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    The Handbook of Antenna Design Volume 2 PDF

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    TEE (ee ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SERIES 16 The Handbook of rN ae rN DESIGN VOLUME 2 Editors A.W.Rudge K.Milne A.D.Olver P. Knight Peter Peregrinus Ltd on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Erginanr: List of Contributors VOLUME 2 EDITORS CHAPTER LEADERS CONTRIBUTORS AWM. Rudge R.C, Hansen K.G. Corless K. Milne G.. Borgiotti D. Hicks A.D. Olver D.E.N. Davies P. Knight R.H.J. Cary J. Belrose M, Radford A. Burberry W.T. Blackband Published by Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, UK. ©1983: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data The Handbook of antenna design. Vol. 2. —(Electromagnetic waves; 16) 1. Antennas (Electronics)—Design and construction |. Rudge, A.W. II, Series 621.3841'35 TK7871.6 ISBN 0-906048-87-7 Printed in England by Short Run Press Ltd., Exeter Contents List of contributors iv Preface xiii 9 Linear arrays — R. C. Hansen 1 Introduction 1 9.1 Design of array excitation 2 9.1.1 Narrow beam, low sidelobe pattern 4 9.1.2 Pattern synthesis 42 9.1.3 Superdirective arrays Sa 9.14 Thinned arrays 68 9.1.5 Array tolerances and limits 73 9.2 Array feeds 79 9.2.1 Resonant arrays 81 9.2.2 Travelling-wave arrays 87 9.2.3 Corporate line and distributed feeds 98 9.24 Phaser and subarray lobes 104 9.3 Array elements 109 9.3.1 Dipoles 109 9.3.2 Waveguide slots 113 9.3.3 Scan compensated elements 121 9.3.4 Printed-circnit antennas 126 9.3.5 Moderate gain elements 133 9.4 References 134 10 Planar arrays — R.C. Hansen 141 Introduction 141 10.1. Array excitation 141 10.1.1 Array lattice 141 10.1.2 Beamwidth 143 10.1.3 Grating lobes 147 10.1.4 Quantisation lobes 151 10.1.5 Directivity ist 10.1.6 Planar array excitation 156 10.2 Array feeds 161 10.2.1. Fixed beam arrays 161 10.2.2 Electronic scanning in one plane 166 10.2.3 Electronic scanning in both planes 167 10.3 Mutual coupling 170 10.3.1 Fundamentals 172 vi Contents 10.3.2 Element-by-element approaches 181 10.3.3 Periodic cell approach 203 10.3.4 Scan compensation 218 104 — References 222 11 Conformal arrays ~ G. Borgiotti 227 11.1 Introduction 227 11.2 Conformal array analysis 229 1L.2.1 General 222 11.2.2 Formal characterisation of an array 230 11.2.3 Internal and external mutual couplings 233 11.2.4 Multimode aperture elements: Generalised scattering coefficients 235 11.2.5 Mutual admittances and scattering coefficients 238 11.3. Cylindrical array of apertures 240 11.3.1 Field of a magnetic current on a circular conducting cylinder 240 11.3.2 Harmonic series expressions for the mutual and self admittances 242 3.3 _GTD surface field calculation 24a 11.3.4 GTD expressions for the mutual admittances 247 11.3.8 Radiation pattern evaluation 252 11.4 Cylindrical arrays with a large number of elements: The periodic structure approach 257 11.4.1. Periodic infinite array model 287 11.4.2 Eigenexcitations and eigenpatterns and their use in array analysis 258 11.4.3 Evaluation of the eigenvalues of the admittance matrices 261 114.4 _ Array RGP for an arbitrary excitation: Single excited element RGP 264 11.4.5 Aperture matching and element pattern design 265 11.4.6 Numerical examples and discussion 267 11.5 GTD evaluation of mutual admittances: Generalisation to a generic convex surface 270 11.6 Conical arrays 274 6.1 _ Self and mutual admittances 274 11.6.2. Radiation pattern 278 11.7 Acknowledgement 284 11.8 Appendices 284 11.8.1 Modal admittances for rectangular and circular waveguides 284 11.8.2 Fourier transforms of the vector mode functions for rectangular and circular waveguide radiators 286 11.8.3 Fock functions 288 11.8.4 Evaluation of the radiation pattern of an aperture on a large conducting cylinder 290 11.8.5 _ Eigenexcitations of the periodic cylindrical array 295 11.9 References 296 12 Circular arrays - D. E. N. Davies 298 12.1 Introduction 298 12.2 Beam cophasal excitation 299 12.2.1 Wideband performance 302 12.2.2 Electronic scanning for beam-cophased patterns 302 12.3 Amplitude-mode and phase-mode excitation of circular arrays 308 12.3.1 Concept of phase and amplitude modes for continuous circular arrays 305 12.3.2 _ Phase modes in circular arrays employing a finite number of we Loo 12.3.3 Phase modes in circular arrays employing directional elements 310 12.4 _ Excitation networks for phase modes on circular arrays 314 Contents wii 12.5 Mutual coupling in circular arrays 318 12.6 _ Applications of circular arrays 319 12.6.1 Communication applications 319 12.6.2 Radar applications 321 12.6.3 Circular arrays in direction finding 323 12.7 References 327 13 Array signal processing - D. E. N. Davies, K. G. Corless, D. S. Hicks and K, Milne 330 13.1 Introduction 330 13.1.1 Applications of array signal processing 331 13.2 ASP receiving systems for radar 332 13.2.1 Multiple beams 332 13.2.2 Multiple beams from element sampling 336 13.2.3 Equivalence between multiple beams and Nyquist rate beam scanning 337 13.2.4 Sidelobe levels in floodlight transmission systems 341 13.2.5 Compatability of ASP with other radar processing schemes 341 13.3 ASP in combined transmit and receive antenna systems 342 13.3.1 Pulse compression in angle by within pulse scanning on transmission 343 13.3.2 Array thinning on both transmit and receive by the use of ASP 344 13.3.3. Multiple beam operation on transmit and receive 347 13.3.4 Within pulse time sampling of transmitting array 347 13.3.5 Within pulse frequency scanning 348 13.3.6 Directionally decorrelated transmitter beams 349 Alternative configurations including multistatic systems 353 Signal processing technologies 354 13.4 Multiplicative signal processing and post-demodulation synthetic aperture techniques 387 13.4.1 Interferometer 387 13.4.2 Interferometers with multiplicative processing 359 13.4.3. Principles of multiplicative arrays 360 13.4.4 Spatial frequency response for multiplicative arrays 363 13.4.5 Multiple source excitation of multiplicative arrays 365 13.4.6 Signal and noise performance of multiplicative arrays 367 13.4.7 Post-demodulation synthetic aperture antennas 368 13.5 Coherent synthetic aperture antennas 311 13.5.1. Principle 371 13.5.2 Unfocused synthetic aperture 374 13.5.3 Focused synthetic aperture 376 13.5.4 Minimum number of samples 380 13.5.5 Signal-processing hardware 382 13.5.6 Radar PRF 382 13.5.7 Doppler-frequency interpretation 382 13.5.8 Radar performance 383 13.5.9 Response to target scintillation and motion 384 13.5.10 Applications 38s 13.6 Null steering 385 13.6.1 Introduction 385 13.6.2 Multiple nulls 386 13.6.3 Multi-clement null-steering arrays 388 13.6.4 An orthogonal beam-forming network 391 13.6.5 Multi-element array with single null steering 393 13.6.6 Sidelobe canceller 395 13.6.7 Discussion 397 13.7. Adaptive null steering 399 viii Contents 4 15 13.7.1 Introduction 13.7.2 Sidelobe cancellers 13.7.3 Adaptive arrays 13.8 References Radomes — R. J. Carey 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Definitions 14.1.2 History and background 14.1.3 Constructions 14.1.4 Disadvantages and advantages of radomes 14.2 Basic radome requirements 14.2.1 General requirements 14.2.2 Environmental requirements 14.3 Basic electrical properties of dielectric radome construction 14.3.1 Transmission parameters 14.3.2 Transmission of a single-layer construction 14.3.3 Transmission of an A sandwich construction 14.3.4 Transmission of the B sandwich construction 14.3.5 Transmission of the C sandwich and further multi-layer constructions 144 Design of shaped radomes 14.5 Radome materials 14.5.1 Materials and their requirements 14.5.2 Fibre-reinforced resin laminates 14.5.3 Core materials for resin-fibre laminates 14.5.4 High-temperature materials 14.5.5 Loaded and artificial dielectrics 14.5.6 Rain-erosion-resistant materials 14.6 Radome structures 14.6.1 Near spherical rigid shapes (usually on land or sea) 14.6.2 Non-spherical rigid shapes (airborne applications) 14.7 Airborne radomes 14.7.1 Wide-band transmission designs 14.7.2 Multi-band radome designs 14.7.3 Aberration and its reduction 14.7.4 Cross-polarisation introduced by radomes, and its reduction 14.75 Reduction of radome reflections 14.7.6 Effects of radome hardware (rain-erosion cap, pitot systems and lightning protection) 14.7.7 Prediction and reduction of radome hardware degradation 14.8 Ground and shipborne radomes. 14.8.1 Environmental considerations for ground radomes 14.8.2 Air-supported radomes 14.8.3 Rigid radomes 14.9 Further radome developments 14.10 Acknowledgements 14.11 References VLF, LF and MF Antennas — J. Belrose 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Analysis 15.2.1 Characteristics of vertical antennas 15.2.2 Parameters needed to specify performance 15.2.3 Methods for calculating antenna parameters 399 400 407 454 487 457 487 457 458 460 461 461 461 462 462 463 464 466 468 469 476 476 478 483 488 498 499 $01 S01 503 507 S07 sil 51S $21 528 533 536 536 $37 541 $42 549 550 $50 553 $53 354 S84 $56 $57 Contents 15.2.4 Radiation resistance 15.2.5 Antenna impedance 15.2.6 Relation between electrical height and physical height 15.2.7 Mutual impedance between monopole antennas 15.2.8 Effect of ground conductivity and ground systems on antenna terminal impedance 15.2.9 Effect of the finite conductivity of the earth on the vertical antenna radiation pattern 15.2.10 Conductor and tuning-coil losses 15.3 Practical antenna design: Loaded antennas Types and methods of feed ‘T-type antenna ‘Transmission-ine radiator Diamond antenna Large VLF antenna Umbrella antenna 3.7 Multiple-tuned VLF antennas 15.4 Practical antenna design: Unloaded antennas 15.4.1 Vertical monopoles h < 0/4 15.4.2 Vertical monopoles \/4< h < 5/84 15.4.3. Vertical monopoles h < 5/8 15.44 Folded monopoles 15.5 Broadcast antennas 15.5.1 Introduction 15.5.2. LF broadcast antennas 15.5.3 Anti-fade antennas 15.5.4 Directional arrays 15.5.5 Distortion of MF broadcasting antenna patterns due to re-radiation 15.6 Portable and mobile antennas 15.6.1 VLF/LP aircraft wire antennas 15.6.2 Dipole antennas on the surface of the ground 15.6.3. Electrically short mobile whip antennas 15.6.4 Interaction of antennas with their platforms 15.6.5 Tuning and matching electrically short antennas 15.6.6 Ground effects when only a few radial wires are employed 15.7 Long wires antennas, dipoles and loops 15.7.1 ‘Travelling-wave antennas 15.7.2 Inverted-V dipole antenna 15.7.3 Half-delta loop antenna 15.8 Receiving antennas 15.9 Practical antenna design Guyed radio antenna masts Base insulators for guyed masts Guy strain insulators Top loading design Antenna tuning unit Arrangement of the antenna tuning unit ix 559 562 564 565 569 374 377 578 578 580 $84 586 587 588 597 598 598 599 603 604 606 606 607 608 611 615 624 625 628 627 629 631 633 634 634 634 636 636 640 640 640 643 644 648 651 Feeding a single tower radiator at two MF frequencies Unique installations 15.10 References 658 16 High-frequency antennas — M. F. Radford 663 16.1 Introduction to HF 553 663 16.1.1 _ HF propagation x Contents 16.1.2 _ Characteristics of HF signals 669 16.2 _The ground at HF a 16.2.1 Ground reflections 672 16.2.2 Ground improvement 675 16.3__Non-tesonant HF antennas 621 16.3.2 Vee antennas 619 16.3.3. Rhombic antenna 680 16.3.4 Beverage antenna 682 16.4 Resonant HF antennas 683 16.4.1 Monopole antenna 683 16.4.2 _Dipoles and slot antennas et 16.4.3 Loop antennas 687 16.5 Directional HF arrays 689 16.5.1 Endfire arrays 689 16.5.2 Broadside arrays 691 16.6 Logarithmically periodic HF antennas 699 Early log-periodic antennas 699 Logarithmic dipole antennas 700 16.6.3 mic antenna arrays 706 16.7 Unorthodox HF antennas 708 16.7.1 HF horn antenna 708 16.7.2 HF wire and Jens antenna 709 16.8 HF antennas for mobile applications 71 16.8.1 HF antennas for land vehicles mL ircraft ua 16.8.3 _HF antennas for ships 16 16.9 HF antenna design NI 16.9.1 Theoretical design techniques nI 16.9.2 _ Scale-modelling techniques ua 16.9.3 HF antenna performance measurement ne 16.9.4 Practical HF antenna design cae 16.9.5 HF antenna siting 722 16.10 References 723 17 VHF and UHF antennas — A. Burberry 725 17.1 Introduction 725 17.1.1 Definition of frequency range 725 17.1.2 Applications 725 17.1.3 Classes of antenna 726 17.2 Omnidirectional antennas 726 17.2.1 Single elements 727 17.2.2 Stacked elements 749 17.2.3 Effects of mounting structure 753 17.3. Directional antennas 183 17.3.1 Aperiodic reflectors 784 17.3.2 Parasitic elements 162 17.3.3 Log periodic antennas 167 17.3.4 Helical antenna 770 17.3.5 Slotted cylinder ™m 17.3.6 Combination of elements 13 17.3.7 Significant design parameters 778 17.4 Vehicular antennas 776 Contents xi Antenna siting methods 776 Influence of finite conducting surfaces 781 Vehicular constraints 787 Land-based vehicles 788 Marine vehicles 793 Aircraft 794 Missiles and rockets 819 Satellites 821 Antennas on persons and animals 823 Methods of measurement on vehicles 827 17S _Position-finding antennas 830 17.5.1 Homing systems 830 17.5.2 Tracking and direction-finding systems 831 17.5.3. Transmitting antennas for navigation systems 837 17.6 Dielectric-loaded antennas 840 17.6.1 Dielectric loading 840 17.6.2 Dielectric covers 842 17.7 Circularly polarised antennas 845 17.7.1 Definition 845 17.7.2 Combination of elements 846 17.8 Multiple installations 850 17.8.1 Effect of one antenna on another 850 178.2 Multiband antennas 854 12.9 References 856 18 Coaxial transmission lines and components — A. Blackband 860 18.1 Introduction 860 18.2 Coaxial transmission lines 860 18.2.1 Frequency limitations 867 18.2.2 Voltage and thermal ratings 367 18.2.3 Screened twin lines 867 18.3 Open-wire transmission lines 871 18.4 Miscellaneous parallel transmission lines 880 18.4.1 Shapes of conductor cross-sections 881 18.4.2 Conductors in enclosures 883 18.4.3 Lines with strip or ribbon conductors 883 18.5 Conical transmission lines 887 18.6 Calculation of characteristic impedances 902 18.6.1 Constants in the expressions for Z, 902 18.6.2 Range of validity for approximate formulae for Z, 902 18.6.3 Methods of calculating or estimating the Z, of other lines 904 18.7 Layout of cable runs for minimum interference 906 18.7.1 Coupling between coaxial cables 906 18.7.2 Mutual screening of vulnerable screened circuits 912 18.8 Junctions in coaxial line systems 914 18.8.1 Discontinuities at junctions 914 18.8.2 _ Impedance-matching sections 916 18.9 Balancing devices or baluns 217 18.10 Power dividers 922 18.10.1 The ‘tat race" 922 18.10.2 The Bagley polygon 923 18.11 Plugs and sockets or connectors 925 18.12 “References 928 Index Preface The Handbook of Antenna Design was conceived at a discussion between two of the editors following a meeting of the Professional Group on Antennas and Propa- gation at the Institution of Electrical Engineers in London during 1977. The original concept was to produce a text which dealt with the principles and appli- cations of antenna design with particular emphasis upon developments which had occurred in the previous decade. The authors of the text were to be invited from a select list of internationally respected experts in the field, to provide a compre- hensive treatise on the design of antennas in the frequency bands from LF to microwaves. In the event the sheer magnitude of the task has imposed its own limitations. Many topics which are worthy of treatment have been omitted and although the coverage of this two-volume text is undoubtedly broad, the editors are fully conscious of the fact that additional volumes would not be difficult to fill. To condense the material to the greatest extent possible the contributing authors were asked to include detailed theoretical developments only where these were fundamental to a proper understanding of the design principles, and were not readily available in existing well-established texts. Although much emphasis has been placed upon the provision of formuli and data which is applicable to the design process, it was recognised from the outset that an adequate understanding of the basic principles involved is essential for good design practice and in encour- aging innovation. The extensive efforts which have been devoted to the development of antennas and the associated design and measurement techniques over the past few decades is, perhaps, not surprising. The electromagnetic spectrum is a limited resource and with the very rapid growth of system applications in communications, navi- gation and radar, there has been a continuous pressure for more effective and efficient transmission and reception of electromagnetic radiation. The crowded spectrum has led to more demanding specifications upon the performance of radiating devices and has thereby created an underlying need for improved design techniques. The need for more accurate design and the availability of powerful digital com- puters have combined to guide antenna design along a path which is providing a continuous transition from empirical art to mathematical science. This trend has xiv Preface been nowhere more evident that at the shorter wavelengths, where the combination of digital computer and mathematical method has found numerous applications in the design of quasi-optical antennas. Computer codes based upon geometric optics, physical optics, the geometric theory of diffraction, Fourier transform theory, and spherical-wave analysis now provide essential tools in modern antenna design. Thoughtful application of these analytical methods has lead, not only to improved computations of antenna radiation characteristics, but also to improved insight into the underlying physical phenomena. The first volume of this text provides the mathematical background and a large number of examples of the use of mathematical methods in the design of reflector and lens antennas, including their primary-feeds. Quasi-optical antennas, including hybrid configurations, where the reflector or lens is used in conjunction with a complex array feed, are particularly well suited to the use of computer-aided design methods and major performance improvements can be realised. These topics are dealt with in Chapters 2-6 of the first volume. Low and medium gain microwave antennas have many applications, of which serving as a primary-feed is only one. Chapter 7 provides design data for a diverse range of radiators including helices and spirals, slots, microstrip antennas, backfire antennas, dielectric rods and horns. Advances in antenna performance must be matched by improved electrical measurements and there have been a number of significant developments in antenna metrology during the past decade. The key developments in this important area are described in the last chapter of the first volume. The fundamental principles and design of antenna arrays has been the focus of a great deal of attention during the past decade. Although cost still remains a barrier in the wide scale deployment of large phased-arrays a continued growth in the applications of antenna arrays can be anticipated. The importance of array tech- nology has been recognised here in the dedication of the first five chapters of the second volume to this theme. The subject matter covered includes linear, planar, conformal and circular geometries in addition to array signal processing. It is evident that the combination of antenna arrays with integrated-circuit technology will have much to offer in the future in terms of both performance flexibility and lower cost. In practice many antennas are operated either behind or within a radome cover. In such cases the electromagnetic characteristics of the radome must be considered as a factor in arriving at the overall system performance. In Chapter 14 this important topic is considered and design data are provided for a variety of radome types. The last few chapters of the second volume are concerned with the design of antennas and coaxial components in the LF to UHF frequency bands. In general design data for these bands are less well documented than their counterparts in the microwave region, and the opportunity has been taken here to bring together design information from a number of sources including a rather sparse and widely dispersed literature. 4 Linear arrays Here the exponential term corresponds to the phase at the array centre and the roots are equally spaced on the circle by 2x/N. This unit circle analysis is exactly the same as the z-transform, which has gained some currency in circuit analysis in recent years, z=w. Zero (root) placement will be discussed further in Section 9.1.1.3. 9.1.1 Narrow beam, low sidelobe patterns A common pattern requirement is for high directivity and low sidelobes, useful for radar, communications, mapping etc. Sidelobe level (SLL) is the amplitude of the highest sidelobe, usually that closest to the main beam, normalised to the main beam peak. It is convenient to also use sidelobe ratio (SLR) which is the inverse of SLL. The main beam may be fixed at broadside or at some other angle. Or it may be electronically scanned to any desired angle. The terms ‘electronic scanning array” and ‘phased array’ are synonomous. For maximum directivity* without super- directivity, uniform excitation is used. When lower sidelobes than those provided by uniform illumination are required, the aperture amplitude is tapered from the centre to the ends. There are some general rules, derived by Taylor'®’ and others: Symmetric amplitude distributions give lower sidelobes. F(u) should be an even entire function of u. A distribution with a pedestal produces a far out sidelobe envelope of 1/u. A distribution going linearly to zero at the ends produces a far out sidelobe envelope of 1/u?. A distribution that is non-zero at the ends (pedestal) is more efficient. Zeros should be real (located on the w unit circle) Far out zeros should be separated by unity (in u). Although extensive theory has been developed for continous aperture distribu- tions, there is little available for array distributions. For example, there are no dis- crete distributions that yield a highly efficient tapered sidelobe pattem. Thus, in designing most arrays, a continuous distribution is first constructed; this distribu- tion is then sampled at the element locations to obtain the array excitations. This process works well if the continuous distribution amplitude and phase are slowly varying and without oscillatory components. In some cases sampling is not satisfac- tory. A more sophisticated method matches zeros (Elliott). First the continuous distribution is selected, and the space factor is expressed as a product of zeros. Since many continuous distributions contain trig or hyperbolic functions, these are replaced by product representations which show zeros explicitly. Then the array polynomial in w (eqn. 9.2) is equated, with the array-factor zeros made equal to the space-factor zeros. The array factors are next multiplied out to get the array exci- tations. Since the zeros of the pattern function control the spacing and amplitude of all pattern lobes, equating zeros in general gives an array factor that is close * This implies a linear phase progression over the array, corresponding to main beam angle 65 Linear arrays 9 first solution is Nu = 1.4303. The sidelobe ratio for large arrays is the same as that for uniform line sources: 13.26 dB, independent of main beam angle. For smaller arrays the location (value of u) of the first sidelobe and the sidelobe ratio are shown in Fig. 9.7 where it appears that arrays of less than 8 elements experience a signifi- cant sidelobe-level degradation. Of course, the relation of sidelobe peak angles and array length depends upon main beam position through u. The uniform linear array has a sidelobe envelope that decays as mu approaches 1/2, and as mentioned in Sec- tion 9.1.1.3, this decay is important to maintain low aperture Q and tolerance in- sensitivity. sidelobe ratio, 48 Fig. 9.7 Grating lobes: From the expression for the array pattern (eqn. 9.5) it is obvious that maxima of unit value occur whenever u =n, an integer, because then both sine terms are zero and the limit is unity, If d/A and 69 are chosen properly, only one main beam exists in ‘visible’ space, — 90° <@ < 90°. Large spacings will produce one or more additional main beams called grating lobes (GL) (see Fig. 9.8 for a sketch of a typical pattern). Physically the larger spacing allows the wave from each array element to add in phase at the GL angle. From the condition given above, u=n, the location of grating lobes can be easily determined. The GL equation is usually written as: 14 Linear arrays Changing the variable to u gives: ._ Mapn Goa sna (9.18) fo sin*mu This can be integrated with the help of an expansion (Whittaker and Watson!”*): an Nal Nap. =f [+2 FW —n)oos 2nmu | du G ° ne. N-1 = Nd, Y W—n)sinenka (9.19) nt Fig. 9.12 Line-source geometry The directivity result, where sinc is sinx/x, is: Ne C= (9.20) N+2 LW—n)sincnkd nei Fig. 9.13 shows directivity for various arrays from 2 to 24 elements as a function of dd. The effect of the grating lobes can be seen around d = X. For larger spacings the directivity increases until, around d = 2A, another drop represents the appear- ance of second-order grating lobes. It is evident that whenever nkd = m, the direc- tivity is V: ie «8G = Word = 05,1.0,1.5,... The peak directivity occurs just before the onset of the grating lobe and the minor oscillations below the peak depend upon whether the boundary of real space (sin @ = 1) coincides with a peak sidelobe or with a zero. This behaviour can also be interpreted as the effect of the mutual coupling between elements varying as the spacing is varied. In fact, the summation in eq. 9.20 can be recognised as a weighted Linear arrays 19 collinear case exhibits less grating-lobe directivity drop around d = \, but the peak value is also lower. This is because the mutual coupling effect is greater with parallel dipoles. The parallel array gives roughly 3dB more directivity at the peak, due to narrowing the beam in the transverse plane. 20 18 16: Nai 16 % 2 124 8 8 2 10. 6 3 3 4 ad 3 64 2 6 2. 0 oO o2 O64 06 O68 10 12 o/s Fig. 9.15 Directivity of collinear dipole array For fixed array spacing and number of elements, and for uniform amplitude of excitation, the maximum directivity does not occur at broadside or endfire. This case is included in Section 9.1.3 on superdirective arrays. 24 Linear arrays It was mentioned earlier that the Chebyshev distribution tended toward large peaks at the array ends. To give an idea of the array lengths and sidelobe ratios for which this occurs, the sidelobe ratio for the centre and end excitations equal is given versus NV, and also the value that ensures a monotonic distribution, in Table 9.1. For Table 9.1 Chebyshev distributions centre = end monotonic N SLR, dB SLR, dB 10 16 22 20 20 33 30 22 40 24 - a 20-element array, the centre equal-end situation occurs for SLR greater than 20dB. Arrays larger than 28 elements do not allow a monotonic distribution at all for SLR up to 40dB. Fig. 9.17 shows array amplitudes for SLR = 20, 30 and 40dB. Adjacent element amplitudes are connected by straight lines; but these distributions are typical for ChebYshev arrays. In practice, Chebshev distributions are not often used, as the Taylor 7 distribution (see a later Section) offers more flexibility. 10 SiR =208 08: 2 06 3 3 a & 2 04 » 02 40 prey end ary Fig. 9.17 Chebyshev array distribution N = 19 Du Hamel extended the Chebyshev design principle to endfire arrays, but only for d 4 gives envelope tapers more rapid than 1/u, but commensurately less efficient. Low-sidelobe designs: \n the last decade low sidelobes (roughly —30 to —60 dB) have become of interest for several reasons: increasing spectrum congestion in broadcast and in satellite transmissions, desirability of reducing radar intercept probabilities, and reduction of radar clutter/jammer vulnerability. From the previous Sections one may infer that a good low sidelobe distribution should be heavily tapered in amplitude. Examination of the one-parameter space factor shows very low pedestals for 40-60.dB SLR; from Taylor’s observation that distributions with pedestals are more efficient, the # space factor might appear more attractive. This is indeed the case. To design a high-performance low-sidelobe space factor, again the emphasis should be on the pattern zeros. Here the Taylor 7 space factor is almost uniquely properly designed. Recapitulating, close-in zeros are adjusted to obtain a few nearly equal sidelobes at the design sidelobe level, while farther-out zeros are properly placed to give a 1/u envelope. One may contrast this with a Hamming distribution, which is a cosine of a doubled argument, on a pedestal. The argument produces a zero contribution from the cosine at the centre of the half aperture. This distribution is (Blackman and Tukey'®): g(p) = 0.54+0.46cosmp = a+b cosmp (9.72) resulting in a centre value of unity and a pedestal (end value) of 0.08. Excitation efficiency of the Hamming is: 2 = = 0. 9.73 Ne = Tay ape = 0.7338 (9.73) and the half-power beamwidth is u3= 0.6515. The corresponding space factor has zeros at u=2,3,4,... plus another zero at u =Val(a — b)= 2.5981. The space factor is: —b)u?—al si p(y) = (eb =al sine (02%) ) The close spacing of the first two zeros produces an irregular convex sidelobe enve- lope where the highest sidelobe is the fourth at —42.7 dB. First and second side- lobes are —44.0dB and —56 dB. Moving the salient zero to 2.5 to centre it does lower the first and raise the second, but the overall SLR is now 1dB worse. A comparison of several low sidelobe distributions is illuminating. Take SLR = 42.7 dB for an example, since this is the Hamming value. Table 9.7 gives the first ten pattern zeros for the Taylor one-parameter, the Hamming, and Taylor A = 6 and A= 10, All the Taylor distributions exhibit a relatively smooth progression; the Hamming has the salient zero at u = 2.6. This is better seen in Table 9.8, where the spacings between adjacent zeros are shown. Clearly, the Hamming is wasting zero spacing on the first several sidelobes. In this Table can also be seen the effect of too large an At for the SLR. A = 10 gives a slight oscillation in spacing. Finally Table 9.9 rau (u 44 Linear arrays amplitude “10 “08 0 05 1.0 sin® amplitude “yh (b) Fig. 9.30 Cosecant synthesis (after Woodward and Lawson) a Zero at broadside b Improved Fig. 9.33 pottern 4b Linear arrays -4000 -2000 0.00 60.00 6120.00 -100.00 -80.00 00 8.00 16.00 24.00 angle deg 32.00 40.00 48.00 1.00 0.80 current 0.40 0.20 9 0.00 00 10.00 «20.00 «30.00 «40.00 8.00 60.00 kK Broad sidelobe nuit (solid); 4048 Taylor (dashed) (courtesy: Tseng) @ Space factor Distribution 54 Linear arrays maximisation of directivity. More general constrained synthesis is possible, but the matrix manipulation methods applicable to Hermitian forms are not available. Typically gradient methods are used (Evans and Fortmann''), Each gradient is set to zero and a gradient matrix is formed by differentiating each with respect to each phase. Inverse of this matrix times a start vector yields a new vector which is iterated. Optimisation with fixed excitation and variable array spacing is handled simi- larly except that the gradient expression is slightly different. Miscellaneous: Mutual coupling effects may be included by writing the direc- tivity or other performance index in terms of mutual resistance as in Section 9.1.1.2. Loss may also be included in the formulation so that gain, instead of direc- tivity, may be maximised. Optimisation of directivity or SVR with nulls in prescribed directions can also be accomplished. A null is equivalent to the excitation vector (J| being orthogonal to the vector (Fj'|, where the null is in the ith direction. Thus for M null directions, where M 0.5 and L/A> 100. Fig. 9.43 shows the * These are in most computer scientific subroutine libraries. 74 Linear arrays EO) = LY Adm (1 + On)(1 + Om) exp [Ey — 5m) + i — mame] um (9.136) Under the assumption of zero means, and by using the Central Limit Theorem, that the mean of the sum of independent variables is the sum of the means, the average pattern with errors becomes: £0) = F@) +2 (9.137) Go where £3 is the error free pattern, Go is the directivity, and o = ontop (9.138) This interesting result, first developed by Ruze,'*!!5? shows that on the average a small constant amount is added to the sidelobes, and that this effect is less for long arrays (high directivity). Also for low-sidelobe designs the effect is more pro- nounced as addition of a small error field affects a low sidelobe more than it would a higher sidelobe. The main beam peak is reduced a small amount. The probability density function PDF of the field is a modified Rayleigh (Bennett"*), because the field at any angle is the vector sum of the no-error field and the x and y error components. 2B (eR +8) (28 PDF = a ( oF Io ok (9.139) The variance of is o/G. Although the mean sidelobe performance has been simply described, the prob- ability of individual sidelobes exceeding the mean is of importance. This is found by integrating the PDF from the specified sidelobe level (SLL) to infinity (Rondinelli”), for the ith sidelobe: P(E; >SLL) = Sun PDF dE (9.140) By change of variable this can be written in terms of the Marcum Q Function (Marcum): P(E; >SLL) = Q(A;,B) (9.141) where A, =V2Ej/og and B=VJZSLL/og. The Q function is defined as (Mar- cum!) - 2 QUA, B) = I, texp (! : Pe ) [g(At) dt (9.142) The expression for probability, however, is only for one specified sidelobe to exceed SLL. The probability that any sidelobe exceeds SLL is: P=1- T1048) (9.143) Linear arrays 79 pattern over the main beam and all sidelobes. Alternatively, the aperture distribu- tion could be integrated. In the references cited numerical integration was used for the Taylor ‘ideal’ space factor, while the Taylor # space factor was integrated by approximating each sidelobe by a sinusoid of the proper amplitude. An alternate scheme could use the directivity formulas given in Section 9.1.1.3 for Dolph- Chebyshev and Taylor A distributions. Fig. 9.50 shows the directivity limitations on the ‘ideal’ space factor. For the A space factors, Figs. 9.51 and 9.52 show the limita- tions for half and for a quarter of the sidelobes of equal level. Longer line sources obviously must employ smaller # to avoid directivity loss. No loss is experienced by the Taylor one-parameter space factor, since the sidelobe envelope already decays as I/u. taylor ideal line source sidelobe ratio agra in Fig. 9.50 Gain limit of idea! source 9.2 Array feeds Linear array feeds in general are either series or shunt, which refers to the geo- metry rather than to an equivalent circuit. Series arrays, sometimes called line arrays, have the elements disposed along a transmission line. The line can be a standing-wave (resonant) feed, described in Section 9.2.1, or a traveling-wave feed, described in Section 9.2.2. Some other aspects of line feeds are discussed in Section 9.2.3, along with shunt feeds where each element is fed independently, either by a divider network (corporate feed) or from its own receiver/transmitter module (distributed array). Most of the discussion is centred on dipole or slot elements. 84 Linear arrays At centre frequency fd = 7 and the formula reduces to the simple form: (9.149) From this arises the simple rule that at centre frequency the sum of the slot sus- ceptances should be zero and the sum of slot admittances should be unity. Fry, and Goward®® have plotted eqn. 9.148; the VSWR rises with frequency to a normalised frequency just above 1 + 1/2N (for uniform illumination) and for higher frequen- cies thee VSWR oscillates about 2, From this simple theory the near linear region gives NB = 89 for VSWR = 2 and N = 20. Note that this result is more generous than the exact result quoted earlier. When the excitation is uniform, Y,, = 1/N and the series can be summed exactly, giving: 1 — ele -ner SinNBL Nsin Bl t= ——__ (9.150) jefNat 4 pitvenar SNNBL Nsin Bl The sin factor is recognised as the space factor of an N-element array, and this fac- tor produces the oscillations in T and in VSWR as fl changes. The oscillation is about [= 1/3 or VSWR = 2 since the centre of the sin factor oscillations is zero. An even more simple derivation observes that at a frequency where the last ele- ment is 7 out of phase, NBl = Nn + 2/2 ot f/fo= 1 + 1/2N, which gives a product of NB = 100 (full bandwidth). From eqn. 9.150 this corresponds to T = 0.3475 and VSWR = 2.07. All of the results given so far are too optimistic. When the changing element impedance (both self and mutual) with frequency is included, the bandwidth drops significantly, perhaps to 2/3 or less. With waveguide broad-wall shunt slot or dipole elements, the element impedance can be included in the calculation, For waveguide edge slots it is necessary to measure the actual bandwidth. Another practical factor is the beam splitting that occurs at roughly twice the VB for VSWR = 2. The two travelling waves that at centre frequency combine to give a standing wave are now of unequal amplitude and out of phase, so that one travelling wave produces a beam left of centre and the other produces a beam right of centre (Kummer’*). However, this effect is not noticed for bandwidths that keep VSWR < 2. 9.2.1.2 Resonant-slot Array Design: A resonant array, sometimes calléd a ‘standing-wave array’, consists of radiating elements located along a feed transmis- sion line at half wavelength intervals. The excitations are alternately in phase and out of phase; the latter are usually corrected by reversing the terminals of every other dipole connected to a two-wire feed line, or by reversing the sense of coupling of slots in a waveguide feed. Sense reversal for slots is accomplished by moving Linear arrays 89 10 ] 08. 06. ou 02 | | ° 2198 -02 -04 06 -08 10 . a oo U 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 18 20 ash Fig. 9.58 TWarray beam angle vs. spacing bik = 0.6 Fig. 9.59 TW array beam angle vs. spacing: single-beam region 94 Linear arrays v= 2Va]bC,V, BRK AIGo) Unlike the resonant array, the mode voltages are unequal, since the slots are spaced an irrational number of guide wavelengths apart. Notation is that of Section 9.2.1, except the mode voltages are subscripted here. In fact, the mth mode voltage is related to the m — 1st mode voltage and the n — Ist admittance, where elements are numbered starting at the load. This relation is: (9.171) Yn-a 5 G, ind (9.172) 028. conductance 3 7 21 Fy 23 slot number Fig. 9.63 Slotconductance values; Taylor one parameter SLR = 26d8,N = 29 Y,, is defined below, and d is the slot spacing along the guide. Combined with eqn. 9.171 an equation is obtained for the ratio of two successive slot voltages: — Cnas¥iha On (ooa+s Man sind) (9.173) 0 99 Linear arrays 6} 2PISpooiq Wo1} aj6u0 tito 1.0 0.95 =06,d/A,=0.5 s=5,, Fig. 9.68 — Frequency-scanning example 5A, B/ke Fig. 9.69 Waveguide serpentine feed (courtesy: Hammer) 104 Linear arrays furthest element of the array. A simple but powerful analysis of antenna transients has been given by Tseng and Cheng.'* 9.2.4 Phaser and sub-array lobes 9.2.4.1 Sub-array lobes: When an array of sub-arrays is scanned, the aperture phase consists of a stair step curve where each step represents the phase over one sub-array. The desired aperture phase curve, of course, is a linear curve of phase vs. distance, with the slope of the line proportional to the beam position, sin. Thus, a phase-error curve of sawtooth shape is produced (see Fig. 9.75). The tooth width is the sub-array width W and the amplitude each side of the axis is 8, where B= (kW/2) sin®9. This error phase produces one or more salient lobes called quantis- ation lobes (QL); the amplitude and location of these lobes can be found by inte- grating the aperture error function. For large arrays the illumination may be replaced by a continuous distribution for the purposes of calculation. Let the array have NV equal sub-arrays, with uniform excitation. Integrating over the N steps: N Fw =4 ¥ xp Limup + j8(2n— 1-1) —18Veldp (9.179) where u = (L/)(sin 89 — sin 8), Ny = (2n —N)IN, and N, =(2n —2—N)IN. Now call: v in, we * (sin6s— sind) = %-d r Since L = NW, u = Nw, and 8 = 19. The integral and summation can both be per- formed in closed form yielding: sinNaw | Fu) Nanw sinc my (9.180) The first factor is recognised in the pattern of a uniform array of N isotropic ele- ments spaced W wavelengths apart. For W larger than one wavelength grating lobe(s) will exist. These grating lobes have equal amplitude of unity and occur for w=m, m=0,1,2,.... The first of these is the main beam, for w= 0. The second factor is the pattern of a uniform line source of length W wavelengths, with main beam peak at v = 0 = @. Thus this sinc beam weights the main beam and side- lobes of the first factor. Since the grating lobes are spaced by unity in w (or v), and since the sinc null-to-null beamwidth is two (in 0), the first grating lobe is always at the edge of or in the sinc main beam. For example, if the first factor main beam is at 8) = 0 (no scan), the first grating lobe is at the sinc-factor first null. As the main beam scans it moves away from the sinc beam peak, and the grating lobe moves into the sinc beam peak from the null. The level of the first quantisation lobe is closely just that of the sinc factor at the first grating lobe position: v = v9 — 1 (from the definition of w) and wg = 1. The next quantisation lobe will occur at the second grating lobe, v= % — 2, and the sine-pattern sidelobes there will give the QL level. Linear arrays 109 9.3 Array elements Arrays may be composed of low-gain elements such as slots or dipoles, or of moderate-gain elements such as reflectors, horns, spirals, log periodics etc. The beamwidth of the latter imposes restrictions on the array scanning range, and also ‘on the phasing due to quantisation lobes as shown in Section 9.2.5. Since dipoles and slots are most often used in arrays, the relevant features are included in this Section. Also discussed are multi-mode elements, designed to compensate for mutual-impedance changes with scan. Printed-circuit elements, using either strip- line or microstrip, have become important for many narrow-band applications. Basic principles of these are covered. Mutual coupling between array elements is discussed in detail in Chapter 10. 9.3.1 Dipoles Because of its simple construction from two rods or tubes with a feed in between, or two printed-circuit strips, the thin dipole is popular when the bandwidth is roughly 10-20% or less. A strip dipole, where strip thickness is small compared to strip width, is equivalent to a cylindrical dipole of radius ¢ equal to one-fourth the strip width w (Lo!™), The effects of a dielectric sheet used as a substrate will be discussed later. A half-wave dipole has a pattern symmetric about the dipole axis, and with @ measured from the axis it is: cos [(n/2) cosé] sin€ The half-power beamwidth is 78.1°, and the directivity is 1.64 = 2.15 dB. As the dipole length shortens, the pattern approaches that of a short dipole, sin @, with half-power beamwidth of 90° and directivity of 1.5 = 1.764B. For lengths longer than half wavelength, the pattern sharpens, then breaks up. At / = 0.625A, the main lobe is broadside, and the two sidelobes are small. But at / = 0.75A, the sidelobes (at 45°) are larger than the main beam. Finally the full-wave dipole with sinusoidal current distribution has a null at broadside. Pattern bandwidth then goes from a short dipole (limited by impedance) to roughly 0.62 length. Impedance bandwidth is limiting for thin dipoles. It was shown by Abraham in 1898 that a vanishingly thin dipole has a sinusoidal current distribution. The Carter zero-order impedance theory discussed in Section 9.4 is adequate for mutual- impedance calculations, and for self impedance of very thin (//a > 1000) dipoles. Full-wave dipoles according to this theory have zero feed current, so a higher order theory is needed for them, However, owing to their high input impedance and multi- lobe pattern, full-wave dipoles are rarely used. For antennas in the vicinity of half wave in length, the King second-order theory (King™) agrees well with experiments as do the moment-method calculations (Harrington”’), Unfortunately no satisfactory simple function fit to the impedance vs. frequency has been possible. The designer can start with curves such as Fig. 9.77 from King,™ but should finish with F(6) = (9.189) 114 Linear arrays the axis. Pattern behaviour of waveguide slots is close to that of slots in an infinite ground plane, except at angles near grazing where edge effects are important. How- ever, in a linear array of waveguide slots spaced in the rough range of 0.5 to 0.8 g s 3.8 input resistance Rin, Q 3 2 © 30 60 $0 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 A, deg Xin, @ a 5 8 8 . input reactance ~300: A,deg Fig. 9.80 Bow-tie monopole impedance (after Butler et ai) free-space wavelength, the slot phases must usually be alternated to correct for the waveguide phase. For example, in a resonant array with elements spaced \,/2 apart, the elements will alternate phase unless every other element has coupling reversed. Linear arrays 119 reason the wall thickness has a significant effect on admittance. For reduced-height guide, where the wrap-around is severe, even the pattern is difficult to calculate. At present, no theories for edge slots have appeared, using either variational methods or moment methods. Array design is based on measurements, and, even here, edge slots are difficult. Because of the strong mutual coupling between edge slots (as compared with displaced broad wall slots) incremental conductance is usually measured. Fig. 9.85 — Longitudinal siot admittance @=0.9,b = 0.4, 9375 Mhz Stegen 0 x/a = 0.07 o 017 That is, a series of resonant slots is measured; then one slot is taped up and the remaining slots are measured again. The resulting incremental conductance (Watson'”) is that of a resonant slot in the presence of mutual coupling. Trial and error is necessary to find the resonant length for a set of slots for a given angle, however. For inclination angles below 15°, the resonant conductance developed by Stevenson (Watson'”) varies as sin” G _ __480a/b > = asin’ 9.193 Yo mB/kRo(2a/n)* 0.198) This is shown in Fig. 9.89, the error in this curve for larger angles is not important, as incremental conductance should be used. It appropriately follows a sin"@ behaviour, especially for small angles, with the incremental value larger than the 124 Linear arrays the results. With all parameters set, the unit-cell admittance is calculated for each waveguide mode, assuming unit amplitude of the latter. Many modes will be required in the unit cell to match the waveguide mode field at the aperture (the waveguide open end), and for each unit cell mode the admittance must be calcu- lated. Starting with the value for large distance (from the slabs), this admittance is transformed through the dielectric slabs, and then combined with the other unit cell modes. Numbers of modes typically are 100 to 300. Longitudinal-section modes must be converted to TE and TM modes so that mode admittances can be matched. Next, starting with an incident TE,» mode in the waveguide, the aperture admittance of each waveguide mode is calculated, Although the mode admittances must be equal across the aperture, the mode amplitudes depend upon the total admittance. Thus, a set of simultaneous equations, one for each waveguide mode, can be solved. Typical results are shown in Fig. 9.91 which is for 0.403A9 square waveguides in an equilateral triangular lattice (Tsandoulas and Knittel’*'). Band- width for VSWR <3 is 25%, and the scan range is roughly a quarter hemisphere. An interesting design principle resulting from many calculations by these authors is that polarisation coupling (for a dual polarised array) is reduced as the element size is increased. Thus when multi-mode elements are used they should be as large as the lattice allows. For a single polarisation, bandwidth of greater than 50% with VSWR < 4 and scan over nearly 4 hemisphere has been obtained (Tsandoulas’™ '), ' dielectric dielectric | sheets Beg waveguide = AMZ steps t array foce Fig. 9.90 Typical matching section and unit cel! An iris can be used in each waveguide radiator, below the aperture, in addition to dielectric plugs, as an aid to matching. Excellent results have been obtained by Lee and Jones and by Lee. Another example of the excellent single-plane scan compensation results obtain- able is in Fig. 9.92 (Tsandoulas'). This array uses open-ended waveguides in a rec- tangular lattice for £-plane scan. All dimensions have been optimised using a multi- mode element code described earlier. ‘A newer technique can be used on single-mode elements. It uses a spatial filter consisting of one or more dielectric slabs over the array face where the transmission Linear arrays 129 3 3 5 3 0.00 0.05 oto 018 hag Fig. 9.95 Bandwidth of microstrip antenna (courtesy: Derneryd & Lind, 1979) VSWR <2 tan(5) = 10 ° 10° | = 2.62 —— calculated —+ measured dielectric b metal / Fig. 9.96 Two-layer microstrip for increased bandwidth (courtesy: Hall et al.) 134 94 2 AGRAWAL, V. D., and LO, Y.T.: 10 W 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Linear arrays References ABRAMOWITZ, M., and STEGUN, Handbook of mathematical functions’ NBS, 1970 jutual coupling in phased arrays of randomly spaced antennas’, EEE Trans., AP-20, May 1972, pp. 288-295 ALEXOPOULOS N. G. et al.: ‘Radiation properties of microstrip dipoles’, IEEE Trans., AP-27, Nov. 1979, pp. 853-858. ALLEN J. L., et al.: ‘Phased array radar studies’, Lincoln Lab. MIT. TR238, Aug. 1960 ALTMAN, J. L.: ‘Microwave circuits’, Van Nostrand Co., 1964 AMITAY, N. et al.: ‘Theory and analysis of phased array antennas’. Wiley, 1972 AMITAY, N., and GALINDO, V.: ‘The analysis of circular waveguide phased arrays, BSTJ, 47, 1968, pp. 1903-1931 ANDREASEN, M.G.: ‘Linear arrays with variable interelement spacings’, /EEE Trans. AP-10, 1962, pp. 137-143 BACH H., and HANSEN, J. E.: ‘Uniformly spaced arrays’, in Collin and Zucker (eds.) ‘Antenna theory Pt I”. McGraw Hill, 1969, Chap. 5 BAILIN, L. L.: ‘Fundamental limitations of long arrays’. Rept. TM330 Hughes Aireraft Co,, Culver City, California, 1956 BANDLER, J.W., and CHARALAMBOUS, C.: ‘Theory of generalized least Pth approxi- mation’, /EEE Trans., CT-19, 1972, pp. 287-289 BARBIERE, D.: ‘A method for calculating the current distribution of Tschebyscheff arrays’, Proc. IRE, 40, 1952, pp. 78-82 BEGOVICH, N. A.: ‘Frequency scanning’, in Hansen, R.C. (Ed.): ‘Microwave scanning antennas: Vol. III’. Academic Press, 1966, Chap. 2 BENNETT, W. R.: ‘Methods of solving noise problems’, Proc. JRE, 44, 1956, pp. 609-638 BICKMORE, R. W., and SPELLMIRE, R. J: ‘A two-parameter family of line sources’, Rept. TM 595, Hughes Aircraft Co., Culver City, California, 1956 BLACKMAN, R.B., and TUKEY, J. W.: ‘Measurement of power spectra’, Dover Publ., 1958. BLOCH, A., MEDHURST, R.G., and POOL, S.D.: ‘A new approach to the design of super-directive aerial arrays,’ Proc, IEE, 100, Part I11, 1953, pp. 303-314 BLOCH, A., MEDHURST, R..G.,and POOL, S. D.: ‘Superdirectivity,’ Proc. IRE, 48, 1960, p. 1164 BOUWKAMP, C.J. and DE BRUUN, N.G.: ‘The problem of optimum antenna cutrent distribution’, Philips Research Reports, 1, 1946, p. 135 BREITHAUPT, R. W.: ‘Conductance data for offset series slots in stripline,’ JEEE Trans., MTT-16, 1968, pp. 969-970 BRICOUT, P. A: ‘Pattern synthesis using weighted functions," JRE Trans., AP-8, 1960, pp. 441-444 BROWN, J. L.: ‘A simplified derivation of the Fourier coefficients for Chebyshev pat- terns’, Proc. IEE, 105C, 1957, pp. 167-168 BROWN, J. L.: ‘On the determination of excitation coefficients for a Tchebycheff pat- tern," JRE Trans., AP-10, 1962, pp. 215-216 BROWN, L.B., and SCHARP, G. A.: ‘Tschebyscheff antenna distribution, beamwidth, and gain tables’. NOLC Report 383, Feb. 1958 BUTLER, C.M., et al.: ‘Characteristics of a wire biconical antenna,’ Microwave J., 22, Sept. 1979, pp. 37-40 CARVER, K. R.: ‘Practical analytical techniques for the microstrip antenna’, Printed Cit- cuit Antenna Technology Workshop, New Mexico State Univ., 1979 CHENG, D. K.: ‘Optimization techniques for antenna arrays’, Proc. IEEE, $9, 1971, pp. 1664-1674 CHESTON, T. C., and FRANK, J.: ‘Array antennas’, in Skolnik, M. book’. McGraw-Hill, 1970 (Ed.): “Radar hand- 137 138 139 140 141 14 143 144 145 M46 14 48 149 150 151 152 153 154 1ss 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 Linear arrays 139 SCHWARZ, S. E., and RUTLEDGE, D. B.: ‘Moving toward NMM wave integrated circuits’, Microwave J., 23, June 1980, pp. 47-52 SCHIMZU, J.K., and JONES, E. M.T.: ‘Coupled-transmission line directional couplers’, IRE Trans., MTT, 1958, pp. 403-410 SKOLNOK, M. L: ‘Introduction to radar systems’. McGraw-Hill, 1962 SLATER, J. C.; ‘Microwave electronics’. Van Nostrand, 1950 SOUTHWORTH, G. C.: ‘Arrays of linear elements’, in Jasik, H. (Ed.): ‘Antenna engineer- ing handbook’. McGraw-Hill, 1961 SPELLMIRE, R. J.: ‘Tables of Taylor aperture distributions’, Rept. TM $81, Hughes Air- craft Co., Culver City, Cal., 1958 SPRADLEY, J. ind ODLUM, W.J.: ‘Systematic errors caused by the scanning of antenna arrays: Phase shifters in the main feed line’. Rept. AFCRL-56-795, SR11/ 1317, Hughes Aircraft Co., Culver City, Cal., 1956 STARK, L. et al.: ‘Multi mode phased array element for scan angle compensation of ele- ment impedance’, Alta Freq., XXXVI, 1969, pp. 249-254 STARK, P. A.: ‘Introduction to numerical methods’, Macmillan Publ., 1970 STEGEN, R. J.: ‘Excitation coefficients and beamwidths of Tschebyscheff arrays,’ Proc. IRE, 41, 1953, pp. 1671-1674 STEINBERG, B.D.: ‘Comparison between the peak sidelobe of the random array and algorithmically designed aperiodic arrays’, JEEE Trans., A-21, 1973, pp. 366-370 STEINBERG, B. D.: ‘Principles of aperture and array system design’, Wiley, 1976 STEVENSON, A. F.: ‘Theory of slots in rectangular waveguides’, J. Appl. Phys, 19, 1948, pp. 24-38 STUTZMAN, W.L.: ‘Synthesis of shaped-beam fion patterns using the iterative sampling method", [EEE Trans,, AP-19, 1971, pp. 36-41 STUTZMAN, W. L.: ‘Sidelobe control of antenna patterns’, JEEE Trans., AP-20, 1972, pp. 102-104. STUTZMAN, W. L.: ‘Shaped-beam synthesis of nonuniformly spaced linear arrays’, JEEE Trans., AP-20, 1972, pp. 499-SOL TAI, C. T.: ‘Characteristics of linear antenna elements’ in Jasik, H. (Ed cering handbook’, McGraw-Hill, 1961 TAI, C.T.: ‘The optimum directivity of uniformly spaced broadside arrays of dipoles’, IEEE Trans., AP-12, 1964, pp. 447-454 TAMIR, T.: ‘Leaky-wave antennas’ in Collin, R.E., and Zucker, F. J. (Eds.): ‘Antenna ‘Antenna engin- TANG, R., and WONG, N. S.: ‘Multimode phased array element for wide scan angle im- pedance matching’, Proc. IEEE, $6, 1968, pp. 1951-1959 TAYLOR, T. T.: ‘One-parameter family of line sources producing modified sin mu/mu pat- tems’. Rept. TM 324, Hughes Aircraft Co., Culver City, Cal., 1953 TAYLOR, T. T.: ‘Design of line-source antennas for narrow beamwidth and low sidelobes’, IRE Trans., AP-3, 1955, pp. 16-28 ‘TEMES, G. S., and ZAI, D. Y. F.: ‘Least Pth approximation’, /EEE Trans., CT-16, 1969, pp. 235-237 TSANDOULAS, G.N.: ‘Wideband limitations of waveguide arrays’, Microwave J., 15, Sept. 1972, pp. 49-56 TSANDOULAS, G. N., and KNITTEL, G. H.: ‘The analysis and design of dua-polarization square-waveguide phased arrays’, /EBE Trans., AP-21, 1973, pp. 796-808 TSANDOULAS, G. N.: ‘Unidimensionally scanned phased arrays’, EEE Trans, AP-28, 1980, pp. 86-99 TSENG, F. I: ‘Design of array and line-source antennas for Taylor patterns with a null’, JEEE Trans., AP-27, 1979, pp. 474-479 TSENG, F.1., and CHENG, D.K.: ‘Antenna pattern response to arbitrary time signals’, Can. J. Phys., 42, 1964, pp. 1358-1368 144 Planar arrays This corresponds to a sidelobe ratio of 16.27 dB. Thus for lower SLR (higher side- lobes) including uniform excitation, eqn, 10.7 is correct. For higher SLR the proper equation is: sinh nVB?—u} sinh xB (109) aV/BP—u} VinB . These equations can be solved numerically given B, and the results are exactly those given in Section 9.1.1 for linear arrays. Of course when uy is determined, the actual 3 4B beamwidths are found from the scan angle 8p using: A» A One = ate sin (‘2 sin os) + are sin (2 + sin | (10.10) As the beam moves towards endfire, the inside 3 dB point will occur at 90°; this happens when sin 69+ u3d/L = 1. Beyond this the definition of beamwidth must be changed, and to be consistent at endfire it should be the angle between the outer 34B points of the conical pattern. Thus at the transition angle, the beamwidth abruptly doubles. For sin 6) > 1 —u3A/L: Ose = r+ 2aresin ("2 sino) (10.11) Fig. 10.3 shows scan-plane beamwidth for square apertures of various lengths. Cross-plane beamwidth is more difficult as both L and W affect it. Let $9 = 0 and @ = 9. Then: u= sin (cos bo »b w 2 = {sin Bo sin 6 (10.12) For large sidelobe ratios the half power us, 03 are solutions of: sinh m/B?— v3 sinh w/B?— 03 _ sinh*7B (10.13) VEm Po Vie } Given L, W and B, a value of $3 can be found that satisfies the equation. If us or U3 is greater than B, the hyperbolic form changes to trigonometric. The cross-plane beamwidth is found from: day = 2arc sin (sin Op sin $3) (10,14) where the sin @ factor represents a projected aperture. When the array is large, an excellent approximation is: Oy = 2 sin Op sin 3 (10.15) It is convenient to use the array aspect ratio W/L. For a given W/L and B, the root Planar arrays 149 general, a grating lobe appears whenever the propagation constant is real; at the transition from imaginary to real, it is zero. 8. Amd, + @ — malady)? = 0 (10.21) K tangent, GL f ‘\ 4 je —— “ Fig. 10.8 Grating lobe formation off axes The diagonal case corresponds ton = 1, m = 1. When spacings are sufficiently large to allow several GL to appear, the propagation constant is real for larger and/or im. Of course, scan in principal planes corresponds to n = 0 or m = 0. The other limiting case is when the GL located on the w-axis just left of the unit circle scans to be just tangent to the circle (see Fig. 10.8). Clearly only d, is involved here. The limiting values are: 1—d?/? d,/d ug = * Mm = V1—d2/¥ (10.22) a/e dy/X The minimum value of d,/A for this lobe is 1/\/2. The @ tangent case is analogous as might be expected, with u, v and d,, dy interchanged. For unrestricted scan the principal plane GL appears first, controlled by the smallest of Md, and A/dy. Thus the u, v plane not only gives an excellent physical picture of grating-lobe occur- rence, but also allows the formulas to be easily derived. It should be emphasised that if d,/ < 1/(1 + sin 6) and dy/A < 1/(1 + sin 6), no grating lobes will exist for the rectangular lattice. sin Og) = sin @ = dy/X (10.23) Hexagonal lattice: A rectangular lattice is not necessary; an isosceles triangular lattice can be used instead. A special case that is commonly used is the equilateral triangular lattice, sometimes called the regular hexagonal lattice. If the array 154 Planar arrays The function sinc x = sin x/x, Unfortunately this result for directivity does not simplify appreciably either for uniform excitation or for half-wave spacing in the lattice. For the half-wave case S2 simplifies to: Sq = sinemy(n +p — 1)? + (m—qy? (10,38) Only for special sets of integers is S) = 0 (for example, n + p = 4,m—q =4, so v = 5). The cross-coupling terms then are not in general zero. Although the directivity expression is for a rectangular array with rectangular lattice it can be readily modified for other types. For example, a flat plane array, where the waveguide linear arrays are of different lengths, is handled by adjusting the summation limits. Other lattices such as hexagonal can also be accommodated. In general, it is necessary to use approximations to obtain planar array direc- tivity. For example, the directivity of a planar array is approximately: D=2D,Dy where D, and Dy are the linear array directivities along x and along y. The factor of 2 gives a result that compares well with exact square-array calculations (Hansen); the factor of 2 accounts for a pencil beam radiated on one side only. In the previous derivation the element was assumed to be isotropic. Directivity of an array of actual elements can be computed whenever the mutual impedance between only two of the elements can be calculated. Following the method of Section 9.1.1.2, the general directivity formula is: 120] EF aan) © LEE Ade amon nm P D (10.1,39) Here the sums go over all the mm elements, and Rampg is the mutual resistance between the mmth element and the pqth element. For slots and dipoles fast and efficient algorithms exist for calculation of mutual resistance (Hansen and Brunner’) so that calculation of directivity without approximations is facilitated. A useful picture of the variation of planar array directivity with scan angle can be obtained by considering a uniformly excited planar aperture. The usual spherical coordinate system is used but the aperture is in the y-z plane. Thus the aperture normal is 89 = 1/2, ¢9 = 0. The space factor is now: E = sine qu sine rv (10.40) where = © (cos —cos0a), v = —sind sing ~l= Planar arrays 159 Rudduck er al.™ have computed a limited range of values, shown in Table 10.2. As is the case for the linear Taylor it distribution, there is a value of # that gives maxi- mum directivity. From the Table it is seen to increase with sidelobe ratio. Table 10.2 Excitation efficiency vs.n SLR n qB 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 0.9497 0.8404 0.7166 0.6023 0.4254 0.3083 20 0.9820 0.9723 0.9356 0.8808 0.7506 0.6238 25 0.9151 0.9324 0.9404 0.9379 0.9064 0.8526 30 0.8377 0.8482 0.8623 0.8735 0.8838 0.8804 35 0.7708 0.7779 0.7880 0.8048 0.8153 40 0.7056 0.7063 0.7119 0.7252 0.7365 Hansen one-parameter distribution: A symmetric circular distribution analogous to the Taylor one-parameter distribution for line sources was developed by Hansen.“ The close-in zeros of the uniform pattern, 2/,(nu)/mu, are shifted to sup- press the corresponding sidelobes. Calling the single parameter H, the space factoris: Wy nJu? — H?) Flu) = 10.56) ©) wat aH (10.56) Similar to the Taylor one-parameter line source, this definition of the pattern is valid for u > H. Foru < H, the form is et) (10.57) aH Ss) J, and J, are the usual Bessel and modified Bessel functions of the first kind and order one. Analogously to the (sin mu)/nu case, the pattern form for u > H provides a sidelobe structure much like that of 2/,(mu)/mu, and part of the main beam, while the pattern form for u

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