~ AND Drive SYSTEMS
SECOND EDITION
Paul C. Krause
Oleg Wasynczuk
Scott D. SudhoffANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC
MACHINERY
AND DRIVE SYSTEMS
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MACHINERY
AND DRIVE SYSTEMS
Second Edition
PAUL C. KRAUSE
OLEG WASYNCZUK
SCOTT D. SUDHOFF —“|
Purdue University,
wer Engineering Society, Sponsor MG
IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor peg
EXSRERING
IEEE Press Power Engineering Series
Mohamed E. ElHawary, Series Editor
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woaTesTo our familiesCONTENTS
PREFACE x
Chapter 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC
MACHINE ANALYSIS 1
LAL Introduction / 1
1.2 Magnetically Coupled Circuits / 1
1.3, Electromechanical Energy Conversion J U1
14 Machine Windings and Air-Gap MMP / 35
LS Winding Inductances and Voltage Equations / 47
References / $8
Problems / 58
Chapter 2 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 67
2. Introduetion £67
2.2 Elementary Direct-Current Machine / 68
2.3. Voltage and Torque Equations / 76
24 Basie Types of Direct-Current Machines / 78
2.5. Dynamic Characteristics of Permanent-Magnet and Shunt de Motors / 88
2.6 Time-Domain Block Diagrams and State Equations / 92
2.7 Solution of Dynamic Characteristics by Laplace Transformation / 98
References J 104
Problems / 105vili contents
Chapter 3 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY 109
3.1 Introduction / 109
32. Background / 109
3.3 Equations of Transformation: Changes of Variables J 111
34 Stationary Circuit Variables Transformed to the Arbitrary
Reference Frame / 115
35 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 123
3.6 Transformation Between Reference Frames J. 124
3.7 Transformation of a Balanced Set / 126
38 Balanced Steady-State Phasor Relationships 127
39 Balanced Steady-State Voltage Equations / 130
3.10. Vatiables Observed from Several Frames of Reference J 133
References J 137
Problems / 138
Chapter 4 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES 1
4.1 Introduction / 141
42 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 142
43° Torque Equation in Machine Variables / 146
44 Equations of Transformation for Rotor Circuits / 147
4.5 Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 149
46 Torque Equation in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 153
47 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 154
48 Per Unit System / 155
49 Analysis of Steady-State Operation J 157
4.10 Free Acceleration Characteristics / 165
4.11 Free Acceleration Characteristics Viewed from Various
Reference Frames / 172
4.12 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Changes in Load Torque 174
4.13 Dynamie Performance During a 3-Phase Fault atthe
‘Machine Terminals J. 181
4.14 Computer Simulation in the Arbitrary Reference Frame / 184
References / 187
Problems / 188
Chapter 5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 191
5.1 Introduction / 191
5.2 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 192
53. Torque Equation in Machine Variables / 197cconrents ix
5A Stator Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 198
55 Voltage Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables:
Park's Equations 7 200
5.6 Torque Equations in Substitute Variables / 206
5.7 Rotor Angle and Angle Between Rotors / 207
5.8 Per Unit System / 209
59 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 210
5.10 Dynamie Performance During a Sudden Change in Input Torque / 219
5.11 Dynamie Performance Dusing a 3-Phase Fault at the
Machine Terminals / 225
5.12 Approximate Transient Torque Versus Rotor Angle Characteristics / 229
5.13 Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torgue-Angle
Characteristies During a Sudden Change in Input Torque:
First Swing Transient Stability Limit / 232
5.14 Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torque-Angle
(Charactristies During a 3-Phase Fault atthe Terminals: Critical
Clearing Time / 239
5.15 Equal-Area Criterion / 242
5.16 Computer Simulation / 246
References / 255
Problems / 256
Chapter 6 THEORY OF BRUSHLESS de MACHINES 261
6.1 Introduction / 261
62 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables / 261
63 Voltage and Torque Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables / 264
64 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 266
65 Dynamic Performance / 274
References / 281
Problems / 281
Chapter 7 MACHINE EQUATIONS IN OPERATIONAL
aM
72
13
14
15
16
IMPEDANCES AND TIME CONSTANTS 283
Iniroduetion / 283
Park's Equations in Operational Form / 284
Operational Impedances and G(p) for a Synchronous Machine with
Four Rotor Windings / 284
Standard Synchronous Machine Reactances / 288
Standard Synchronous Machine Time Constants 290
Derived Synchronous Machine Time Constants / 291x contents
7.7 Parameters from Shor-Circuit Characteristics / 294
7.8 Parameters from Frequency-Response Characteristics / 301
References J 307
Problems / 308
Chapter 8 LINEARIZED MACHINE EQUATIONS ai
8.1 Inoduetion / 311
8.2 Machine Equations to Be Linearized / 312
83. Linearization of Machine Equations / 313
84 Small-Displacement Stability: Eigenvalues / 323,
8.5 Eigenvalues of Typical Induction Machines / 324
8.6 Eigenvalues of Typical Synchronous Machines 327
8.7 Transfer Function Formulation / 330
References J 335
Problems / 335,
Chapter 9 REDUCED-ORDER MACHINE EQUATIONS. 337
9.1 Introduction / 337
9.2 Reduced-Order Equations / 338
9.3 Induction Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted by
Reduced-Onder Equations / 343,
94 Synchronous Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted
by Retuced-Order Equations / 350
95 Linearized Reduced-Order Equations / 354
9.6 Eigenvalues Predicted by Linearized Reduced-Onder Equations / 354
9.7 Simulation of Reduced-Order Models / 355
9.8 Closing Comments and Guidelines / 358
References / 358
Problems / 359
Chapter 10. SYMMETRICAL AND UNSYMMETRICAL
2-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES. 361
10.1 Introduction / 361
10.2 Analysis of Symmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 362
10.3 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables for
Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 371
10.4 Voltage and Torque Equations in Stationary Reference-Frame
Variables for Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 373contents xi
10.5 Analysis of Steady-State Operation of Unsymmetrical
2-Phase Induction Machines 377
10.6 Single-Phase Induction Machines / 383
References / 393
Problems / 393
Chapter 11 SEMICONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTERS, 305
11.1 Introduction / 395
11.2. Single-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 395
11.3 3-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 406
References 1 42:
Problems / 425
Chapter 12 dc MACHINE DRIVES ar
12.1 Introduction / 427
12.2 Solid-State Converters for de Drive Systems 427
123 Steady-State and Dynamic Characteristics of aclde Converter Drives / 431
124 One-Quadrant defde Converter Drive / 443
125 Two-Quadrant de/de Converter Drive 460
126 Four-Quadrant defde Converter Drive / 463
12.7 Machine Control with Voltage-Controlled de/de Converter / 466
128 Machine Control with Current-Contolled de/de Converter / 468
References / 476
Problems / 476
Chapter 13. FULLY CONTROLLED 3-PHASE BRIDGE
‘CONVERTERS 481
13.1 Inoduction / 481
132 ‘The 3-Phase Bridge Converter / 481
133 180° Voltage Source Operation / 487
1344 Pulse-Width Modulation / 494
135 Sine-Triangle Modulation / 499
136 Thied-Harmonie Injection / 503
13.7 Space-Vector Modulation J 506
138 Hysteresis Modulation / $10
139 Delta Modulation / 512
13.10. Open-Loop Voltage and Current Control J $13
13.11 Closed-Loop Voltage and Current Controls / 516xii contents,
References / 520
Problems / $21
Chapter 14 INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 525
14.1 Introduction / 525
14.2 Volts-Per-Hertz Control /
143 Constant Slip Current Control / 332
144 Field-Oriented Control 540
14.5 Direct Rotor-Oriented Field-Oriented Control / $4
14.6 Robust Direct Field-Oriented Control / 546
14.7 Indirect Rotor Field-Oriented Control / 550
148 Conclusions / 554
References / 554
Problems / $55
Chapter 15 BRUSHLESS de MOTOR DRIVES 587
15.1 Introduction / 537
15.2 Voltage-Source Inverter Drives / $58
153, Equivalence of VSI Schemes to Kalized Source 1 560
154 Average-Value Analysis of VSI Drives / 568
15.5 Steady-State Performance of VSI Drives / 571
186 Transient and Dynamic Performance of VSI Drives / S74
15.7 Consideration of Steady-State Harmonies / 578
158 Case Study: Voltage-Source Inverter-Based Speed Control / 582
159 Current-Regulated Inverter Drives / 586
15.10 Voltage Limitations of Current-Souree Inverter Drives / 590
15.11 Current Command Synthesis / 591
15.12. Average-Value Modeling of Current-Regulated Inverter Drives / 595
15.13 Case Study: Current-Regulated Inverter-Based Speed Controller / $97
References / 600
Problems / 600
‘Appendix A Trigonometric Relations, Constants and
Conversion Factors, and Abbreviations 603,
INDEX 605PREFACE
‘The first edition of this book was written by Paul C. Krause and published in 1986 by
‘MeGraw-Hil. Eight years later the same book was republished by IEEE Press with
(leg Wasynczuk and Scott D. Sudhoff added as co-authors, The focus of the first
dition was the analysis of electric machines using reference frame theory, wherein
the concept of the arbitrary reference frame was emphasized. Not only has this
approach been embraced by the vast majority of electric machine analyst, it has
also become the approach used in the analysis of electric drive systems. The use
of reference-frame theory o analyze the complete drive system (machine, converter,
and contro) was not emphasized inthe frst edition. The goal ofthis edition i to fill
this void and thereby meet the need of engineers whose job itis to analyze and
design the complete drive system, For this reason the words “and Drive Systems”
have been added to the tite
[Although some of the material has been rearranged or revised, and in some eases
«eliminated, such as 3-phase symmetrical components, most ofthe material presented
inthe fist ten chapters were taken from the original edition. For the most part, the
‘material in Chapters 11-15 on electric drive systems is new. In particular, the an
lysis of converters used in electric drive systems is presented in Chapters 11 and 13,
hile d, induction, and brushless de motor drives are analyzed in Chapters 12, 14,
and 15, respectively
Central to the analysis used inthis text isthe transformation to the arbitrary refer
cence frame. All eal and complex transformations used in machine and drive ana
lyses can be shown to be special cases ofthis general transformation. The modern
electric machine and drive analyst must understand reference frame theory. For this
reason, the complete performance ofall electric machines and drives considered are
illustrated by computer traces wherein variables are often portrayed in differentframes of reference so that the student is able to appreciate the advantages and sig-
nificance of the transformation used,
‘The material presented inthis text can be used most beneficially if the student has
had an introductory course in eleciic machines. However, a senior Would be com=
fortable using this textbook as a first course. For this purpose, considerable time
should be devoted to the basic principles discussed in Chapter I, perhaps some of
‘Chapter 2 covering basic de machines, most of Chapter 3 covering reference frame
theory, andthe beginning sections of Chapters 4, 5, and 6 covering induction, syn-
cthronous, and brushless de machines.
‘Some of the material that would be of interest only tothe electric power engineer
has been reduced or eliminated from that given in the fist edition. However, the
material found in the final sections in Chapters 4 and S on induction and synchronous
‘machines as weil as operational impedances (Chapter 7), and reduced-order model-
ing (Chapter 9) provide an excellent background for the power utility engineer,
‘We would like t acknowledge the efforts and assistance of the reviewers, in par-
ticular Mohamed E. El-Hawary, and the staff of IEEE Press and Jobn Wiley & Sons,
Paut.C. Keaust
cee Wasyncaux
Scorr D. Suonore
Wea Lafeene, tine
November 200)ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC
MACHINERY
AND DRIVE SYSTEMSChapter 1
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC
MACHINE ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
‘There are several basic concepts that must be established before the analysis of elec-
tic machines can begin. The principle of electromechanical energy conversion is
perhaps the comerstone of machine analysis. This theory allows us to establish an
‘expression of electromagnetic torgue in terms of machine variables, generally the
‘currents and the displacement of the mechanical system. Other principles that
must be established are (1) the derivation of equivalent circuit representations of
‘magnetically coupled circuits, (2) the concept ofa sinusoidally distibuted winding,
(G) the concept ofa rotating airgap magnetomotive force (MME), and (4) the deri-
vation of winding induetances. The above-mentioned basic principles are presented
in this chapter, concluding with the voltage equations of a 3-phase synchronous
‘machine and a 3-phase induction machine. Ic is shown thatthe equations, which
describe the behavior of altemating-current (ac) machines, contain time-varying
coeflcients due to the fact that some of the machine inductances are functions of
the rotor displacement. Tis establishes an awareness of the complexity ofthese vol-
tage equations and sets the stage for the change of variables (Chapter 3), which
reduces the complexity ofthe voltage equations by eliminating the time-dependent
inductances,
1.2. MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS
Magnetically coupled electric circuits are central to the operation of transformers
‘and electric machines. In the case of transformers, stationary cirewits are
12 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
Figure 1.21 Magnetically coupled circuits
‘magnetically coupled fr the purpose of changing the voltage and current level. In
the case of electric machines, citcuits in relative motion are magnetically coupled
for the purpose of wansfersing energy between mechanical and electrical systems
Because magnetically coupled circuits play such an important role in power vans-
mission and conversion, itis important to establish the equation that describe thet
‘behavior and to express these equations in a form convenient for analysis. These
goals may be achieved hy starting with two stationary electric circuits that are mag
‘eially coupled as shown in Fig. 1.21. The two eols consis of turns Ny and N
respectively, and they are wound ona common core that is general a ferromagnetic
‘material with permeability large celatve to that of ait. The permeability of fee
space, , is $x % 10-7 Him. The permeability of other materials is expressed as
A= pip wher pis the relative permeability. Inte ease of transformer stel the
relative permeability may be as high 2000 to 4000,
In general, the hx produced by each coil can be separated into two components
8 Teakage component denoted with an I subscript and a magnetizing component
‘denoted by an m subscript. Each ofthese components is depicted by asingle steamn-
line withthe postive direction determined by applying the right-hand rule to the
dlieetion of current flow inthe col. Often, in transformer analysis, fis elected
positive out ofthe tp ofeol 2, and a dot is placed at that termina
‘The fs linking each coil may be expressed a8
Dy + Oy + Gao (124)
1D; = Op + yo + Bq (1.22)
‘The leakage Mux 4 is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it Tinks only the
‘tums of col . Likewise, the leakage flux is produced by current lowing in coil 2,
and it inks only the turns of coil 2. The magnetizing ux yy is produced by current
owing in coil 1, and it links all rns of coils 1 and 2. Similarly, the magnetizing
ffux da is produced by current flowing in coil 2, and it also Tinks ll tums of coils 1
nd 2, With the selected postive direction of current flow and the manner in whichMAGHETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS 3
the coils are wound (Fig. 1.2-1), magnetizing flux produced by positive current in
‘one coil adds to the magnetizing Aux produced by positive current in the other
cil. In other words, if both currents are actually flowing in the same direction,
‘the magnetizing fluxes produced by each coil are in the same direction, making
the total magnetizing flux or the total core ux the sum of the instantaneous magni
tudes of the individual magnetizing Muxes. Ifthe actual currents are in opposite
directions, the magnetizing uxes are in opposite directions. In this case, one coil
is said to be magnetizing the core, the other demagnetizing
Before proceeding, i is appropriate to point out that this is an idealization ofthe
actual magnetic system. Cleary, all of the leakage ux may not Kink all the tums of
‘the coll producing it. Likewise, all ofthe magnetizing fux of one coil may not Tink all
‘of the turns ofthe other coil, To acknowledge this practical aspect of the magnetic
system, the numberof turns is considered to be an equivalent number rather than the
‘actual number Ths fet should cause us litle concern because the inductances ofthe
electric circuit resulting from the magnetic coupling are generally determined from
tests,
‘The voltage equations may be expressed in matrix form as
varie (si
ae 123)
where # = diag [re a dagonal mates, and
()" =li Al (12-4)
where frepresents voltage, curent or ux linkage. The resistances rj and r2 and the
flux linkages 2, and 2 are related to coils 1 and 2, respectively. Because it is
assumed that links the equivalent turn of eo! and‘ links the equivalent tums
of col 2, the ux linkages may be writen as
A=Ma, (125)
Aa = Ny: (126)
where and are given by (1.2-1) and (1.2-2), respectively
Linear Magnetic System
If saturation is neglected, the system is linear and the fluxes may be expressed as
Mi
0-9 (127)
Bq = Mit (128)
b. (129)
oq = Bt (1240)4 SASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
Where @y and dz are the reluctances ofthe leakage paths and ys the reluctance
of the path ofthe magnetizing fluxes. The product of N times i (ampere-turs) isthe
(MME, which is determined by application of Ampere’s law. The reluctance of the
leakage paths is dificult to express and impossible to measure. In fact, a unique
determination of the inductances associated with the leakage flux cannot be made
by tests instead, itis either calculated or approximated from desi
‘The reluctance ofthe magnetizing path ofthe core shown in Fig. 12-1
puted with sufficient accuracy from the well-known relationship
‘where isthe mean or equivalent length ofthe magnetic path, is the cross-sectional
area, and jis the permeability
Sabutting(12-7)-0.210) ino (12-1) and (12-2) yields
Nut Md,
aya, ta ee
Mi Bs, i
al a (213)
Sting (12-12 and (12-13) int (12-5) and (12-6) yes
a= My ML, 4 MMe (21)
Ry” Rw Ba
MONE. NaN
Bn a oy
(1248)
‘When the magnetic system is linear, the lux linkages are generally expressed! in
terms of inductances and currents. We see thatthe coelicients of the first two terms
‘0 the right-hand side of (1.2-14) depend upon the turns of coil | and the reluctance
of the magnetic system, independent of the existence of coil 2. An analogous state
‘ment may be made reganding (1.2-15). Hence the selfsinductances are defined as
(1.216)
(12417)
Where Ly and Lp are the leakage inductances and Ly and Lo are the magnetizing
inductances of coils 1 and 2, respectively. From (1.2-16) and (1.2-17) it follows that
the magnetizing inductances may be related as
(248)MAGNETICALLY couPLED CIRCUTS 5:
‘The mutual inductances are defined as the coefficient of the third term of
(12-14) and (1.2-15).
NN
bas (1249)
(1.220)
Obviously, L12 = La). The mutual inductances may be related to the magnetizing
inductances. In particular,
la (1228)
“The Mux inkages may now be writen a8
neu (12-20)
where
(tele Be] ee
far tn)” | Mla bet bao
Although the voltage equations with the inductance matrix L incorporated may
be used for purposes of analysis, itis customary to perform a change of variables that
yield the well-known equivalent T circuit of two magnetically couple coils. To set,
the stage for this derivation, let us express the lux linkages from (1.2-22) as
nis ba(u 88s) a2
a
sr stal tins) was
[Now we have two choices, We can use a substitute variable for (N2/N;)i2 oF for
/N2)i. Let us consider the fist of these choices
(1.226)
whereupon we are using the substitute variable i that, when Rowing through coil 1,
produces the same MMF as the actual / flowing through coil . This is said to be
referring the current in coil 2to coil 1 whereupon coil I becomes the reference col
‘On the other hand, if we use the second choice, then
(1227)6 BASIC PRINGIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
Here, is the substitute variable that produces the same MMF when lowing through
coil 2 asi, does when flowing in coil 1. This change of variables is said to refer the
current of coil 1 to coil 2
We will demonstrate the derivation of the equivalent T circuit by refering the
ceurreat of coil 2 to coil 1; thus from (1.2-26) we obtain
a=My, (1.228)
(1.2.29)
‘whereupon voiz = v4i). Flux linkages, which have the units of volt-second, ane
related fo the substitute flux linkages in the same way as voltages. In particular,
My, (1.230)
If we substitute (1.2-28) into (12-24) and (12-25) and then multiply (1.2-25)
by Ni/No to obtain 2 and we further substitute (N3/N7 ma for Laz into (12-24),
then
Ay = Lats + La ln +8) (1230)
A= ligiy tll +8) (12:32)
where
(1.233)
‘The voltage equations become
(1.234)
(12:35)
where
a= (Mn (236)MAGNENCALLY COUPLED CIRCUTS. 7
Figure 12-2. Fguvalenteteuit with
col I selected as the reference col,
“The above voltage equations suggest the T equivalent ciruit shown in Fi
is apparent that this method may be extended to include any number of eoils wound
fon the same core.
Example 1A Its instructive to ilustrate the method of deriving an equiva-
lent T circuit from open- and short-circuit measurements. For this purpose let
"us assume that when coil 2of the two-winding transformer shown in Fig. 1.2-1
is open-circuited, the power input to coil 2 is 12 W with an applied voltage is
100 V (ems) at 60 Hz and the current is 1A (rms). When coil 2 is short
revited, the curent flowing in cil Lis 1 A when the applied voltage is
30 V at 60 Hz. The power during this testis 22 W. IF we assume Ly = Lis.
‘an approximate equivalent T circuit can be determined from these measure
‘ments with col I selected asthe reference coil
‘The power may be expressed as
= |Vilfhi}eos @ (1A)
‘where and 7 are phasors and ds the phase angle between V and 7 (power
factor angle). Solving fr 6 during the open-circuit text, we have
12
Tot
=r (a2)
With 7 asthe reference phasor and assuming an inductive circuit where T,
lags Vy, we obtain
=12+j10939 (a3)
If we neglect hysteresis (core) losses, which in effect assumes a linear mag-
netic system, then ry = 120, We also know from the above calculation that
Xi +Xqi = 109.32,
For the short-circuit test we will assume that j; = — because transformers
are designed so that Xt “> [r+ JN. Hence using (TA-1) again we obtain
a
0x1
= co = 408° a4)8 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
Inthis ease the input impedance is (7, +r) +j(Xn + Xf). This may be deter:
mined as follows:
7 =24j2049 (As)
= 1092 and, because it is assumed that Xj = Xf, both ae 10.20,
‘Therefore Xqi = 109.3 — 10.2 = 99.10. In summary,
= 120 Ly =262.9mH wo
In = 27.1 ma 27.1 mH
Nonlinear Magnetic System
Although the analysis of transformers and electric machines is generally performed
assuming a linear magnetic system, economics dictate that in the practical design of.
‘these devices some saturation occurs and that heating of the magnetic material exists
‘due to hysteresis losses. The magnetization characteristics of transformer or
‘machine materials are given in te form of the magnitude of flux density versus mag-
nitude of feld strength (B-H curve) as shown in Fig, 1.23, If itis assumed thatthe
‘magnetic flux is uniform through most ofthe core, then B is proportional to and #7
is proportional to MMF. Hence a plot of flux versus current is of the same shape as
1a)
8, Woin
— 7:
i 23 co CO
Atm
Figure 1.23. B-H curve for typical silicon tel used in uansformersMAGNENCALLY CouPLED cIRCUTS
the B-HT curve. A transformer is generally designed so that some saturation occurs
during normal operation. Electric machines are also designed similarly in that a
‘machine generally operates slightly in the saturated region during normal, rated
‘operating conditions. Because saturation causes coefficients ofthe differetial equ
tions describing the behavior of an electromagnetic device to be functions ofthe coil
‘currents, a transient analysis is difficult without the aid of a computer. Our purpose
here is not to set forth methods of analyzing nonlinear magnetic systems. This Pro-
‘cedure is quite straightforward for steady-state operation, butt cannot be used when
analyzing the dynamics of electromechanical devices [1]. A method of incorporating
the effects of saturation into a computer representation is of interest
Computer Simulation of Coupled Circuits
Formulating the voltage equations of stationary coupled windings appropriate for
‘computer simulation is straightforward and yet this technique is fundamental to
the computer simulation of ac machines. Therefore i isto our advantage to consider
this method here. For this purpose fetus first write (1.2-31) and (1.2-32) as
Ay Lain the (1237)
Any (1.238)
where
An = kali) (1.239)
Solving (1.2-37) and (12-38) forthe currents vields
(12-40)
(24
Wf (1.240) and (1.2-41) are substituted into the voltage equations (1.2-34) and
(1.2.35) and we solve the resulting equations for ux linkages, the following equ
tions are obtained:
a= |[+Ze-aa (12-42)
Zz Boy
a-ffuege-ae (2s
‘Substituting (1.2-40) and (1.2-41) into (1.2-39) yields
(12-44)
where
(12-45)10 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
‘We now have the equations expressed with 2; and 2 a tate variables. Inthe com
puter simulation, (12-42) and (12-43) are used to solve for 2: and 2 and (12-44) is
{sed 10 solve for The currents can then be obtained from (12-40) and (1.24). I
is clear that (12-44) could be substituted into (12-40)-1.2-43) and that could be
‘climinatd from the equations whereupon it would not appear inthe computer sm-
lation. However, we Will ind iq (he mutual flux linkages) an important variable
when we include the effects of saturation
Ir the magnetization characteristics (magnetization curve) of the coupled winding
is known, the effects of saturation of the mutual flax path may be readily ineoxpo-
‘ated into the computer simulation. Generally, the magnetization curve can be ade-
quately determined from a test wherein one of the windings is open-circuited
{Ginding 2, for example), and the input impedance of the other winding (winding
1) is determined from measurements asthe applied voltage is increased in magni-
tue from ze0 to say 150% of the rated value. With information obtained fom this
type of test, we an plot zy versus (+) a8 shown in Fig, 12-4 wherein the slope
ofthe linear portion ofthe curve is Zn From Fi, 1.24, iti clear that inthe region
of saturation we have
diy = Lgl +4) ~ fll) (12-46)
$G+i)
tm + 8)
Figure 12-4 Magnetization curveELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 11
10
Figure 2-5 f(g) vers
from Fig 124
‘where f/q) may be determined from the magnetization curve for each value of dn.
In particular, (2) is function of Zy as shown in Fig. 1.2-5. Therefore, the effects
‘of saturation ofthe mutual flux path may be taken ito account by replacing (1.2-39)
With (1.2-46) for Zy. Substituting (1.2-40) and (1.2-41) for jy and f, respectively,
into (1.2-46) yields the following computer equation for Ay
rante(2ea) Bes oa
Hence the computer simulation for including saturation involves replacing Ay given
bby (1.2-44) with (1.2-47) where f(g) i generated function of A determined from
the plot shown in Fig. 12-5.
1.3. ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Although electromechanical devices are used in some manner in a wide variety of
systems, electric machines are by far the most common. I is desirable, however, to
establish methods of analysis that may be applied to alleleetromechanical devices,
Energy Relationships
Electromechanical systems are comprised ofan electrical system, « mechanical sys
‘em, and a means whereby the electrical and mechanical systems can interact. Inter-
action can take place through any and all electromagnetic and electrostatic fields that
are common to both systems, and energy is transferred from one system to the other
asa result of this interaction. Both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling fields
‘may exist simultaneously, and the electromechanical system may have any number
of electrical and mechanical systems, However, before considering an involved sys
tem itis helpful to analyze the electromechanical system in a simplified form. An
electromechinical system with one electrical system, one mechanical system, and12 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
“Bleach, Coupling Mechanical
scm wad" Sen
Figure 13-1 Block diagram of an elementary elactomechanica system,
‘one coupling field is depicted in Fig. 3-1. Electromagnetic radiation is neglected,
and iti assumed thatthe electrical system operates at a frequency sufficiently low so
thatthe electrical system may be considered as s lumped parameter system,
Losses accu in all components of the electromechanical system. Heat loss will,
‘cur in the mechanical system due to frietion, and the electrical system will dissi-
pate heat due to the resistance ofthe current-carrying conductors. Fdy current and
hysteresis losses occur in the ferromagnetic material ofall magnetic fields, whereas
dielectric losses oceur in al electric fields. If We is the total energy supplied by the
electrical source and Wa, is the total energy supplied by the mechanical source, then
the energy distribution could be expressed as
We = W, + Wa + Was (34)
Woy + Won + Was (132)
In (13-1), Wes isthe energy stored in the elctic or magnetic feds that are not
coupled with the mechanical system. The energy Wa. isthe heat losses associated
with the electrical sytem, These losses occur de 0 the resistance of the eurent-
carrying conductors aswell sth energy dissipated from these fel in te form of,
heat de to hysteresis edly cuments, and delet Tose. The energy W, istheenersy
transferred othe coupling eld by the electrical system, The eneses common to the
~~ _< mechanical sytem may be defined in similar manner. In (1.32), Was isthe energy
gored inthe moving member and compiances ofthe mechanical syst, Wy is the
“Regnery losses ofthe mechanical system inthe form of heat, and Wn isthe enerzy
2. franstered to the coupling eld. Is important to note that with the convention adopt
SA fat the energy supplied by either source is considered positive. Therefore, Ws( Wx)
fs negative when energy is supplied to the electrical source (mechanical source.
PI Wis defined asthe total energy transfered to the coupling fed, then
V+ Wr, (133)
Wr
‘where Wi energy stored in the coupling fied and Wy. isthe energy dissipated inthe
form of heat due to losses within the coupling field (eddy current, hysteresis, or
dielectric losses), The electromechanical system must obey the law of conservation
of energy; thus
We ~ Wor ~ Wes) + (Wie ~ Want ~ Was) (13-4)
Wy + Wye
which may be written
Wy Wy = Wes Wy (135)
‘This energy relationship is shown schematically in Fig, 13-2ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 13
Figure 13-2 Energy balance
‘The aciual process of converting electrical energy to mechanical energy (or vice
versa) is independent of (1) the loss of energy in either the electrical othe mechan
ical systems (We, and Wa). 2) the energies stored inthe electic or magnetic fields
that are not common to both systems (W,s), or (3) the energies stored inthe mechan-
ical system (Ws). I the losses of the coupling field are neglected, then the field is
conservative and (1.3-5) becomes
Wy = We + Wy (13-6)
Examples of elementary electromechanical systems are shown in Figs. 13-3 and
1.34, The system shown in Fig. 1.33 has a magnetic coupling field while the elec-
tromechanical system shown in Fig. 13-4 employs an electric field as a means of
‘ansfersing energy between the electical and mechanical systems, In these systems,
is the voltage ofthe electric source anf isthe external mechanical force applied t0
the mechanical system. The electromagnetic or electrostatie force is denoted by fi
The resistance ofthe current-carrying conductors is denoted by r, and ls the induc
tance of a linear (conservative) electromagnetic system that does not couple the
‘mechanical system. In the mechanical system, M isthe mass ofthe movable member
hile the linear compliance and damper are represented by a spring constant Kand a
Z
Cy
!
Ci
i
ae
Figure 133 Elecwomechanial system witha magnetic Hel1 aksic PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
Figure 1.34 Electomechanical sytem with an elect fed
‘damping coefficient D, respectively. The displacement 1p isthe zero foree or equli-
brium postion of the mechanical system whieh is the steady-state position of the
mass with f. and f equal to zero. A series or shunt capacitance may be included
in the electrical system wherein energy would also be stored in an electric feld
‘extemal to the eleetomechanical process.
‘The voltage equation that describes both electrical systems may be writen as
di
vedsiite 39)
‘where ¢, is the voltage drop across the coupling field. The dynamic behavior ofthe
translational mechanical system may be expressed by employing Newton's law of
‘motion. Thus,
dx nde
SoM + DE 4K 30) he (138)
Thal ty pl ye wi
we fa «a9
Teale spy ie hi son
Wu = fra (1310)
‘which may also be expressed as
y= [yaEELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 15,
Werf af sa sy
‘The first term on the right-hand side of (1.3-12) represents the energy loss due tothe
resistance ofthe conductors (WWz,). The second term represents the energy stored in
the linear electromagnetic field external to the coupling field (W,s). Therefore, the
total energy transferred tothe coupling field from the electrical system is
fev (1313)
Similarly, forthe mechanical system we have
"\e
Here, the first and third terms on the right-hand side of (1.3-14) represent the energy
stored in the mass and spring, espectively (Wa). The second tern is the heat loss
doe to friction (Wy). Thus, the total energy transferred to the coupling field from
‘the mechanical system is
Ww
+0 {(S) ac {amare a)
Wa =
Joa (13.13)
kis important co note that a positive force fis assumed tobe in the same direction
48. positive displacement, dr. Substituting (13-13) and (1.315) into the energy bal-
ance relation, (13-6), yields
feriar— freae (13:16)
‘The equations et forth may be readily extended 10 include an eleetromechanical
system with any number of electrical and mechanical inputs to any number of cou
ling fields. Considering the system shown in Fig. 1.3-5, the energy supplied tothe
‘coupling fields may be expressed as
Wy = Oo + Woe asin)
me
‘wherein J electrical and K mechanical inputs exist. The total energy supplied tothe
‘coupling fcld atthe electrical inputs is
Em [Sone ass)16 ASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
Wo Was
Wa Was
1] counting sens [|
' i
' '
wt i
Figure 135 Mule lca and
Inechancal inputs
‘The total energy supplied to the coupling field from the mechanical inpus is
(1349)
(13.20)
In differential form we obsin
aM, = Deptt ~ Shade (1321)
Energy in Coupling Fields
‘Before using (1.3-21) to obtain an expression forthe electromagnetic force fe tis
necessary to derive an expression for the energy stored in the coupling fields. Once
‘we have an expression for W;, we can take the total derivative to obtain dW;, which
can then be substituted into (1.3-21). When expressing the energy in the coupling
fields itis convenient to neglect all losses associated withthe electric and magnetic
fields whereupon the fields are assumed to be conservative and the energy stored
therein i a function of the state ofthe electrical and mechanical variables. Although
the effects of the field losses may be functionally accounted for by appropriately
introducing a resistance inthe electric circuit, this refinement is generally not nece~
ssary because the ferromagnetic material is selected and arranged in laminations so
as to minimize the hysteresis and eddy curret losses. Moreover, nearly all of the
tenergy stored in the coupling fields i stored in the air gaps ofthe electromechanical
device. Because air is a conservative medium, al ofthe energy stored therein can beELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 17
returned to the electrical or mechanical systems. Therefore, the assumption of loss-
Jess coupling fields is not a restrictive as it might fist appear
“The energy stored in a conservative field is a function ofthe state of the system
variables and not the mannee in which the variables reached that sate. Ie is conve
nient to take advantage ofthis feature when developing a mathematical expression
forthe field energy. In particular, itis convenient to fix mathematically the position
of the mechanical systems associated with the coupling fields and then excite the
electrical systems with the displacements of the mechanical systems held fixed.
During the excitation ofthe electrical systems, Wi is zero even though electroma:
_gnetic or eleetrostatie forces occur. Therefore, with the displacements held fixed the
‘energy stored inthe coupling fields during the excitation ofthe electrical systems is
{equal to the energy supplied to the coupling fields by the electrical systems, Thus,
With Wig =0, the energy supplied from the electrical system may be expressed
from (113-20) as
We J Seine (1322)
Icis instructive to considera singly excited electromagnetic system similar to that
shown in Fig, 13-3, In this case, ey = d/dt and (1,3-22) becomes
w= fia (13:23)
Here J = 1; however, the subscript is omitted for the sake of brevity. The area vo the
left ofthe 2 relationship (shown in Fig. 1.36) fora singly excited electromagnetic
device i the area described by (1.3-23) In Fig. 13-6, this area represens the energy
stored inthe field at the instant when 2 = 2, and. = iy. The 4~relationship need not
be linear; it need only be single-valued, a property that is characteristic to a conser
‘ative or lossless field. Moreover, because the coupling field is conservative, the
energy stored in the field with 2 2, and = jg is independent of the excursion
‘of the electrical and mechanieal variables before reaching this state
‘The area tothe right of the Z-i curve is called the coenergy and. is expressed as
we= adi (13:24)
Which may also be written as
i= Wy (1325)
Although the coenergy has litle or no physical significance, we will find ita conve-
nent quantity for expressing the electromagnetic force. It should be cleat that for &
linear magnetic system where the 2~iplos are straight-line relationships, W; = W.18 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
at
a
Figure 13.6 Stored energy and coenergy in
magnetic device
netic field ofa singly excited elect
‘The displacement x defines completely the influence of the mechanical system
‘upon the coupling field; however, because 4 and i are related, only one is needed
in addition toxin order to describe the state of the electromechanical system. There-
Tore either J and x or i and x may be selected as independent variables, If and x are
selected as independent variables, itis convenient to express the field energy and the
ux linkages as
W; = Wii,x) (13-26)
A= Aisa) (1327)
With ‘and » as independent variables we must express din terms of di before sub-
stituting into (13-23). Thus from (1.3-27)
Alia), O2i
a 4
Da (1328)
aili,x)
In the derivation of an expression forthe energy stored in the fel, dis set equal to
zero, Hence, in the evaluation of feld energy, dis equal to the frst tem on theELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 19
righthand side of (1.3-28). Substituting into (1.3-23) yields
Wylie) = J
216.) f HEA)
0 a | ea (1329)
‘where £ is the dummy variable of integration, Evaluation of (1.3-29) gives the
‘energy stored in the field of the singly excited system. The coenergy in terms of f
and x may be evaluated from (1.3-24) as
Welix) = Juena = [asnae (1.3.30)
With 4 and as independent variables we have
We = Wi) (331)
i= i@,3) (13.2)
‘The fled energy may be evaluated fom (13-23) a8
Wns) = [ini da= [ tgarae (1333)
Tn order to evaluate the coenergy with J and x as independent variables, we need to
express di in terms of di; thus from (1.3-32) we obtain
ait
ila
di
il2,x) = (1334)
Because d= 0 hiro (.8.24 somes
mi) = fGen fBEPa aay
Fora linear electromagnetic system the 2-i plots are straight-line relationships;
thus forthe singly excited system we have
(1336)
(13.37)20 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
Let us evaluate W,(i,2). From (1.3-28), with dx =
Aii,x) = Ls) di (1.3.38)
Hence, from (1.3-29)
wea = [eoyeetaye 3%
Us ee en ct (225 Yl ad We)
Te le a et rein rig lc
Shenton Tas amas aibceny mpetee ares aber
ia aubckea i aaancrtcnonn Cheer ree
(eae cea cane ne ter
cut ys beast a
W; Jove, (13-40)
Because the coupling fields are considered conservative, (1.3-40) may be evaluated
independently of the order in which the ux linkages or currents are brought to their
final values. To illustrate the evaluation of (1.3-40) for a multiexcited system, we
will allow the currents to establish their final states one at atime while all other cur
‘ents are mathematically fixed in either ther final or unexcited state, This procedure
may be illustrated by considering a doubly excited electric system with one mechan
ical input. An electromechanical system ofthis type could be constructed by placing
a second coil, supplied from a second electrical system, on either the stationary or
movable member of the system shown in Fig, 13-3. In this evaluation itis conve-
hient to use currents and displacement as the independent variables. Hence, for a
doubly excited electric system we have
Wylintor)= [ldiliina) Fiediaivins)) (13-40)
In this determination of an expression for W;, the mechanical displacement is held
‘constant (dx = 0); thus (1.3-41) becomes
wie = faa a « Md]
taints), Bisinins) ,
PEG gy aC gy] (3.97ELECTRONECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 21
‘We will evaluate the energy stored in the field by employing (1.3-42) twice. First we
‘will mathematically bring the current i to the desired value while holding iy at zero,
‘Thus, i is the variable of integration and diz = 0. Energy is supplied tothe coupling
field from the source connected to coil 1. As the second evaluation of (1.3-42), fps
brought to its desired! current while holding iy at its desired value. Hence, fs isthe
variable of integration and di, = O, During this time, energy is supplied from both
sources tothe eoupling field because id is nonzero, The total energy stored inthe
‘coupling field is the sum of the two evaluations. Following this two-step procedure
the evaluation of (1.3-42) for the total field energy becomes
Minin) gy , Willits)
fe a ao] 3.)
which shouldbe writen as
= fh -Baalbina)
Weis) = [eM ag
HT Odulinsdsx) 99 , , BlalisEs) :
wf fag ae Malet ae] a.
‘The frst integral on the right-hand side of (1.343) or (J.3-44) results from the first
step of the evaluation with jas the variable of integration and with i = 0 and
diz =0. The second integral comes from the second step of the evaluation with
fy = fydly = Oand is asthe variable of integration. tis clear that the order of allow
ing the currents to reach ther final state is irelevant; that is, as our first step, we
could have made és the variable of integration while holding i at zero (dy
and then let; become the variable of integration while holding gaits final variable,
‘The results would be the same. Ii also clear that for three electrical inputs the eva
uation procedure would require three steps, one foreach current to be brought math
ematically to is final state
Let us now evaluate the energy stored in a magnetically linear electromechanical
system with two electrical inputs and one mechanical input. For ths let
An(iisas4) = La lain + Laalelin (13-48)
Jallnsla) = Layla)in + Laalala (13-46)
With that mechanical displacement held constant (lx = 0), we obtain
dyin a.) = Lay (a) di + Lint) dir (347)
dali iy) = Lralx) dy + Lanls) di (1348)22 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTAIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
eis clear thatthe coefficients on the right-hand sie of (13-47) and (1.348) are the
panial derivatives, For example, (1) i the parial derivative of Zy (ff) with
respect oj. Appropriate substitution ito (13-44) gives
Waive) = [tala +f tata) rentals (1349)
which yields
Wolivis) =ZLvG)A + enti +hlaw® —— (13-50)
‘The extension to linear electromagnetic system with J electrical inputs is straight-
‘orward whereupon the following expression forthe total field energy is obtained:
leh (asi)
Wis
It's left to the reader to show that the equivalent of (1.3-22) for a multexcited
electrostatic system is
w= [Sat (as)
Graphical Interpretation of Energy Conversion
‘Before proceeding othe derivation of expressions forthe electromagnetic force, itis
instructive to consider briefly a graphical interpretation of the energy conversion
process. For this purpose let us again refer to the elementary system shown in
Fig, 1.3-3 and let us assume that as the movable member moves from x= x, 10
x=, where. < Xy the 2 characteristics are given by Fig. 1.3-7. Let us further
assume that as the member moves from x, to 5 the Zi trajectory moves from point
Ao point B. Its clear that the exact trajectory from A to Bis determined by the
‘combined dynamics of the electrical and mechanical systems. Now, the area
(OACO represents the original energy stored infleld; area OBDO represents the final
‘energy stored in th field, Therefore, the change infield energy is
AW; = area OBDO ~ area OACO (13-53)
‘The change in W., denoted as AW,, is
aw,= |" idi =a case (1354)ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 23,
°
Figure 13-7 Graphical representation of eletromechnical energy conversion for J path
MOB.
‘We know that
AW, = AW; — AW, (1355)
Hence,
‘AW = area OBDO ~ atea OACO ~ area CABDC = ~area OABO _(1.3-56)
‘The change in Wy, denoted as AW, is negative; energy has been supplied to the
mechanical system from the coupling field part of which came from the energy
stored inthe field and part from the electrical system. Ifthe member is now moved
back to 4, the / trajectory may be as shown in Fig. 1.3-8. Hence the AWy i still
area OABO but itis positive, which means that energy was supplied from the
‘mechanical system to the coupling field, part of which is stored in the field and
part of which is transferred to the electrical system. The net AW, for the eyele
from A 10 B back to A is the shaded area shown in Fig. 1.39, Because AW; is
2210 for this eycle
AW, = AW, (ssn)
For the cycle shown the net AIV, is negative, thus AWy, is positive; we have gen
erator action. Ifthe trajectory had been in the counterclockwise ditection, the net
AW, would have been positive and the net AW, would have been negative, which
‘would represent motor action,24 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
o 7
Figure 13-8 Graphical representation ofelctomechanical energy conversion for 2 path
Bios
° —7
Figure 1.89 Graphical representation ofcloctromechanical energy conversion for 2~ path
Ato B tod,ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 25
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces
‘The energy balance relationships given by (1.3-21) may be arranged as
Shady = Sepia aw, (1358)
In order to obtain an expression for fi, it is necessary t first express Wy and then
take its total derivative. One is tempted to substitute the integrand of (1,3-22) into
(13-58) for the infinitesimal change of field energy. This procedure is, of course,
incorrect because the integrand of (1.3-22) was obtained with all mechanical
displacements held fixed (ds, = 0), where the total differential of the field energy’
is required in (13-58).
‘The force or torque in any electromechanical system may be evaluated by
‘employing (1.3-58). In many respects, one gains a much better understanding of
the energy conversion process of a particular system by starting the derivation of
the force or torgue expressions with (1.3-58) rather than selecting a relationship
from a table. However, for the sake of completeness, derivation of the force equa
tions will beset forth and tabulated for electromechanical systems with K mechan-
{cal inputs and J electrical inputs (2.
For an electromagnetic system, (1.3-58) may be writen as
Shade Siw,
aw, (13-59)
With i and x selected as independent variables we have
Wy = Wisi stot) (13.60)
in obs oo 8) (13-61)
From (1.3-60) and (1.3-61) we obtain
a =F 2H SIM) g,—3
Dify.n) Aifiom)
aay = ad 5 Y
ai = y aly + y Mt) ay (1363)
Jn (13-62) and (1.3463) and hereafter inthis development the functional notation of|
(is. sia,-—-.2e) is abbreviated a8 (jy). The index misused 0 a8 to avoid
confusion withthe index j because each di, must be evaluated for changes in
all curents in order to account for mutual coupling between electrical systems.26 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
[Recall that we did this in (1.3-42) for J = 2] Substituting (1.3-62) and (13-63)
ito (1.3-59) yields
Y fala
(13-64)
By gathering terms, we obtain
y fain) = > ee in
isi fis) ty
a gia) se
Saliva) = Yo es) Gen) (13-66)
i (i307)
Although 1.67 js fit rata! impoance (3-65) can be use ev
site fc ath hha oil of anemia! tm with
nly magni euping lian with and sete independent wares A
secon foe eaaton wth ands independet variables maybe obtained rom
(1369) incorporating he expression for cents. Fora mulexcted sem he
comer maybe expend x
w= Daa Wy (13.68)
Because iy and x; are independent variables, the partial derivative with respect o.xis
Wey)
Aina) _ ON ylinm)
ts Pili.) _ OW.) (1360)
Os Os
Hence, substituting (13-69) into (13-66) yields
amen
Saline) = Mes) (13-70)ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 27
Table 131 Electromagnetic Force at kth Mechanical
Input”
sans = fi
awl
Sf to
2h on ou,
Fer oaional yeas replace fa with Tan wih
1 should be recalled that positive fg and postive dy are in the same
if the magnetic system i linear, then W, = W
By a procedure similar to that used above, force equations may be developed for
‘magnetic coupling with 2, and.x, as independent variables. These relations are given
n Table 1.3-1 without proof. In Table 1,3-1 the independent variables to be used are
designated in each equation by the abbreviated functional notation, Although only
{ranslational mechanical systems have been considered, all force relationships
{developed herein may be modified for the purpose of evaluating the torque in rota-
tional systems. In particular, when considering a rotational system, fis replaced
‘with the electromagnetic torque Toa, and is replaced with the angular displace-
rent Oj. These substitutions are justified because the change of mechanical energy
ina rotaional system is expressed as
AWya = Tar dl,
‘The force equation for an clectromechanical system with electric coupling
fields may be derived by following a procedure similar to that used in the ease
of magnetic coupling fields. These relationships are given in Table 1.3-2 without
explanation.
tis instructive to drive the expression forthe electomagnetic force ofa singly
excited electrical system as shown in Fg. 1.33. Its clea thatthe expressions given
in Table 13-1 are valid for magnetically linear or nonlinear systems. If we assume
thatthe magnetic system is linea, then Ai,x) is expressed by (1.336) and W(x) is
expressed by (13-39), whichis also equa othe coenergy: Hence, either the fis or
second entry of Tale .3-1 can be used to expres In paticular,
aWali
‘ox
L(x)2B BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS
‘able 13-2. Hlectrostatie Force at hth Mechanical
Input”
feslepa El» Sul) een)
faleosX) ic)
falayn) = — Me)
fala rf Megan) Aa.)
Foe atonal pers epic Wh Tad WB
With the convention established, a positive electromagnetic force is assumed 10
‘act in the direction of increasing 2. Thus with (1.3-15) expressed in differential
orm as
Wy = fede (13-73)
\we see that energy is supplied to the coupling field from the mechanical system when
{and dt are opposite in sign, and energy is supplied to the mechanical system from,
the coupling field when f, and dx are the same in sign.
‘From (1.3-72) it is apparent that when the change of L(x) with respect to x is
negative, f- is negative. In the electromechanical system shown in Fig. 1.3-3 the
change Lx) with respect tox is always negative; therefore, the electromagnetic force
is in the direction so as to pull the movable member to the stationary member. In
‘other words, an electromagnetic force is set up so as to maximize the inductance
of the coupling system, or, since reluctance is inversely proportional to the induc-
tance, the force tends to minimize the reluctance. Because fis always negative in
the system shown in Fig. 13-3, energy is supplied to the coupling field from the
‘mechanical system (generator action) when dis postive and is supplied from the
‘coupling field to the mechanical system (motor action) when dr is negative.
‘Steady-State and Dynamic Performance
of an Electromechanical System
Itis instructive to consider the steady-state and dynamic performance ofthe elemen-
tary electromagnetic system shown in Fig. 1.3-3. The differential equations that
describe this system are given by (J.3-7) for the electrical system and by (13-8)
for the mechanical system. The electromagnetic force f. is expressed by (I.3-72).
Ifthe applied voltage, v, and the applied mechanical force, f, are constant, all,ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 29
derivatives with respect to time are zero during steady-state operation, and the beha-
vior can be predicted by
ven (13-14)
f= Kie-m) fe (13-75)
Equation (13-75) may be writen as
“fe=f- Kix) (13-76)
The magnetic core ofthe system in Fig. 1-3 is generally constructed of ero
magnetic material witha relative permeability onthe order of 2000 to 4000, In this
‘ase the induetance (x) can be adequately approximated by
way =t am
In the actual system the inductance wil bea large finite value rather than infinity, as
predicted by (13-77), when x = 0. Nevertheless, (13-77) is quite sufficient to illus-
trate the action of the system for x > 0. Substituting (13-77) into (1.3-72) yields
os) wom
plot of (1.3-76), with f, replaced by (1.3-78), is shown in Fig. 1.310 for the
following system parameters:
r= 109
K = 2667Nim
In Fig .3-10, the plo ofthe negative ofthe electromagnetic force is for an applied
voltage of 5 V and a steady-state current of 0.5 A. The straight lines represent the
right-hand side of (1.3-76) with f = 0 (lower straight line) and f =4N (upper
straight Ine). Both lines intersect the ~f. curve at two points. In particular, the upper
Tine imersects the —f, cutve at 1 and I’; dhe lower line intersects at 2 and 2. Stable
‘opetation occurs at only points I and 2. The system will not operate stably at points
and 2. This can be explained by assuming that the system is operating at one of
these points ("and 2) and then showing that any system disturbance whatsoever
‘ill cause the system to move away from these points. If, for example, x increases
Slightly from its value corresponding to point, the restraining force f — K(x ~ xy)
is larger in magnitude than —f., and x will continue to increase until the system
reaches operating point I. Ifxincreases beyond its value corresponding to operating
point 1, the restraining force is less than the electromagnetic force. Therefore, the
system will establish steady-state operation at I. If, on the other hand, x decreases30 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
Force, N
Figure 13-10 Steady-state operation of electromechanical system shown in Fig. 13-3
from point 1 the electromagnetic force is larger than the restraining force. There-
fore, the movable member will move until it comes in contact with the stationary
‘member (x = 0). Iis clear that the restraining Force that yields a straight line below
the ~f. curve will not permit stable operation with x > 0.
‘The dynamic behavior of the system during step changes in the source voltage vis,
shown in Fig, 13-11, and Figs. 13-12 and 1.3-13 show dynamic behavior during
step changes in the applied force f. The following system parameters were used
in addition to those given previously:
0 M=0055kg D
N-sim
"The computer traces shown in Fig. 13-1] depict the dynamic performance of the
example system when the applied voltage is stepped from zez0 to 5 V and then
‘back to zer0 with the applied mechanical force held equal to zero. The system vari-
ables ae ey i fo.%, We, Wy, and Wy. The energies are plotted in milljoules (ml).
Initially the mechanical system is at rest with x= xy (3 mm). When the sourcew,
Was ah
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 91
5 Source votage decreed
h from sw 0
—— :
Sous vlogs insead
i Homoio st
A eons
{—~ ————
ol
4
Figure 13-11 Dynamic performance ofthe elacuomechanical sytem shown in Fig, 133
uring sep changes inthe source voltage.
\oltage is applied, x decreases; and when steady-state operation is reestablished, 8
approximately 2.5 mm, Energy enters the coupling field via I. The bulk ofthis
energy stored inthe field (W)) with smaller amount wansfered othe mechanical
system, some of which is dissipated in the damper during the tansient period wlile
the remain is stored inthe spring When the applied voltage is removed, the ele:
trical and
‘mechanical systems retum to their original states. The change in Wy82 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS.
as;
ev
-asl
on
Wor oo
ba
N
al serait Fore dec
Wem) =
W,mt se
Worms —
-4
igure 13-12 Dynamic peformance ofthe electromechanical system shown in Fig. 13.3,
uring step changes inthe applied force
i small, increasing only slightly. Hence, during the transient period there is an
interchange of energy between the spring. and mass which is finally dissipated in
the damper. The net change in W; during the application and removal ofthe applied
voltage is zero; hence the net change in W. is positive and equal tothe negative ofthe
net change in Wy. The energy transfered to the mechanical systom ducing this eycle
is dissipated in the damper, because fis fixed at zero, and the mechanical system.
returns tits initial est position with zero energy stored inthe spring.
In Fig. 13-12, the initial state is that shown in Fig. 1.3-11 with 5 V applied to the
electrical system. The mechanical force fis increased from zero to 4 N, whereupon
‘energy enters the coupling field from the mechanical system, Energy is wansfetredELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 38
0.004
oi a as ass
ia
[igure 1.343 System response shown in Fig. 1.33
from the coupling field to the electrical system, some coming from the mechanical
system and some from the energy originally stored in the magnetic field. Next the
force is stepped back to zero from 4 N. The electrical and mechanical systems return
to their original states. During the eycle a net energy has been transferred from the
‘mechanical system tothe electrical system which is dissipated in the resistance. This
ceyele is depicted on the 2-i plot shown in Fig, 1.3-13
Example 1B [cis helpful to formulate an expression forthe electromagnetic
‘orque of the elementary rotational device shown in Fig. 1B-I. This device
consists of two conductors. Conductor 1 is placed on the stationary member
(stator; conductor 2 is fixed on the rotating member (rotor). The crossed Tnes
Inside a circle indicate thatthe assumed direction of positive current ow is
into te paper (we are seeing the tai of the arrow), whereas a dat inside acirele
indicates positive current flow is out ofthe paper (the point ofthe aerow). The
length ofthe ar gap between te stator and rotor is shown exaggerated relative
{o the inside diameter of the stator