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An​ ​Analysis​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Human​ ​Impact​ ​on​ ​Species​ ​Occurrence​ ​and​ ​Diversity

Kevin​ ​Mahoney

Breanna​ ​Volz

Dr.​ ​Tredick

ENVL​ ​2205-001

30​ ​November​ ​2017

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Introduction

Recent​ ​studies​ ​have​ ​shown​ ​that​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​camera​ ​trapping​ ​is​ ​a​ ​useful​ ​ ​method​ ​in

analyzing​ ​the​ ​community​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​area.​ ​The​ ​data​ ​collected​ ​by​ ​camera​ ​traps​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to

analyze​ ​aspects​ ​of​ ​a​ ​community​ ​such​ ​as​ ​diversity,​ ​species​ ​richness,​ ​species​ ​abundance,​ ​and

overall​ ​species​ ​occurrence​ ​in​ ​an​ ​area.​ ​Camera​ ​trapping​ ​has​ ​also​ ​been​ ​a​ ​useful​ ​tool​ ​for​ ​observing

more​ ​elusive​ ​animals.​ ​In​ ​Marcus​ ​Rowcliffe’s​ ​experiment,​ ​with​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​an​ ​enclosed​ ​animal

park,​ ​and​ ​experiment​ ​was​ ​implemented​ ​to​ ​observe​ ​the​ ​abundance​ ​of​ ​four​ ​known​ ​species​ ​in​ ​the

park.​ ​The​ ​results​ ​of​ ​this​ ​experiment​ ​concluded​ ​that​ ​the​ ​data​ ​was​ ​able​ ​to​ ​provide​ ​an​ ​accurate

estimate​ ​for​ ​three​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​four​ ​species;​ ​the​ ​fourth​ ​species​ ​was​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​be​ ​observed​ ​with

accurate​ ​abundance​ ​due​ ​to​ ​camera​ ​placement​ ​bias​ ​(Rowcliffe​ ​et​ ​al.,​ ​2008).​ ​ ​Based​ ​on​ ​the

information​ ​provided​ ​by​ ​Rowcliffe,​ ​a​ ​potential​ ​source​ ​of​ ​error​ ​when​ ​analyzing​ ​species

abundance​ ​of​ ​occurrence​ ​can​ ​be​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​this​ ​camera​ ​placement​ ​bias.

​ ​Mathias​ ​Tobler​ ​created​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​to​ ​utilize​ ​the​ ​efficiency​ ​and​ ​effectiveness​ ​of

camera​ ​trap​ ​data​ ​collection​ ​to​ ​inventory​ ​large​ ​and​ ​medium​ ​sized​ ​animals.​ ​Over​ ​several​ ​days,​ ​the

experiment​ ​yielded​ ​results​ ​that​ ​provided​ ​strong​ ​estimations​ ​of​ ​medium​ ​and​ ​large​ ​animals​ ​in​ ​the

area​ ​-​ ​including​ ​the​ ​generally​ ​elusive​ ​species.​ ​In​ ​respect​ ​to​ ​the​ ​elusive​ ​species,​ ​however,​ ​this

experiment​ ​concluded​ ​that​ ​camera​ ​trapping​ ​was​ ​greatly​ ​unreliable​ ​in​ ​tracking​ ​the​ ​species​ ​(Tobler

et​ ​al.,​ ​2008​ ​).​ ​In​ ​hopes​ ​to​ ​further​ ​analyze​ ​more​ ​elusive​ ​species,​ ​Tobler​ ​recommends​ ​that

increasing​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​the​ ​desired​ ​habitat​ ​of​ ​the​ ​species​ ​is​ ​critical​ ​to​ ​the​ ​understanding​ ​of

the​ ​elusive​ ​species.​ ​The​ ​concept​ ​of​ ​camera​ ​trap​ ​data​ ​being​ ​unreliable​ ​in​ ​the​ ​analysis​ ​of

occurrence​ ​for​ ​elusive​ ​species​ ​can​ ​be​ ​applied​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Stockton​ ​University​ ​forest​ ​when​ ​trying​ ​to

understand​ ​occurrence​ ​throughout​ ​camera​ ​trap​ ​areas.​ ​Elusive​ ​species​ ​such​ ​as​ ​fox​ ​and​ ​coyote
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have​ ​been​ ​known​ ​to​ ​frequent​ ​Stockton’s​ ​forest,​ ​however​ ​the​ ​proposal​ ​of​ ​understanding​ ​the

desired​ ​habitat​ ​can​ ​be​ ​helpful​ ​when​ ​analyzing​ ​the​ ​occurrence​ ​of​ ​these​ ​species.​ ​Factors​ ​that​ ​could

contribute​ ​to​ ​the​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​the​ ​desired​ ​habitat​ ​for​ ​coyotes​ ​or​ ​fox​ ​are​ ​the​ ​occurrence​ ​of

prey​ ​and​ ​the​ ​occurrence​ ​of​ ​potential​ ​predators​ ​such​ ​as​ ​humans.

Xuehua​ ​Liu’s​ ​study​ ​of​ ​Guanyinshan​ ​Nature​ ​Reserve​ ​of​ ​Shaanxi​ ​Province,​ ​China​ ​studying

animal​ ​activity​ ​and​ ​abundance​ ​using​ ​camera​ ​trap​ ​data​ ​is​ ​also​ ​important​ ​in​ ​developing​ ​an​ ​analysis

of​ ​the​ ​forest​ ​of​ ​Stockton​ ​University.​ ​Using,​ ​what​ ​was​ ​referred​ ​to​ ​as​ ​indices​ ​or​ ​environmental

indicators,​ ​the​ ​results​ ​showed​ ​that​ ​species​ ​diversity​ ​and​ ​abundance​ ​always​ ​affected​ ​the​ ​daily

activities​ ​and​ ​occurrences​ ​of​ ​different​ ​species​ ​(Lui​ ​et​ ​al.,​ ​n.d.).​ ​Based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​information

provided​ ​by​ ​Liu’s​ ​study,​ ​the​ ​species​ ​co-occurrences​ ​among​ ​other​ ​animals​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​human

occurrence​ ​can​ ​be​ ​analyzed​ ​to​ ​further​ ​determine​ ​the​ ​impact​ ​of​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​on​ ​diversity​ ​and

species​ ​occurrence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​area.

Similar​ ​to​ ​Liu,​ ​T.G.​ ​O’Brien​ ​produced​ ​a​ ​study​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​species​ ​richness​ ​with​ ​the​ ​use

of​ ​camera​ ​traps.​ ​O’Brien​ ​used​ ​camera​ ​trapping​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​the​ ​species​ ​richness​ ​of​ ​the​ ​local

jaguars​ ​and​ ​ocelots,​ ​generally​ ​elusive​ ​species.​ ​O’Brien​ ​discussed​ ​species​ ​richness​ ​variability​ ​for

elusive​ ​species​ ​resulting​ ​from​ ​management​ ​activity​ ​and​ ​other​ ​anthropogenic​ ​disturbances

(O’Brien,​ ​2008).​ ​As​ ​Stockton​ ​University​ ​is​ ​home​ ​to​ ​a​ ​dense​ ​population​ ​of​ ​students​ ​and​ ​faculty,

as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​active​ ​forest​ ​management​ ​program,​ ​the​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​the​ ​impacts​ ​of

anthropogenic​ ​activity​ ​are​ ​crucial​ ​to​ ​analyzing​ ​the​ ​camera​ ​trap​ ​data​ ​on​ ​campus.

Methods

This​ ​experiment​ ​can​ ​be​ ​broken​ ​down​ ​into​ ​two​ ​parts:​ ​field​ ​data​ ​recovery​ ​and​ ​data​ ​analysis.

The​ ​process​ ​of​ ​data​ ​recovery​ ​required​ ​retrieving​ ​the​ ​SD​ ​memory​ ​card​ ​from​ ​each​ ​camera​ ​at
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various​ ​observation​ ​sites​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Stockton​ ​University​ ​campus.​ ​During​ ​the​ ​class​ ​period,​ ​the

memory​ ​cards​ ​from​ ​three​ ​cameras​ ​located​ ​at​ ​the​ ​Open​ ​Field,​ ​End​ ​Trail,​ ​and​ ​Frog​ ​Ponds​ ​)which

can​ ​all​ ​be​ ​found​ ​in​ ​Figure​ ​1​ ​below)​ ​were​ ​collected​ ​and​ ​replaced.​ ​The​ ​other​ ​eight​ ​sites​ ​were

collected​ ​by​ ​the​ ​other​ ​lab​ ​classes​ ​and/or​ ​Dr.​ ​Tredick.

Post​ ​retrieval,​ ​each​ ​group​ ​within​ ​the​ ​class​ ​was​ ​assigned​ ​a​ ​different​ ​set​ ​of​ ​photos​ ​from

each​ ​camera​ ​site​ ​and​ ​tasked​ ​with​ ​data​ ​entry​ ​and​ ​analysis.​ ​Data​ ​entry​ ​was​ ​accomplished​ ​by​ ​going

through​ ​each​ ​picture​ ​and​ ​recording​ ​the​ ​occurrence​ ​of​ ​animals​ ​or​ ​humans​ ​that​ ​triggered​ ​the

motion​ ​sensor​ ​in​ ​the​ ​camera,​ ​noting​ ​the​ ​time​ ​and​ ​date​ ​of​ ​the​ ​pictures,​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​pictures

taken,​ ​and​ ​notes​ ​regarding​ ​important​ ​observations​ ​(i.e.​ ​fawns​ ​or​ ​certain​ ​behaviors​ ​caught​ ​on

camera).​ ​Once​ ​this​ ​process​ ​had​ ​been​ ​completed,​ ​the​ ​data​ ​were​ ​returned​ ​to​ ​and​ ​compiled​ ​by​ ​Dr.

Tredick​ ​to​ ​show​ ​the​ ​species​ ​and​ ​ ​number​ ​of​ ​occurrence​ ​of​ ​each​ ​individual​ ​species​ ​across​ ​Spring,

Summer,​ ​Winter,​ ​and​ ​Fall​ ​at​ ​each​ ​camera.​ ​From​ ​this,​ ​three​ ​sites​ ​were​ ​selected​ ​for​ ​further

analysis:​ ​the​ ​Dump,​ ​the​ ​South,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​End​ ​Trail.​ ​Descriptions​ ​for​ ​each​ ​can​ ​be​ ​found​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Site

Descriptions​ ​below.

Then,​ ​using​ ​Shannon’s​ ​Diversity​ ​Index​ ​(SDI),​ ​the​ ​diversity​ ​of​ ​each​ ​site​ ​was​ ​calculated:

SDI=|∑​ ​P*lnP|

This​ ​equation​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​absolute​ ​value​ ​of​ ​the​ ​sum​ ​of​ ​the​ ​proportion​ ​of​ ​the​ ​individuals

occurrence​ ​by​ ​the​ ​total​ ​occurrence​ ​(P)​ ​multiplied​ ​by​ ​the​ ​natural​ ​log​ ​of​ ​that​ ​proportion.​ ​Using​ ​the

occurrence​ ​data​ ​and​ ​Shannon’s​ ​diversity​ ​Index​ ​we​ ​were​ ​able​ ​to​ ​make​ ​a​ ​few​ ​key​ ​observations

about​ ​our​ ​selected​ ​sites.

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Site​ ​Descriptions

Using​ ​the​ ​map​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​Figure​ ​1,​ ​the​ ​areas​ ​of​ ​study​ ​were​ ​chosen​ ​to​ ​investigate​ ​the

effects​ ​of​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​on​ ​diversity​ ​and​ ​species​ ​occurrence.​ ​Each​ ​camera​ ​on​ ​the​ ​map​ ​is​ ​placed

within​ ​a​ ​1​ ​square​ ​kilometer​ ​area.​ ​The​ ​three​ ​areas​ ​of​ ​study​ ​are:​ ​the​ ​Dump,​ ​the​ ​South​ ​and​ ​the​ ​End

Trail​ ​during​ ​the​ ​Spring,​ ​Summer,​ ​and​ ​Fall​ ​of​ ​2016.

Figure​ ​1.​ ​Site​ ​map​ ​showing​ ​the​ ​locations​ ​of​ ​each​ ​camera​ ​trap.

End​ ​Trail

The​ ​End​ ​Trail​ ​area​ ​is​ ​the​ ​area​ ​which​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​control​ ​area​ ​of​ ​observation.

Being​ ​the​ ​farthest​ ​point​ ​away​ ​from​ ​human​ ​activity,​ ​the​ ​End​ ​Trail​ ​is​ ​the​ ​most​ ​natural​ ​and

undisturbed​ ​area​ ​in​ ​which​ ​to​ ​observe​ ​wildlife​ ​activity​ ​in​ ​relation​ ​to​ ​human​ ​activity.
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Dump

The​ ​Dump​ ​is​ ​an​ ​area​ ​that​ ​is​ ​actively​ ​managed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​forest​ ​management​ ​department​ ​at

Stockton​ ​University.​ ​During​ ​the​ ​year​ ​of​ ​2016,​ ​increased​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​in​ ​this​ ​area​ ​from​ ​the

active​ ​management​ ​and​ ​resulted​ ​in​ ​moderate​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​among​ ​the​ ​areas​ ​of​ ​study.

South

The​ ​South​ ​area​ ​is​ ​near​ ​the​ ​sports​ ​fields​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Stockton​ ​University​ ​campus.​ ​During​ ​the

year​ ​of​ ​2016,​ ​there​ ​was​ ​construction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​parking​ ​lot​ ​in​ ​this​ ​area.​ ​The​ ​South​ ​location,​ ​then,​ ​can​ ​be

used​ ​to​ ​observe​ ​an​ ​area​ ​with​ ​maximum​ ​human​ ​activit.

Results

Figure​ ​2.​ ​Species​ ​occurrence​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Dump​ ​(excluding​ ​deer)​ ​from​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.
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Figure​ ​3.​ ​Deer​ ​occurrence​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Dump​ ​from​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.

Figure​ ​4.​ ​ ​Species​ ​occurrence​ ​in​ ​the​ ​South​ ​(excluding​ ​deer)​ ​from​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.
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Figure​ ​5.​ ​Deer​ ​occurrences​ ​for​ ​the​ ​South​ ​from​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.

Figure​ ​6.​ ​Species​ ​occurrence​ ​(excluding​ ​deer)​ ​in​ ​the​ ​End​ ​Trail​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.
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Figure​ ​7.​ ​Deer​ ​occurrence​ ​in​ ​the​ ​End​ ​Trail​ ​Spring​ ​to​ ​Fall​ ​2016.

End​ ​trail South Dump

Spring 0.726 0.969 0.980

Summer 0.033 0.153 0.790

Fall 0.187 0.168 0.273

Average 0.316 0.322 0.681

Table​ ​1.​ ​The​ ​Shannon’s​ ​Diversity​ ​Index​ ​for​ ​each​ ​season​ ​and​ ​camera,​ ​including​ ​the​ ​average.

Discussion

Based​ ​on​ ​Shannon’s​ ​diversity​ ​Index​ ​and​ ​the​ ​occurrence​ ​data,​ ​there​ ​are​ ​a​ ​few​ ​key

observations​ ​that​ ​we​ ​were​ ​able​ ​to​ ​conclude.​ ​To​ ​start,​ ​the​ ​Dump​ ​had​ ​the​ ​highest​ ​overall​ ​diversity
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and​ ​the​ ​highest​ ​average​ ​diversity​ ​as​ ​determined​ ​by​ ​the​ ​SDI,​ ​which​ ​can​ ​likely​ ​be​ ​attributed​ ​to​ ​the

forest​ ​management​ ​in​ ​the​ ​area.​ ​This​ ​can​ ​be​ ​concluded​ ​because​ ​the​ ​forest​ ​management​ ​is​ ​creating

a​ ​more​ ​hospitable​ ​environment​ ​and​ ​creating​ ​new​ ​plant​ ​growth,​ ​thus​ ​increasing​ ​the​ ​overall​ ​species

occurrence​ ​and​ ​the​ ​diversity​ ​of​ ​animal​ ​species.

The​ ​End​ ​Trail​ ​had​ ​higher​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Spring​ ​than​ ​Dump,​ ​but​ ​was​ ​also​ ​equal​ ​to

the​ ​human​ ​occurrence​ ​at​ ​the​ ​South​ ​camera.​ ​We​ ​can​ ​likely​ ​infer​ ​that,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​high​ ​number​ ​of

students​ ​on​ ​campus​ ​during​ ​Spring​ ​semester​ ​and​ ​the​ ​construction​ ​of​ ​the​ ​new​ ​parking​ ​lots​ ​closer​ ​to

the​ ​South​ ​camera​ ​led​ ​to​ ​the​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​human​ ​occurrence.​ ​With​ ​this​ ​increase​ ​of​ ​human

occurrence​ ​there​ ​is​ ​an​ ​overall​ ​decrease​ ​of​ ​species​ ​diversity.

The​ ​conclusion​ ​based​ ​on​ ​this​ ​analysis​ ​determines​ ​that​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​in​ ​and​ ​around​ ​the

area​ ​of​ ​study​ ​has​ ​a​ ​positive​ ​correlation​ ​with​ ​species​ ​diversity​ ​in​ ​the​ ​relation​ ​to​ ​active

management.​ ​However,​ ​when​ ​human​ ​activity​ ​is​ ​associated​ ​with​ ​overall​ ​disturbance​ ​such​ ​as

construction,​ ​there​ ​is​ ​an​ ​overall​ ​negative​ ​correlation​ ​with​ ​species​ ​occurrence​ ​and​ ​diversity.
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Citations

Liu​ ​,​ ​X.,​ ​Wu,​ ​P.,​ ​Songer,​ ​M.,​ ​Cai,​ ​Q.,​ ​He,​ ​X.,​ ​Zhu,​ ​Y.,​ ​&​ ​Shoa,​ ​X.​ ​(n.d.).​ ​Monitoring​ ​wildlife

abundance​ ​and​ ​diversity​ ​with​ ​infra-red​ ​camera​ ​traps​ ​in​ ​Guanyinshan​ ​Nature​ ​Reserve​ ​of

Shaanxi​ ​Province,​ ​China.​ ​Retrieved​ ​November​ ​9,​ ​2017​ ​,​ ​from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X12003391

O'Brien​ ​,​ ​T.​ ​G.​ ​(2008​ ​,​ ​May​ ​30).​ ​On​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​automated​ ​cameras​ ​to​ ​estimate​ ​species​ ​richness

for​ ​large-​ ​and​ ​medium-sized​ ​rainforest​ ​mammals.​ ​Retrieved​ ​November​ ​9,​ ​2017​ ​,​ ​from

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00178.x/full

Rowcliffe,​ ​J.​ ​M.,​ ​Field,​ ​J.,​ ​Turvey,​ ​S.​ ​T.,​ ​&​ ​Carbone,​ ​C.​ ​(2008​ ​,​ ​May​ ​16).​ ​Estimating​ ​animal

density​ ​using​ ​camera​ ​traps​ ​without​ ​the​ ​need​ ​for​ ​individual​ ​recognition.​ ​Retrieved

November​ ​9,​ ​2017​ ​,​ ​from

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01473.x/full

Tobler,​ ​M.​ ​W.,​ ​Carrillo-Percastegui,​ ​S.​ ​E.,​ ​Pitman,​ ​R.​ ​L.,​ ​Mares,​ ​R.,​ ​&​ ​Powell,​ ​G.​ ​(2008​ ​,​ ​April

15).​ ​An​ ​evaluation​ ​of​ ​camera​ ​traps​ ​for​ ​inventorying​ ​large-​ ​and​ ​medium-sized​ ​terrestrial

rainforest​ ​mammals.​ ​Retrieved​ ​November​ ​9,​ ​2017​ ​,​ ​from

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00169.x/full