PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer

Ecology LAB page 1

Topics to be covered:
1. Statistics and Data Management Mann-Whitney
- nonparametric, comparison, unmatched
T-test
2-Group Example: Problem Set D
Z-test
A herpetologist studying the effect of a deadly fungal
Parametric

Comparison
Analysis of disease on frogs wanted to find out if the altitude of the
3,4,5-Group
Variance (ANOVA) frog’s habitat makes a difference in the prevalence of the
Correlation Pearson
disease among resident animals. She delineated two
study sites (A and B) found on different altitudinal areas
Association Chi-Square (A = 20 masl, B = 350 masl), and set up eight traps in each
of the sites (total of 16 traps). She left the traps in the sites
for a few days, and went back to collect the captured
Mann-Whitney frogs and count how many tested positive for the fungal
2-Group disease in each trap, Upon her return, she found out that
Wilcoxon one trap in site B was missing, so the data for this trap was
Non-Parametric

Comparison
not counted. Tabulating her results, she arrived at the
3,4,5-Group Kruskal-Wallis following values:
SITE A 8 12 15 21 25 44 44 60 n= 8
Correlation Spearman SITE B 2 4 5 9 12 17 19 n= 7
Hypotheses:
Association Chi-Square H0: There is no significant difference between the two samples.
H1: There is a significant difference between the two samples.
Parametric Tests - anything you can measure 1. Rank the data. Data items that have equal values are given the
- can be between 2 points average rank of those items.
- comparison of the means 1 2 SITE A rank SITE B rank
e.g. length, time, weight, temperature 2 4 8 4 2 1
3 5 12 6.5 4 2
Non-Parametric Tests - cannot find a value in between
4 8 15 8 5 3
- deals with ranks 5 9 21 11 9 5
- comparison of the medians 6.5 12 25 12 12 6.5
e.g. number of males in the classroom 6.5 12 44 13.5 17 9
8 15 44 13.5 19 10
Comparison Test - used to know whether 2 or more 9 17 60 15
groups are the same or equal, if not 𝑛1 =8 𝑛2 = 7
10 19
which is greater? which is smaller? 11 21 Total of ranks of SITE B 36.5
Correlation Test - used to know the relationship between 12 25
2 or sometimes 3 groups whether they 13.5 44
are directly or inversely related and by 13.5 44
how much? 15 60
NOTICE that your value is either between 1 and 0 or 0 and 1
2. Use the following formulae to solve for 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 :
 VALUE: the closer your value to zero, the 𝑛 (𝑛2 +1)
weaker the relationship 𝑈1 = 𝑛1 𝑛2 + 2 − 𝑅2
2
 SIGN: positive sign means it is directly related; 𝑈2 = 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑈1
negative means it is inversely related where 𝑛1 = number of observations in first column
0.90-1.00 very weak correlation 𝑛2 = number of observations in second column
0.70-0.89 weak correlation 𝑅2 = sum of the ranks in the second column
7(7 + 1)
0.40-0.69 modest correlation 𝑈1 = (8)(7) +
2
− 36.5
0.20-0.39 strong correlation 𝑼𝟏 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓
0.00-0.19 very strong correlation 𝑈2 = (8)(7) − 47.5
Association Test - used to know which group or groups 𝑼𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟓
show an affinity to a set of conditions 3. Reject H0 if the computed lower U value > critical U value.
𝑛1 =8; 𝑛2 =7; level of confidence = 0.05
Unmatched - uses 2 different population critical U value = 10
computed lower U value = 8.5
Matched - uses the same population 8.5<10
Fail to reject H0.

© 2015 Ellement
 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer
Ecology LAB page 2

Analysis of Variance One-Way (1-Way ANOVA) 𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑅

- parametric, comparison, 3,4,5-group 𝑀𝑆𝑇𝑅 =
𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟
Example: Problem Set A 𝑆𝑆𝐸
𝑀𝑆𝐸 =
A marine biologist in charge of four marine reserves 𝑑𝑓𝑒
located on a small island noticed that one of the marine 𝑀𝑆𝐸 = 𝑀𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑀𝑆𝐸
reserves (Area ‘A’) was twice the size of the other areas
(‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’). Considering that all other aspects of the 𝑀𝑆𝑇𝑅
marine reserves were equal except for size, the biologist 𝐹=
wanted to find out if the size of the marine reserve had an 𝑀𝑆𝐸
effect on the overall size of fish species living within them.
To test this, he designated a single fish species 3. Reject H0 if the computed F value > critical F value.
𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟 =3; 𝑑𝑓𝑒 =36; level of confidence = 0.05
Acanthurus olivaceous as the test species, and collected
critical F value = 2.87
10 specimens of this fish in each of the four marine computed F value = 9.0024
reserves. He measured each fish (in cm) and tabulated the 9.0024>2.87
data below. Reject H0.
AREA A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 80 89
AREA B 78 78 83 81 78 81 81 82 76 76
AREA C 79 73 79 75 77 78 80 78 83 84
AREA D 77 69 75 70 74 83 80 75 76 75
Hypotheses:
H0: There is no significant difference among the means.
H1: At least one of the means is different from the others.
1. Find the size (𝒏𝒊 ), mean (𝑿 ̿ ).
̅ 𝒋 ), and the grand mean (𝑋
A (𝑋𝑗 − 𝑋̅ )
2
B 2
(𝑋𝑗 − 𝑋̅ ) C (𝑋𝑗 − 𝑋̅)
2
D (𝑋𝑗 − 𝑋̅ )
2

78 31.36 78 1.96 79 0.16 77 2.56

88 19.36 78 1.96 73 31.36 69 40.96

87 11.56 83 12.96 79 0.16 75 0.16

88 19.36 81 2.56 75 12.96 70 29.16

83 0.36 78 1.96 77 2.56 74 1.96

82 2.56 81 2.56 78 0.36 83 57.76

81 6.76 81 2.56 80 1.96 80 21.16

80 12.96 82 6.76 78 0.36 75 0.16

80 12.96 76 11.56 83 19.36 76 0.36

89 29.16 76 11.56 84 29.16 75 0.16

𝑛𝑖 10 𝑔1 10 𝑔2 10 𝑔3 10 𝑔4
𝑋̅𝑗 83.6 146.4 79.4 56.4 78.6 98.4 75.4 154.4

∑ 𝑋̅𝑗
̿ 79.25
𝑿 =
𝐽

2. Complete the ANOVA Table:

Sources 𝑺𝑺 𝑑𝑓 𝑀𝑆 𝐹 𝐹𝑐
𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑅 𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑆𝑇𝑅
Treatments 𝟑𝟒𝟏. 𝟗 𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟕
𝑆𝑆𝐸 𝑑𝑓𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐸
Errors 𝟒𝟓𝟓. 𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟔 𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 2.87
𝑆𝑆𝑇 𝑑𝑓𝑡 𝑀𝑆𝑇
Total 𝟕𝟗𝟕. 𝟓 𝟑𝟗 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟑

𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑅 = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 (𝑋𝑗 − 𝑋̿)2

𝑆𝑆𝐸 = ∑ 𝑔𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑆𝑆𝐸
where 𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑅 = Treatment Sum of Squares
𝑆𝑆𝐸 = Error Sum of Squares
𝑆𝑆𝑇 = Total Sum of Squares
𝑛𝑖 = sample size
𝑋̅𝑗 = mean
𝑋̿ = grand mean
𝑔𝑖 = mean of the (𝑿𝒋 − 𝑿̅)𝟐
𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟 = 𝑘 − 1
𝑑𝑓𝑒 = 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑑𝑓𝑡 = 𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟 + 𝑑𝑓𝑒
where 𝑘 = number of populations
𝑛 = number of observations

© 2015 Ellement
 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer
Ecology LAB page 3

Kruskal-Wallis Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient

- nonparametric, comparison, 3,4,5-group - parametric, correlation
Example: Problem Set B Example: Problem Set J
A marine biologist in charge of four marine reserves The Jackson’s chameleon is a very popular animal among
located on a small island noticed that one of the marine reptile keepers owing to the horns possessed by the
reserves (Area ‘A’) was twice the other areas (‘B’, ‘C’ and males. The larger the horns, the more expensive the
‘D’). Considering that all other aspects of the marine price. An exotic animal breeder wanted to find out if the
reserves were equal except for size, the biologist wanted length of the horns of males are related to the mass
to find out if the size of the marine reserve had an effect (weight) of the animal rather than size (length). He
on the overall number of fishes living within them. To test collected data from his captive stock males and got the
this he designated a single species Acantharus olivaceous following data:
as the test species, and established ten counting stations
and noted the number of A. olivaceous in each station HORN LENGTH 6.6 6.9 7.3 8.2 8.3 11 12 12 9.4 10.2
and noted those in the data sheet. He did this for all areas MASS (g) 86 92 71 74 185 185 201 283 255 222
and listed his data below. Hypotheses:
AREA A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 80 89 H0: There is no correlation between the 2 groups.
AREA B 78 78 83 81 78 81 81 82 76 76 H1: There is either a positive or negative correlation between the
AREA C 79 73 79 75 77 78 80 78 83 84 2 groups.
AREA D 77 69 75 70 74 83 80 75 76 75 1. Compute for the xy, x2, and y2. Calculate their summation.
horn length (cm) mass (g) xy x2 y2
Hypotheses:
H0: There is no significant difference in the distribution of fishes 6.6 86 567.6 43.56 7396
from four marine reserves. 6.9 92 634.8 47.61 8464
H1: There is a significant difference in the distribution of fishes 7.3 71 518.3 53.29 5041
from four marine reserves. 8.2 74 606.8 67.24 5476
1. Rank the data. Data items that have equal values are given the 8.3 185 1535.5 68.89 34225
average rank of those items. 11 185 2035 121 34225
A rank B rank C rank D rank 12 201 2412 144 40401
78 17 78 17 79 20.5 77 12.5 12 283 3396 144 80089
88 38.5 78 17 73 3 69 1 9.4 255 2397 88.36 65025
87 37 83 33.5 79 20.5 75 6.5 10.2 222 2264.4 104.04 49284
88 38.5 81 27.5 75 6.5 70 2 𝟐
∑𝑥 ∑𝑦 ∑ 𝒙𝑦 ∑𝒙 ∑ 𝑦2
83 33.5 78 17 77 12.5 74 4
91.9 1654 16367.4 881.99 329626
82 30.5 81 27.5 78 17 83 33.5

81 27.5 81 27.5 80 23.5 80 23.5 2. Using the formula below, get the value of r.
80 23.5 82 30.5 78 17 75 6.5 𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
80 23.5 76 10 83 33.5 76 10 𝑟 =
89 40 76 10 84 36 75 6.5 √[𝑁 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑁 ∑ 𝑦 2 − (∑ 𝑦)2 ]
TOTAL 309.5 TOTAL 217.5 TOTAL 190 TOTAL 106 10(16367.4) − (91.9)(1654)
𝑟 =
2. Complete the ANOVA Table: √[10(881.99) − (91.9)2 ][10(329626) − (1654)2 ]
𝑘 𝑟 = 0.8058
12 𝑅𝑖 2
𝐻 = (∑ ) − 3(𝑁 + 1) 3. Based from the following, determine the correlation between
𝑁(𝑁 + 1) 𝑛𝑖 the two groups.
𝑖=1
 VALUE: the closer your value to zero, the weaker the
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑘 − 1 relationship
where 𝐻 = Kruskal-Wallis value
 SIGN: positive sign means it is directly related;
𝑁 = number of total scores
𝑘 = sample size negative means it is inversely related
𝑅𝑖 = ranked total per sample Since 𝑟 = 0.8058, the relationship between the horn length
𝑛𝑖 = number of scores per sample and mass shows a strong positive correlation.
12 309.52 217.52 1902 1062
𝐻 = {( )( + + + )}
40(40 + 1) 10 10 10 10
− 3(𝑁 + 1)
𝐻 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟒
𝑑𝑓 = 4 − 1
𝑑𝑓 = 3
3. Reject H0 if the computed H value > critical X2 value.
𝑑𝑓 =3; level of confidence = 0.05
critical X2 value = 7.8147
computed H value = 16.34
16.34>7.8147
Reject H0.

© 2015 Ellement
 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer
Ecology LAB page 4

Chi-Square
- non/parametric, association

Example: Problem Set I

A reforested area consists of three tree species A, B, and
C, and four species of endemic bird species 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The timber concession that owns the area is preparing to
cut down trees for use as wood pulp for paper
manufacturing. As part of the deal with the WWF, the
timber concession can only cut down one species of tree.
To help them decide what species of tree to cut, the
company hired an ornithologist who did a survey of each
tree species, and what bird species was found utilizing
each tree species. The results of the survey are listed as:
BIRD 1 BIRD 2 BIRD 3 BIRD 4
TREE A 12 7 5 17
TREE B 14 6 22 9
TREE C 35 12 7 11
Hypotheses:
H0: The number of bird inhabitants does not depend on the
species of the trees.
H1: The number of bird inhabitants depend on the species of the
trees.
1. Get the total of the rows and columns.
BIRD 1 BIRD 2 BIRD 3 BIRD 4 TOTAL
TREE A 12 7 5 17 41
TREE B 14 6 22 9 51
TREE C 35 12 7 11 92
TOTAL 61 25 34 37 157
2. In an ideal world, it is expected to have equal distribution of the
birds. To get the expected value, divide the grand total with the
number of cells.
∑𝑤 + ∑𝑥 +∑𝑦 + ∑𝑧
𝐸 =
𝑁
157
𝐸 =
12
𝐸 = 13.08 ~13
3. Using the formula below, get the value of 𝑋 2 and .
BIRD 1 BIRD 2 BIRD 3 BIRD 4 TOTAL
TREE A 12 7 5 17 41
TREE B 14 6 22 9 51
TREE C 35 12 7 11 92
TOTAL 61 25 34 37 157
(𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)2
𝑋2 = ∑ [ ]
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
(𝑶 − 𝑬)2 (𝑶 − 𝑬)2 (𝑶 − 𝑬)2 (𝑶 − 𝑬)2
1 2 3 4
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
A 12 0.0769 7 2.7692 5 4.9230 17 1.2307

B 14 0.0769 6 3.7692 22 6.2307 9 1.2307

C 35 37.230 12 0.0769 7 2.7692 11 0.3076

𝑋 2 =60.6923
𝑑𝑓 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)
𝑑𝑓 = (3 − 1)(4 − 1)
𝑑𝑓 = 6
4. Reject H0 if the computed X2 value > critical X2 value.
𝑑𝑓 =6; level of confidence = 0.05
critical X2 value = 12.592
computed X2 value =60.6923
60.6923>.592
Reject H0.

© 2015 Ellement
 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer
Ecology LAB page 5

2. Global Positioning System 3. Terrestrial Sampling Techniques

- relies on a constellation of 24 NAVSTAR a. Quadrat
satellites launched and maintained by the U.S. - applies to a square sample unit or plot
Department of Defense - may be a single sample unit or be divided into
- uses at least 5 satellites/space vehicles (SVs) subplots
 Satellites are used to transmit the signal by letting  the richer the flora, the larger or more
numerous the quadrats must be
these signal bounce on them since sound and light
b. Transect Line
travel in a straight line.
- across section of an area
 SVs orbit at an altitude of about 21,000 km - used to relate changes in vegetation within it
 SVs keep time using an atomic clock that loses or to changes in the environment
gains one second every 30,000 years c. Point-Quarter
 Unlike other devices like communication gadgets, - most useful in sampling communities in which
GPS doesn’t need an importance signal. individuals are widely spaced or in which the
 It only needs the signal to be bounced back to the dominant plants are large shrubs or trees
recipient. The classic distance method is the point quarter method
which was developed by the first land surveyors in the U.S.A.
 1st Live Telecast via satellite: 1964 Summer in the nineteenth century. The four trees nearest to the
Olympics in Tokyo corner of each section of land (1 sq. mile) were recorded in
the first land surveys and they form a valuable data base on
REMINDERS in using the GPS: the composition of the forests in the eastern U.S. before
 Use it in an open area. much land had been converted to agriculture. The point
quarter technique has been a commonly used distance
 Move slowly, do not run. method in forestry. It was first used in plant ecology by
 Do not cover the transmitter. Cottam et al. (1953) and Cottam and Curtis (1956). Figure
Other information GPS can give you: 5.10 illustrates the technique. A series of random points is
selected often along a transect line with the constraint that
 Direction points should not be so close that the same individual is
 Distance measured at two successive points. The area around each
random point is divided into four 90° quadrants and the
 Depth distance to the nearest tree is measured in each of the four
 Elevation quadrants. Thus, 4 point-to-organism distances are
 Speed generated at each random point, and this method is similar
to measuring the distances from a random point to the 1st,
 Temperature 2nd, 3rd and 4th nearest neighbors.

Figure 5.10 Point-quarter method of density estimation. The

area around each random point is subdivided into four 90°
quadrants and the nearest organism to the random point is
located in each quadrant. Thus four point-to-organism
distances (blue arrows) are obtained at each random point.
This method is commonly used on forest trees. Trees
illustrate individual organisms

© 2015 Ellement
 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS Reviewer
Ecology LAB page 6

Abundance/Species Richness (𝑆)  When only one species is present, the value of H is 0.
 When all species are present in equal numbers, the maximum
- count of number of species occurring within the community
values of index, 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ln 𝑆, where 𝑆 = total number of species
Relative Abundance/Species Evenness
𝑛𝑖 *Relative Dominance
𝑅𝐷𝑖 = - absolute dominance of species i divided by the sum of
𝑁 dominance for all species
where 𝑅𝐷𝑖 = abundance of species 𝑖 - usually done with trees
𝑛𝑖 = number of individuals of species 𝑖
**Rank Dominance
𝑁 = total number of individuals of all species
Rank-Abundance Frequency
Whittaker plot/Rank-Abundance Curve # 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖
- species ranking based on relative abundance, ranked from
𝐹𝑖 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑
most to least abundant ) x-axis and relative abundance (y- Relative Frequency
axis) expressed on a log10 axis.
- a 2D chart with relative abundance on the Y-axis and the
𝐹𝑖
𝑅𝐹𝑖 =
abundance rank on the X-axis 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
on Species Richness
- reflected by the greater length of the curve
on Species Evenness
- equitable distribution of individuals among species
- indicated by the more gradual slope of the curve
e.g.

Density
𝐴𝑖
𝐷𝑖 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
where 𝐴𝑖 = total number of individuals of species 𝑖
Relative Density
𝐷𝑖
𝑅𝐷𝑖 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Diversity&Dominance
Simpson’s Index
𝑛𝑖 2
𝐷 = ∑( )
𝑁
Simpson’s Index of Diversity = 1 − 𝐷
1
Simpson’s Diversity Index =
𝐷
where 𝐷 = Simpson’s index
𝑛𝑖 = number of individuals of species 𝑖
𝑁 = total number of individuals of all species
 The greater the value of D, the lower the diversity
 The greater the Simpson’s Index of Diversity, the greater the
diversity
 A D value of 1 represents complete dominance meaning only
one species is present in the community.
Shannon-Weiner’s Index
𝑛𝑖
𝑝𝑖 =
𝑁
𝐻′ = ∑(𝑝𝑖 )(ln 𝑝𝑖 )
where 𝑝𝑖 = proportion of individuals found in species 𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = number of individuals in species 𝑖
𝑁 = total number of individuals of all species

© 2015 Ellement