Chapter 1: Basic Radiation Physics Slide set of 195 slides based on the chapter authored by EB. Podgorsak of the IAEA publication (ISBN 92-0-107304-6): Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: ‘AHandbook for Teachers and Students Objective: To familiarize the student with basic principles of radiation physics and modem physics used in radiotherapy. CHAPTER 1. TABLE OF CONTENTS 4. Introduction 1.2. Atomic and nuclear structure 4.3, Electron interactions 1.4. Photon interactions SB) IAEA 1.4 INTRODUCTION 4.4.4 Fundamental physical constants ‘Avogadro's number: Ny = 6.02210 atom/mol ‘Speed of light in vacuum: ¢=3x 10" mis Electron charge: e=16«10" As Electron rest mass: m, =0.511 MeVic? Proton rest mass: m, =938.2 MeVic? m, = 939.3 MeVic? u=931.5 MeVic? Neutron rest mass: DoooocoDo ‘Atomic mass unit: @uca 4.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.2 Derived physical constants Reduced Pianck’s constant x speed of light in vacuum fio=197 MeVtfm v 200 MeV fm Fine structure constant e a. B7 One, fe 2 Classical electron radius Py =2.818 MeV @uca 1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.2 Derived physical constants Bohr radius: to _ Ant, No} _9 509 4 ame & m, Rydberg energy: MS =13.61eV icy Rydberg constant: Ee Bate mera? =109 737 om 4ahie 4.4 INTRODUCTION 1.4.3 Physical quantities and units Physical quantities are characterized by their numerical value (magnitude) and associated unit. Symbols for physical quantities are set in italic type, while ‘symbols for units are set in roman type. For example: m=21kg; E=15 MeV @irea @uaea1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.4.3 Physical quantities and units Q_ Numerical value and the unit of a physical quantity must be separated by space. For example: 21kg and NOT 21kg; 15 MeV and NOT 15MeV (The currently used metric system of units is known as the Systéme Intemational d’Unités (International system of Units) or the SI system. @usca 4.4 INTRODUCTION 1.1.3 Physical quantities and units The SI system of units is founded on base units for seven physical quantities: Quantity Sl unit length £ ‘meter (m) mass m ‘elogram (eg) time t ‘second (s) electric current) ampere (A) temperature (T) kelvin (K) amount of substance luminous intensity ‘mole (mol) ‘candela (ed) @usea 1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.4 Classification of forces in nature ‘There are four distinct forces observed in interaction between various types of particles, Force Source ransmited particle Relative strenath Stong Strongcharge —_Guon 1 EM Electric charge Photon ans7 Weak Weak charge W',W,endz» 10 Gravitational Energy Graviton 10" @uca 4.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.5 Classification of fundamental particles Two classes of fundamental particles are known: Quarks are particles that exhibit strong interactions, ‘Quarks are constivens of hadrons wth a factional electric charge (213 or~13) and are characterized by one of three types of strong ‘charge ealed coor (ed, Bue, green) 2 Leptons are particles that do not interact strongly. econ, muon tu, and el coresponig nets. @uca 1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.6 Classification of radiation Radiation is classified into two main categories: Q.Non-ionizing radiation (cannot ionise matter). Ionizing radiation (can ionize matter) * Directly ionizing radiation (charged particles) ‘electron, proton alpha particle, heavy ion + Incirectly ionizing radiation (neutral particles) photon (x ray, gamma ray), neutron @usca 4.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.6 Classification of radiation Radiation is classified into two main categories SB) IAEA1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.7 Classification of ionizing photon radiation Ionizing photon radiation is classified into four categories: Characteristic x ray Results rom eecrori wansons between atomic sal Bremsstrahlung Results manly fom elecron-nuceus Colom intracons. O Gamma ray Results rom nuclear vanstons Annihilation quantum (annihilation radiation) Results from postror electron anna. @usca 4.4 INTRODUCTION 41.4.8 Einstein's relativistic mass, energy, and momentum O Mass: mv)= Normalized mass: where SB) IAEA 1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.1.8 Einstein's relativistic mass, energy, and momentum 4.4 INTRODUCTION 1.1.8 Einstein's relativistic ms Q Total energy: =m(v)c? Restenergy: E,= Momentum: with @uca 1.4 INTRODUCTION 41.4.9 Radiation quantities and units Quantity Denon ld writ ‘Conversion ae Tee ae Waa ane ema 18 gar ine D 26 veateton pat at om Q Finite HD, 160 rem 18¥-100%em Aetwiy aN sigs 8 Sa @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.4 Basle definitions for atomie structure Constituent particles forming an atom are: + Proton + Neutron * Electron Protons and neutrons are known as nucleons and form the nucleus. Atomic number Z [Number of protons and numberof electrons in an atom. (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.1 Basie definitions for atomic structure Atomic mass number A Number of nucleons (Z + N) in an atom, where + 2 Is the number of protons (atomic number) in an tom. + Nie the numberof neutrons in an atom, @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.4 Basic definitions for atomic structure There is no basic relation between the atomic mass number A and atomic number Z of a nucleus but the ‘empirical relationship: A 2-796. 0.0155R™ furnishes a good approximation for stable nucle, @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.1 Basie definitions for atomic structure Atomic mole is defined as the number of grams of an atomic compound that contains exactly one Avogadro's number of atoms, i N, = 6.022410" atomimol D_Atomic mass number A of all elements is defined such that A grams of every element contain exactly N, atoms. For example: * 1 mole of cobalt-0 is 60 g of cobalt-60, + mole of radium-226 is 226 g of racium-226. @uca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.1 Basle definitions for atomic structure Molecular mole is defined as the number of grams of a ‘molecular compound that contains exactly one Avogadro's number of molecules, i.e., N, = 6.022010 molecule/mol U Mass of a molecule is the sum of masses of all atoms that make up the molecule. O For example: + mole of water (H,0)is 18 g of water. + mole of carbon dioxide (CO, )is 44 9 of carbon dioxide. @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE mass 5M is expressed in atomic mass units u: + 11uis equal to 1/12th ofthe mass ofthe carbon-12 atom or 91.5 Mevic® * Atomic mass 5M is smaller than the sum of the individual masses ‘of constituent particles because of the intrinsic energy associated with binding the particles (nucteons) within the nucteus. SB) IAEA 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.4 Basle definition for atomic structure G_ Nuclear mass M is defined as the atomic mass with the mass of atomic orbital electrons subtracted, M=M-Zm, where 1 is the atomic mass. Binding energy of orbital electrons to the nucleus is neglected. SB) IAEA1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.4 Basic definitions for atomic structure In nuclear physics the convention is to designate a nucleus X as 4X, where A is the atomic mass number Z is the atomic number For example: + Cobalt-60 nucleus with Z= 27 protons and A = 33 neutrons is. identfied as $Co, Radium-228 nucleus with 88 protons ang 138 neutrons is. identified as “Ra. @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE for atomie structure Number of atoms N, per mass m of an element: NaN mA D_ Number of electrons N, per mass m of an element: Nez Niza mom A Number of electrons N, per volume V of an element: Ne ON Na Pm PR Vv @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.1 Basie definitions for atomic structure O Forall elements the ratio Z/A~0.5 with two notable exceptions: + Hydrogen-t for which Z/A=1.0 + Helum-3 for which Z/A=0.67 Actually, the ratio Z/A gradually decreases: + From 0.5 for ow atomic number Z elements + To ~04 forhigh aiomic number elements. For example: 2/A=0.50 for :He ZIN=045 for ®Co ZIA=0.39 for *SU @uca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom Rutherford’ atomic model is based on results of the Geiger-Marsden experiment of 1909 with 5.5 MeV alpha particles scattered on thin gold foils with a thickness of the order of 10-° m. @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom . Atthe time of the Geiger-Marsden experiment in 1909 Thomson atomic model was the prevailing atomic model. Thomson model was based on an assumption that the positive and the negative (electron) charges of the atom were distributed uniformly over the atomic volume (‘plum-pudding model of the atom’). @irea 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom Geiger and Marsden found that more than 99 % of the alpha particles incident on the gold foil were scattered at scattering angles less than 3° and that the distribution of scattered alpha particles followed a Gaussian shape. Geiger and Marsden also found that roughly one in 10 alpha particles was scattered with a scattering angle exceeding 90° (probability 10+) This finding was in drastic disagreement with the theoretical prediction of one in 10°? resulting from the ‘Thomson's atomic model (probability 10), @uaea1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom _Emest Rutherford concluded that the peculiar results of the Geiger-Marsden experiment did not support the ‘Thomson's atomic model and proposed the currently accepted atomic model in which: eo | | ‘atom are concentrated in the. atomic mode!) ay : ite a : Rent usu een ea ‘spherical cloud on the periohery ae ofthe Rutherford atom with a b= \ radius of the order of 10-"° m. rove m7 le @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom Based on his model and four additional assumptions, Rutherford derived the kinematics for the scattering of alpha particles on gold nuclei using basic principles of classical mechanics. The four assumptions are related to: + Mass ofthe gold nucieus. + Scattering of alpha particles. + Penetration ofthe nuctous. * Kinetic energy ofthe alpha particles. @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford's model ofthe atom The four assumptions are: + Mass of he gold nucleus M >> mass of the alpha particle m, * Scattering of alpha particles on atomic electrons is negisible. + Alpha particle does not penetrate the nucleus, i. there are no nuclear reactions occurring, * Aha particles with kinetic energies ofthe order ofa few MeV are non-relativistic andthe simple classical relationship forthe kinetic energy E, of the alpha partic is vali ca @uca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom ‘As a result of the repulsive Coulomb interaction between the alpha particle (charge +2e) and the nucleus (charge +Ze) the alpha particle follows a hyperbolic trajectory @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom Shape of the hyperbolic trajectory and the scattering angle @ depend on the impact parameter b. ‘The limiting case isa direct hit wih b=0 and 6 = « (backscattering) that, assuming conservation of energy, determines the distance of closest approach D,. ina direct hit (backscattering) interaction. 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford's model ofthe atom (Shape of the hyperbolic trajectory and the scattering angle 0 are a function of the impact parameter b. 1 Repulsive Coulomb force between the alpha particle (charge ze, z = 2) and the nucleus (charge Ze) is governed by 1/¢* dependence: _ 220" oo Anes where © isthe separation between the two charged particles. (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford's model ofthe atom Relationship between the impact parameter b and the scattering angle 0 follows from the conservation of energy and momentum considerations: 4 8 b=4p, cot! Parte? This expression is derived using: + Classical relationship forthe kinetic energy of the « particle Ex =m7/2 * Definition of D, x in a direct hit head-on colsion for which the impact parameter b = 0 and the scatering angle 0- @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.2 Rutherford’s model ofthe atom Differential Rutherford scattering cross section is: = do (Dyf 1 } do_[Puf_1__ ] a sin*(612) & «| « « a S) aca cece 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Niels Bohr in 1913 combined Rutherford's concept of nuclear atom with Planck's idea of quantized nature of, the radiation process and developed an atomic mode! that successfully deals with one-electron structures, such as hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, etc, + -M_ nucleus with mass M +m, electron with mass m, + fy. faduus of electron orbit @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom 1. Bohr's atomic model is based on four postulates: “+ Postulate 4: Electrons revolve about the Rutherford nucleus in well-defined, allowed orbits (panetan-tke moto). ‘+ Postulate 2: While in orbit, the electron does not lose any energy, ‘despite being constantly accelerated (no eneray loss wile ‘lecton is in alowed ori, “+ Postulate 3: The angular momentum ofthe electron in ‘an alowed orbits quantized (quantization of angular momentun ‘+ Postulate 4: An atom emits radiation only when an electron makes a transition fram one orbit to another (energy emission uring oral tanston). @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Bohr's atomic model is based on four postulates Postulate 1: Planetary motion of electrons + Electrons revolve about the Rutherford nucleus well-defined, allowed orbits. * Coulomb force of attraction between the electron and the positively charged nucleus is balanced by the centrifugal force 1 Ze ot Fag, Feet my: fe @usca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Bohr’s atomic model is based on four postulates: Postulate 2: No energy loss while electron is in orbit. + While in orbit, the electron does not lose any energy despite being constantly accelerated, * This is a direct contravention of the basic law of nature (Larmor's law) which states that: “Any time a charged partceis accelerated or decelerated part ‘ofits energy is emitted inthe form of hoton (oremsstrahlung)’ (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Bohr’s atomic model is based on four postulates: Postulate 3: Quantization of angular momentum * Angular momentum L=m,ur of the electron in an allowed orbit is quantized and given as L=nh, where n is an integer referred to as the principal quantum number and f= h/2x * Lowest possible angular momentum of electron in an allowed orbit is L=h * All atomic orbital electron angular momenta are integer multiples of 7 @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Bohr's atomic model is based on four postulates: Postulate 4: Emission of photon during atomic transition, * Atom emits radiation only when an electron makes a transition from an initial allowed orbit with quantum number nto a final orbit with quantum number n, + Energy of the emitted photon equals the difference in energy between the two atomic orbits. hy=E -E, @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom (Radius r, of a one-electron Bohr atom efron Q Velocity v, of the electron in a one-electron Bohr atom is: {Ebel S) IAEA 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Energy levels E, of orbital electron shells in a one- electron Bohr atom are: af] -vonen(] @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Oi EnergylevelsE,of | orbital electron shells 2x, ina one-electron Bohr atom are: g,--6[2 -sa6eup|2 2] O_ Eq= Rydberg energy 7 SB) IAEA 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Velocity of the orbital electron in the ground state n = 1 is less than 1 % of the speed of light for the hydrogen atom with Z = aalZ] le | aro) | Therefore, the use of classical mechanics in the derivation of the kinematics of the Bohr atom is justified. (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Both Rutherford and Bohr used classical mechanics in their discoveries of the atomic structure and the kinematics of the electronic motion, respectively. Rutherford introduced the idea of atomic nucleus that contains most of the atomic mass and is 5 orders of ‘magnitude smaller than the atom, Q._Bohr introduced the idea of electronic angular momentum quantization, @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom C1 Nature provided Rutherford with an atomic probe (naturally occurring alpha particles) having just the appropriate energy (few MeV) to probe the atom without having to deal with relativistic effects and nuclear penetration. G_ Nature provided Bohr with the hydrogen one-electron ‘atom in which the electron can be treated with simple classical relationships. @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.3 Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom Energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom. emf = n=1 ground state Ey n>1 excited states 2 aw We umber of emitted photor ee Wave ruber feito pon ae e. 1 ied eu Re i - | om =| 109.737 om" OTN ee ee eee 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.4 Mult-electron atom Bohr theory works well for one-electron structures but does not apply directly to muiti-electron atoms because of the repulsive Coulomb interactions among the atomic electrons, Electrons occupy allowed shells; however, the number of electrons per shell is limited to 2n? Energy level diagrams of mult-electron atoms resemble those of one-electron structures, except that inner shell electrons are bound with much larger energies than Ep. @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.4 Mult-slectron atoms Douglas Hartree proposed an approximation that predicts the energy levels and radii of multi-clectron atoms reasonably well despite its inherent simplicity. Hartree assumed that the potential seen by a given atomic electron is Where Zyys the effective atomic number that accounts fr the potential screening coffects of orbital electrons (Zy, (tale General relationship (no equilibrium) ote) For 45>4, 0 (hale > trae OD For 4p >>% OF (hale BCoty or BCo(n,7)8Co + For cobat-59 the cross section «is 37 atom, + Typical reactor uence rates. $ are ofthe order of 10% om @uaea1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Radioactive decay is a process by which unstable nuclei reach a more stable configuration. There are four main modes of radioactive decay: Alpha decay + Beta decay + Beta pus decay + Seta minus decay * Elcom capture * Gamma decay + Pu ganma decay * Spontaneous fission @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Q__ Nuclear transformations are usually accompanied by ‘emission of energetic particles (charged particles, neutral particles, photons, neutrinos) OQ Radioactive decay Emitted particles * Alpha decay paricle + Beta plus decay P° parce (poston), neutino + Beta minus decay F parce (electron) antineutino + Electron capture Neutrino + Pure gamma decay Photon + Interna conversion Orit electron + Spontaneous fission Fission products @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay _Ineach nuclear transformation a number of physical quantities must be conserved. The most important conserved physical quantities are: + Total energy ‘Momentum Charge ‘Atomic number ‘Atomic mass number (number of nucleons) @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Total energy of particles released by the transformation process is equal to the net decrease in the rest energy of the neutral atom, from parent P to daughter D. Decay energy (Q value) is given as: Q={MeP)-[M(D) +m} c* ‘M(P), M(D), and m are the nuclear rest masses of the parent, daughter and emitted particles, @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Alpha decay is a nuclear transformation in which: + Energetic alpha particle (helium ion) is emited. * Atomic number Z ofthe parent decreases by 2. * Atomic mass number A ofthe parent decreases by 4 SP 540+ tHe SB) IAEA 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay G_ Henri Becquere! discovered alpha decay in 1896; George Gamow explained its exact nature in 1928 using the quantum mechanical effect of tunneling. Hans Geiger and Emest Marsden used 5.5 MeV alpha particles emitted by radon-222 in their experiment of alpha particie scattering on a gold foil Kinetic energy of alpha particles released by naturally occurring radionuclides is between 4 MeV and 9 MeV. (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay (Best known example of alpha decay is the transformation of radium-226 into radon-222 with a half life of 1602 years. SP 4+ tHe Ra ZRn+a 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Beta plus decay is a nuclear transformation in which: + Protorrich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a proton into a neutron + Positron and neutrino, sharing the avalable energy, are ejected ‘rom the parent nucleus, * ‘Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by one; the atomic mass number A remains the same ‘+ Number of nucleons and total charge are conserved in the beta ‘decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar ‘ofthe parent P ponte'+y, 4p ADte'+y, @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay (Example of a beta plus decay is the transformation of nitrogen-13 into carbon-13 with a half life of 10 min. ponse’+y, SP AD+e-+v, PN Bovey, 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Beta minus decay is a nuclear transformation in which: + Neutron-ich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a neutron into ‘proton Electron and anti-neutino, sharing the avaliable energy, are ‘ejected from the parent nucteus. + Atomic number Z of the parent increases by one; the atomic mass number A remains the same, ‘+ Number of nucleons and total charge are conserved in the beta ‘decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar ‘of the parent P Ponte SP Adve vy, @uca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Example of beta minus decay is the transformation of ccobalt-60 into nickel-60 with a half life of 5.26 y. En] nopte +7, spy AD+e" +9, Co SNive+7, SB) IAEA 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay G2 Electron capture decay is a nuclear transformation in whict Nucleus captures an atomic orbital electron (usually K shel. Proton transforms into @ neutron Neutrino is ejected ‘Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by one; the atomic mass rhumber A remains the same, ‘+ Number of nucieons and total charge are conserved in the beta ‘decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar of the parent P, prev=n+y, (sca1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Example of nuclear decay by electron capture is the transformation of berilium-7 into lithium-7 SP+e = ,\D+y, [Be+e™=ili+y, @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Gamma decay is a nuclear transformation in which an excited parent nucleus P, generally produced through alpha decay, beta minus decay or beta plus decay, attains its ground state through emission of one or several gamma photons. Atomic number Z and atomic mass number A do not change in gamma decay. @usea 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay © In most alpha and beta decays the daughter de-excitation ‘occurs instantaneously, so that we refer to the emitted gamma rays as if they were produced by the parent nucleus. Oi Ifthe daughter nucleus de-excites with a time delay, the excited state of the daughter is referred to as a metastable state and process of de-excitation is called an isomeric transition. @uca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Examples of gamma decay are the transformation of ccobalt-60 into nickel-60 by beta minus decay, and trans- formation of radium: ema mosaneny 86) “ey @iaca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 41.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Internal conversion is a nuclear transformation in which: + Nuclear de-excitaion energy is transferred to an orbital electron (usually K shel) * Electron is emitted form the atom with a kinetic energy equal to the de-excitaion energy less the electron bincing energy. + Resulting shell vacancy is ile witha higher-level orbital electron ‘andthe transition energy is emitted in the form of characteristic photons or Auger electrons. xox @usca 4.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Example for both the emission of gamma photons and ‘emission of conversion electrons is the beta minus decay of cesium-137 into barium-137 with a half life of 30 years. nopre +i, sp 140-47, Zs EBare +7,1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay Spontaneous fission is a nuclear transformation by which a high atomic mass nucleus spontaneously splits into two nearly equal fission fragments, Q_Two to four neutrons are emitted during the spontaneous fission process. Spontaneous fission follows the same process as nuclear fission except that itis not self-sustaining, since it does not generate the neutron fluence rate required to sustain, “chain reaction’. @usca 1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay 2 inpractice, spontaneous fission is only energetically feasible for nuclides with atomic masses above 230 u or with Z7/A> 235, 2 Spontaneous fission is a competing process to alpha decay; the higher is A above uranium-238, the more prominent is the spontaneous fission in comparison with the alpha decay and the shorter is the halflife for spontaneous fission. @usea 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS Asan energetic electron traverses matter, it undergoes Coulomb interactions with absorber atoms, i., with: + Atomic orbital electrons. + Atomic nucle (Through these collisions the electrons may: + Lose their kinetic energy (colsion and radiation loss) * Change direction of mation (scattering) @uca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS (Energy losses are described by stopping power. Scattering is described by angular scattering power. Collision between incident electron and absorber atom may be + Elastic + Inclatic @uca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS G2 Inan elastic collision the incident electron is deflected from its original path but no energy loss occurs. nan inelastic collision with orbital electron the incident electron is deflected from its original path and loses part of its kinetic energy. Onan inelastic collision with nucleus the incident electron is deflected from its original path and loses part of its kinetic energy in the form of bremsstrahlung, @usca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS interaction that an electron undergoes with a Particular atom of radius a depends on the impact parameter b of the interaction. SB) IAEA1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS For b>>a, incident electron will undergo a soft collision with the whole atom and only a small amount of its kinetic energy (few %) will be transferred from the incident electron to orbital electron. @usca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS For b~a, incident electron will undergo a hard collision with an orbital electron and a significant fraction ofits kinetic eneray (up to 50 %) will be transferred to the ofbital electron. od SB) IAEA 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS Q For b <0) the angular distribution of emitted photons is proportional to sin®& ast sin? (1- feosey? * Angle 6, at which the photon intensity is maximum is: | TB] 3' @usca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 4.3.3 Stopping pow Energy loss by incident electron through inelastic collisions is described by total linear stopping power S.. which represents kinetic energy E, loss by the electron per unit path length x: in MeVicm SB) IAEA 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 41.3.3 Stopping power Q Total mass stopping power (S/p),, is defined as the linear stopping power divided by the density of the absorbing medium. ( 3) 166, GL Feria MeV-cm?/g S) IAEA 4.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.3.3 Stopping power Total mass stopping power (Sip), consists of two components: * Mass colision stopping power (Sips resulting ftom electron-orbital electron interactions (atomic ionizations and atomic excitations) + Mass radiation stopping power (S/)ug resulting mainly from electron-nucieus interactions (oremsstrahlung production) = Total mass stopping power isthe sum of the two components ane) @uca stor ses 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.33 Stopping power For heavy charged particles the radiation stopping power Slp)qq 18 negligible thus (S/p)x,~(S/P)ax For light charged particles both components contribute to the total stopping power thus (S/)., = (S/p)au~(S/P)at + Within a broad range of kinetic energies below 10 MeV colision {ionization losses are dominant (Sip), > (ipa; however, the siuaton is reversed at high knetc energies + Cross over between the two modes occurs ata critcl kinetic ceneray (Exux where the two stopping powers are equal 800 MeV Eda *—z @usca 4.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.3.3 Stopping power Electrons traversing an absorber lose their kinetic energy through ionization collisions and radiation collisions. Rate of eneray loss per gram and per cm is called the mass stopping power and itis a sum of two components: + Mass calsion stopping power + Mass radiation stopping power Rate of energy loss for a therapy electron beam in water and water-ike tissues, averaged over the electron's range, is about 2 MeVicm. (sca1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.3.3 Stopping pow C1 Rate of energy loss for colision interactions depends on: + Kinetic energy ofthe electron, + Eleciron density ofthe absorber, Rate of colision energy loss is. ‘greater for low atomic number Z absorbers than for high Z ‘absorbers, because high Z absorbers have lower electron ‘density (ewer electrons per gram), Sol ines: mass cotision stopping power Dotted ines mass radiation eepping power @usca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 4.33 Stopping power Rate of eneray loss for radiation interactions (brems- strahlung) is approximately proportional to: + Kinetic energy ofthe electron + Square ofthe atomic numiber ofthe absorber. Bremsstrablung production through radiation losses is more ficient fr higher energy electrons and higher atomic umber absorbers Sols ins: mass ration stopping power Dott tines: mass colison stopping power s) 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.333 Stopping power Total energy loss by electrons traversing an absorber depends upon: + Kinetic energy of the electron + Atomic numberof the absorber + Electron density ofthe absorber Total mass stopping power is the sum of mass calision and mass raation stopping powers ‘Solid ines: otal mass stoping power Dashad ines: mass calls stoning power Dested ines: mass radiation stepping power @uca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 1.3.3 Stopping power CI Total mass stopping power (S/p),for electrons in water, aluminum and lead against the electron kinetic energy (solid curves). Sol tines toll mass stopping power Dashed ine: mass colison stopping power Dotted nes ‘mass raéaton stopping power @uca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 41.3.3 Stopping pow QD (Sip),, is used in the calculation of particle range R Ieee D Both (Sip),, and (Sip),, are used in the determination of radiation yield Y (Ex) 5 (Sia) Ms + Sha als Ez @usca 1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS 4.3.4 Mass angular scattering power Angular and spatial spread of a pencil electron beam traversing an absorbing medium can be approximated with a Gaussian distribution ‘Multiple Coulomb scattering of electrons traversing a path length / is commonly described by the mean square scattering angle @° proportional to the mass thickness Mass angular scattering power T/p is defined as ie SB) IAEA1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon ira tions lonizing photon radiation is classified into four categories: Q Characteristic x ray ‘Results From secre transons between atomic salle Q. Bromsstrahlung Results mainy ftom eletron-nucleus Coulomb interactions Q Gamma ray Results rom nuclear ranstons Annihilation quantum (annihilation radiation) Rests rom postror-slecton anninlaton @usca 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations Q Inpenetrating an absorbing medium, photons may experience various interactions with the atoms of the ‘medium, involving} + Absorbing atom as a whole ‘+ Nuclei ofthe absorbing medium + Oita electrons ofthe absorbing medium. SB) IAEA 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 4.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations C2 Interactions of photons with nuclei may b + Dicoct photor-nucleus interactions (photodisintegration) + Interactions between the photon and the electrostatic field ofthe ‘nucleus (par production). Q. Photon-orbital electron interactions are characterized as interactions between the photon and either + Loosely bound electron (Compton effect, triplet production) + Tightly ound eleciron (photoelectric effect), @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations Loosely bound electron is an electron whose binding energy E, to the nucleus is small compared to the photon energy hye chy Interaction between a photon and a loosely bound electron is considered to be an interaction between a photon and a free (unbound) electron. @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations Tightly bound electron is an electron whose binding energy E, is comparable to, larger than, or slightly smaller than the photon energy hy: For a photon interaction to occur with a tightly bound electron, the binding energy E, of the electron must be of, the order of, but slightly smaller, than the photon energy. E, shy Interaction between a photon and a tightly bound electron is considered an interaction between a photon and the atom as a whole, @usca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations GAs far as the photon fate after the interaction with an atom is concerned there are two possible outcomes: + Photon disappears (i.e. s absorbed completely) and aporton of its energy is Vansferred to ight charged partes (electrons and postrons inthe absorbing medium), + Photon is scattered and two outcomes are possible: + The sung photon hs the sme eneay a he inn hoon and noah ‘hared pata ro leased inf ancon + The sung stars polon hs a wes ana han be inion paton| dine energy excess ewansfored oi emrged aie loco), (sca1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 4.4.4 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations C2 Light charged particles produced in the absorbing medium through photon interactions wil + ther deposit thir energy tothe medium through Coulomb interactions with ofa electrons othe absorbrig medium (colision loss aso retertad toa ionization los). * Orradiate thelr kinetic energy away through Couloml interactions: with the nuclei ofthe absorbing medium (radiation loss). @uaca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 4.4.2 Photon beam attenuation (1 The most important parameter used for characterization of x-ray or gamma ray penetration into absorbing media is the linear attenuation coefficient x Linear attenuation coefficient 1« depends upon: + Energy hy of the photon beam * Atomic number Z ofthe absorber Linear attenuation coefficient may be described as the probability per unit path length that a photon will have an interaction with the absorber. @usea 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation G2 Attenuation coefficient is determined experimentally using the so-called narrow beam geometry technique that implies a narrowly collimated source of mono- energetic photons and a narrowly collimated detector. an + x represents total thickness of the absorber X represents the thickness variable, @uca 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.42 Photon beam attenuation Narrme beam geometry a foe =, . Asiab of absorber material of thickness x decreases the detector signal intensity from 40) to (x) A layer of thickness dx’ reduces the beam intensity by d/and the fractional reduction in intensity, -d is proportional to + Attenuation coefficient 1. Desatee Destine Seeing Sperry + Layer thickness dx @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation GI Fractional reduction in intensity is given as: Hay T= I Aer integration from 0 to x — mn; we obtain 4 =| ude? oF 10)= 10 J se — @irea 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS: 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation Q Fora homogeneous medium = const and one gets the standard exponential relationship valid for monoenergetic photon beams: I(Qx)=1()e" or IQ) /1(0) =e" Urea graph paper Senitog ah For x= HVL. 19 _ Too @uaea1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 414.2 Photon beam attenuation C1 Several thicknesses of special interest are defined as parameters for mono-energetic photon beam characterization in narrow beam geometry: + Hallevalue layer (HVL, or) -Abvorber thickness tha atlnuates the orginal intensity to 50 + Mean free path (MFP or 3) [Absorber thickness wbich atonuaes the beam inlensiy fo le = 36.8% + Tenth-value layer (TVL oF x0) ‘Absorber thickness which alanuates the beam neni fo 10 % @usca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS. 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation 1 The relationship for xy, %, and Xyj9 iS: Into %ino In2 FrI9 Xr ~ Oe 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation In addition to the linear attenuation coefficient s« other related attenuation coefficients and cross sections are in use for describing photon beam attenuation + Mass attenuation coeticient J, + Atomic cross section 41 + Electronic cross section, S) IAEA 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.42 Photon beam attenuation QBasic relationships H= OU, =M = NZ a a where ris the numberof atoms per volume of absorber with density p and atomic mass A @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 4142 Photon beam atenuaton “ymtal] Roane] Unis oe ee i a tr 6 | ow lems wimemien | |e acon £ | axes lnmneewss [or | & | extveem en laeererecme [jar |) cee | entvomerc seo SS) IAEA ‘oestrone ye aren Tne a ate 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.42 Photon beam attenuation =, with E, the average energy transferred from the primary photon with eneray hv to kinetic eneray of charged particles (e and e*). O Energy transfer coefficient #4, = # E 1 Energy absorption coefficient y= up with Ey the average energy absorbed inthe volume of interest nthe absorbing medium. Inthe iterature, #4) 1s usually used instead of #4, however, the the Use of subscript ab" for energy absorbed compared to the subscript “WF for energy transferred seems more logical. (sca1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.2 Photon beam attenuation Average (mean) energy absorbed in the volume of interest with E.., the average energy component of E, which the charged particles lose in the form of radiation collisions (bremsstrahlung) and is not absorbed in the volume of interest. SB) IAEA 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.42 Photon beam attenuation O Linear energy absorption coefficient is E, E a= Hie = (lB) hv Es where g is the so-called radiation fraction (the average fraction of the eneray lost in radiation interactions by the secondary charged particles, as they travel through the absorber) @usea 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation UMass attenuation coefficient of a compound or a mixture is approximated by a summation of a weighted average of its constituents: + w, isthe proportion by weight ofthe ith constituent + 14/p isthe mass attenuation costiciet of the Hh constituent. @uca 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.42 Photon beam attenuation Attenuation coefficient «« has a specific value for a given photon energy hv and absorber atomic number Z. The value for the attenuation coefficient s(hy,Z) for a given photon energy hand absorber atomic number Z represents a sum of values for all individual interactions. that a photon may have with an atom: Hed @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber According to the type of target there are two possibilities for photon interaction with an atom: + Photon - orbital electron interaction + Photon - nucleus interaction According to the type of event there are two possibilities for photon interaction with an atom: * Complete absorption ofthe photon * Scattering of the photon @usca 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber 2 In medical physics photon interactions fall into four groups: + Interactions of major importance: + Compto seatring by fe elecon + Pal poston (ein et ruta). + Interactions of moderate importance: * Raylipn seating. + Thomson seating by fe alton. + Interactions of minor importance * Photons rections (rite posite ae!) + Negligibe interactions “Thomson and Compton satising by he rls. + Meson production, * Dolan seater, (sca1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber a rea (ga ee ee meee ESE a = — = = _— oo — = : a os @isca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber (1 TYPES OF TARGETS IN PHOTON INTERACTIONS Photon-nucleus interaction wih mucous diectiy Protodsintegraton Photon-orbtal + wi bound electron : Photolacic eect Rayleigh scatiarng tron interaction ‘ith Coulomb ld of ucous Pair production + wi tos lectrons . ‘Thomson scstering Compton sattoring + wih Coulom® fod ofeecton Tipit procuction @usea 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber Types of photon-atom interactions Complete absorption of photon Photon scattering Photoelectric effect Thomson scattering Pair production Rayleigh scattering Triplet production ‘Compton scattering Photodisintegration S) IAEA oe state a et Aen a A 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.44 Photoelectric effect Photoelectric effer Photon of energy hy interacts with a tightly bound electron, i., with whole atom. Photon disappears. (Conservation of energy and momentum considerations show that photoelectric effect can occur only on a tightly bound electron rather than on a loosely bound ("free") electron. @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.4 Photoelectric effect Orbital electron is ejected from the atom with kinetic energy E, =hv-,, where E, is the binding energy of the orbital electron. U1 Ejected orbital electron is called a photoelectron. When the photon energy hy exceeds the K-shell binding ‘energy Eg(K) of the absorber atom, the photoelectric effect is most likely to occur with a K-shell electron in comparison with higher shell electrons. @irea 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.44 Photoelectric effect Schematic diagram of the photoelectric effect * Aphoton with energy hy interacts witha K-shell orbital electon. + Oita electron is emitted from the atom as a photoelectron. xt sr caon @irea1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.4 Photoelectric effect Photoelectric atomic cross sections for water, aluminum, copper and lead against photon energy. @uaca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.44 Photoelectric effect Atomic attenuation coefficient ,7 for photoelectric effect is proportional to Z*/(hv)? fine. stil Mass attenuation coefficient r,, for photoelectric effect is proportional to Z°/(hv)’ Pm cory Be @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.4.4 Photoelectric effect O Aplot of, against hy shows, in addition to a steady. decrease ‘in r,, with increasing photon energy, sharp discontinuities’ when hv equals the binding energy Es for a particular electronic shell of the absorber. These discontinuities, called f EES absorption edges, reflect the 8‘ fact that for hy E, they can. @uca HG ‘orem ca | 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.44 Photoelectric effect Q. Average (mean) energy transferred from a photon with energy hv>E,(K) to electrons, (E, sis given as: (Ear = W— Pet0E5(K) with + Eg(K) binding eneray of the K-shell electron (photoelectron) + Px fraction of all photoelectric interactions inthe K shell + — Muorescence yield for the K shell @uca 1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 41.4.4 Photoelectric effect Fluorescence yield «, and function P, Cl Fhoresconceyield ny ot 1s defined os henumbetot phot ented pervocaney se gt tra gen atom hat H nt A Funston Patera gwen shot ¥ = thes thoploporion st pcte. Sa ft Siiicevetsingrenstol conparediothetciarunber fel ot Stohotocecic evenisinine. whole atom, 4.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS 1.44 Photoelectric effect Fluorescence yields 0), and @, and functions P, and P, “Tho range of Ps fom 1.0 atlow atomic numbers Zto as 08 at high atomic numbers i Zool the absorber. as = “The range in irom Oat es low atomic numbers Z through ie 0.5 atZ= 30 100.96 at high Z. @uaea @irea