calculation

Avoid

Mitigate
or
Transfer

Accept
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis and decision making
• There will be a number of options available to deal with
the risk and it is necessary to make decision
• Solutions can be evaluated in relation to their level of
effectiveness in reducing risk and their cost of
implementation
• This analysis results in qualifying the solutions as:
• Highly worthwhile
• Justified
• Of doubtful merit

• See the next slide

Selecting remedy:
Figure 8-9 – Risk analysis and cost
Risk analysis and decision making
effectiveness
• Risk analysis and cost effectiveness

A
Implementing solution
• The selected solution needs to be implemented

• Install required safety devices or equipment.

• Gain buy-in into the new approach, mostly from

personnel
• If people doesn’t follow procedures or has the wrong attitude,
then the potential safety benefits may not be achieved
Implementing solution
• It is possible to use one or more of the E of the 3 E’s
approach. Here they are in order of desirability
• Engineering redesign
• Ensures safety without relying on people compliance as it makes
undesirable behaviour very unlikely
• Educate
• Next best thing, however it is not always effective as people may not
follow procedures
• Enforce
• Last resort, as it assumes that people is not trustworthy and always
needs constant supervision and strict control, which can lead to feelings
of resentment
Monitoring and keeping statistics
• Solutions implemented require monitoring and follow up in
order to evaluate their effectiveness

• This monitoring is done through numerical data

• Number of accidents and/or injuries
• Insurance costs
• Medical costs

• Control charts are also used to keep track of the number

of occurrences and verify whether these are within
acceptable limits
Hierarchy of prevention and control
• Risks should be avoided/eliminated and (if not possible)
reduced by taking preventative measures, in order of
priority.
• The order of priority is also known as the hierarchy of
control. There different hierarchies of prevention and
control measures which have been developed by different
institutions.
• However, usually there are five steps in the hierarchy of
control.
Hierarchy of prevention and control
• The five steps are:
• Step 1 Elimination: Elimination of hazards refers to the total removal of the
hazards and hence effectively making all the identified possible accidents
and ill health impossible.
• Step 2 Substitution: Substitution means replacing the hazard by one that
presents a lower risk.
• Step 3 Engineering Controls: Physical means that limit the hazard. These
include structural changes to the work environment or work processes,
erecting a barrier to interrupt the transmission path between the worker
and the hazard.
• Step 4 Administrative Controls: Also known as organisational measures
administrative controls reduce or eliminate exposure to a hazard by
adherence to procedures or instructions.
• Step 5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): PPE should be used only as
a last resort, after all other control measures have been considered, or as
a short term contingency during emergency / maintenance / repair or as an
additional protective measure.
Hierarchy of prevention and control
• The five steps are:

Elimination

Substitution

Engineering
Controls

Administrative
Controls

Personal
Protective
Equipment
(PPE)