High Expectations from Deepwater Wells

After more than two decades of activity, the daunting task of producing hydrocarbons
from deepwater accumulations has become somewhat demystified. Advances that
make deepwater production possible spring from both pure innovation and modifica-
tion of technology applied in other operating environments. Technical advances and
collaboration between operating companies, service companies and regulatory agen-
cies also help otherwise uneconomic projects to succeed.

Guy Carré The great challenge of producing hydrocarbons
Emmanuel Pradié from deepwater environments begins with iden-
TotalFinaElf Angola tifying viable prospects. Geoscientists and
Luanda, Angola engineers have built an enviable record of suc-
cesses in deepwater exploration. Similarly, the
Alan Christie
drilling community can point to its own techno-
Laurent Delabroy
Billy Greeson
logical developments for deepwater drilling.1 The
Graham Watson final test before beginning production lies in
Houston, Texas, USA completing deepwater wells, and there, too, the
petroleum industry is making tremendous strides.
Darryl Fett How deep is deep? While various definitions
Jose Piedras exist, many operators define deep water as
TotalFinaElf E&P USA, Inc. greater than 500 m [1640 ft] deep, and ultradeep
Houston, Texas water as more than 2000 m [6562 ft] deep
(next page).2 The US Minerals Management
Roger Jenkins Service (MMS), which manages mineral
David Schmidt
resources on the outer continental shelf, consid-
Murphy Sabah Oil Co. Ltd.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ers water more than 1000 ft [305 m] to be deep.3
While the water depth alone presents signif-
Eric Kolstad icant operational challenges, operators also must
Anadarko Petroleum cope with additional downhole problems such as
The Woodlands, Texas shallow-water or gas flows, heavy oil, hydrates,
paraffin-rich oil, and asphaltene deposition dur-
Greg Stimatz ing drilling, completion and production.4 These
Graham Taylor difficulties are alleviated somewhat by gains in
Marathon Oil Company seismic quality, improvements in well-logging
Houston, Texas and well-testing technology, and advances and
experience in drilling, drilling fluids—including
cement—and well-completion technology.5
In this article, we examine a state-of-the-art
deepwater development in the Gulf of Mexico.
We also introduce new technologies for deepwa-
ter cementing and evaluate their usefulness in
the deep waters offshore USA, Malaysia and
West Africa.
Deepwater Completions
in the Gulf of Mexico
The earliest “deepwater” operations occurred in
the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), Brazil and West Africa
in the late 1970s.6 In the Gulf of Mexico, there
are now more than 150 discoveries in water
depths exceeding 1000 ft, of which 12 are in
more than 6000 ft [1829 m] of water.7 Three
of these deepest fields are included in the
Canyon Express project, operated by TotalFinaElf
E&P USA, which also operates the pipeline sys-
tem, Marathon Oil Company and BP with
partners Nippon Oil Exploration USA and Pioneer
Natural Resources.
Located 150 miles [241 km] southeast of New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, the Canyon Express
fields now comprise nine wells. There are four
wells in the Aconcagua field operated by

36 Oilfield Review
> Major deepwater hydrocarbon provinces (red).
TotalFinaElf, two in the Camden Hills field of
Marathon, and three in BP’s King’s Peak field.
First production from the Canyon Express project
occurred in September 2002. Produced fluids
from the three fields travel 56 miles [90 km]
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Raafat Abbas and Trevor Munk, Clamart, France;
Frederic Barde and Jean Lassus-Dessus, TotalFinaElf
Angola, Luanda, Angola; Leo Burdylo, Mary Jo Caliandro,
James Garner, Roger Keese and Duncan Newlands,
Sugar Land, Texas, USA; Cameron, Houston, Texas; Tim
Curington, Rosharon, Texas; Graham Farr, Thomas Fiskaa,
Matima Ratanapinyowong and Paulo Rubinstein, Houston,
Texas; Ayman Hamam, Cairo, Egypt; Knut Hansen,
Bottesford, England; Dominic Ong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;
Mathieu Pasteris, Luanda, Angola; Charlie Vise, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA; and Paul Weeditz, Marathon Oil
Company, Houston, Texas.
AFIV (annular-controlled FIV system), CemCADE,
Commander, DataFRAC, DeepCEM, DeepCRETE, DeepSea
EXPRES, DeepSTIM, FIV (Formation Isolation Valve),
FlexSTONE, GASBLOK, LiteCRETE, MUDPUSH, QUANTUM,
S.A.F.E. (Slapper-Actuated Firing Equipment), SenTREE,
Winter 2002/2003
through a dual-pipeline system to the Canyon
Station platform in Block 261 of the Main Pass
planning area. Williams Energy operates this pro-
duction platform.
STIMPAC, USI (UltraSonic Imager) and WELLCLEAN II are
marks of Schlumberger. AllFRAC is a mark of ExxonMobil;
this technology is licensed exclusively to Schlumberger.
TXI is a mark of Texas Industries, Inc. WellDynamics is a
mark of PES Inc.
1. For a review of deepwater well construction: Cuvillier G,
Edwards S, Johnson G, Plumb D, Sayers C, Denyer G,
Mendonça JE, Theuveny B and Vise C: “Solving
Deepwater Well-Construction Problems,” Oilfield Review
12, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 2–17.
2. Shirley K: “Global Depths Have Great Potential,” AAPG
Explorer 23, no. 10 (October 2002): 16, 17 and 35.
3. http://www.gomr.mms.gov/homepg/offshore/deepwatr/
deepover.html
4. For more on gas hydrates: Collett T, Lewis R and
Uchida T: “Growing Interest in Gas Hydrates,” Oilfield
Review 12, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 42–57.
Before agreeing to a shared gathering sys-
tem, the operating companies examined other
options, such as spars and other stand-alone
facilities. The difficulty of subsea operations and
the reserve sizes made it uneconomic to develop
For more on shallow-water flows: Alsos T, Eide A,
Astratti D, Pickering S, Benabentos M, Dutta N,
Mallick S, Schultz G, den Boer L, Livingstone M,
Nickel M, Sønneland L, Schlaf J, Schoepfer P,
Sigismondi M, Soldo JC and Strønen LK: “Seismic
Applications Throughout the Life of the Reservoir,”
Oilfield Review 14, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 48–65.
5. For more on subsea completions: Christie A, Kishino A,
Cromb J, Hensley R, Kent E, McBeath B, Stewart H,
Vidal A and Koot L: “Subsea Solutions,” Oilfield Review
11, no. 4 (Winter 1999/2000): 2–19.
6. Shirley, reference 2.
7. Approximately 50 of these discoveries were producing
hydrocarbons as of 2002. For more information: Baud RD,
Peterson RH, Richardson GE, French LS, Regg J,
Montgomery T, Williams TS, Doyle C and Dorner M:
“Deepwater Gulf of Mexico 2002: America’s Expanding
Frontier,” OCS Report MMS 2002-021, April 2002.
37
 these fields independently. The subsea infras-
tructure for the Canyon Express wells is tied to a
subsea, multiphase gathering system (left).8 The
Canyon Express partners agreed to a number of
cooperative operating principles, but the most
important is that no reservoir assumes the reser-
voir-performance risks of the other reservoirs.9
Well-completion technology is a key aspect
of maximizing production from deepwater fields.
Completion techniques and procedures generally
are similar regardless of the water depth.
However, at greater depths, the technology
choices are more limited. For example, as water
depth goes beyond 6000 ft, the only system-
design option is a subsea wellhead system with
wet trees.
A wet tree is a subsea production system
(below left). Designed for deepwater wells, these
advanced systems typically are fitted with pres-
sure and temperature sensors, flow-control
valves and facilities for hydrate inhibition, and
all components are optimized to avoid well-
intervention operations. The well-intervention
costs for the deepest subsea wells, those with
> Canyon Express subsea infrastructure. Yellow cubes indicate subsea wells. The dual pipelines are wet trees, are so great that the wells are
shown in red, and the electrohydraulic umbilical that ties the platform to the fields is represented by designed with the expectation that physical
the yellow line. Flowlines transport produced gas 56 miles [90 km] to the Canyon Station platform.
intervention will not occur. Dry trees, in contrast,
are similar to conventional completions for plat-
form wells. They are designed to produce to
compliant towers, spars and tension-leg plat-
forms (TLPs), from which well-intervention
operations are simpler and less expensive.10
Production risers, which are used for fixed off-
shore structures such as TLPs, are not an option
beyond about 4500-ft [1372-m] water depth.
Instead, flowlines are used to transmit produced
fluids to production and testing facilities. All the
control valves for wet trees are subsea, and pro-
duction from the Canyon Express fields goes
through a flowline to production facilities.
There are significant difficulties in placing
production equipment on the seabed: deep
canyons, salt diapirs and potentially unstable
seabed surfaces. Cost and efficiency also are
major concerns. Well-completion operations
from a dynamically positioned drillship in more
than 7000 ft [2134 m] of water cost as much
as US$17,000 per hour and require the coordina-
tion of as many as 200 people from several
companies on location.11 The specific require-
ments for completion of each distinct reservoir
zone add another level of complexity to deep-
water projects.
> Subsea tree for Aconcagua and Camden Hills wells. These trees provide a horizontal rather than Faced with these many problems, Marathon
a vertical production path, simplifying well-completion operations. Weighing 102,000 lbm [46,266 kg], Oil Company and TotalFinaElf E&P USA created a
they are strong enough to withstand ultradeepwater conditions, such as high hydrostatic pressure, joint project team, known as the Wells Integrated
and the operational demands during the entire productive life of the fields. (Illustrations courtesy Project Team (WIPT), to develop procedures,
of Cameron.)

38 Oilfield Review
procure equipment and plan well-completion
operations.12 The team began its work in October
Tubing hanger
2000; well completions were carried out from
January to September 2002. 4 1⁄2 -in. production
The well completions for Aconcagua and tubing
Camden Hills fields use similar techniques and
Methanol-injection
technology to link the reservoirs to production mandrel
facilities. Safe, rapid, interventionless and trouble- TRC-DH-10-LO
safety valve
free reserve depletion is the goal, with all
9 5⁄8 -in. liner top
completion systems tailored to individual reser- Chemical-injection
voirs. The two main requirements for the mandrel
completions are to provide sand control and Packer-setting device
Packer-setting
downhole flow control to deal with potential mechanical override
water breakthrough in each producing zone. This Splice sub
well-completion equipment also allows con- 9 5⁄8 -in. Production packer
trolled and measured production from each zone, liner Gauge carrier with
top three pressure and
maximizing recovery. temperature sensors
Well-completion designs incorporated Cross-nipple for upper
zone isolation
state-of-the-art fracture stimulation and gravel
Upper flow-control valve
packing for long, heterogeneous reservoir inter- Lower flow-control valve
vals, sand-control systems and subsea well-control Landing nipple
systems (right). The wells also contain flow-con- Wireline reentry guide
trol valves and permanent gauges.13 Although the 7-in. shroud
initial investment in the completion equipment Landing nipple for
lower zone isolation
and installation was more than US$20 million per 3 1⁄2-in. isolation tubing
well, the project team also considered the poten- QUANTUM isolation packer
tial cost of remedial well-intervention Production-seal assembly
operations—in this case, well intervention
AFIV device
would cost approximately US$10 million per QUANTUM X packer
Upper
operation. Given the magnitude of these costs, interval Mechanical FIV device
remotely controlled downhole equipment is 2 7⁄8-in. tubing with
carbide blast rings
a cost-effective alternative to expensive, risky
AllFRAC screen
interventions (see “Advances in Well and Shifting tool
Reservoir Surveillance,” page 14). QUANTUM X packer
Well-completion operations for the Lower Hydraulic/mechanical
interval FIV device
Aconcagua and Camden Hills wells were con-
AllFRAC screen
ducted from the Transocean Discoverer Spirit, a Sump packer
dynamically positioned drillship. To optimize rig
time, completion operations were designed to
take advantage of the advanced pipe-handling
capabilities of the dual-derrick system. During > Typical Camden Hills completion, Canyon Express development. The sump
the completion operations, a pipeline-laying ves- packer, lower sand-control assembly, upper sand-control assembly and
sel, a drillship and a vessel for a remotely isolation assembly were installed in four separate runs. The upper comple-
tion equipment, from the production-seal assembly up, was installed in
operated vehicle (ROV) were active in the area, a single operation.
requiring careful coordination and vigilance by all
work crews.

8. For more on reservoir simulations used in production-
facilities decisions: Wallace BK and Gudimetla R:
“Canyon Express Field Performance Simulation,” paper
OTC 13131, presented at the 2001 Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, April 30–May 3, 2001.
9. For more about Canyon Express operating principles:
Clarke D, Allen M and Rijkens F: “Canyon Express—
A Deepwater Affair in the Gulf of Mexico,” presented at
the Deep Offshore Technology International Conference,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, November 6–9, 2000.
10. Cromb JR III: “Managing Deepwater Risks and Chal-
lenges,” Oilfield Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1999/2000): i.
11. Antosh N: “Go Deep Takes New Meaning,” The Houston
Chronicle 102, no. 11 (October 24, 2002): 1B and 4B.
12. BP independently completed its wells in King’s Peak
field. Production from King’s Peak field, added to that
from Aconcagua and Camden Hills fields, yielded suffi-
cient hydrocarbons to justify the Canyon Express project.
13. For more on the downhole flow-control equipment and
pressure gauges: Jackson Nielsen VB, Piedras J,
Stimatz GP and Webb TR: “Aconcagua, Camden Hills,
and King’s Peak Fields, Gulf of Mexico Employ Intelligent
Completion Technology in Unique Field Development
Scenario,” paper SPE 71675, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 30–October 3, 2001.

Winter 2002/2003 39
 Well-completion designs and procedures for
the six wells in the Aconcagua and Camden Hills
fields were similar. As the operations team
gained experience, the time required to complete
a well decreased (right).
First, the horizontal subsea tree was run and
tested immediately prior to completion opera-
tions. The drillship had two rotary tables; the tree
was run from the aft rotary while the marine
drilling riser with the blowout preventer (BOP)
was run on the forward rotary table.14 After the
subsea tree, the drilling riser and the interven-
tion and workover control-system were run, the
tree was tested. Completion-equipment installa-
tion began after the subsea BOP stack was run
and latched.
After the BOP stack was tested, the temporary
abandonment plugs were drilled out, and the well
was cleaned out by displacing drilling mud with
seawater and then calcium chloride [CaCl2] com-
pletion brine. Afterward, displacement pills,
casing scrapers, brushes and jetting tools were
used to minimize residual wellbore debris.15
Wireline was used to set the sump packer near
the bottom of the well to provide depth control for
subsequent perforating and sand-control opera-
tions. The upper and lower sand reservoirs were
then perforated using tubing-conveyed perforating
equipment and completed in a stacked frac-pack
configuration for commingled production.
Perforating operations for one of the Canyon
Express wells used S.A.F.E. Slapper-Actuated
Firing Equipment perforating technology instead
of electric detonators or packer-setting tool
igniters, which cannot be used while radios,
welders and other rig equipment are in use.16 The
exploding foil initiator of the S.A.F.E. system
requires higher currents than ordinary detonators
or igniters, so stray voltages are not a concern.
Using the S.A.F.E. system saves rig time during
perforating operations because radio silence is
not required; operations such as welding can
continue without interruption. The zones were
perforated slightly overbalanced; any perforation > Improved completion performance. The Wells Integrated Project Team calculated the time from
damage would be overcome by fracturing opera- drillship arrival on location to demobilization to be 40 days (pink curve with squares). Except for the
tions that would extend beyond the damaged Mississippi Canyon Block 305 #2 well, which was temporarily abandoned for sidetrack drilling, the
zone. The FIV Formation Isolation Valve device, wells in Aconcagua and Camden Hills were completed in 39 days or less, with one well, MC305 #1,
requiring only 24 days to complete.
described later, and a packer plug isolated the
lower zone during perforating and sand-control
operations in the upper zone.
The upper zone was gravel packed because of gravel-pack packer family, and STIMPAC fractur- zones completed separately to eliminate poten-
a nearby water zone; the lower zone had a frac ing/gravel-packing service for sand control. tial fluid-loss problems and formation damage.
pack. The zones were isolated after sand-control These remotely operated valves are activated by When the fracturing service tool was pulled, the
operations to prevent fluid loss and fluid influx. pressure rather than physical intervention with FIV ball was shifted closed mechanically, provid-
Innovative FIV technology was used with the slickline; as a contingency, they can be opened ing positive shutoff in case of fluid loss or
QUANTUM X packer, part of the QUANTUM using slickline or coiled tubing. They isolate reservoir influx during completion operations.

40 Oilfield Review
 Packers are downhole devices used in almost
every completion to isolate the annulus from the
production conduit and anchor the conduit in the
casing, enabling controlled production, injection
or treatment. The QUANTUM X packer is a ver-
satile, rugged packer designed for sand-control
completions, such as gravel packing, and high-
pressure, high-volume stimulation treatments. In
this case, STIMPAC services combined fracturing
and gravel packing in a single operation. This
frac-pack technique breaks through the formation
damage and minimizes productivity impairment
that is common in conventional cased-hole gravel
packs.17 This stimulation operation was executed
by the DeepSTIM I and DeepSTIM II offshore
stimulation vessels. The DeepSTIM vessels pro-
vide large-capacity treatments and high-rate,
high-pressure pumping, fracturing, acidizing or
gravel packing for remote or deepwater locations.
Following the final sand-control treatment, an
isolation-packer assembly was run on the work
string to establish the proper flow paths for sub-
sequent production. Fluids from the lower sand
flow up the tubing path, and the upper sand is pro-
duced up the annulus between the isolation tubing
and the sand-control screen. The isolation assem-
bly also incorporated AFIV annular-controlled FIV
system technology to provide well control and
prevent fluid loss in the upper flow path.
The designs of the sandface completions dif-
fered somewhat because Marathon and
TotalFinaElf have different philosophies. For
example, TotalFinaElf used the DataFRAC frac-
ture data determination service before the job to
optimize the design of the fracturing operation.
TotalFinaElf selected specific wire-wrapped
screens with shunt tubes to optimize the frac-
pack jobs in long and deviated intervals, to
maximize productivity and to minimize the skin
effect. Marathon selected prepacked screens to
optimize sand control. The risk involved in the
lower completions was significant—several dis-
tinct operations were required to install each
component, any of which could damage the pay
zone if performed incorrectly. Once installed,
however, both completion designs provided an
effective and reliable foundation for the installa-
tion of the complicated upper completion.
The upper completion assembly was installed
as a single unit, which could have been retrieved
if necessary. Nevertheless, running the upper
completion presented significant risks and
challenges. This equipment included a pro-
duction-seal assembly that locates and stings
into the isolation-packer assembly. The
WellDynamics Intelligent Well Completion
Winter 2002/2003
System (IWCS) equipment was run above the
seal assembly. The IWCS includes two flow-
control valves, which allow selective control of
each completed interval. The IWCS also includes
pressure and temperature gauges and a hydrauli-
cally set production packer.
A chemical-injection system for scale treat-
ment and surface-controlled subsurface safety
valves (SCSSVs) also were run in the Canyon
Express wells (see “At the Ready: Subsurface
Safety Valves,” page 52).18 Seabed temperatures
of 38°F [3°C] and the potential for gas hydrates
necessitated a methanol-injection system to
inhibit hydrate formation in the flowlines.
Another system at the wellheads minimizes pro-
duction problems caused by changes in the state
of hydrocarbon liquids, such as paraffin precipita-
tion. Nine control lines are used to operate the
various downhole systems.
The SCSSV was a tubing-retrievable, nitro-
gen-charged valve that incorporates dual,
redundant hydraulic operating systems. The
SCSSV was set deep enough to avoid hydrate
formation, approximately 2500 ft [762 m] below
the seabed.19 A methanol-injection mandrel
installed just above the SCSSV offers further pro-
tection from hydrate formation. Production tubing
was run from this mandrel to the subsea tubing
hanger. The tubing-hanger running tool, operated
by the SenTREE 7 subsea well control system,
was latched to the tubing hanger.
The SenTREE 7 system provides shut-in, dis-
connect and well-control capability during well
cleanup and testing, and the system shuts off
flow from the well and can be removed safely in
15 seconds.20 This sophisticated, deepwater test
tree was electrohydraulically controlled with a
small, multifunctional umbilical clamped to the
landing string. During completion installation,
the SenTREE 7 control system allowed the
SCSSV and IWCS equipment to function before
landing the tubing hanger. The Commander con-
trol system for subsea well control managed and
monitored the test tree and completion through-
out the operations.
A special riser-sealing mandrel was run in the
landing string to protect the umbilicals when
closing the diverter packer in case gas entered
the drilling riser above the BOP stack. The riser-
sealing mandrel was positioned to accommodate
heave of the drilling vessel, downward motion
caused by loss of station keeping, and emer-
gency unlatching of the SenTREE 7 system.
Packer fluid was circulated into the wellbore
prior to setting the production packer. The pro-
duction packer was hydraulically set after the
tubing hanger was landed, locked and tested.
The downhole isolation valves—FIV and AFIV
devices—were opened by applying a predeter-
mined number of pressure cycles on the
production tubing. The AFIV device provides
zonal control for the upper zone; the FIV device
provides reliable fluid control before running the
production string.
The flow-control valves were configured to
produce the lower interval for cleanup and eval-
uation. Produced gas and condensate were flared
throughout the flowback period, and samples of
each were captured at surface. Recovered stimu-
lation fluids were stored either for flaring with
produced gas or for subsequent transfer to shore
for disposal. To eliminate the risk of hydrate for-
mation and the mechanical risk of running
wireline, there was no downhole sampling.
The upper interval was flowed for cleanup
and evaluation in a similar manner. A short test
of the commingled intervals confirmed that the
IWCS equipment functioned properly. The well
was shut in at surface; the SCSSV was closed,
and fluid in the tubing above the SCSSV was dis-
placed by methanol. The tubing-hanger crown
plug was run on wireline, and the SenTREE 7 unit
was unlatched and pulled.
14. A drilling riser is a large-diameter pipe that connects the
subsea BOP stack to a floating surface rig to take mud
returns to the surface. Without the riser, the mud would
simply spill out of the top of the BOP stack onto the
seafloor. The riser might be loosely considered a tempo-
rary extension of the wellbore to the surface.
15. A pill is any relatively small quantity—usually less than
200 bbl [32 m3]—of a special blend of drilling fluid to
accomplish a specific task that the regular drilling fluid
cannot perform. Examples include high-viscosity pills
to help lift cuttings out of a vertical wellbore, freshwater
pills to dissolve encroaching salt formations, pipe-
freeing pills to destroy filter cake and relieve differential-
sticking forces, and lost-circulation material pills to plug
a thief zone.
16. For more on perforating technology: Behrmann L,
Brooks JE, Farrant S, Fayard A, Venkitaraman A, Brown A,
Michel C, Noordemeer A, Smith P and Underdown D:
“Perforating Practices That Optimize Productivity,”
Oilfield Review 12, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 52–74.
17. For more on frac packing: Ali S, Norman D, Wagner D,
Ayoub J, Desroches J, Morales H, Price P, Shepherd D,
Toffanin E, Troncoso J and White S: “Combined
Stimulation and Sand Control,” Oilfield Review 14, no. 2
(Summer 2002): 30–47.
18. A safety valve is a device installed in a wellbore to pro-
vide emergency closure of the producing conduits. Two
types of subsurface safety valve are available: surface-
controlled and subsurface-controlled. In each type, the
safety-valve system is designed to be fail-safe, so that
the wellbore is isolated in the event of any system failure
or damage to the surface production-control facilities.
19. For more on the record-setting safety-valve installation
in the Gulf of Mexico: Christie A and McCalvin D: “Key
Components to Conquer the Deep,” Hart’s Deepwater
Technology (August 2002): 37–38.
20. For more on the SenTREE 7 system: Christie et al,
reference 5.
41
 > Fluid invasion in setting cement. Cement slurries undergo four main stages as they progress from
fully liquid to solid (middle). The temperature increases during the third stage, hydration (top). When
the static gel strength of the slurry reaches a point known as the critical wall shear stress (CWSS),
gas or water from the formation can enter the slurry because the pressure transmitted by the slurry is
equal to the pore pressure of the formation (bottom). The CWSS also is the starting point for the criti-
cal hydration period (CHP). The end of the CHP occurs when the cement matrix is impermeable
enough to prevent gas or fluid migration. During the CHP, the slurry is highly vulnerable to gas or fluid
migration. Therefore, a short CHP is one of the key features that a cement slurry must have when shal-
low-water or gas-flow hazards exist.

A wireline plug was preinstalled in the inter-
nal tree cap on surface, which was then run on
the work string using a mechanical running tool.
The mechanical running tool is operated by clos-
ing the appropriate set of pipe rams and applying
pressure down the choke or kill lines.
Finally, fluid from the well was unloaded to the
rig for production testing and cleanup. The tree
then was secured with a tubing-hanger wireline
plug and internal tree cap. The BOP stack, riser
and intervention and workover control-system
umbilical were disconnected, and the rig was
moved to the next well in the completion program.
At the end of this project, Marathon and all
Camden Hills service providers conducted a
lengthy evaluation, and the many lessons learned
and ideas for improvement were captured
to enhance future completion operations.
TotalFinaElf held similar meetings with
Schlumberger to review each Aconcagua com-
pletion. The dual-activity rig added flexibility and
saved many days of rig time because the aft
rotary table was used to perform offline pressure
testing, equipment preparation and equipment
makeup prior to the use of the equipment in
activities on the forward rotary table.
Canyon Express well completions established
many records for deepwater projects; like world
records in any dynamic operating environment,
some of these have already been broken. In
Camden Hills field, for example, records included
the deepest water for field development at
7209 ft [2197 m], a world depth record at the time
for setting a surface-controlled subsurface safety
valve at 9894 ft [3016 m] below sea level; the
first three stacked frac-packs with four zonal-iso-
lation devices; and the fastest SenTREE 7
dual-derrick transfer—just 25 minutes. To
improve the efficiency of moving the Discoverer
Spirit from one location to another, the BOP
remained deployed beneath the vessel, about
400 ft [122 m] above the seabed, saving millions
of dollars in rig time compared with fully retriev-
ing the BOP, moving, and redeploying it.21 These
and other milestones were reached ahead of
schedule with no lost-time injuries or accidents,
and with well cleanup and deliverability of the
reservoir zones occurring as planned.
Marathon and TotalFinaElf both credit careful
planning and execution for the success in the
Canyon Express project. Nothing was taken for
granted; WIPT members evaluated even the sim-
plest components of advanced completion
systems to be confident about their decisions.
The wells were “completed on paper” many
times before actual operations began.
Advances in Deepwater Cementing
Zonal isolation is a key concern in deep water,
where shallow-water or gas flows below the
seabed can lead to well-control problems and
a host of related hazards that have cost the

42 Oilfield Review
 > Critical aspects of cementing shallow-water and gas flows. The CWSS for an annulus with drilling
fluid and cement, described in the equation (top), is mainly a function of wellbore parameters and is
independent of most slurry properties, except for slurry density. The CHP, which begins at the time
labeled Tc and ends at time Tf, reflects static gel-strength development, or how quickly the slurry gels
after pumping ceases. Deepwater operators typically seek cement slurries that minimize CHP, espe-
cially in areas with shallow-water or gas flows.

exploration and production (E&P) industry hun-
dreds of millions of dollars.22 Shallow-water or
gas flows tend to occur in areas of rapid sedi-
mentation, overpressured formations and weak
formations, conditions typical of all the major
deepwater provinces of interest to E&P compa-
nies. These hazards are detected primarily by
analysis of seismic and measurements-while-
drilling data, although the growing database
of deepwater wells in regions such as the
Gulf of Mexico has led to more reliable predic-
tions as well data are integrated with regional
seismic maps.23
The loss of several wellbores in the Ursa
field, Gulf of Mexico, in the 1990s triggered
new awareness of and respect for the hazards of
shallow-water or gas flows.24 As a result, opera-
tors have modified their drilling procedures and
cementing systems. Drilling locations are
selected and well trajectories are planned to
avoid shallow-flow hazards. Development-well
spacing is increased if shallow flows are
expected because washouts from one well might
affect nearby wells. Casing designs for deep-
water wells now take into account the possibility
of having to set casing below zones of shallow-
water or gas flows, although setting extra casing
strings to counter shallow-flow hazards leads
to higher well-construction costs and smaller
production-casing diameters.
Shallow-water or gas flows affect cementing
systems in several ways.25 First, because these
flows often occur at relatively shallow depths rel-
ative to the mudline, or seabed surface—500 to
2500 ft [152 to 762 m]—and in weak, unconsoli-
dated formations, the density of the cementing
system must be especially light to be lower than
the fracture pressure. The slurry design must
offer fluid-loss control of 50 mL/30 min API or
less to avoid altering the slurry density or rheol-
ogy.26 To reduce the possibility of fluid channels
forming in the cement, the slurry design must
minimize the amount of free water and particle
settling in the slurry, a phenomenon known as
sedimentation. The critical hydration period
(CHP) must be brief to prevent water or gas from
flowing into the cement (previous page and
above). Finally, the hardened or set cement
should have low permeability to provide effec-
tive, long-term zonal isolation.
Like other deepwater technologies, wellbore
cementing has advanced rapidly, and multiple
solutions are now available to counteract and
isolate shallow-water or gas flows. In some
deepwater development projects, foamed
cements are chosen to cement weakly consoli-
dated formations. These slurries incorporate
nitrogen or another inert gas in a conventional
Portland cement system to reduce slurry density.
This technique allows adjustment of the slurry
density at the wellsite, good fluid-loss control
and satisfactory compressive-strength devel-
opment at low temperatures, but foamed
cementing systems require additional equipment
21. Pallanich Hull J: “BOP-Deployed Move Saves Time,
Money,” Offshore 62, no. 6 (June 2002): 36.
22. Ostermeier RM, Pelletier JH, Winker CD, Nicholson JW,
Rambow FH and Cowan KM: “Dealing with Shallow-
Water Flow in the Deepwater Gulf of Mexico,” paper
OTC 11972, presented at the 2000 Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, May 1–4, 2000.
23. For more on the use of seismic data to predict drilling
hazards: Alsos et al, reference 4.
24. Eaton LF: “Drilling Through Deepwater Shallow Water
Flow Zones at Ursa,” paper SPE/IADC 52780, presented
at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, March 8–11, 1999.
25. For more on cementing in shallow-flow areas: Stiles DA:
“Successful Cementing in Areas Prone to Shallow
Saltwater Flows in Deepwater Gulf of Mexico,” paper
OTC 8305, presented at the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, May 5–8, 1997.
26. Fluid loss is the leakage of the liquid phase of drilling
fluid, slurry or treatment fluid containing solid particles
into the formation matrix, measured in volume per unit of
time. The resulting buildup of solid material or filter cake
may be undesirable, as may the penetration of filtrate
through the formation. Fluid-loss additives are used to
control the process and avoid potential reservoir damage.

Winter 2002/2003 43
 15.8 lbm/gal [1894 kg/m3], so the slurry must be
10,000 foamed if a lower density is required. The gyp-
sum sets quickly, so a key aspect of planning and
Impermeable executing these jobs is correctly retarding the
Gel strength, lbf/100 ft2
1000 matrix slurry so that it does not set before or during
pumping operations (left).
The key advantage of gypsum cement is that
CWSS
100 the rapid setting prevents fluid migration into the
cement, but this advantage comes with several
disadvantages. Gypsum quality is highly variable,
10 so each blend must be rigorously tested before
CHP the job begins. Also, the slurry is sensitive to
contamination in tanks and pumping equipment,
1
requiring additional labor to clean all equipment.
Tc Tf Many operators prefer to avoid using multiple
Time
cementing systems because space for storage
and equipment on deepwater drilling rigs is lim-
Class H cement
0.5 gallons per sack low-temperature GASBLOK system ited. Because gypsum cements typically are used
0.06 gallons per sack DeepCEM nonretarding dispersant only for shallow sections of deepwater wells,
Density = 16.4 lbm/gal
Temperature = 65°F another cementing system must be available for
Pressure = 400 psi deeper sections.
2000 A recent innovation, DeepCEM deepwater
0.1 0.05
1750
0.4 0.2 gal/sack gal/sack cementing solutions technology, offers similar
gal/sack gal/sack 0.15
gal/sack performance to gypsum cements but simplifies
1500 logistics. DeepCEM systems incorporate a non-
Gel strength, lbf/100 ft2

retarding dispersant and cement-set enhancer;

1250
these serve to shorten the transition time. The
1000 additives are convenient to mix and pump and
are compatible with any oil- or gas-well cement.
750
They also make slurries less sensitive to minor
500 No DeepCEM variations in well conditions or additive concen-
cement-set enhancer trations. Slurries that incorporate DeepCEM
250 DeepCEM technology develop gel strength and compressive
cement-set enhancer
0 strength quickly, even in the low temperatures
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 typical of the deepwater environment (next page).
Time, min

Transition time: Deepwater Cementing

No DeepCEM cement-set enhancer = 161 min in the Gulf of Mexico
0.2 gallons per sack DeepCEM cement-set enhancer = 70 min
0.4 gallons per sack DeepCEM cement-set enhancer = 47 min In the deep water of Block 243 of the Mississippi
Canyon area, Gulf of Mexico, TotalFinaElf is
> Optimizing cement setting time. The CHP can be reduced if the slurry exhibits developing its Matterhorn discovery. The field
a “right-angle set” type of static gel-strength development in which strength sits below 2816 ft [858 m] of water and currently
develops as soon as pumping ceases (top). “Right-angle set” refers to the
appearance of the plot of gel strength versus time because of the nearly contains nine wells drilled and cemented
90° bend in the curve (blue line). Steeper static gel-strength development between December 2001 and October 2002; the
curves are desirable because they indicate shorter CHPs. Gel strength can wells will be completed using a workover rig
be modified using additives, such as DeepCEM additives, a key capability during the summer of 2003, and production will
when drilling in areas prone to shallow-water or gas flows (bottom).
flow to a small tension leg platform, also called
a miniTLP.
TotalFinaElf expected shallow-water flows
plus the appropriate gas. In remote areas, the strings set in low-temperature environments. and seabed temperatures of 40°F [4°C] in the
expense and logistical requirements often dic- However, this type of cement tends to be com- Matterhorn wells. Drilling-fluids, mud-removal
tate other choices.27 Also, foaming tends to plicated and costly to mix and pump.28 The and well-cementing programs were the subject
increase set-cement permeability, which is not 60:40 part of the name refers to the fact that one of intensive feasibility studies before the com-
desirable for long-term isolation. sack of blend contains 60% gypsum by weight. pany approved development of the Matterhorn
Another option, fast-setting gypsum cement, The other 40% is Class C Portland cement. find, during the service-company bidding process
also known as plaster cement or 60:40 right- The base slurry density of these systems is and also before the operations began.
angle set cement, can be effective for casing

44 Oilfield Review
 To improve mud removal, TotalFinaElf used
the WELLCLEAN II Engineering Solution sim- Class G and DeepCEM system
Right-angle set system
ulator to optimize flow rates and spacer sizes,
1400 DeepCRETE and DeepCEM system
and selected the MUDPUSH spacer family
* Transition time
for cementing.29 1200 13 min*
12 min*
TotalFinaElf chose a TXI Lightweight Well 22 min*

Static gel strength, lbf/100 ft2

Cement system incorporating DeepCEM technol- 1000
ogy for 26-in. and 20-in. surface casing strings.30
The lead slurry for 20-in. casing strings was 800
foamed to control hydrostatic pressure during
transition time. The same system was used, 600

without foaming, for tail slurries. For inter-

400
mediate and production casings, the TXI system
with DeepCEM additives also was used to 200
reduce transition times and time spent waiting
on cement, a key consideration given that its 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
deepwater-rig cost was US$250,000 per day.
Time, min
Selection of a single cementing system
proved to be a key element of successful cement- Class G and DeepCEM system
ing operations for TotalFinaElf. The drilling rig Foamed right-angle set system
had just two cement tanks, so it would have been 2000 DeepCRETE and DeepCEM system
impractical to attempt to use more than one type
1800
of cement. Storing more than one type of cement
blend also presents difficulties when storage 1600
Compressive strength, psi

space is limited. In addition, logistics at the 1400

onshore base would have been much more com-
plicated, especially since TotalFinaElf opted to
batch-drill the development wells: the cementing
crew on location was performing cementing
operations approximately once every three days.
A single supply vessel operated at capacity to
deliver large volumes of drilling fluids, including
cement, for operations in a shallow-water flow
environment. If more than one cementing system
had been chosen, the potential for confusion,
either at the supply base or on the drilling rig,
would have increased.
TotalFinaElf encountered shallow-water
flows in five of the nine Matterhorn wells. All
cementing operations proceeded smoothly, with
no remedial cementing required for the casing
strings set and cemented in shallow-flow zones.
Leakoff tests (LOTs) of all casing strings were
adequate, allowing TotalFinaElf to drill ahead
safely and without drilling-fluid losses.
During well-completion operations in 2003,
TotalFinaElf plans to acquire cement-bond logs to
better evaluate cement-bond quality and the
effectiveness of zonal isolation. For the time
being, the company believes that LOT results and
ROV checks for annular flow at the wellheads
indicate successful cementing operations. As a
result, TotalFinaElf plans to use similar cement-
ing technology for future wells.
Additional deepwater cementing technology
is now available to meet the needs for rapid set-
ting and prevention of gas migration in cold,
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5
> Static gel-strength development (top) and compressive-strength develop-
ment of slurries used for deepwater cementing (bottom). The DeepCRETE and
DeepCEM system (green curves) was used in deepwater wells in Malaysia.
deepwater environments. DeepCRETE deepwater
cementing solution technology, with a specially
engineered particle-size distribution, now is used
to counteract shallow-water or gas flows and
low temperatures, yet requires no special equip-
27. For more on foamed and ultralightweight cements:
Al Suwaidi A, Hun C, Bustillos JL, Guillot D, Rondeau J,
Vigneaux P, Helou H, Martínez Ramírez JA and Reséndiz
Robles JL: “Light as a Feather, Hard as a Rock,” Oilfield
Review 13, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 2–15.
28. Mohammedi N, Ferri A and Piot B: “Deepwater Wells
Benefit from Cold-Temperature Cements,” World Oil 222,
no. 4 (April 2001): 86, 88 and 91.
29. For more on mud removal: Abbas R, Cunningham E,
Munk T, Bjelland B, Chukwueke V, Ferri A, Garrison G,
Hollies D, Labat C and Moussa O: “Solutions for
Long-Term Zonal Isolation,” Oilfield Review 14, no. 3
(Autumn 2002): 16–29.
30. TXI lightweight cements are manufactured from inter-
ground, lightweight aggregate clinker and Portland
12.5 lbm/gal
15.8 lbm/gal
12.5 lbm/gal
10 15 20 25
Time, hours
ment or personnel.31 DeepCRETE systems, which
can be formulated at densities ranging from
8.0 to 13.5 lbm/gal [959 to 1619 kg/m3], incorpo-
rate DeepCEM technology. The particle-size
distribution makes the slurry easy to pump,
cement clinker to produce a blend with relatively low
specific gravity. The fine grind of this blend results in
higher reactivity, but requires more mix water than ordi-
nary Portland cements. See: Nelson EB, Baret J-F and
Michaux M: “Cement Additives and Mechanisms of
Action,” in Nelson EB: Well Cementing. Sugar Land,
Texas, USA: Schlumberger Dowell (1990): 13-3.
For more on TXI cements: http://www.txi.com/
31. For more on applications of DeepCRETE technology:
Piot B, Ferri A, Mananga S-P, Kalabare C and Viela D:
“West Africa Deepwater Wells Benefit from Low-
Temperature Cements,” paper SPE/IADC 67774, presented
at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, February 27–March 1, 2001.

Winter 2002/2003 45
 > Solid fraction, permeability, compressive strength and fluid loss of slurries used for
deepwater cementing.
32. Excessive heat evolved through chemical reactions of
the cement-hydration process could melt hydrates near
the wellbore and destabilize sediments that were previ-
ously frozen in place.
33. Cement returns are an indication of the quality of a
cementing operation, and the only indication of losses
during a cementing operation. If returns are observed
and pumping pressures remain within the expected
46
range during the operation, then no problems are
expected. If returns are not observed, or only partial
returns are observed, then losses occurred during the
operation. In this case, the top of cement will not be as
high as planned and remedial cementing operations may
be necessary.
34. For more on the Marco Polo project: Watson P, Kolstad E,
Borstmayer R, Pope T and Reseigh A: “An Innovative
Approach to Development Drilling in the Deepwater
Gulf of Mexico,” paper SPE/IADC 79809, presented
at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, February 19–21, 2003.
For more on FlexSTONE technology: Abbas et al,
reference 29.
Oilfield Review
 > Locations of the Marco Polo field and Mississippi Canyon exploratory well, offshore Gulf of Mexico,
and schematic diagrams of wells (top).
improves set-cement properties such as
permeability and durability, and requires lower
concentrations of gas-migration additives than
do ordinary slurries (previous page). DeepCRETE
systems have a lower heat of hydration than ordi-
nary Portland cements, which reduces the risk of
cementing in areas with gas hydrates.32 The
range of density adjustments possible at the
wellsite is narrower than for foamed cements,
but this is often outweighed by such advantages
as rapid transition time, low fluid loss and low
set-cement permeability.
Anadarko Petroleum has been active in the
deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico for several
years, with approximately 30 wells drilled as of
2002. Although their cementing operations using
foamed cements were successful, Anadarko
sought simpler, safer and less expensive alter-
natives. Foamed cementing systems require
additional equipment and personnel, and the use
Winter 2002/2003
of energized fluids, like foamed cement, presents
safety and risk-management issues that many
operators strive to avoid.
Anadarko—the first operator in the Gulf of
Mexico to do so—opted to use DeepCRETE slur-
ries after seeing laboratory-test results for
gel-strength development. Slurries pumped in
areas prone to shallow-water or gas flows need to
develop gel strength rapidly. DeepCRETE slurries
were used for cementing the surface casing
strings in one deepwater exploratory well in
the Mississippi Canyon planning area (above).
Mixing and pumping operations proceeded as
planned. In the Marco Polo development project in
the Green Canyon area, also operated by
Anadarko, five 20-in. casing strings were
cemented with DeepCRETE slurries.
Logging tools cannot measure cement quality
in large-diameter wellbore sections, so cement-
ing operations in surface casing strings are
evaluated in other ways. In these deepwater
wells, Anadarko observed that returns to the
mudline were easy to see using an ROV.33 LOT
results were better than expected.
The use of DeepCRETE systems resulted in
significant financial savings for Anadarko. By not
having a foamed-cementing crew on standby,
and then not requiring that crew to wait to
cement the second surface casing string, the
company saved about US$200,000 on the
exploratory well. Development wells were
cemented as a group, so waiting time for a
foamed-cementing crew would have been less,
with estimated savings of approximately
US$100,000 per well. Drilling in the Marco Polo
field incorporates other advanced cementing
technologies, including FlexSTONE advanced
flexible cement technology slurries for produc-
tion casing.34
47
> Deepwater cementing offshore Malaysia. Murphy Sabah Oil Co. Ltd. cemented wells in Block K in April 2002. The wells, in water depths of 1300 to 3000 m
[4265 to 9843 ft], were located in areas prone to shallow-water or gas flows, gas hydrates and weak, unconsolidated formations. A schematic diagram (top
right) shows the casing and cement configuration.

Deepwater Cementing Offshore Malaysia
Offshore Malaysia, in the South China Sea,
Murphy Sabah Oil Co. Ltd. successfully drilled
five deepwater wells in 2002 (above).35 All the
drilling locations exhibited potential for shallow-
water or gas flows, gas hydrates and weak,
unconsolidated formations. At water depths of
1300 to 3000 m [4265 to 9843 ft], seabed tem-
peratures were approximately 1.7°C [35°F];
CemCADE cementing design and evaluation soft-
ware simulations were used to evaluate the
effects of temperature on slurry pumpability and
compressive-strength development.
Initially, Murphy considered using foamed
cementing systems, but mobilizing the additional
equipment and personnel for these operations
added unacceptable complications. Ultimately,
Murphy selected an optimized lightweight
cementing system to meet its stringent require-
ments for slurry density, compressive strength
and limited time waiting on cement. The
DeepCRETE system incorporated DeepCEM addi-
tives and GASBLOK gas migration control cement
system additives; the fluid-loss control, zero free
water, lack of sedimentation and short transition
time contributed to excellent slurry perfor-
mance.36 The system exhibited a low heat of
hydration, a key attribute in an area known to
contain gas hydrates.
Surface casing strings for all four wells were
cemented successfully, with full returns observed
during all surface casing jobs. LOTs at the surface
casing shoe also met operator requirements—
LOTs were adequate to allow Murphy to drill to
the next designed casing point without having to
set any intermediate contingency casing strings.

48 Oilfield Review
 > Location of Girassol field, Block 17, offshore Angola, and wellbore schematic for the 119 well. The
well deviated as much as 75° from vertical (right).
Deepwater Cementing Offshore Angola
Other advanced cementing systems are being
used to advantage in deepwater wells. Cement-
ing operations for wells in the Girassol field,
offshore Angola, are challenging. Discovered by
TotalFinaElf in 1996, the Girassol field is a world-
class deepwater development that began
producing oil to a floating production, storage
and offloading (FPSO) facility in 2001 (above).37
For the Girassol 119 well in Block 17, the
operator wanted to ensure excellent zonal isola-
tion for the Oligocene-age B1 reservoir, which
would be frac-packed, and the overlying
B3 reservoir, which would not be completed in
this well. The well deviated as much as 75° from
vertical and the 121⁄4-in. hole was mostly in
gauge, although some localized washouts of
Winter 2002/2003
16- to 20-in. diameter were encountered across
interbedded shales of the B3 reservoir. There
were no significant drilling-fluid losses during cir-
culation or running of the casing.
The company required a low-density slurry to
allow higher displacement rates and accurate
cement placement, and good compressive
strength in the set cement to support the frac-
pack operation. Using the WELLCLEAN II
simulator, cementing engineers designed a
LiteCRETE slurry and optimized displacement
rates within the limits of hole inclination, cen-
tralizer placement and equivalent circulating
density of the slurry. The significant inclination of
the wellbore made it difficult to achieve slurry
flow around the casing, particularly in the upper
part of the zone because fewer centralizers were
used to limit drag forces as the casing was run.
The cementing operations began with the
pumping of MUDPUSH spacer to remove oil-base
drilling mud. A 10.8-lbm/gal [1.3-g/cm3] LiteCRETE
slurry followed. The slurry was batch-mixed rather
than mixed on the fly during cementing operations
to ensure that it had the proper density and slurry
quality throughout the job.
35. For more on Murphy’s deepwater cementing in
Malaysia: Schmidt D, Ong D and El Marsafawi Y:
“Cementing Challenges in Ultra Deep Water, Offshore
Sabah, Malaysia,” presented at the OSEA International
Conference, Singapore, October 29–31, 2002.
36. Thorough testing, performed at the Kuala Lumpur and
Houston Client Support Labs (CSLs), ensured the slurry
and additives would meet operator specifications. For
more on CSLs: Abbas et al, reference 29.
37. For more on the Girassol field: Hart Publications:
“Girassol: Pushing the Deepwater Frontier,” supplement
to Hart’s E&P, May 2002.
49
 TotalFinaElf used the DeepSea EXPRES off-
shore plug launching system with a double-plug
cementing head system to separate drilling
fluids. The DeepSea EXPRES cementing head
offers enhanced reliability because of simpler
cement-plug design (right). Plugs are released
from the subsea tool without physical contact
between the darts and the plugs, avoiding dart-
to-plug sealing problems. This cementing head
reduces rig time because of more efficient,
remotely controlled dart release and because
casing pressure tests can be combined with
bumping the top plug.38 Operating companies are
experiencing improved job quality because there
is better cement placement, no fluid contamina-
tion and no microannulus. This cementing head
also allowed the operator to test casing immedi-
ately after bumping the cementing plug because
the surface-dart launcher is rated to 10,000 psi
[69 MPa], which exceeds the pressure rating of
plugs and float equipment.
The operations proceeded smoothly despite
minor logistical problems, such as contamination
of the blend during delivery to the drilling rig.
Nevertheless, the USI UltraSonic Imager log
indicated excellent cement quality in the critical
zone from 3375 to 3525 m [11,073 to 11,565 ft]
measured depth (next page).

Waves of the Future

Considerable deepwater activity awaits our
industry. Deepwater discoveries to date have
contributed approximately 60 billion barrels
[9.5 billion m3] of oil to worldwide reserves, yet
only about 25% of deepwater reserves have
been or are being developed; perhaps as little as
5% has been produced.39 In the relatively short
time that oil and gas companies have explored
and produced in deep water, exploratory success
in this frontier has climbed from about 10% to
more than 30% worldwide.40 This increasing suc-
cess rate comes at a critical time as the industry
copes with increasing energy demand.
Substantial work remains in deepwater reser-
voir characterization. Many deepwater reservoirs
turn out to be more complex than initially
thought, not surprising given that first-pass
interpretations are made on the basis of rela-
tively limited static data from seismic surveys,
possibly logs from one or more exploratory wells
and, rarely, cores. Dynamic data, including time-
lapse seismic surveys, measurements from
permanent sensors and production data, are con-
tributing more to our understanding of deepwater
> Improved equipment for deepwater cementing. The subsea tool (left) holds casing-wiper plugs until
they are released by darts pumped from a surface-dart launcher (right). Wiper plugs separate the
cement slurry from other fluids, reducing contamination and maintaining predictable slurry properties
and performance. The bottom plug is launched ahead of the cement slurry to minimize contamination
by drilling fluids inside the casing prior to cementing. Increasing pump pressure ruptures a diaphragm
in the plug body to allow the cement slurry to pass through after a plug reaches the landing collar.
The top plug has a solid body that provides positive indication of contact with the landing collar and
bottom plug through an increase in pump pressure.
38. “Bumping the plug” refers to an increase in pump 42. Kallaur C: “The Deepwater Gulf of Mexico—Lessons
pressure during cementing operations, indicating that Learned,” presented at the Institute of Petroleum
the top cement plug has been placed on the bottom International Conference on Deepwater Exploration and
plug or landing collar. Bumping the plug concludes the Production, London, England, February 22, 2001.
cementing operation. 43. For more on the Deep Spills Task Force: Lane JS and
39. Shirley, reference 2. LaBelle RP: “Meeting the Challenge of Potential
Deepwater Spills: Cooperative Research Effort Between
40. Shirley, reference 2.
41. Turbidites are sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity
Industry and Government,” paper SPE 61114, presented
at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety,
currents in deep water at the base of the continental
and the Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and
slope and on the abyssal plain. For more on turbidite
reservoirs: Weimer P, Slatt RM, Dromgoole P, Mowman M
Production, Stavanger, Norway, June 26–28, 2000.
and Leonard M: “Developing and Managing Turbidite 44. For more on SINTEF: http://www.sintef.no
Reservoirs: Case Histories and Experiences: Results
of the 1998 EAGE/AAPG Research Conference,” AAPG
Bulletin 84, no. 4 (April 2000): 453–465.

50 Oilfield Review

> High-quality zonal isolation in a Girassol well. The USI UltraSonic Imager log shows excellent cement
bonding between cement and casing from approximately 3375 to 3525 m [11,073 to 11,565 ft].
reservoirs and their production. Data from analo-
gous reservoirs, either in outcrop or the
subsurface, also guide reservoir interpretations
(see “Shallow Clues for Deep Exploration,” page 2).
Unexpected deepwater reservoir complexity
commonly leads to changes in the number or
Winter 2002/2003
models and correctly sized production facilities at
the outset of field development.
Turbidite reservoirs are commanding atten-
tion from geoscientists, who are devoting
particular attention to such issues as reservoir
quality, reservoir continuity and reservoir drive.41
In addition to establishing reliable analog models
for future turbidite discoveries, deepwater
geoscientists are compiling lessons learned
about data collection and knowledge sharing
throughout the life of deepwater reservoirs.
Naturally, collection and analysis of data involve
crossdisciplinary collaboration.
Most deepwater developments demand sig-
nificant cooperation and innovation: no single
company can “go it alone.” Canyon Express and
projects like it set a new standard for application
of deepwater technology. Cooperation in deep
water extends to other impressive projects. For
example, industry participants invited the US
Minerals Management Service, the US Coast
Guard and other organizations to join the
DeepStar consortium that examines the technical
issues surrounding deepwater operations.42
The DeepStar consortium has been working
since 1992 to improve technology and operations
and enhance profitability for fields in up to 10,000 ft
[3048 m] of water. This group also studies safety
and environmental issues associated with deep-
water operations. For example, the Deep Spills
Task Force has studied the potential effects of
blowouts and spills.43 Organizations such as the
Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research
at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (SINTEF)
are also contributing to the industry’s understand-
ing of equipment design and reliability.44
In addition to new cementing systems and
related equipment, improvements in other tech-
nologies facilitate deepwater production.
Artificial lift, tool conveyance and flow assurance
are areas of active research and development for
service and E&P companies.
Production from deepwater fields remains an
enormous challenge, but the collaborative efforts
of E&P companies, service companies and
government agencies are making the task less
daunting with time. —GMG
placement of wells to optimize hydrocarbon recov-
ery. Of greater concern to operators, however, are
the unfortunate cases of facilities designs that
turn out to be inadequate to handle actual produc-
tion. Improved understanding of deepwater
reservoirs should lead to more accurate production
51