PRACTICAL RADIOGRAPHY NDT20 TWI Ltd Granta Park Great Abington Cambridge CBI 6AL UK Copyright © 1991, TWI Ltd2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 CONTENTS LIST TITLE INTRODUCTION ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ITS PROPERTIES PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS, TYPES OF X-RAY EQUIPMENT RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES ABSORPTION PROCESSES RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS DARKROOMS AND FILM PROCESSING SENSITOMETRY GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION INTENSIFYING SCREENS CONTROL OF SCATTER IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS EXPOSURE CONTROL ANGLES OF ASPECT INTERPRETATION CONDITIONS SPURIOUS INDICATIONS (OR ARTIFACTS) RADIATION PROTECTION LOCALISATION CONTROL OF SENSITIVITY USEFUL RADIOGRAPHIC FORMULAE AND INFORMATION PAGE NO. 15 29 56 61 88 95 100 114 127 136 138 142 168 180SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Following Pages are left empty on the original el 4,6,8,14,20,22,24,26,28,38, 46,54, 60, 64, 66, 74,76, 78,82, 84,92, 94,124,126, 140, 144, 146, 148 , 150 , 152, 166, 168 , 182, 184, 186 , 188, 190 , 192 , 194 , 196. NDT20 ISSUE 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING i 1.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 1.2 DEFINITION OF NON- ) DESTRUCTIVE TESTING . 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.3. HISTORY OF RADIOGRAPHY | 1.4 MAKING A RADIOGRAPH 1.5 ADVANTAGES AND , DISADVANTAGES OF RADIOGRAPHY NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESIHUCIIVE ILO1ING ST UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Base quantities Length Mass. Tine Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Luminous intensity Amount of substance Derived units Frequency Force Pressure and stress Work and energy Pover Quantity of electricity e.n.f, and potential difference Electric capacitance Electric resistance Electric conductance Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Inductance Luminous flux Illumination Other ‘accepted units Volume Mass Energy Prefixes tot? 10° 1o* 10? 107 10 107? 107? NDT20 Issue 0191 metre kilogram second anpere kelvin candela nole hertz newton pascal joule watt coulomb volt farad ohn siemens weber tesla henry lumen lux litre tonne electron volt tera giga mega kilo hecto deca dect centt milli micro nano pico fento acto symbol 2 kg a K ed nol kz Hz = 1 see" N AW © Tkg.2/sec? Pa ipa = N/a? J 1 = i/a ¥ W = 13/see ¢ 1G = 1A/sec v l= 1W/A F IF = 1A.sec/V a 1a = 1v/a 8 is = 10? Ww Wb = 1V/see T IT = Wb/a? x 1H = 1V.sec/A la lin «= led/see lx Lx = la/a? 1 1 = Lda? © Le = 10°g ev approx.1,60219 x 10719 Syabol T ¢ x hn da é 2 u P £ aSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1.0 INTRODUCTION The text for this course is laid out in a manner which it is hoped will make it easier to follow than conventional course texts. In general, right hand pages are used for text and left hand pages for diagrams and Tables, Looking across the page to the right of a particular diagram you should find the relevant text. Enough space is left on the pages to encourage you to add notes from the lectures. It is hoped that the flow charts will prove useful to follow the progress of the course lectures. Because flow charts are used there is no index. Each flow chart splits a subject title into several subheadings, given with a decimal notation for the paragraph number. Therefore the number 2.2.31 means paragraph number 31, under subheading number 2 of subject title 2. This makes it easier to change the text when updating and amending. THE SI UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Before we start you may care to study the units of measurement on the facing page. The United Kingdom adheres to a treaty signed at the General Conference on Weights and Measures, which has established a Systemes Internationales of units. Eventually these units will replace all existing Imperial and cgs units. Certainly not all of these units are of relevance to this course, but the Table will be a useful reference. Scientific notation is used, which is a useful shorthand for writing numbers with a great many zeros. For example: 7.0 x 10% = 7000 (7 x 1000) 7.0 x 107 = 0.007 (7 + 1000) also S=SXsS,-. ms?=mxsxs NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING DEFINITION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1.2 Non-Destructive testing is the ability to examine a material (usually for discontinuities) without degrading it. The five principal methods other than visual inspection, are: Penetrant testing Magnetic particle inspection Eddy current testing Radiography Ultrasonic testing In all the NDT methods, interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the skill'and experience of the technician, although properly formulated test techniques and procedures will improve accuracy and consistency. 1.2.1 Magnetic particle inspection is used to locate surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials by introducing a magnetic flux into the material. 1.2.2 Penetrant inspection locates surface breaking discontinuities by covering the item with @ penetrating liquid which is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary action. After removal of the excess penetrant the indication is made visible by application of a developer. Colour contrast or fluorescent systems may be used. 1.2.3 Eddy current inspection is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored simultaneously by measuring the coils’ electrical impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the material must be an electrical conductor. 1.2.4 Ultrasonic testing measures the time for high frequency (0.5MHz - 15MHz) pulses of ultrasound to travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the ultrasound reflects back to the probe ina time other than that appropriate to good material. 1.2.5 Before deciding on a particular NOT inspection method it is advantageous to have certain information. @) Reason for inspection. (To detect cracks, sort materials, check assembly, etc.) b) —_Ukely orientation of planar discontinuities, if they are the answer to @). ¢) Type of material. @) Likely position of discontinuities. e) Geometry and thickness of object to be tested. ) Accessibility NDT20 5 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1.2.6 NDT20 This information can be derived from: i) Product knowledge ji) Previous failures Accuracy of critical sizing of indications varies from method to method. Penetrant Inspection Length of the surface breaking discontinuity can be determined readily, but the depth dimensions can only be assessed subjectively by observing the amount of ‘bleed out’. Magnetic Particle Inspection Length of discontinuity can be determined from the indication, but no assessment of discontinuity depth can be made. Eddy Current Inspection Length of discontinuity can be determined. Depth of discontinuity or material thinning can be determined by amplitude measurement, phase measurement, or both, but the techniques for critical sizing are somewhat subjective. Uttrasonic Testing Length and position of discontinuity can be determined. Depth measurements are more difficult but crack tip diffraction or time of flight techniques can give good results. Radiography Length and plan view position can be determined. Through thickness positioning requires additional angulated exposures to be taken. The through thickness dimension of discontinuities cannot readily be determined. Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1.3 NDT20 HISTORY OF RADIOGRAPHY X-rays were discovered on the night of 8 November 1895 by W C Rontgen, when unexpected fluorescence was observed. Rontgen found that x-rays could penetrate a book and thin aluminium, and could be used to reveal the bones in his hand if an image of his hand was produced on a screen coated with barium platinocyanide. Rontgen also took the first radiograph. The next year 1896, H Becquerel discovered gamma-rays when he found that certain rocks darkened photographic plates, while the latter were covered to protect them from light. In 1898 the Curies, Marie and Piere extracted radium chloride from pitchblende ore. The x-ray tube, as we know it today, - a hot cathode, high vacuum tube ~ was patented by William Coolridge in 1913. In the period 1910 to 1915 it was realised that radiation was injuring those who used it, and the Radium Committee was inaugurated. In the decade 1920 to 1930 the Radium Committee became the International Commission on Radiological Protection, and Geiger and Muller developed instrumentation for monitoring radiation. More recently the 1970s saw the development of micro-focus radiography, fluorometallic screens and image enhancement using computers. Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Source of radiation Cone of radiation High density inclusion Low density discontinuity | — Specimen Film Lighter region Y N Darker region on radiograph on radiograph Fig.1.4 The basis of radiography. NDT20 Issue 0191 10SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14 1.41 MAKING A RADIOGRAPH The basic method of producing a radiograph is shown in figure 1.4. A radiation source emitting either x-rays or amma-rays is placed on one side of the object to be radiographed and a radiation detecting device is placed as close as possible to the other side of the object. The radiation detecting device used in radiography is a film. A fluorescent screen can be used in this position. When this is done the method is called Fluoroscopy. The radiation is absorbed by the material such that differing quantities of radiation reach the film. The greater the amount of radiation affecting the film the darker the radiograph becomes. Therefore under thin parts of the object, or parts where the material is of low density, the radiograph is dark (high radiographic density), while under thick parts or parts where the material is of high density the radiograph is light (low radiographic density). If there is a loss of material due to a flaw, crack, void, porosity, etc. the radiographic image will be dark, if there is a non-metallic inclusion, e.g. slag, in a weld the image could also be dark, but if there was a high material density inclusion, e.g. tungsten, the image would be light. Elementary Image Quality A good radiograph, as opposed to a good quality radiograph, is one having adequate contrast, adequate definition (sharpness), and a suitable density. Contrast and definition are defined in sections 19.2 and 19.3, but in essence the higher the contrast the more readily the features of the image can be seen, and the better the definition the sharper is the image. Density is the darkness of a radiograph, and the denser (darker) a radiograph the better is its contrast. It Is important, however, that a radiograph is not too dark, otherwise it may not be possible to view it successfully. Typically therefore “a compromise density is aimed for, such that when placed on a viewer the radiograph transmits (allows through) 1 part in 100 to 1 part in 1000 of the light from the viewer. The geometry of image formation (section 9) is important in obtaining a sharp image. In effect, if the film is close behind the object, then the further the object is from the source of radiation, the better is the sharpness of the image. Ideally, therefore, a dark (high contrast) radiograph should be produced, with the film and the object well removed from the source of radiation. A dark radiograph, however, is one that has received a lot of radiation, and the level of radiation decreases on a square law basis i.e. rapidly, with increase in distance fom the source of radiation. [INVERSE SQUARE LAW: The intensity of radiation varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source.] Thus, oversimiplfied, the distance between the source of radiation and the film (and object) needs to be long to produce a sharp image, but needs to be short to obtain a suitably dense radiograph. On occasion therefore, compromises between these requirements need to be made. The inverse square law js illustrated over the page. NDT20 Issue 0191 WSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING R = Radiation rate in beam |, A, (Intensity) (Area) i Fig.1.4.1 ‘The inverse square law. Within given solid angles, the area over which radiation falls varies (increases) as the square of the distance from that source. Consequently, the dose rate per unit area varies inversely (decreases) as the square of the distance from that source. Thus longer distances give lower dose rates, which are beneficial from a safety viewpoint, but necessitate longer exposures for radiographic films. NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RADIOGRAPHY 1.5.1 Advantages of Radiography i) ii) ii) iv) v) vi) vii) Gives a permanent record, the radiograph Detects internal flaws Detects volumetric flaws readily Can be used on most materials Can check for correct assembly Gives a direct image of flaws (Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging) 1.5.2. Disadvantages of Radiography NDT20 Issue 0191 There is a radiation health hazard Can be sensitive to defect orientation and could miss planar flaws Has limited ability to detect fine cracks Access is required to both sides of the object Limited thicknesses of materials can be penetrated Skilled radiographic interpretation is required Is a relatively slow method of inspection Has a high capital cost Has a high running cost 13SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 2.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM. 2.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ITS. PROPERTIES 2.2 PROPERTIES OF X-AND GAMMA-RAYS- NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Fig.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. = 12, ae Betatron 10- Mem Therapy and industrial Gamma rays medical radiography emitted by 10, Radioectivity | sources tose 10° %em Crystallography 08cm 1077em Very soft X-rays Ultraviolet 10°Sem rays 1075em 10™4em = --— Visible light Infrared 1073em > rays 10-2em oy 107lom t tem = | Microwave (radar) a 10cm a > 102m | Television D 10%em . =| z 104em Communications 108m 108em Electric 107em waves 60 cycle 2108em a.c. 108m 102m NDT20 Issue 0191 16SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 2.0 24 eye. Aan, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND ITS PROPERTIES ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM The electromagnetic spectrum covers all forms of electromagnetic energy. At the long wavelength end there are the electromagnetic waves associated with the common mains electricity. Progressing to shorter wavelengths the spectrum passes through ‘long’, ‘medium’ and ‘short wave' radio, on to FM radio and radio control frequencies. These are followed by the ‘microwave! range of frequencies used for T.V., radar and cookers. Here dangers are encountered because the waves interact with water and sugar molecules (amongst others). Shortening wavelengths further, the infra-red range is encountered. These rays are used in heating, NDT, heat loss studies, stress measurement, and for searching for bodies after a disaster. The next shorter (higher energy) electromagnetic radiation is the visible light spectrum, and people can be blind at either end of this. Beyond the visible light spectrum is the range of wavelengths for ultraviolet light. These, especially at the-shorter wavelengths, can damage the body, by burning the skin and retina of the ove, and by causing fluorescence of the cornea of the At shorter wavelengths stil, the x4 ‘ays and the gamria“rays are encountered.’ X-rays.aré produced not only by x-ray equipment, but also by cathode ray tubes (CRT), visual display unit (VDU) tubes, electron beam welders, electron beam microscopes, etc. Their uses include industrial radiography, medical radiography, forensic radiography and sterilisation. NDT20 Issue 0191 17SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Short wavelength Long wavelength Amplitude Time (distance at constant velocity). ——t- Fig.2.1.1 Long and short wavelengths, the difference is in the number of oscillations in a given time, or distance travelled. = Vi» veloesy A 2 wavelonath , F > Frequency \ 5 g , 6) rad Y> Constant = 249% x10 meee ‘ees MEE | nee higher the CSE I fee tony @ Swantwy ogy E = hit b> Flants Coupfeur= 6-626 neue — NDT20 Issue 0197 18SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 2.1.1. The Nature of Electro-Magnetic Waves ) Electromagnetic radiations are waves of eneray that are caused by the | aceal arged particles. They consist of eects and magnetic ee orate eee eerie sinusoidally at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. Being pure energy they need no | medium for propagation i.e. they can travel through a vacuum, and their velocity in free space is constant at 2.997 x 10°m.sec’, the velocity of light } (©). The characteristics of electromagnetic radiation depend upon the frequency (F) and the velocity (v) where v = FA, where & (LAMBDA) is the ? wavelength. | The range of wavelengths (4) over which electromagnetic radiations occur is co J called the Electromagnetic Spectrum (See 2.1). l. The electromagnetic spectrum contains radiations of differing wavelength (A) - i and frequencies, the velocity being constant in free space. The lower | frequencies are associated with radio, infrared, visible light and ultra violet radiations, At higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, the x-rays and , gamma-rays are encountered, X-rays and gamma-rays differ only in their method of production: x-rays , being produced by electrical machines and gamma-rays being produced by { the decay of radioactive isotopes. They occupy the short wavelength, high frequency part of the electromagnetic spectrum, see Fig. 2.1, and therefore ) x-rays and gamma- rays also possess high energy. (See below). \ Quantum theory states that x-rays and gamma-rays can be considered as consisting of a stream of particles, or quanta, travelling at the speed of light and having zero mass. The energy E of a quantum (or photon) is, proportional to the frequency of the radiation as given by the expression E=hf where h = Plancks constant = 6.626 196 x 10™ J.s. | Plancks Law The energy of electromagnetic radiation is confined to small indivisible | packets or photons, each of which has an energy h.F. From this it can be seen that the higher the frequency the greater the | energy. , In addition from the formula ) ec az = F | it can be seen that the higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength. | The energies of x-rays and gamma-rays are more conveniently measured in electron volts (eV) rather than Joules (J). F NDT20 | Issue 0197 19SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1eV is the energy acquired by an electron in falling freely through a potential difference of 1 volt. teV = 1.602 x 10°" x J. X-rays and gamma-rays have energies ranging from the keV (thousands of electron volts) to MeV (millions of electron volts). NDT20 Issue 0191 atSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 22 224 2.2.2 PROPERTIES OF X AND GAMMA-RAYS Penetration X-rays and gamma-rays penetrate materials. The higher the energy (keV or MeV), the greater the penetration. As seen in 2.1.3 as frequency increases, energy increases and wavelength (A) decreases. Radiographers are sometimes heard to say that they are reducing the wavelength to increase penetration. This is true in as much as ‘he reduction in wavelength is increasing the energy. The factors affecting penetration are: i) Energy of radiation ii) Density of the material ii) Thickness of the material ‘As the radiation penetrates the material two processes occur. These are: i) Absorption ii) Scattering These processes are explained later in the notes. Rectilinear Propagation Rectlinear propagation means thatx-tays and gamma-rays travel. in ‘gtraightines, They cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic fields, but they can be diffracted through a crystal lattice, and this can cause a phenomenon known as Diffraction Mottle in some radiographs. ‘The fact that the x-rays and gamma-rays travel in straight lines is very important in that it is this property that allows a true image of the object to. be produced on a radiograph. Remember that a radiograph is a two dimensional image of a three dimensional object. It is also important with regard to radiation safety, in that the radiographer needs to know the direction of the radiation, and that it will not bend round corners ‘to get at him’, NDT20 Issue 0191 23SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 223 2.2.4 2.2.5 tonisation, (*) Ta photén of x-rays or gamma-rays has sufficient energy) it can overcome atom. This leaves the atom with a positive charge and it is said to be ionised. The atom and the electron are then known as an ion pair. The ejected electron may have sufficient energy to create further ionisation with neighbouring atoms. Although liquids and solids can be ionised, they do not stay in this state very long. Gas atoms can be ionised for a considerable time, and use is made of this for measuring x- and gamma- radiation. Chemical Effect Chemical effect is the ability of x-rays and gamma-rays to affect photographic emulsions. This is described in Section 6. Fluorescence Fluorescence i on exhibited by certain salts known as luorescence is the phenomenon exhibited by certe phosphors, such as calcium tungstate. Briefiy, they receive short wavelength, high energy electromagnetic radiations, in this case x-rays or gamma-rays, but re-emit longer wavelength electromagnetic radiation, ie. Visible light. This is achieved by the radiation exciting the atoms of the phosphor, such that orbiting electrons are displaced from their normal orbits to higher energy orbits. The electrons quickly return to their normal orbits, releasing ene! corresponding to the difference in the energy levels of the orbits. The released energy takes the form of visible light (longer wavelength than the stimulating emission). The colour of the light fror upon the energy levels within the phosphor's atom, it can typically be green or blue, although other colours can be obtained. In radiography, fluorescence is used in salt and fluorometallic intensification screens, and is also used in the method of inspection known as Fluoroscopy. These are explained later. NDT20 Issue 0191 25SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 2.2.6 Physiological X-rays and gamma-rays harm living tissue. This seemingly simple statement causes more problems and evokes more emotive issues than a radiographer would wish to handle. It is also the greatest disadvantage of the radiographic method of NDT, and explains why radiography is sometimes carried on site at odd hours of the day and, especially, night. The radiographer must at all times be aware of, and alert to, the radiation hazard ensuring that he and all personnel (radiation and non-radiation workers) in the vicinity are kept in the safest possible conditions. Radiation safety is dealt with in detail in Section 14. NDT20 Issue 0191 27SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 3.0 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS, TYPES OF X-RAY EQUIPMENT NDT20 Issue 0191 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 THE ATOM REQUIREMENTS FOR X-RAY GENERATION PROCESS OF X-RAY GENERATION THE X-RAY TUBE CIRCUITRY TYPES OF X-RAY EQUIPMENTSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Fig.3.1 ‘Schematic representation of the atom.The outer shell may contain no more than eight electrons. TABLE 3.4 Atomic internal structure, detalls for some elements ELEMENT Mass No/Atomic No. NUMBER OF ELECTRONS ‘SYMBOL K tL M NO P HYDROGEN tH 1 HELIUM jHe 2 UTHIUM ju 204 BERYLIUM fBe 2 2 CARBON % 204 ALUMINIUM, ZaL 2 8 3 COBALT Co 2 8 6 2 NICKEL SNi 2 8 6 2 BARIUM Wea 2 8 8 8 8 2 TUNGSTEN Ww 2 8 1°32 12 2 (Wotfram) RIDIUM 1p 2 8 8 3 15 2 NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 3.0 3.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS, TYPES OF X-RAY EQUIPMENT THE ATOM To understand the principles behind the production of x-rays, a basic knowledge of the structure of the atom is required. As seen in Figure 3.1 the atom consists of two distinct areas containing three basic particles. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, the proton has a positive electrical charge and the neutron, as its name suggests, has no electrical charge, the proton and neutron are similar in mass. Orbiting around the nucleus are electrons having a negative electrical charge which is equal, but opposite, to a proton and a mass which is approximately 1/1840th that of the proton. The electrons are held in orbit around the positively charged nucleus by an electrostatic field, given by the fact that unlike charges attract. As an atom is normally neutral the number of electrons and protons must be equal. The electrons move around the nucleus in orbits or shells starting with the K shell moving outwards to the L shell and so on. The K shell will hold two electrons, if required, and the L shell eight electrons and so on. Atomic internal structure details for some elements are given in Table 3.1. Important information:- The mass number is given the symbol A. ‘The atomic number is given the symbol Z. An alpha particle is 2 protons + 2 neutrons, which is the core of a helium atom. Bis used lectron, as is #, whil used to denote pgsition which is a positively charged electron and has a short life. 31SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Cathode Filament Anode shield Anode Vacuum Cathode Electron X-ray tube cup stream beam Fig.3.2 NDT20 Issue 0191 Basic elements of an X-ray tube.SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR X-RAY GENERATION There are two main requirements for the generation of x-rays. These are: i) A-supply of moving electrons ii) A target which the electrons can strike In an x-ray tube the electrons are produced by passing a current through a tungsten (W) filament, The resistance to the current increases the temperature of the tungsten until it is incandescent, in the same manner as a light bulb. This increase in temperature has the effect of increasing the kinetic energy (energy possessed by virtue of motion) of the electrons within the tungsten until they have sufficient energy to overcome the potential barrier at the surface of the tungsten. The number of electrons emitted rises sharply with temperature. This phenomenon is called THERMIONIC EMISSION. The target is usually a tungsten disc insert into a copper block, as shown in figure 3.2. Other target materials such as aluminium can be used for special applications. Paragraphs 3.2.2 and 3.2.3 show the production of a supply of electrons and the provision of a target. As described so far the electrons produced by the thermionic emission would congregate around the tungsten filament. The requirements for x-ray generation is that the electrons must be moving and must strike the target. This is achieved by recognising that the electrons have a negative electrical charge, and that unlike charges attract. If therefore a potential difference (voltage) is established between the target and the filament, with the target positively charged relative to the filament, then the negatively charged electrons will be attracted towards the target, accelerating as they go to attain kinetic energy, and then they will strike the target. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by virtue of motion, and is equal to the work that would be required to bring the body to rest. In air electrons collide with molecules of oxygen or nitrogen and rapidly lose their kinetic energy. Consequently, x-ray tubes are evacuated and the electron stream flows in a vacuum. NDT20 Issue 0197 33SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING Electron stream Radiation of heat, light and x-rays Fig.3.2.2 Schematic representation of the conversion of kinetic energy to heat and electromagnetic radiation ( light and x-rays ), as the electrons meet the atoms of the target. NDT20 Issue 0191 34SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 NDT20 THE PROCESS OF X-RAY GENERATION Having achieved the requirements for x-ray generation we now have electrons striking the target at a velocity which is determined by the potential difference between filament and target. The potential differences, used in industrial radiography, can typically be from approximately 60 kilovolts (kV) to approximately 400 kilovolts. This voltage is of great significance to radiographers, as will be explained later. On striking the target the electrons are slowed or stopped, depending on the type of collision occurring within the atomic structure of the target. When the electrons arrive at the target they have a certain kinetic energy given by the kilovoltage across the tube, the greater the kV the greater the kinetic energy. When the electrons are slowed or stopped in the target they lose some or all of their kinetic energy, but the law of conservation of energy states that in a closed system energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one eneray form to another. In this instance some, or all, of the electron's Kinetic energy is.converted into other forms of energy, some of which will be electromagnetic energy in the form of x-rays. Unfortunately only a very small percentage, approximately 1%, of the energy liberated will become x-rays, the remainder will become light and large amounts of heat The mechanism by which the energy conversion from kinetic energy to electromagnetic energy is achieved is illustrated in figure 3.3.2, It can be seen that the electrons (--ve) arriving at the target are attracted towards the nuclei (+ve) of the tungsten atoms, On arrival the electrons are slowed or ‘braked’, the electron thus converting some of its kinetic energy to other forms of energy. This energy conversion results in discrete bursts or ‘packets’ of electromagnetic energy called photons, the greater the braking effect on the electron the higher the energy of the photon. Therefore electrons which lose nearly all of their velocity, or stop completely, will be producing high energy photons of x-rays. Those electrons having small energy losses due to small reductions in velocity produce heat and low energy photon in the form of light. This form of x-ray is known as "Bremsstrahlung’ (braking rays). ‘An electron that stops completely in one collision on entering the target undergoes a complete eneray conversion from kinetic to other forms of energy. This produces a photon of the highest energy, shortest wavelength (4) x-rays possible for the given kV across the x-ray tube. This energy is called the Quantum limit. The wavelength for the Quantum limit can be determined from the formula: a= 1234), kV where 2 is in nanometres (10°°m). _ 35 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING NDT20 Issue 0191 Characteriste| spectrum lines X-ray intensity X-ray wavelength, X Fig.3.3.3 Continuous x-ray spectrum. X-ray intensity X-ray wavelength, A Fig.3.3.4 Effect of doubling the tube current. 36SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.3.3 3.3.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 The production of x-rays section showed that the energy or wavelength of the Bremsstrahlung x-rays, would be of infinite range below the quantum limit. A graph of energy against intensity output of an x-ray machine is shown in Figure 3.3.3. This is called the continuous spectrum of x-rays. It will be noted that there are high peaks of intensity at discrete wavelengths. ‘These are named characteristic radiation and are produced by collisions of tube current electrons with bound electrons in atoms of the target material, causing these electrons to be ejected from one shell, only to be replaced by electrons from an outer shell with the release of x-ray photons of the same wavelength (energy) on each occasion. The wavelengths are characteristic of the target material. To industrial radiographers these are of interest only and have no significant effect on the radiograph produced. If the kVis increased the quantum limit (short wavelength limit) will move to the left, a reduction of kV will have the opposite effect. An increase in kV will increase the intensity of radiation, but not proportionally. An increase in tube current measured in milliamps (mA), with no change of kV will change the intensity of the radiation approximately proportionally, i.e. if we double the mA we double the intensity as in Figure 3.3.4. It could be convenient to simplify these changes to the two Q's. KV gives QUALITY OF RADIATION (penetrating power) MA gives QUANTITY OF RADIATION (amount). 37SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 THE X-RAY TUBE The x-ray tube consists of three main parts. These are: a) The anode b) The cathode c) The enclosing envelope The anode is the electrically positive part of the system. It consists of the target, which is normally tungsten (W) inset into a copper (Cu) block. The copper block has a high thermal conductivity to remove the large amounts of heat that accompany the generation of x-rays. Different cooling systems are in use e.g. oll, gas, Water, therefore the copper may have cooling fins on the end or internal drillings and "shower heads" close to the target to facilitate the cooling liquid's flow. Different types of anode are described in Section 3.6. The cathode is the electrically negative part of the system. It consists of the filament, usually made of fine tungsten wire and the focusing cup. As discussed in Section 3.2.2 the filament liberates negatively charged electrons by thermionic emission. The focusing cup, being negatively charged, repels the electrons thus forcing them into a narrow beam flowing towards the anode. This is known as electrostatic focusing. The envelope Is normally glass but increasingly metals are being used. Once the cathode and anode are in position in the envelope it is evacuated to produce a high vacuum, this is required to prevent the tube current electrons (mA) colliding with gas atoms during their journey from cathode to anode. Ifa glancing collision did take place then the electrons diverted from their path could puncture the glass envelope. NDT20 Issue 0191 39SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Alternating L\ L\ Half wave rectified Fig.3.5.1. Current waveforms. High voltage transformer Auto transformer Mains input, = ic! Millamp meter selector ; Filament transformer Choke coil Fig.3.5.1.b Basic self rectifying circuit for x-ray generation. NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.5 3.5.1 CIRCUITRY The quality (energy) and quantity of x-rays produced by the x-ray machine will vary with the electrical waveform across the tube cathode to anode. The two common circuits are explained in 3.5.1 and 3.5.2. Self rectified (half wave rectified) In a self rectified, or half wave rectified, equipment a sinusoidal alternating current (A.C.) voltage waveform (Figure 3.5.1.a) is placed across the tube as shown in Figure 3.5.1.b. The tube however, gives rectification i.e. it allows the electrical current (the flow of electrons) to flow in one direction only. Referring to Figure 3.5.1.b mains voltage enters the autotransformer. By moving ‘A’ differing voltages can be selected onto the primary winding of the high voltage transformer. In the secondary windings we now have a high voltage (kilovolts) which is placed across the tube thus controlling the velocity, and therefore the kinetic energy, of the electrons as they move from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve). On hitting the target in the anode the electrons produce x-rays as described in Section 3.2 The sine wave voltage waveform placed across the tube means that the anode is only positive every other half cycle, therefore the electrons will only flow:from the filament during that time. In the negative half of the cycle the anode is negative and since the target should not provide a source of electrons, no electrons flow. Therefore the tube is acting as a half wave rectifier (Figure 3.5.1.a) and x-rays are only being produced during the positive half cycle. The voltage is also varying during this time from zero to a certain peak voltage (kVp), this means that the penetrating power is also varying. It can be seen that this waveform is not ideal, but does have some advantages which will be shown. NDT20 Issue 0191 4SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Fig.3.5.2 Constant potential power supply. Top, Greinacher circuit with the directions of current flow indicated. Bottom, waveforms for the A.C. and D.C. parts of the circuit. NDT20 Issue 0191 42SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 3.5.2 Constant Potential The constant potential (CP) equipment overcomes some of the problems of the self rectified circuit. The introduction of separate rectifiers into the circuit, produces a constant electron flow from cathode to anode, and therefore a relatively constant output of x-rays. A circuit producing this effect is shown in figure 3.5.2. This is known as the Greinacher circuit and effectively doubles and smooths the voltage applied to the x-ray tube. Unfortunately, inclusion of rectifiers and cooling systems to cope with the additional heat generated make constant potential units large and heavy, thus making their use on site difficult. However, smaller transportable C.P. units are ‘on the market and therefore their use in factories and on accessible sites is not entirely precluded. 3.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of constant potential and self rectified equipment. The advantages and disadvantages are summarised below. SELF RECTIFIED EQUIPMENT COMPARED WITH CONSTANT POTENTIAL EQUIPMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Portable, Lighter Low outpuvunit time Cheaper Longer exposure times Low duty cycle ( 50%) CONSTANT POTENTIAL EQUIPMENT COMPARED WITH SELF RECTIFIED EQUIPMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES: High output/unit time Not truly portable 100% Duty Cycle Expensive Shorter Exposure Times N.B. Duty cycle is the operating time related. to the cooling time, e.g. 10 minutes on 10 minutes off. NDT20 Issue 0191 43SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTUCTIVE TESTING 20 deg | a Filament me is | mob 4% 2 % 3 oo 3 8 3 4 OD mob od) tS 3% 3 4s mo? ob fF % 3 2 3 0 3S % 2 00 130 230 3 a Fo kt 22 { % 3 0 8 38 | n d 5 is a 2 18 : 2 2 i 0 f @ 2 42 | a 08 2 2 80 3 > 8 a > de 3 oo to a 2 8 a > 4s 6 2 3s | 0 is NOTES ( ‘A. Sulphated D 19 contains Sor erystals or 2.S02 anhydrous sodiun sulphate to 80 fluid o of developer. i B. The developers in column 1 will produce normal contrast - except for Polycon, which produces high contrast; for normal contrast when using Polycon process as per column 2. c. The processing times quoted above are for normal methods of processing in tanks. { D. When processing in s dish, with continuous agitation, these times can be reduced by approximately 258 - except for developers D 19B or Pentelex, which will require full development time. L NDT20 { Issue 0191 72| } SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 7.3 NDT20 | Issue 0191 RINSE. A film, after draining, still carries a quantity of developer in the emulsion, which would quickly neutralise the acidity of the fixer. Films therefore should be rinsed for about 15-20 seconds in either a running water or spray rinse. A static rinse should be avoided as the alkalinity will increase and so render it useless. STOP BATH An alternative to rinsing is to use a stop bath. This is typically a 3% solution of glacial acetic acid. The acid neutralises the alkalinity of the developer. Litmus Papers can be used to check the state of the stop bath. There is a temptation to keep topping up with acetic acid, but this should be avoided as staining will occur. There isa commercially available stop bath solution which contains a dye which is amber while the solution is acid, but as the solution nears neutral or alkaline the colour turns purple. 73SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 75 7.6 FIXER The major function of the fixer is to remove the unexposed, undeveloped silver halides so producing a stable image. Sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate is used as a silver halide solvent. Acetic acid is also included to keep the solution acid. Also included in the fixer bath are ‘hardeners’ which toughen the emulsion against abrasion and reduces the volume of water absorbed by the emulsion. Generally, the hardeners used are aluminium potassium sulphate (potash alum) or potassium chromium sulphate (chrome alum), The time allowed for adequate fixation is dependant on a number of factors, It is generally accepted as twice the time it takes the film to clear. This timing, though is not critical and films are sometimes left in the fixer for 3- 4 minutes. Itis unwise to leave films in the fixer for any length of time as the thiosulphates will dissolve the black silver image causing bleaching of the image. In practice this does not usually occur under 30 minutes, providing the films are kept immersed. Bleaching occurs very rapidly in the presence of air. SILVER RECOVERY Exhausted fixer baths may contain large quantities of silver, approximately one troy ounce per gallon. It is possible to recover this silver which is then sold to a refiner. Methods of silver recovery are: i) Electrolysis This equipment operates from normal mains electrical supply via a transformer rectifier and two electrodes which are immersed in the fixer. As an electric current is passed between them the silver is deposited on the cathode. The cathode is highly polished and flexible so it is easy to remove the silver. ii) Galvanic Method ‘Two dissimilar metals in an acid bath will create an electric current and the silver will be deposited. This is slower than electrolysis. iil) Steel Wool Silver will be displaced out of solution onto steel wool. A plastic container is used with steel wool pads and the waste fixer poured in. After about 16-24 hours the excess fix can be removed. The steel wool pads must be kept covered with liquid. NDT20 Issue 0191 6SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 77 7.8 7.9 WASHING After fixation the film emulsion is saturated with fixer solution. The thiosulphate complexes in solution are unstable and would cause discoloration and bleaching. It is essential, therefore, that all films are thoroughly washed before drying and storage. The most common method of washing is by using running water. Fresh water should enter at the end furthest away from the outlet. As films are removed from the fixer they should be placed next to the outlet and then slowly moved to the inlet so that films have a low concentration of chemicals before drying. Typical washing times are in the order of 20-30 minutes. WETTING AGENTS The main purpose of a wetting agent is to reduce the surface tension of the water and in so doing minimise the thickness of the water layer on the surface of the film at the start of the drying operation. If a film is immersed in a wetting agent solution prior to drying it will minimise the probability of drying marks and give a slight decrease in drying time. Immersion time of 10-15 seconds will be sufficient. DRYING The purpose of drying is to remove most of the moisture in the emulsion. It should be noted that excessive drying can cause the emulsion to become brittle and liable to damage. As moisture evaporates from the emulsion, the surrounding air becomes more humid and the drying rate will increase. If air is forced past the film surface the humid air will be replaced. Although high temperatures will promote rapid drying, they can have an effect on the final quality of the radiograph. Temperatures of 30°-40°C and a relative humidity of less than 60% are sufficient for practical purposes. NDT20 Issue 0191 7SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 8.1 DEFINITION OF SENSITOMETRY 8.2 PRODUCTION OF CHARACTERISTIC CURVES 8.0 SENSITOMETRY 8.3 EVALUATION OF CHARACTERISTIC CURVES NDT20 Issue 0191 79SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING “0 aS 30 25 20 Density 1s 10 0.5 x08, a6 03 02 os 9 01:02 030605 10 15 20 25 30 log relative exposure Standard development. Fig.8.2 Example characteristic, or sensitometric, curves. NDT20 Issue 0191 80SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 8.0 81 8.2 SENSITOMETRY DEFINITION OF SENSITOMETRY Sensitometry is the study of the response of photographic emulsions to ionising radiations of any form. Using radiographic film the object of sensitometry is to determine inherent fog level, relative speed and film contrast,* and to provide curves so that exposure corrections in respect of density* may be made. These curves are ‘CHARACTERISTIC OR SENSITOMETRIC CURVES’. PRODUCTION OF CHARACTERISTIC CURVES To determine these film qualities a piece of sample film is placed in a cassette and divided into at least ten steps. Each step is given a steadily increasing exposure, all other factors, kVp, ffd, etc, being kept constant. This will give different densities on the film. After processing and drying the densities are measured, On graph paper the density is plotted against log,, exposure on a linear scale, or against actual exposure on a logarithmic scale, and the resultant curve is called a ‘CHARACTERISTIC CURVE’. The lower part of the curve is called the foot! or toe’. At high densities the curves for some films go through a maximum and the start of the associated change of direction of the curve is called the shoulder. *Contrast, together with density and definition are defined in Section 19. NDT20 ° Issue 0191 81SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 8.3 8.3.1. 8.3.2 8.3.3 EVALUATION OF CHARACTERISTIC CURVES To Find the Relative Speed Between Two Films First draw a line across the curves at a particular density. Where this line crosses the curves of the required films drop perpendiculars to the base line. Care should be taken to ensure they are at right angles to the base line. The lower figure is subtracted from the higher figure and this gives the ‘interval of exposure’. The antilog of this figure gives the speed factor between the two films at that density. To Correct Exposure to Change Density Ifa trial radiograph has been taken and the density is not that required then the following method is used: Lines are drawn across the curves at the measured density and the required density. Where these lines intersect the curve for the film in use, perpendiculars are taken to the base line. As in the previous method care must be taken. to ensure they are at right angles to the base line. The lower figure is subtracted from the higher figure and the antilog of this figure is the correction factor. If the measured density is higher than the required density, the exposure is divided by the factor. If the measured density is lower than the required density, the exposure is multiplied by the factor. Although this method is used in practical radiography it will also be used when constructing exposure charts. Measurement of Film Contrast A tangent to the curve at a particular density is drawn and projected to the base line. The tangent of this angle is a measure of contrast, i.e. the higher the tangent the greater the film contrast, or the steeper the slope, the greater the contrast. When comparing the contrast between two films: it may be sufficient to take the average contrast between the normal working density ranges, e.g. 2.0 - 3.0. This is obtained by joining D = 2.0 and D = 3.0 on the curve with a straight line and the tangent of the angle is a measure of the average contrast between those two densities. NDT20 Issue 0191 83SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 9.0 GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION NDT20 Issue 0191 94 9.2 9.3 9.4 FOCAL SPOT OR SOURCE SIZE (fss) FOCAL SPOT, OR SOURCE, TO OBJECT DISTANCE (fod or sod) OBJECT TO FILM DISTANCE (cfd) FOCAL SPOT TO FILM DISTANCE (ffd) CALCULATIONSSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. fs { { f,s = largest linear dimension of the focal spot or source. Focus to Focus to film distance object distance (fid) (fod ) Object to film distance (fd) a 1 i Film ut rn Photographic density U, (Penumbra) Fig.9 Geometric unsharpness (U,), and its measurement. NDT20 Issue 0191 86SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 9.0 94 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 GEOMETRY OF IMAGE FORMATION This is one of the factors that controls definition on a radiograph. Geometric unsharpness U, or penumbra is the sharpness of an edge as seen on a radiograph, as Controlled by the geometry of image formation. FOCAL SPOT OR SOURCE SIZE (f or s) Geometric unsharpness is at its best where a point source of radiation is used, but the majority of x-ray sets have focal spot sizes from 2mm up to 5mm effective dimension and radioactive sources typically up to 4mm. FOCAL SPOT OR SOURCE TO OBJECT DISTANCE (fod, sod) The further the source of radiation is from the source side of the object being radiographed, the better will be the sharpness. The inverse square law applies, however, and if excessive distance is used, then the exposure times will be uneconomic. OBJECT. TO FILM DISTANCE (ofd) When this is small, geometric unsharpness is improved. The ofd is generally taken to be the thickness of the object being radiographed. In practice this is not always the case since any gap between the object and the film should be included in the ofd, and allowance must be made for this when calculating the fd. FOCAL SPOT TO FILM DISTANCE (ffd) The same rules apply as in fod, the greater the ffd the better the sharpness. Large fid's, however, result in long exposure times due to the inverse square law. CALCULATIONS To find U, (unsharpness geometric) achieved on a radiograph: VU, fod U, is normally stated in specifications therefore the fod or sod must be calculated accordingly. fod = tx ofd uy fid = (fx off) + ofd (uy) NDT20 87 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. 10.0 INTENSIFYING SCREENS NDT20 Issue 0191 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 INTRODUCTION METAL SCREENS SALT SCREENS FLUOROMETALLIC SCREEN CARE OF SCREENSSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 10.0 INTENSIFYING SCREENS 10.1 INTRODUCTION Although radiographic films are double coated, only a small proportion of the radiation energy is absorbed by the film thus contributing to image formation. The use of intensifying screens enables a greater proportion of the radiation energy to contribute to image formation. Intensifying screens may be made of metal where the intensifying effect is due to electron action, or salt screens where the intensifying effect is by fluorescence either visible or ultra violet. NDT20 Issue 0191 89SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TABLE 10.2 METAL INTENSIFYING SCREEN THICKNESS TO BE USED i | RADIATION SCREEN FRONT SCREEN BACK SCREEN { MATERIAL THICKNESS (mm) THICKNESS (mm) (minimum) { 120KV Lead None o4 120-250kV Lead 0.025-0.05 o4 250-400kV Lead 0.05-0.15 0.4 { 1 MV X-rays Lead 1.5-2.0 1.0 \ 5-10 MV X-rays Copper 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0 ' 15-31 MV X-rays Tantalum —1,0-1.5 None i 1p Lead 0.05-0.15 0.15 { "cs Lead 0.05-0.15 0.15 : "Co Copper 0.5-2.0 0.25-1.0 { Steel TABLE 10.4 FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS SPEED FACTORS Material Lead Screen Fluorometallic Speed Thickness(mm) Exposure Time Screens Exposure Factor ' Time 25 50s 5s 40:1 ‘ 37 260s 38s 7A 50 15 mins 3 mins 51 | 60 24 mins 8 mins 31 | NDT20 | 90 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 10.2 10.3 10.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 METAL SCREENS Intensification when using metal screens is due to the photo-electric, and compton scattering processes where the radiation beam removes an electron from the atoms of the screen material. As the atomic number of the screen material increases so the intensification increases and therefore lead is the most common material for screens. The lead is sual aloved with emall quantives of @nimmany or bismuth fo harden fimony or bismuth to harden the Tead and improve its resistance to abrasion The lead is usually between 0.02-0.15mm thick and is mounted on card for support. Metal screens do not produce intensification below about 120kV., Between 80kV and 120kV thinner screens may be used, but act more as filters to reduce scatter of low energy radiation. For voltages in the mega-volt range, tantalum, copper and steel screens may be used. For radiography using °Co, copper or steel screens produce a better image but the exposure has to be doubled, The tables opposite give guidelines on the use of screens. In addition to the intensifying effect, metal screens have an important part in the reducti scatter reaching the fil bsorbir low fi aa SALT SCREENS Fluorescent salts, usually calcium tungstate, emit visible light when expos ey are rarely used in industrial radiography as there is a considerable loss of definition due to the grain structure of the salts, There is, however, a much greater intensification effect and they are therefore used extensively in the medical field. With the low energies used in diagnostic medical work, the increased contrast compensates for the poor definition. Salt screens do not reduce scatter Teaching the film and because the light emitted ‘is not directly FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS ‘These type of screens are a combination of the previous two. A thin layer, typically 100-2001m thick, of calcium tungstate is coated onto a lead screen, The film receives light and electrons from the screens. This gives a reduction in exposure. Although intended to be used by direct type film, only a few films are suitable for use with these screens. One of the main disadvantages of these screens is reciprocity law failure, which is of considerable importance when using “Ir or ‘Yb. Fluorometallic screens respond better at low temperatures which is of importance in extremely cold regions. Although they appear to be more robust than salt screens, they are not as robust as lead screens, 1SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 10.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 CARE OF SCREENS It is important that screens are handled with care. This applies particularly with salt and fluorometallic screens as small pieces of dust or fibres will show up on the radiograph. On all types of screens it is better to dust them as even light rubbing may cause grit to score the screens. Screens are best stored flat to stop the ingress of any foreign bodies. Before use, screens should be inspected for deep score marks or cracks as these will give an indication on the radiograph. 93SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 11.0 CONTROL OF SCATTER | NDT20 | Issue 0191 141 11.2 11.3 11.4 15 11.6 17 11.8 INTRODUCTION COLLIMATION PROTECT FROM BACK SCATTER BEAM FILTRATION BLOCKING GRIDS (Potter-Bucky diaphragms) INCREASE BEAM ENERGY SEPARATION BETWEEN OBJECT AND FILM 95SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Tube head 1) Collimator Scattered radiation Object giving scattered radiation Normal Collimated beam width beam width Fig.11.2 Reduction of scatter by collimation. NDT20 Issue 0191 96| | SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 11.0 WA 11.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 CONTROL OF SCATTER INTRODUCTION Scatter or scattered radiation may be defined as ‘radiation emitted from any source other than that giving the primary desired rectilinear propagation’. The effect of scatter on a radiograph is to give poorer contrast and definition and create spurious indications. Scatter can also create difficulties with radiation protection. COLLIMATION When radiographing in a confined space with a broad beam of radiation, scatter can occur from surrounding objects and can reach the film. By collimating or reducing the beam size, the effects of scatter are reduced. In x-tay Work this is achieved by placing a lead disc with a rectangular, square, or round hole machined in it, at the exit window. The size of the hole is determined by the area to be covered and the ffd used. Collimators for use with gamma ray sources are useful for site work as they ensure the beam is directional and therefore reduce the radiation hazard. PROTECT FROM BACK SCATTER When taking radiographs, the cassette should have a sheet of lead about 4mm thick placed at the back to avoid back scatter from floors, tables, surrounding objects or, if the film is placed inside a pipe, to prevent scatter from the far wall. A check on the lead backing can be made by fixing a lead letter 'B' to the back of the cassette. If on the radiograph, an image of the letter can be seen that is lighter than its surround, even if only slightly, then the lead sheet is not thick enough and back scatter is reaching the film. BEAM FILTRATION Itis the low energy elements of an x-ray beam that cause scatter. These can be absorbed by a thin sheet of copper or lead. The use of filters seems to have the most value for x-rays between 150kV and 400KV. Guidance for filter thicknesses: Up to 200kV x-rays 0.25-0.5mm lead 200kV-400kV x-rays 0.6-1.0mm lead The use of a filter will require an increase in exposure and reduces subject contrast. It has also been found that a lead filter of 0.5mm plus a tin filter of 0.5mm between the object and the film gives an improvement on 40mm of steel with 200-400kV x-rays. Filters thicker than those above give a slight improvement, but the exposures will be considerably longer— Another advantage of using filters is to increase the latitude of the radiograph when radiographing objects with significant thickness changes. 97SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Focal spot Scatter Specimen Grid — AUT cc << Grid movement Lead strips Film Fig.11.6 The use of grids to reduce the scattered radiation reaching the film. NDT20 Issue 0191 98| | ' | | | 1 i SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 115 11.6 11.8 NDT20 Issue 0191 BLOCKING When the edges of the object are in the area of interest it is difficult to avoid radiation creeping underneath the edge thus causing blurring. If the edge is straight, sheets of lead can be placed alongside and must fit very closely. For edges such as bolt holes lead shot would be more useful as it forms very closely to the edges. For more irregular shapes barium paste is very good. This is similar to modelling clay with barium sulphate incorporated. Small irregular castings can be placed in a plastic tray and a solution of lead salts poured around. Care must be taken as the solution is poisonous and may also cause corrosion. A similar liquid for light alloys is carbon tetrachloride. A disadvantage with liquids is they may creep under the object causing spurious patches on the radiograph. GRIDS Grids consist of lead strips in a vertical position and are placed between object and film. During exposure they are moved sideways. The lead strips cut out sideways scatter, Although very good for reducing scatter, they are rarely used in industry, INCREASED BEAM ENERGY This gives a very similar effect to using filters. As the beam energy is increased, either by increasing kV or by using gamma-rays instead of x- rays, scatter tends to travel in a more forward direction. Again contrast is reduced. SEPARATION BETWEEN OBJECT AND FILM This method involves increasing the separation between the object and the film and Is claimed to work with micro focus x-ray systems, where focal spot sizes are measured in microns, and normally, increasing the object to film distance does not cause problems. This method can, however, make scatter problems worse when applied to conventional x-ray systems.SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.1 INTRODUCTION 12.2 TYPES OF IOI 12.3 1Q] SENSITIVITY 12.0 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS: 12.4 PLACEMENT OF IQI 12.5 1Q1 METAL GROUP 12.6 IQ! CHART NDT20 Issue 0191) i i SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.0 121 NDT20 Issue 0191 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS INTRODUCTION It is important to realise that radiographic sensitivity and sensitivity to defects are NOT the same, Better radiographic sensitivity will allow adequate defect images to be seen more readily and/or clearly, but will NOT allow inadequate defect images to be seen. The adequacy of image quality in respect of defect detection depends upon both the nature and orientation of the defect. For volumetric defects, defect size and the difference in absorption between the defect and the background control the adequacy of the image. For planar defects, defect size and orientation dominate in determining the adequacy of an image and indeed whether an image is formed. Thus large planar defects oriented at unsuitable angles relative to the beam, can give no visible image even with very high radiographic sensitivity. Image quality is measured with an Image Quality Indicator - an IQ! - sometimes called a penetrameter. It is important to recognise that radiographic or IQI sensitivity is a measure of the photographic sensitivity of the radiograph (not sensitivity to defects). 101SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING DIN62FE es3971 QFE1S 0 6ISO12 qi) ® ne (iv) Fig.12.2 Types of image quality indicator. (wire type (i) stephhole (i) plaque type () duplex type NDT20 Issue 019112.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.3 SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TYPES OF IQI Plaque Type (ASTM, ASME) These are single thickness plaques with identification figures and three drilled holes. The figures on the plaque not only identify the plaque, but also give its thickness in thousandths of an inch. With a plaque of thickness T the hole diameters are T, 2T, 4T, at and above T = 0.01 inch, below this the diameters are 0.01ins 0.02ins 0.04ins. The method of expressing sensitivity is based on the thickness of the plaque as a percentage of the object thickness and which hole is discernable on the radiograph. For instance, if a plaque thickness T is 2% of the object thickness and the 2T hole is seen on the radiograph, this is known as 2-2T sensitivity. ASME V gives further information on this type of lal. Step Hole Type (8S3971:1980) These have a series of six steps containing one or two drilled holes at right angles to the surface and going through the thickness of the step. The hole diameter is equal to the thickness of the step. A variation on this covered by both British and French (AFNOR) specifications is hexagonal in shape. Both models should have lead letters to identify them. The main disadvantage of both this and the ASME plaque is that the IQ! cannot be placed in the weld area as it may mask flaws. It should be laid alongside the weld and shimmed to the thickness of the weld cap. The shim must be of the same material as the specimen, Wire Type (BS3971:1980, DIN 54109) These consist of seven wires of varying diameter placed parallel to each other in a transparent low x-ray absorbent plastic envelope. In the British Standard version the wire diameters correspond to the standard wire gauges. Although BS3971 and DINS4109 are the most common wire types in use, ISO and IIW have minor variations to the basic design. The advantage of the wire type IOI is that the wires can be placed across the weld without obscuring flaws. NDT20 Issue 0191 103SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTAUCTIVE TESTING TABLE 12.2.4 Unsharpness values (mm) for Duplex type IQls. MODEL A Element Wire Diameter Corresponding Number and Spacing Unsharpness 1 0.05 0.40 2 0.063 0.13 3 0.08 0.16 4 0.10 0.20 5 0.13 0.26 6 0.16 0.32 7 0.20 0.40 8 0.25 0.50 9 0.32 0.64 10 0.40 0.80 1 0.50 1.00 12 0.63 1.26 13 0.80 1.60 MODEL B Element Element Element Element Corresponding Number — Width Spacing Height Unsharpness 14 0.20 0.20 1.2 0.40 15 0.25 0.25 15 0.50 16 0.32 0.32 1.98 0.64 7 0.40 0.40 2.40 0.80 18 0.50 0.50 3.00 1.00 19 0.63 0.63 3.47 1.26 20 0.63 0.97 3.78 1.60 All dimensions in mm. NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.2.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 Duplex Type (8S3971:1980) This is a completely different design of IQ! developed by the Central Electricity Research Laboratories (CERL) in the UK. It is standardised in two sizes and consists of pairs of straight wires of circular section for Model A (for object thicknesses less than 90mm) and of rectangular section for Model B (for object thicknesses greater than 90mm). The wires are made of platinum or tungsten and are spaced one diameter apart and mounted in rigid plastic. It is used only for measuring definition and therefore must be used in conjunction with one of the previous IQI's. The criterion for unsharpness is the first pair of elements which cannot be seen as two separate wires. The tables opposite give the corresponding unsharpness values. 105,SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TABLE 12.3 IQI Sensitivities that should be achieved on steel If good practice Is followed. CRITICAL TECHNIQUES Specimen Thickness (mm) 150 LESS CRITICAL TECHNIQUES Specimen Thickness (mm) 12 23 40 50 75 100 150 NDT20 Issue 0191 Ofnasay wounaon 08 07 IOI Sensitivity (%) Wire QI Sensitivity (%) Wire Step/Hole Step Hole 106SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.3 IQ SENSITIVITY 1Ql sensitivity achieved is measured as the thinnest visible step or wire or as the thickness of this step/wire expressed as the percentage of the thickness of the object. ‘101 Sensitivity « Thickness of the thinnest visible step er Wire y 499 NDT20 Issue 0191 object thickness In assessing IQ! sensitivity it is necessary to know what IQ sensitivities are attainable with the various IQ! types using different techniques and thicknesses of materials. The tables opposite are for guidance only, but show how the percentage values vary with thickness and technique. From the above formula it should be noted that 1% is better than 2%. The terms higher sensitivity or lower sensitivity are ambiguous. Better sensitivity or worse sensitivity are less ambiguous terms. Where possible use within specification and outside specification. 107SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Centre of beam vil v COA CO Thinnest wire away from centre of beam Shim stock, to correct height, Centre of beam to be visible V ¥ Diagnostic length : ' cop { \ SN r “+ Plate Thinnest step S N ro away from cent of bean Shim stock 10 i Shim stock, to correct height, Centre of beam to be visible v COCR ii Fig.12.4 Positioning of IOls (basic requirements), and the use of shim stock for packing: Wire type: il Plaque and step/hole types: ii) Duplex type (use with wire or step/hole type). NDT20 Issue 0191 108/ SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.4. PLACEMENT OF IQ! 12.4.4 The IQ! must be placed on the maximum thickness of radiographic interest, | | The thinnest required step or wire must be placed at the extreme edge 12.4.2 | of section under test, except for duplex and plaque types which are placed in the middle. | 12.4.3 The 1] must be placed on the source side of object under test, if possible. } } 12.4.4 If, owing to access problems, the IQI has to be piaced on the film side of the object, lead letters 'FS' should be placed beside the IQI. This is | a B.S. requirement, other specifications are similar, but not identical. ) ) | | ; NDT20 109 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TABLE 12.5 IQI Materials appropriate to various parent materials Parent Material 1Q1 Material Parent Material 1Q1 Material Aluminium & alloys Al Nickel & nickel alloys cu 99,99 Nickel 99.5% + Cu Wrought alloys Cast nickel Casting alloys Monel 'K' Monel Hastelloy cu Stainless steels Fe Copper & copper alloys Copper (pure) Wrought alloys Commercial bronze 90% Corrosion resistant steel castings Heat resistant alloy castings Wrought stainless & heat resistant steel Brass 70/30 Nimonic 90 Manganese bronze Inconel Phosphor bronze Aluminium bronze Casting alloys Tin & tin alloys cu Manganese bronze Tin (pure) Aluminium bronze Pewter Iron & iron alloys Fe Titanium & titanium alloys Al Wrought iron Titanium (99.9%) Grey cast iron Titanium alloys Malleable iron Mild steel Zine cu Incoloy Zine (pure) Commercial rolled zinc Magnesium & magnesium alloys Mg Magnesium (99.8%) Wrought alloys Casting alloys NDT20 Issue 0191 110SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING | 12.5 IQ] METAL GROUPS Most commercially available 1QI's are only available in magnesium, | aluminium, iron and copper. Each of these are usually used for the alloys based on the material as well as the pure metal itself. For materials not covered in this manner, it is normal to use the IQ! of nearest density, and materials are grouped accordingly, although some alloys used are difficult to place in a group. The table opposite is for guidance only, but gives some information on which IQI is used for a | particular alloy. NDT20 Issue 0191 "1SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1 ro t : z 00 © ons : t T ned , ¥ os c ee , z z s 1s ost s cor t 9 z 9 00: ae + , t t 0 9 z ce oy st 5 z , sz" oz" 1 L 1] 9 +t © tis 00° 1 : T z t L L v , t 9 z © c e z s c , - € r t £ a ¥ ; ui ors + as z vt t ° s z 9 7 nd a ¥ — t * s| + at » s T 7 9 7 > = 3 1 a} ob —} | bt wn yc aby AAT zt ml tra]in ft west sre oy forer ern ot vn ano 6ol'bs NIG = VUME I lee sa YONdY 91898 uojeueU|p 0} 40J04 pus edoye 40 eojoy “eoatn JA Jo axoquinu JJ0 pet SHOLVOIGNT ALTIvad GOVAN 921 eqey NDT20 12 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 12.6 NDT20 Issue 0191 1Q1 CHART The IQI chart (opposite) is used to determine the IQ! and step or wire required to prove a specified sensitivity. The chart applies to all materials, but the material must be specified. The calculated wire diareter (step thickness) is given by ; , eee wire diameter ~ tickness of interest x % sensitivity required 100 The thickness of interest is the maximum thickness of material, through which an image that is to be interpreted, has to be projected. The wire diameter (step thickness) selected is that equal to or nearest SMALLER than that calculated. Where there is sufficient choice the wire (step) selected should be near the centre of a given IQI. This allows more latitude in both directions for determining the IQ! sensitivity achieved. 113SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.0 EXPOSURE CONTROL NDT20 Issue 0191 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 FACTORS CONTROLLING EXPOSURE EXPOSURE CHARTS EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS CONSTRUCTION OF EXPOSURE CHARTS: 114SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.0 13.1 NDT20 Issue 0191 EXPOSURE CONTROL FACTORS CONTROLLING EXPOSURE All of the following must be considered when calculating exposures, and therefore must be stated for any exposure calculating system. Specimen 1. Material 2. Thickness Radiographic 1. Film Speed 2. kVor MeV 3. Quality of radiation (i.e. % wave, CP or Source) 4. ffd or sfd 5, Screens ~ type and if used 6. Filters 7. © Development 8. Density required 9. mAor Cuties 10. Time 115SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING EXPOSURE MILLIAMP.MINUTES 8 80 © BJ Equipment -_ Ankex 140KV. Material ~ Sioa Fis Fim Screens ~ Lead (125mm. }, 2 front and back. Densty = 20. Procassing - Standard time and ‘temperature. Wo a 8 12 16 0 m 2% 32 36 ‘THICKNESS IN MILLIMETRES 5 3 5 3 = ' 2 5.10 2 ” 100 EXPOSURE CURIEHOURS Fig.13.2 5 NoT20 ‘Exposure charts for ()) x-ray and (ji) gamma-ray systems. Issue 0191 116SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING | 13.2 NDT20 | Issue 0191 EXPOSURE CHARTS There are various methods of calculating exposure using the factors listed in 13.1, Nowadays there are instruments in the form of slide rules and electronic devices. The most common method of displaying the base data is by use of graphs, where thickness and exposure are plotted at a particular energy level. With a graph used for x-rays it is usual to plot curves for various kV levels. To use an exposure chart with a known thickness of material, project a line from the thickness axis to the energy line, and where the two intersect the exposure can be read from the exposure axis. The exposure will be correct for the details listed on the graph, but corrections to obtain the exposure for alternative films etc, can be made as discussed in the following pages. 17SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 13.3.1 ‘Approximate radiographic equivalence factors (after Kodak) ren Ganme Raye wa “sony | rooav] sso nv | 220 ev] coo. t00ewvfz0c0 wv] '0 | tr 92 | e437] co e0 wagresiom | 06 | 06 | 08 | ave union | 19 | 10 | 072] 018 oa6| 03s] 02s] ovo 2024 (alum Zanjatoy | 22 | 16 | ore} o22 oas| 09s | 02s Titanium oas | 03s Stee! wz | 10 || | | 1 |r| | 0 | | 30 188 (aes) ay wz | 10 | 10 | 10 | | 1] 10 | | 0 | 0] 10 copper ww | te | 14 | va wa far fps foa Zire 1 [oa [13 v2 [as] 10 | 10 | 10 erase ve fas] te] wforpor[ orf or Inconel x sie ws | se faa | as] aa fas fsa | sa | sa fro | os Zirconium 23 | 20 10 tend «fe so | 28 | so | «0| 2 | 20 | 20 Usain 2. as fe | se | 2 ‘Aluminum taken as the stancard mat by the correspond {pplnng to tus tvekness of tbe atancaré metal 8 used ‘Example: To radiograph 0Sinch of copper a 220 KV. muliphy©Sinch bythe actor 1.4, ebiaining an equivalent thickness of07 inch of ie the exposure required lor 07 inch of ses lye inthe brass wil increase these fnctors 4 SORY an 10D RV and orto obtain the the higher vollages and pamma rays. The hikness of ancther Svivalent thickness of the sandals meta The exposure NDT20 Issue 0191 118| | SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 NDT20 Issue 0191 EXPOSURE CALCULATIONS As was discussed in 13.2 an exposure taken from the graph is for the factors on the chart, However it is not necessary to use those factors and corrections can be made for different situations. The corrections are discussed individually below, but they may be performed in combination. Often the exposure charts available are for steel at higher kVs or aluminium at lower kVs. If another material is to be radiographed, then the radiographic equivalence chart (see opposite) can be used to obtain an equivalent thickness. For a number of materials, the chart gives equivalence factors for a range of x-ray energies and gamma sources, If, for a given energy, the value in the equivalence chart for Material 1 is A and for Material 2 is B, then a thickness of Bmm in Material 1 is equivalent to a thickness of Ami in Material 2, at that energy. Thus at 150KV the chart values for steel and zirconium are 1,0 and 2.3 respectively, which means that every 1.0mm of zirconium is equivalent to 2.3mm of steel and therefore for a 7mm thickness of zirconium the exposure for a 7 x 2.3 = 16mm thickness of steel should be used (at ~ 150kV) NOTES: 1. The values given in the equivalence table are approximations and can be used above and below the quoted energy to obtain a trial shot. 2. At 150kV and above steel is used as the reference material (factor = 1.0), but below this aluminium is used as the reference material. Change of Density The calculation to change from the listed density to the required density is covered in Section 8.3.2. 119reat woe I—T al * eos o or ba — + + anoanet +— + : * + aes va e 2 2 (a1 ayo Jasstenpt + + |] a] tr een " Wy Let |. |-e-|-—}-—¢- | vaan-vany va id sa] Cr a SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING eangodxe oayyuouy eyo peeds wily LONVS eee Bis NDT20 Issue 0191| SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.3.3 13.3.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 Film Relative Exposure If the film that is to be used is different from that stated on the exposure chart, a correction can be made using the chart opposite. On the left hand side are listed the film manufacturers and along the chart are the identifications of the films. The faster films are on the left of the chart, The figures at the top are the relative exposure factors. To calculate a new exposure with change of film, a ratio is made of the exposure factors, by dividing the factor for the new film by the factor for the listed film. The original exposure is multiplied by the ratio, to give the corrected exposure, with all other factors being constant. For example, if an exposure of 4 minutes on Kodak CX film has been calculated, then the corrected exposure for MX film is derived thus: factor for CX = 2.5 factor for MX = 10 # x4 minutes = 16 minutes For Change of Distance If an ffd or sfd is to be used, which differs from that stated on the exposure chart, then a new exposure can be calculated using the inverse square law thus: (25)? - xT; (OP T, = Known Time T, = Unknown Time D, = Original Distance D, = New Distance For example, for an exposure of 4 minutes at 1 metre, then if a new distance of 0.75 metres were to be used, then the new time would be: 1 metre = 1000mm 0.75m 750mm 750 4 = 2.25 minutes 1000? 121SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TABLE 13.4.1 Proforma Table for the minimum data required for the construction of an exposure chart kV/curies mAm/secs. Step Step Density Correction Corrected Number. . Thickness Factor for Exposure (mm) Density NDT20 122 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.4 CONSTRUCTION OF EXPOSURE CHARTS Although there are various methods of constructing exposure charts, | the following are recommended. } In each case, the main requirement is a metal step wedge of the material type for the chart. A number of steps are required, and an increment of not more than 5mm per step, from 5mm up to about 70mm would cover most applications. 13.441 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE METHOD } a) — With a chosen kV and film, expose the step wedge so that the | middle step gives a density near to that required. Care must be taken to identify the steps with lead numbers. | b) After the film has been processed and dried, the densities of , the steps are measured using a densitometer and recorded against the step number and thickness. Using the characteristic curves for the film in use, calculate the | correction factor to correct from the actual density achieved to the required density. | d) Using the correction factors and the exposure at which the step wedge was radiographed, a corrected exposure is recorded against the step number and thickness. On log linear graph paper with exposure on the log scale and thickness on the linear scale the corrected exposure is plotted against thickness, f) When several points have been plotted, join them together in a straight line, which may be extended above the highest point and below the lowest point. | The above are then repeated for different kVs.. The same method can be used for gamma sources. ) | NDT20 | Issue 0191 123| | | SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 13.4.2 13.4.3 NDT20 Issue 0191 Intermediate Graph Method a) Using a step wedge as described previously, give two exposures at the same KV, a high exposure and a low exposure, b) When the films are processed and dried, the densities of the steps are plotted against the thicknesses of the steps on linear graph paper. One graph is used for the high exposure and one for the low exposure, c) Draw a line through the curves on the graphs at the required density. d) Where the density line intersects the curve, project a line to the thickness axis. e). On log/linear graph paper, with the exposure on the log scale and thickness on the linear scale, plot the exposures against ‘the thicknesses for the values obtained from the two previous graphs. f) Join the two points with a straight line extending beyond the points. The above steps are repeated for different kVs, but only one sequence is required for a gamma chart. Information to be given on the exposure chart Whichever procedure is used to produce the exposure chart all the factors controlling exposure must be listed on the exposure chart, as follows: Type of equipment (C.P. - Half wave or Source) Film type Screen type (if used) Material MA (unless the axis is mA.time) Film Processing Density 125SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14.1. IDENTIFICATION | 14.2 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE 14.0 ANGLES OF ASPECT 14.3 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE | 14.4. DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE NDT20 Issue 0191 127SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING “ydesborpes © 10) Buyogey pue ino Bupysew jo ojdusexy Verba (ssayeu yi6u] ousouBeyp Aeiuawejddns pus) ssoyew pjom jo ebpe se posn ¢,p, C 335) 255555 DP>>>>>yD) = (2ew y16u9} onsouBerp pue) (10920 yi6u9) onsouBeyp pus) s94s0W uoje207 —= y s9%22u1 voe20}, Z10HS vzom cosvezs / 7 / ; sequin 8 enn voneaynuapt yous NDT20 128 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14.0 144 NDT20 Issue 0191 ANGLES OF ASPECT IDENTIFICATION OF RADIOGRAPHS Whatever technique is employed to radiograph a specimen, the radiograph must carry markers to unambiguously identify the radiograph. From this identification it must be possible to trace, directly or indirectly, which item was being radiographed, the area on that item and which shot of that area. When using letters care must be taken with AH | M OT VWX Y as these are symmetrical and used singly can create confusion. Figures can also create confusion particularly with sixes and nines and in some cases the letters | and O have been confused with one and zero. In many cases, the details of the components are entered in a log book so that the radiograph carries a number. Letters or numbers should also be placed at the end of the section to denote the diagnostic film length. The film would be slightly longer than this to prove that coverage has been achieved. 129SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Fam fam \\ ) Film Fig.14.2.a Radiographic techniques for pipes, top = single wall single image ( SWS ), middle = double wall single image ( DWSI ), bottom = double wall double image ( DWD! ). For flat plates single wall single image techniques similar to those for pipes are used. NDT20 Issue 0191 130SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14.2 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE (SWS!) From a sensitivity aspect this is the best technique as the radiation is penetrating one wall and projecting the image of only that wall onto the film. There are three methods involved with this technique. 14.2.1 Panoramic This is not strictly a B.S. term, but is used often. A 360 degree source of radiation, either x-ray or gamma, is located at the centre of the pipe or pressure vessel and the film is wrapped around the outside. The advantage is that the whole weld is radiographed in one exposure. Roll packed film or several shorter films may be used, and in either case the ends of the film overlap, on a marker to prove coverage. The pipe or vessel is marked to indicate the areas radiographed. NDT20 Issue 0191 131SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTAUCTIVE TESTING : "9961:0162's'a WO ‘sadid uo senbjuyoa) eBew e[Buls jem e[Buls 40} pauinbai sjoys Jo SiequNN on sto ovo sto os it stove sto. _s00 ° v0 r0 saquny 0 so to 0 60 40 NDT20 132 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14.2.2 14.23 NDT20 Issue 0191 Film outside, source inside, offset source If the diameter of the pipe or pressure vessel is too small or the thickness is too great and the panoramic technique cannot be used, then the source can be offset from the centre of the pipe or pressure vessel and the film wrapped round the wall away from the source. This would require more than one exposure. The number of exposures can be ascertained from the graph opposite. Coverage of the whole circumference or required section of the pipe or pressure vessel must be proved. Film inside, source outside In a number of instances it is more convenient to locate the film on the inside than a radiation source, and therefore the source is on the outside. This results in more exposures being needed to achieve full coverage owing to the divergent beam and the curvature of the pipe or vessel. With this technique density reduces towards the edges of the section and the density must be measured at the edge of the section. The graph opposite gives the number of exposures needed for full coverage. 133SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Source Source off 0.25 00s. 0100.15 0.20 0 Fig.14.3 Numbers of shots required for double wall single image techniques on pipes, from B.S.2910:1986. NDT20 Issue 0191 134SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.2 144 NDT20 Issue 0191 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE (OWS!) When the inside of a pipe or pressure vessel is inaccessible then a double wall technique is applied. This is mainly carried out on site or under site conditions. There are two variations of the method for this technique depending upon whether x-rays or gamma-rays are employed. Because two walls are being penetrated, sensitivity will be lower. When gamma sources are used, the source can be placed on the outside of the pipe or vessel, in contact with it, and the film wrapped on the outside of the opposite wall. Note that the source is slightly to one side of the weld. This is sometimes known as the contact method. When using x-rays for this technique the focal spot is approximately 100mm behind the window of the tube head and therefore the contact technique cannot be used. In this instance the tube head is angled to 10° to the vertical with the centre of the beam directed to the part of the weld to be tested. The film is wrapped round the pipe or vessel as in the previous technique. In this and the previous technique, one weld thickness is taken to be the object to film distance to calculate the ffd and the IQI sensitivity. DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE This technique is restricted to pipe of not more than 90mm or 3% inches outside diameter. Good images of the weld, on both sides of the pipe, are required on one radiograph, and it Is usual that these images are required to be separated laterally. To achieve this whether x-rays or gamma-rays are used, the source of radiation typically is set to a 10° angle or is offset ', ffd, although larger angles/offsets may on occasion be required to give separation of the two weld images. The film is laid flat and the image of the welds takes the form of an ellipse on the film. Care must be taken in placing the identification so that it is not projected onto the diagnostic part of the weld image. At least 3 exposures are required to achieve full coverage. The outside diameter of the pipe plus two cap heights, plus any gap between the pipe and the film is the object to film distance used to calculate the ffd. When calculating the 1Q1 sensitivity, two weld thicknesses are used. 135SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.0 INTERPRETATION CONDITIONS { 15.2 VIEWING CONDITIONS NDT20 Issue 0191 136 | allSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 15.0 INTERPRETATION CONDITIONS 18.1 INTRODUCTION Even with good radiographs, fine detail can be missed if the viewing conditions are not correct. The interpreter’s eyesight must also be good and medical eyesight checks are required by most approval systems. 15.2 VIEWING CONDITIONS Attention needs to be paid to the following : a) A darkened room b) — Aclean viewer c) Adequate illumination from the viewer; with a minimum light output of 300,000 cd/m? for a photographic density of 4. d) Eyesight must be adjusted to the darkened conditions. This can take approximately 20 minutes for total adaptation, e) A comfortable viewing position is essential to avoid fatigue. f) + Avoid fatigue. This is not only achieved by a comfortable NDT20 Issue 0191 viewing position, but also limiting the length of time spent viewing radiographs. 137SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 16.1. INTRODUCTION 16.2 INTRODUCED BEFORE EXPOSURE 16.0 SPURIOUS INDICATIONS. (OR ARTEFACTS) 16.3 INTRODUCED DURING EXPOSURE 16.4 INTRODUCED DURING PROCESSING % 16.5 DIFFRACTION x we ge eo Be = NDT20 Issue 0191 138— Usyere Sparr — 4 qn SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING — i Aft ex posy ~alay bi 16.0 SPURIOUS INDICATIONS (OR ARTEFACTS) fe 16.1 INTRODUCTION Spurious indications or artefacts are usually caused by incorrect processing or careless handling of the film. Occasionally they may be j due to manufacturing faults. Although in most cases they cannot be confused with imperfections, some may give rise to misinterpretation. There are several ways of detecting spurious indications. Looking at both emulsions under reflected light will often prove that a feature is a spurious indication. Sometimes another exposure of the same area, possibly with fresh screens and cassette, will confirm that a feature is one of the most commonly encountered spurious indications. 16.2 ARTEFACTS ARISING BEFORE EXPOSURE | 1. Film motile: due to the use of old film. | 2., _ Radiation fogging: this occurs when the film is stored too close to a source of radiation, or when a film is inadvertently left in the exposure bay during the exposure of another film. 3, Lightfog: caused by storage of film in a faulty storage box or bin; leaving the lid off the box; exposure to white light in a faulty | darkroom; the use of the wrong type of safelight; too strong a bulb in the safelight; or to the use of a faulty film holder. It is usually local, but may be an overall fog. | y 4. Pressure markings: due to clumsy handling of the film when loading or unloading the cassette or film holder. They are often | in the shape of dark or light crescents. If dark, they are caused by local pressure on the film after exposure; If light they are jised by local pressure on the film before exposure. 5. Scratch marks: usually caused by a finger-nail or abrasive material. 6. __ Static: this has the appearance of dark branched and jagged fine lines; it is due to electric discharges on the surface of the emulsion when the film is removed rapidly from a tight wrapper; itis very rare, | 7. High or low density finger marks: caused when handling the film with greasy or chemically-stained fingers. | 8 Lowdensity patches or smears: due to splashes of water or fixing solution on the film. 9, Dark patches or smears: due to splashes of developer on the film. NDT20 Issue 0191 139SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 16.3 16.4 16.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 Radioactive spotting: this occurs as very intense black spots, often with a halo round them; caused by radioactive contamination of the wrapping paper; now very rare. 10. Light spots: caused by dust particles between the film and intensifying screens. WW. ARTEFACTS CAUSED DURING EXPOSURE 12a (2), (3) and (4) above. 12b Screen marks: due to contamination of the intensifying screens with chemicals, or to defects in the screens such as cracking or buckling, or to the presence of dust. ARTEFACTS CAUSED DURING PROCESSING 13. (3), (4), (7) and (10) above. Air bells: these are shown as discs of lower density, caused by air trapped on the surface of the emulsion, usually during the early stages of development, due to insufficient initial agitation. 13b 14. Patchiness or streaks: due to inefficient agitation during development, or failure to agitate in the rinsing bath; quite common. 15. Oxidation (aerial) fog: caused by excessive exposure of the film to air during development. 16. _ Neighbourhood effects: these are shown as streaks from part of the image and are due to insufficient agitation during development, especially when the image contains a sharp boundary separating areas of high and low density. 17. Reticulation: this has the appearance of leather grain and is due to rupture of the emulsion caused by great differences in temperature between successive processing solutions; now very rare. 18. Drying marks: these are due to drops or streaks of water remaining on the surface of the film after it has been partially dried and they often occur when attempting to dry films rapidly at a high temperature in a drying cabinet; quite common. DIFFRACTION (MOTTLE) This gives rise to images on film of a dark line accompanied by a light line and in welds can give a herringbone pattern. A change in beam angle or kllovoltage alters the pattern and therefore allows diffraction mottling to be identified as a spurious indication. Rebicultien 7 Wevmal Ghee 141SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.0 RADIATION PROTECTION NDT20 Issue 0191 17.4 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 PRINCIPLES UNITS OF DOSE SAFE WORKING PERSONNEL, MONITORING 142SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.0 174 17.2 17.2.4 17.2.2 17.2.3 NDT20 Issue 0191 RADIATION PROTECTION PRINCIPLES The protection of persons from ionising radiations is subject to three basic principles. () Justification No use of ionising radiations can be justified unless there is a significant benefit and there is no other method of carrying out the work. (i) Optimisation If ionising radiations have to be used then all doses shall be kept As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP), social and economic factors being taken into consideration. (ii) Limitation Doses must not exceed the limits as laid down in national laws or local rules. UNITS OF DOSE Gray (Gy) This is the S.I. unit which replaces the Radiation Absorbed Dose (RAD) and is the amount of radiation that will deposit 1 joule of energy per kilogramme of absorber. It has the same value as 100 RADS. Quality Factor (2) Although the concept of absorbed dose is useful, the degree of damage for a given absorbed dose is not the same for all types of radiation. Some forms of radiation are more damaging than others. To find the radiobiological effectiveness, the absorbed dose in Grays must be multiplied by the appropriate quality factor, Q. Sievert (Sv) This is the unit for the radiobiological effectiveness and is obtained by Grays x Q factor = Sieverts. 143SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.3 17.3.1 17.3.2 17.3.3 17.3.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 SAFE WORKING Controlled Area Any area in which the dose rates are likely to exceed three tenths of the annual dose limit for employees aged 18 years and over, must be designated a controlled area. This is an instantaneous dose rate of 7.5uSvhr', The area has to be demarcated by barriers and access has to be restricted. Supervised Area Any area in which the dose rate is likely to exceed one third of the dose rate of a controlled area. Supervised areas need only to be described in local rules. Walled Enclosures Allenclosures should provide adequate shielding. No person should be allowed inside the enclosure whilst the useful beam of radiation is being emitted. Waring shall be given when an x-ray set is about to be energised or a sealed source is about to be projected to the working position. Waring shall also be given when an x-ray set is energised or a sealed source is in the working position. These warnings should be audible or visual or both, but the pre-warning and the actual warning must be distinguishable from each other. All access doors shall have cut-out switches so that the exposure cannot commence with the door open, The exposure terminates when the door is opened and exposure does not commence solely on the act of shutting the door. Means should also be provided whereby the exposure can be terminated from inside the enclosure in the event of persons being inside. All safety devices must fail to safety. Site Work This applies to situations when it is neither practicable nor feasible to carry out radiography inside a walled enclosure. Barriers must be placed at a distance from the radiation source where the instantaneous dose rate does not exceed 7.5uSvhr™ and all persons must be excluded. If it is not feasible for the control point to be outside the controlled area then only classified persons can enter and are subject to a maximum dose rate of 2mSvhr", Use may also be made of local shielding and collimation is also desirable. Warming devices as described in 17.3.3 are also required. Notices drawing attention to and explaining the purpose of the barrier must be placed in prominent positions. 145SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.3.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 Calculation of Safe Distances The safe distance can be calculated using the inverse square law formula: (DP xR, = (D,% xR, Original distance where R, = Original dose rate R, = Required dose rate This formula can be transposed for the required distance such that: 2 (Dy x . | OexR rn ia R, For gamma sources the dose rates at 1 metre are: Co - — 13mGyMhr/Ci "ip 4.8mGylhriCi "Yb - —1.25mGy/hr/Ci ™Se - — 2mGy/hriCi The safe distances for x-ray machines is more difficult to calculate, because the output varies with the KV and more importantly mA. Some manufacturers will give dose rates at the maximum kV and mA. 147SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. EXAMPLE 1 Calculate the safe distance for safety barriers (7.5uSv/hr) using 20 curies of “Co. (O,? x Fy 0+ |r 1m)? x 13mGyfhCi x 20Ci x 1000 x1 7.5 »SMhr 1000 = conversion factor from mGy to pGy: 1 = Q factor for gamma-rays. Safe distance = 186.2m EXAMPLE 2 Calculate the safe distance for safety barriers (7.5ySv/hr) using 200GBq of Ir (1 Curie = 37GBq) 200GBq = 20 . 5.45 Curies 7 (im? x 4.8mGyfh Ci x 5.45C7 x 1000 x1 7.5uSMhr Safe distance = 58.8m N.B. Although the .I unit of Bq should now be in use, many suppliers of gamma sources give the source activity in curies. NDT20 Issue 0191 S 149SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.3.6 NDT20 Issue 0191 Setting up Barriers For gamma sources the safe distance should be calculated and barriers should be set up at this distance. It is VITALLY IMPORTANT, HOWEVER, THAT THIS DISTANCE SHOULD NOT BE TREATED AS ACCURATE. The radiation level at the barrier should be checked immediately the source is exposed, and the position of the barrier should be adjusted if appropriate. For x-ray sources a similar procedure should be followed where dose rate data or safe distance data are available. Where such data are not available, then a barrier should be set up at least 20 metres from the source, then the source should be switched on at its lowest kV and mA, and the dose rate at the barrier should be checked immediately. If the dose rate at the barrier is above 7.5uSv/hr, then the set must be switched off and the barrier must be moved. If the dose rate at the barrier is below 7.5uSv/hr, then the output can be increased incrementaly, but the dose rate at the barrier must be checked immediately after each increase. Working with the dose rate at the barrier in excess of 7.5Sv/hr IS NOT PERMITTED. 151SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.4 17.44 17.4.2 17.43 17.4.4 17.4.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 PERSONNEL Radiation Protection Adviser (R.P.A.) The RPA may be an employee, an outside consultant or a specialist organisation, and may be on a full time or part time appointment. The RPA does not have to be present all the time when exposures are being cartied out. He should have an in depth knowledge of the hazards involved, the methods by which the hazards can be minimized, advise the employer on good safe working methods and be in a position to keep up to date with legislation and other publications as they apply to the employer. Radiation Protection Supervisor (R.P.S.) The RPS plays a supervisory role to ensure that the regulations are being applied, In addition the RPS will initiate investigations where overdoses are concerned, will carry out monitoring and checks on safety devices, will be involved in initial discussions on new buildings or modifications to existing buildings where radiation is a consideration. The RPS must have sufficient training and information to carry out this work, though not in as much depth as that required by the RPA. Classified Persons An employer must designate any person who is likely to exceed three— tenths of the annual dose limit, as classified. The persons designated must be 18 years of age or older. Also, they must be certified fit in the health record by an employment medical adviser or appointed doctor. The entry in the health record is valid for 12 months or for a shorter period as laid down in the record by the doctor, or until cancelled by a further entry in the record. Trainee This is a person aged 16 years or over who is undergoing instruction or training in operations which involve work with ionising radiations. Other Persons Any person not designated in the preceding paragraphs. 153SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING yonising padl Detector tube ation Power source and amplifier Fig.17.5.1 Schematic representation of an ionisation chamber. + Fig.17.5.2 Schematic representation of a Geiger-Muller tube, showing the cascade effect. NDT20 Issue 0191 154SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 175 17.5.1 17.5.2 17.5.3 NDT20 Issue 0191 MONITORING lonising Chamber ‘As seen in Sections 2.2.3 the passage of radiation through a gas causes ionisation, If this ionisation occurs in a tube in which a moderate voltage is applied across two electrodes, then the negative ions will flow to the positive electrode, and the positive ions flow to the negative electrode and an electric current is set up in the system. The equipment is fairly delicate and expensive. Geiger-Muller Counter The detector tube is filled with gas at low pressure and a higher voltage is used, When radiation causes ionisation, a single ion can create further ionisation by an avalanche effect. The ions are collected and recorded as pulses per unit time. It is not equally responsive to all energies, therefore correction charts have to be supplied to convert counts per second into Gy, mGy or Gy per hour. Most instruments are compensated Geiger-Muller tubes, that is the tube has a metal filter to even out the differences in energy. Scintillation Counter Certain crystals, e.g. sodium iodide, emit flashes of light, scintilations, when the crystal absorbs photons of radiation. When coupled to a photomultiplier tube these scintilations are converted into electrical pulses which are then amplified and displayed. 155on SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 7 154 456 1328 Filter Types Window . 50 mg/cm? plastics 300 mg/cm! plastics 0-004" Dural 0028" Cd 0-012" Pb 0.028" Sn 0-012" Pb 0012" Pb edge shielding |. 0-4 gm of indium SPA ABweAwe Fig.17.5.4 Diagram of a radiation film badge. TLD insert TLD holder Control code holes yy Discs of PTFE and LiF Open window 8mm thick plastic Fig.17.5.5 Diagram of a TLD badge. NDT20 Issue 0191 158SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.54 17.5.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 Film Badge This relies on the photographic effect of radiation. The density of the processed film is measured and by using a density/dose curve the dose can be assessed. By using a holder with various filters, information on the type and energy of radiation can be deduced. Thermoluminescence dosemeter (TLD) Lithium fluoride has the ability to absorb radiation and store it. When heated to around 200°C the radiation is emitted in the form of visible light, the amount of light is proportional to the dose of radiation received, In practice the light is measured in a computer operated system and dose records are kept on the computer store. After further heat treatment, the dosemeter is sent back to the wearer for further use.SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING NDT20 Issue 0191 Fig.17.5.6 Simlpified sectional drawing of a QFE. 1 Protective cap 9 2 Marker sleeve 10 3 Pocket clip un 4 Microscope body 12 || 5 lonisation chamber "9 6 Capacitor "4 . 15 7 Protective cap (Captive) 16 8 Charging pin 7 Charging bellows Electrode Quart fibre Objective lens Case tube Field lens Graticule Eye lens Window 158SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 17.5.6 17.5.7 NDT20 Issue 0191 Quartz Fibre Electroscope This is a pocket dosemeter about the size of a large pen and gives a visual indication of accumulated dose. It consists of a small ionising chamber in which a quartz fibre is attached to a charging pin. When the pin is charged the quartz fibre is deflected. On exposure to radiation, ionisation of the gas within the chamber allows the fibre to discharge and its deflection is reduced. A lens system allows the position of the fibre on a calibrated scale to be read and this gives the dose received. Audible Monitors These form another type of pocket dosemeter. They are electronic and a bleeper is triggered when a predetermined dose level is exceeded. Some of these types have a LED display of dose level and/or accumulated dose. 159SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 18.0 LOCALISATION NDT20 Issue 0191 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 INTRODUCTION 90° METHOD TUBE SHIFT METHOD LEAD MARKER METHOD: STEREO RADIOGRAPHY 160SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 18.0 18.1 18.2 NDT20 Issue 0191 LOCALISATION INTRODUCTION As a normal radiograph is a two dimensional image of a three dimensional object, the depth of an imperfection cannot be deduced from that radiograph. On specimens greater than 25mm thick it is important to ascertain the depth of unacceptable imperfections so that the minimum amount of metal is removed to remove the imperfection. 90° METHOD This is only suitable for specimens of round, square or rectangular section of limited size. Two exposures are made at right angles on separate films and the depth can be ascertained from the appropriate radiographs, 161SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Defect Fig.18.3 Tube shift method of localisation NDT20 Issue 0191 162SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 18.3 NDT20 Issue 0191 TUBE SHIFT In this method, two exposures are made on the one film from slightly different positions. The exposure time in each position is half the original. Careful measurements must be made of the amount of tube shift, the fid and the separation of the two images of the imperfection on film. The depth of the defect D can be calculated using the formula IxF OS a7; where D,I,F and T are as defined in the figure opposite. The total shift of the tube should be approximately ‘/, ffd. The ‘tube shi is relative, and therefore either the tube or the specimen may be moved. In both cases it is important that the specimen is not moved relative to the film. 163SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Tube shit TMS = top marker shift BMS = bottom marker shift DS = defect shift Specimen aoe ak T™s bs BMS thickness Film Depth of defect from film side BMS DS Fig.18.4 Image shift Lead marker method of localisation. Top, movement of markers with tube shift. Bottom, graphical approach to obtaining the depth of the defect from the film side of the specimen. NDT20 Issue 0191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 18.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 LEAD MARKER METHOD Asin the previous method a tube shift and a double exposure are used. Here, however, the shift on the film appropriate to the top and bottom surfaces are recorded via the use of lead markers on the surface. The depth of the defect is found from the movement of these and the defect shift on the film, on a proportionality basis. The figure opposite shows the shift on the film of each marker and the defect. The basic technique is the same as that for the tube shift method, except that there is no need to measure the ffd and tube shift accurately. Again a shift of tube (or specimen) of about ‘Vs fid is appropriate. Asimple graphical technique for obtaining the depth of the defect from the film side of the specimen is shown opposite. Altematively, the depth of the defect from the film side of the specimen can be calculated as follows T(DS - BMS) TMS - BMS where D, T, DS, BMS and TMS are as shown opposite. 165SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 18.5 NDT20 Issue 0191 STEREO RADIOGRAPHY This is a rarely used method, but under a few circumstances may be beneficial. Basically it is the same as the lead marker method, except the exposures are made on two films which have to be identified as left and right for viewing, The amount the source is moved is dependant on the ffd and has to be to the same ratio as the distance between the eyes to the normal viewing distance. There are a number of stereo viewers available, but for occasional use two viewers and two mirrors can be used. 167SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19.1 SENSITIVITY 19.2 CONTRAST 19.3 DEFINITION 19.4 DENSITY 19.5 ENERGY 19.6 FILM 19.0 CONTROL OF SENSITIVITY 19.7 SCATTER 19.8 GEOMETRY 19.9 MOVEMENT 19.10 DEVELOPMENT 19.11 OBJECTS OF DIFFERING THICKNESS OR DIFFERING MATERIAL. NDT20 Issue 0191 169SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING adky,—pantesndusny, | g wow ones a esa “thou aos ni ‘ou suans9g wet seoupn ds 230 now vos (ee) paods “" ” swans * oe “haw Jayson hovug p Houde > eran s ed Rs ues Bu youanyu si0}oe4 83 berBiySCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19.0 CONTROL OF SENSITIVITY 19.1 SENSITIVITY In many types of radiographic work radiographic sensitivity and radiographic quality are synonymous, but with irregular shaped castings, radiographs with good quality may not give good sensitivity in all areas. Where assemblies are being radiographed to measure small dimensions, gaps in electrical relays or orientation of the sub assemblies the important criteria may be definition and the orientation of the beam. If a radiograph satisfies the inspection requirements then it is a good radiograph even if the sensitivity is low, as in the radiography of a pipe wall to check for consistency of wall thickness. NDT20 Issue 0197 171SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 40 1 30F -— 4 r 7 1.23 E (x17) 2 5 20h 4 tof 4 L + | — IF 023 tt db ery 00 4 LI 1 1 5 10 50 100, 500 1000 RELATIVE EXPOSURE Fig.19.2 Ifa sample has two thicknesses and the step between them is equal to the half value thickness, then radiographic film under the thin material would receive twice the radiation of film under the thick material. An exposure 'B' that gives a density of 3 on the thin material would give high contrast, since the opacity of the film for the thick material would be 17 times lower than for the thin material. An exposure ‘A’, lower by a factor of 10, however, not only reduces the density for the thin material to 0.6, but also reduces the contrast since the opacity of the film for the thick material would be only 1.7 times lower than for the thin material. N.B. Opacity = intensity of incident light + intensity of transmitted light Density = log,, opacity NDT20 Issue 0191 172| SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19.2 19.3 NDT20 Issue 0191 CONTRAST This is one of the main factors controlling sensitivity. Contrast is the difference in density between adjacent areas ona radiograph, The greater the difference in densities the greater the contrast. DEFINITION This is the other main factor controlling sensitivity. Definition is the sharpness of the dividing line between areas of differing density, Itis a function of film, exposure and the geometry of image formation, and can be assessed by measuring the width on the film of the region over which the density change occurs. This approach is also used for measuring film unsharpness, as described below, but the main geometric factors were discussed in Section 9. Film unsharpness can be assessed by taking a radiograph of a sharp edge as in a step wedge with the beam accurately aligned with the step, and then measuring the variation in density with a micro-line densitometer. Density can be plotted against distance as illustrated opposite. ‘The width of the sloping portion of the curve is taken to be the unsharpness. 173SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING source O i I | . E semmncy | | « [Nene Ll Ne. dak Fig.19.3 Measurement of film unsharpness U;: a) ideal result; b) general shape; ) typical form of result; d) ‘c’ after ‘smoothing’ . Incident Fim Transmitted light light intensity intensity 4, Ly Transmittance = # 4 > ———- opmiy =? Density = loge t Fig.19.4 Transmission of light through a radiographic film. NDT20 Issue 0191 174SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19.4 NDT20 Issue 0191 DENSITY This may be considered as the degree of blackening of a radiograph. For practical purposes a more precise definition is essential. If a beam of light of intensity |, falls on to a radiograph and the intensity of light |, is measured on the opposite side, then the opacity is |,/,. I, Density is loi, 2 ; Density is measured by a ‘densitometer’ which must be in calibration. Specifications state either a minimum density or a density range. Upper density limits are usually determined by the type of viewers that are used. Most commercially available viewers are suitable for density 3. Ifhigher densities are required, high intensity bulbs such as photo floods must be used. Care must be taken as these bulbs transmit radiant heat which can give rise to buckling or burning of the radiograph. Greater contrast, and therefore greater sensitivity, is achieved at higher densities. 175SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 19.5.a FILM UNSHARPNESS VALUES Radiation Umm) 50 kV x-rays 0.03 100 kV x-rays 0.05 200 KV x-rays 0.10 400 kV x-rays 0.15 2 MV x-rays 0.32 8 MV x-rays 0.60 31 MV x-rays 1.00 1p 0.17 "Co 0.35 1¥b 0.07 - 0.13 Table 19.5.b EMPIRICAL VALUES FOR CHOICE OF kV Aluminium Steel x between x between x between x between 0.5 and Smm 5 and 50mm 0.5 and 5mm 5 and 50mm A 20 40 40 80 B 5 15 10 5 kV =A+ Bx NB: These values are pertinent to ffds of about 1m and exposures of about 30 mAm on half wave rectified sets. NDT20 Issue 0191 176SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 NDT20 -Issue 0197 ENERGY LEVELS As a consequence of the variation with energy, of the exponential absorption of radiation passing through a material, high energies produce poorer contrast. In addition, higher energy radiation releases more electrons from the silver halide grains in the film emulsion. These electrons can cause more silver halide grains to become developable. In combination these create a degree of unsharpness, which is called ‘inherent unsharpness' or ‘film unsharpness' (see section 19.4). The radiation energy chosen varies considerably depending upon the object being radiographed and the quality of radiograph required. For x-rays, below 150kY, setting the kV can be fairly critical and more so at lower KVs, From 200-400kV a change of about 40kV is needed for any significant change in sensitivity. An empirical method of determining kilovoltage is given in the tables opposite. The thickness ranges for gamma-ray sources is given in Section 4.2.5. When working to a specification it is important to adhere to the stated energy levels. FILMS The film contrast is a feature of the manufacture of the emulsion. Methods of measuring contrast are given in Section 8. The contribution of the film to definition on a radiograph is governed by the size of the silver halide grains, the larger grains giving poorer definition. Grain size also governs the speed of the film, the larger grains giving a higher speed. Although films are grouped into fast, medium, slow, fine grain and medium grain, unless it is stated in a specification which films fit these groups, further guidance must be sought, SCATTER This is covered in Section 11. GEOMETRY See Section 9.0 MOVEMENT Any form of vibration or movement will adversely affect the definition on a radiograph. DEVELOPMENT OF FILMS Although development times must be in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions, up to a limit, longer times can give better contrast. With development times longer than the limit the unexposed silver halides can be developed, which reduces the contrast. Lengthy development also creates granularity in the radiograph. 177SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING NDT20 Issue 0191 Table 19.114 USES OF THE DOUBLE FILM TECHNIQUE Single exposure of multi thickness or different material objects. Record requirements. Used where two copies of the radiograph are required. Films of the same speed are used. To estimate exposures where thickness cannot be accurately measured, Where it would be difficult to repeat exposures should films be damaged during processing. Table 19.11b RADIOGRAPHY OF MULTI THICKNESS SPECIMENS Use the double film technique. Correct kV for each thickness, particularly where the difference in thickness is too great for the double film technique. Increase beam energy, thereby reducing contrast and allowing a greater range of thicknesses to be recorded on the film. Compensate for thickness by using a block of the same material that will fit the specimen and so make a single thickness specimen. 178SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING | 19.11 NDT20 Issue 0191 OBJECTS OF DIFFERING THICKNESS OR MATERIAL This aspect is of prime importance when radiographing either castings, or welds between dissimilar metals. The greater the difference in thickness or materials, the greater the difference in density there is on the radiograph, for the different parts. An accepted technique is to expose two films, a fast film and a slow film, together in one cassette. The fast film records the thicker section or more dense material, and the slow film records the thinner section or less dense material. Uses for the double film technique and methods of radiographing multi thickness objects are listed opposite. 179SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.0 USEFUL RADIOGRAPHIC FORMULAE AND INFORMATION NDT20 Issue 0191 20.1 20.2 EXPOSURE CALCULATION SAFE DISTANCE FOR GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY INVERSE SQUARE LAW 1Q] SENSITIVITY PENUMBRA TO CHANGE DENSITY USING CHARACTERISTIC CURVES RECIPROCITY LAW TECHNIQUES 180SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.0 20.1 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 USEFUL RADIOGRAPHIC FORMULAE AND INFORMATION EXPOSURE CALCULATION Exposure Tine = BU (Cur- x Tne 5 Now Fim Speed 5 OP Example: From exposure chart: Curie x Time = 100 Ci.mins. SFD = 1m Relative Film speed (D7) = 3.5 Calculate Exposure Time for: Source activity = 20 Ci FFD = 0.5m Relative Film speed (D4) = 13 100Ci. B Time = 100Gi mir =xposure Time a x13. , 05m? _ 46min. 3.5" (1.0m? 181SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING SAFE DISTANCE FOR GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY Dose rate (mGyhfCi x 1000 x (1m)? x Ci Safe Distance (m) = GI fC) + 18 Example: Dose Rate for Ir = 4.8mGy/hr/Ci @ 1m (1Ci = 37GBq) Calculate the safe distance for a controlled area (7.5uSv/hr) using 14 Ci of Ir 4.8mGy{hfGi x 1000 x (1m)? x 14Ci Safe distance = 75uSvhr = 94.6 metres NDT20 ISSUE 0191 ~ 183SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.3 INVERSE SQUARE LAW For FED/SFD change 20.3.1 2 T= (oy 3 (Dy where T, = New Exposure Time Original Exposure Time D, = Original FFD D, = New FFD Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600mm Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min. = 6002 10 mins = 14.4 mins * 00)? 20.3.2 For Radiation Safety: D, R, = ( oa xR, (0, where D, = Original Distance D, = New Distance R, = Original Dose Rate R, = New Dose Rate Example: Calculate dose rate at 100m when dose rate at 80m was 10uSv/hr 2 Ry = ae x 10Sv/hr R, = 6.4uSv/hr NDT20 ISSUE 0191 185SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.4 20.4.1 20.4.2 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 IQ] SENSITIVITY iva Wire thickness = thickness of material x i Example: Select wire and IQ! for 2% sensitivity on 40mm welded plate with 3mm cap. 2 Wire thickness = 43 x —<— =0.86mm ire thickness x Fo 0.86mm wire = No.1 wire on BS3971 9-15 No.2 wire on DIN 6-12 NB. The wire selected is that of equal thickness, or the nearest THINNER wire. ‘To calculate % IQ! sensitivity Dia. of thinnest wire visible x 499 = 1Q! sensitivity Thickness of specimen Example: Using BS3971 9-15 IQ! on 43mm thickness No.2 wire is seen. % IQI sensitivity = 2 x 100 = 1.46% 18720.5 ; 20.5.1 SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING PENUMBRA Penumbral Unsharpness (Ug) = pissy FOD Example: Calculate Penumbra for FFD = 900mm, radiographing a 40mm plate. F.S.S. = 2mm x 2mm For F.S.S. the diagonal (longest linear dimension) = 2? + 22 = (6 = 28mm 28x40 _o43mm Therefore Penumbra = 900 - 40 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 189SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.5.2 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 Calculation of the minimum F.F.D. to give a penumbra of Xmm Min F.F.D. = FSS OEE. +OFD. Example AU, of 0.27mm is required for a SWSI shot on a butt weld in 42mm plate with a cap height of 3mm and an underbead of 2mm. There is a gap of 4mm between the object and the film. A source 2mm diameter by 1mm long is used side on. FSS = __ longest linear dimension of source as seen from the radiograph = 2+? - 6 = 2.24mm O.F.D = 42+3+2+4mm = Simm , 2.24 x51, min F.F.D ESOT + Simm = 474mm 191SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.6 20.6.1 i) ii) iy iv) 0] OB 20.6.2 i) ii) ili iv) OB NDT20 ISSUE 0191 TO CHANGE DENSITY USING CHARACTERISTIC CURVES For curves of Log. relative exposure versus density Find log relative exposure for known density Find log relative exposure for required density Subtract i) from fi), ignore sign Antilog ii) to achieve correction factor Multiply exposure by factor if required density is higher than known density Divide exposure by factor if required density is lower than known density. For curves of relative exposure (real numbers) versus density Find relative exposure for known density Find relative exposure for required density Obtain the ratio of the two relative exposures, that is >1 Multiply exposure by ratio if required density is higher than known density, Divide exposure by ratio if required density is lower than known density. 193SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 20.7 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 RECIPROCITY LAW T, x mA GBq (Ch xT, Tes a ORT Gaga OR T, = CI reading (mA.mins) op 7, . Leading (Cit) al 2 where T, = original time; T, = required time; reading = reading from exposure chart. Examples : () Calculate the time required for an exposure of 25 mA.mins using 4mA. Time = 25mAmins _ 6.25 mins 4mA (i) | Calculate the exposure when using 3mA, 9 mins. ‘P = mAx Time = 3mA x 9 mins = 27mA mins. NB. The reciprocity law fails when using salt or fluorometallic screens. 195SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING. 20.8 NDT20 ISSUE 0191 TECHNIQUES Single Wall, Single Image (S.WS1l.) Double Wall, Single Image (O.W.S.L) Double Wall, Double Image (0.W.D.l.) Fillet Welded 'T Joint All plate and panoramic exposures Pipe with O.Dia > 90mm. Pipe with 0.Dia < 90mm 30° to the vertical member - Use double film technique or two exposures 197SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Functions of angles ( Angle Sin Cos Tao Angle Sia Cos Tan 1° 0.0175 0.9898 0.0175 4° 0.7193 0.8347 ross | 2 0.0349 0.3954 0.0339 470 0.7314 0.6820 1.0724 3° 0.0523 0.9986 0.0824 48° 0.7431 0.6631 1.1108 2 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 490 0.7547 0.6561 1.1504 8 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 50° 0.7660 0.8428 1.1818 e 0.2045 0.3845 0.1081 se 0.7771 0.6233 1.2349 | 7° 0.1219 0.9825 0.1228 $20 0.7880 0.6157 1.2t99 | 80 0.1392 0.9803 0.1405, 530 0.7986 0.6018 1.3270 0 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 S40 0.8090 0.5878 1.3764 | 10° 0.1736 0.3848 0.1763, 55° 0.8192 0.5736 aazsi | ne 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 560 0.8290 0.5892 1.4826 | 20 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 s7° 0.8387 0.5448 1.5399 | 130 0.2280 0.9744 0.2308 580 0.8480 0.5298 1.6003 | we onan 0.9703 0.2433, 590 0.8872 0.5150 1.6643 -2588 0.9659 0.2678 600 0.8660 0.5000 1.7321 { 16° 0.2786 0.9613 0.2867 61° 0.8746 0.4848 1.8040 © Ee 9.2928 0.9563 0.3087 620 0.8823 0.4895 1.8807 ue 0.3080 0.9511 0.9248 630 0.8910 0.4540 1.96268 | a 0.3286 0.9455 0.3443 40 0.8988 0.4384 2.0803 | ‘ 0.3397 0.3640 ese 0.3063 0.4226 214s ne a 9.3338 0.3839 660 0.9135 0.4067 2.2460 | ee ates 0.9272 0.4040 67° 0.9205, 0.3907 2.3559 0 9.390 0.9205 0.4245 630 0.9272 0.3746 2.4751, 28 9.4087 0.9135 0.4452 620 0.9336 0.3584 2.6081 4226 0.3063 0.4663 1 0.3397 0.3420 2.7475 2e0 0.4394 0.3988 0.4877 ne 0.9485 0.3286 2.9042 279 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 20 0.9811 0.3080 3.0777 | 28 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 73° 0.9563 0.2924 3.2709 290 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543, 19 0.3613 0.2787 3.4874 300 0.5000 0.8660 0.8774 15° 0.3658 0.2588 3.7322 | a8 0.5150 0.8872 0.6008 76° 0.9703 0.2419 4.0108 320 0.5299 0.8480 0.8249 170 0.9744 0.2250 4.3315 ase 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 73° 0.9781 0.2078 4.7046 | ee o.s8e2 0.8280. 6745 730 0.9816 0.1908 5.1446 5736 0.8192 0.7002 80° 0.9848 0.1736 $.6713 360 0.5878 0.8090, 7265 a1 0.9877 0.1564 s.2138 | are 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 320 0. 9903 0.1392 7.1154 axe e181 0.7880 0.7819 g3e 0.9925 0.1219 8.1443 Ps o.aass 777, 0.8098 eae 0.9945 0.1045 9.5144 | 6428 0.7660 0.8391 ase 0.9962 0.0872 11-4201 ee o.esen 0.7547 0.8683 ace 0.9976 0.0898 14.3007 ee o.ees1 0.7332 0.3004 a7° 0.3886 0.0822 19.0821 | se 9.6820 0.7314 0, 8925 age 0.3994 0.0343 28.5363 6347 0.7193 0.9657 90 0.3898 0.0175 57.2900 45° 0.7071 0.7072 1.0000 300 1.0000 0.0000SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVI E TESTING ANTILOGARITHMS 4,5; 6] 7 | 8 | 9 [123 456789 = se = ror2:to1g|1016 1019 tort oor rit 222 1035, 103S| 1040 1042 1oys}oor rit 222 1059 roti | 1005!1067 1009 foot1i1 222 108g 1080] 1080 toot rongfoor rit 222 tog tti2/itty tne7 itiofona gaz 222 1135 1138] t1g0'1143'a1g6Jorr vrs 222 trot 113] 1107 1109 ort it 222 1101 Ortjriz 222 orn siz 223 pfortjtis 223 ortitrg 2 ort'r23 aryrz2 ptt ut 1589° 1620 1003, 1007 1702 1708, 142 1782! Say 1800 1950 2003 1051 2000 2831" 2891 [2897 12917: 295812905 2972/2979 2985: 3027 ' 3034, 3041 | 3048 3055 3c97;3105 3142 |3119°3126" “1083 1500 1535 1370 1607 1644 1722 8 17u2 | 1700 1770 2024 {2031 2992 | 290. 3062 | 3060 3133] 3141 3148 3155 or at sat ot or lor ot or ot Jon or ot vr on Jor on or or or i WANN bee Re oun wens Vive “bebe Reed Feb CoUUe OOOO BOARD DOaUESCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ANTILOGARITHMS of1,2:3/4|/5:8 560 3162| 3170 3177 3184 | 3192 3199 3206 51 | 3236]3243. 3251 3266/3273 3251 °52 |] 3311] 3319 3327 3342 3550 3357 58 |) 3388 | 3396 3404 34203428 3530 “64 {3467 | 34753483 3491 | 3499, 3508, 3510 HBS ° 3548] 3556/3565 3573] 3581 3589 3507 58 3031 | 3039} 3048, 3030 3004. 3073 308! °57 13715 | 3724: 3733. 3741 | 3750 3759 3707 i 38373846 3855 3926 3936 3045 3990! 3999 4009] 4018 4027 4036 40834093 4102/4111 4121 4130 41784188 4108] 4207 4217 4227 4276/4285 4205] 5305 4315 4325 4375 [4385 4395] s400 4416 4420 4477/4487 440] 4508 4519 4529 114302 4003 | 3013, 4083: 4090 4719 | 4721 6|4797: 4808 4810] 3531 49094920 4932] 4033 4085 4900 $035 1058. $070 S082 51405152 176. 3188. 3200 $|3200 5272 53835395 5508, 5521 $636: 549 5708: $781 297, 5300 55 34205433 5445 5540 55595572 5675 5089 $702 $808 5821 5834 50435057 S070 be81 095 d109 0223 62376252 16368 6383, 0307 0318-0831 0540 808 6083 009 [e823 {0830 6S 1982! 6998. 701 7145) 7161 7178. 73 7328 7345 748257499 7510 7050/7074 FOOT 793417852 7870 17 $035 Bos S20g.8222 S241 90 "7943 “91 15128 +02 18318 $8395 '8414 S433 +93 S511 8390'do10 S030 “94-8710 8790; 8810. SS31 95 "8913, 8095 :9616 9036 9204 ,9226 9247 +98 giz0 0419.94.41 9402 197 9335 7:8: 3214 3221 3280' 3206 3305. 3373 34433451 3524. 3532 3606-3014 3090; 3008 3954 3003 4046! 4055, 41404150 4236 4240 4335 4345 4450 4440 4539 3977/4989 $093" $105 2, 5224 5333! 5340 54585470 5585, $508. 5745: 5728. 5848, 5800 5984 S008. 6124/6138 0260; 0281 641216527 bsu1 0577 op14!67 30 O87 1 joSd7 7031 7047 7194! 7200 7362'7379 7 9057 9078 19208 9200 9484" 9506 3784 3 38643873, 34.7351 7: 3228 3504 3381 3450 3540 3yo22 a2 3 1223 1223 1223 12273 122 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 123 1 24791113 98 9550] 9572 9304 o016 | 0038, gnu! 9083 ]9705 9727 9750]247 91113 1018 20 8 9772 19795 9817 9840 | 9863/9886 9908 ]9931/ 9954 9977 |257 911 14\16 18 20 MA MINA OO 20 Oo @ © 009:0 & momo! I 656 00 200 MH HOO GO DADAD oo ==S 65550 C000 mmmmn 3 006 3 3 4 11214 1113 14 1113.15 121315 121315 1214.16 1410 1314 16 131517 1B 05 17 141517 14 1618 1410 18 1517 19 151719 1517 20SCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING LOGARITHMS' CF NUMBERS ADD x ° 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 }4 7 T2alese6l7e9 10 | 0000/0043 0036 0128/0170 0212 | 42/4 813/17 21 25; 29 34 38 | 02:2 0283/0294 032+ 037s |40] 4 12 | 16 20 2:/ 28 32 36 11 | ost4/oss3 ose2 053110569 9607 30! 3.91246 19 23/27 31 35 asor osss|ose2 o7s9 o7ss [37] 47.41 '15 18 22 26 30.33 12] -07s2|0828 oss ossa|ca3s o3e9 35/4741 [14.48 21 | 25 28 32 0968 1004|1038 1072 1208/34] 3 7.10/93 47 20! 24 27 at 13|-139|1173 1206 t2ag!1271 1303. | 333 7 40/13 16 201 23 2¢ 3 pi" y30a 1935/1367 1399 1430 [32/3 6 10) 13 16 19: 22 25 2° v4] -14er|sana ts2n asso]tens 1014 1654) 673 1700 1732//20/3 6 °3 | 4215 18, 21 24 a7 i 15| 1761)1790 1813 1847) 1875 1903 1931/1959 36 By 119837, 202225 16 | -z0s1|z088 2095 2122)2142 2173 2201 2227 35 8'1013 16/1821 23 17 | 220412930 2355 2580/2403. 2430 2355/2489 25 7) 104215117 20 22 18 2553/2577 2501 2425/2688 ert 2655.2718, 25 7) 91214) 1619 24 13 | 2763/2810 2953 2056 |2878 2900 2923.25¢3 24 7) 94443; 48 18 20 20| 3010/3032 3034-3075} 3096 3139/3160 af24 6) e11i2s154749 31 | -3rz2/32s3 3263 s2ee)3904 3226 5255/2565, 20/24 6. 1012 124618 22 | aca '3ase 22€s 3289/2502 3522 35213569 19)2 46. 10477331847 23 | 3017/3626 3658 3074) 3692 3711 3722) 2747 24 6) 7 sitjtaisi aa) ste abo Sach desea wl2$5 7 othi13 146 25|-3979,2997 sors so31! sess aaf23 $2.7 91c-s2ta45 26/4150 4165 4783 4200/4216 4232 #249) 4265 23.°5:°°6 B10 121314 27 | 4314/4230 4346 4362/4378 4293 42094325 16/23 5) 6 8 9.111314 2a | -4372'ss87 502 2518/4533 58 4584! 4579 13/23.5) 6 8 9 411244 25] cost a9 tess 4s /4ees cese 4713/4728 13°4).6 7 9] 104213 30] -4771[4786 s200 seralagz9 23 425774871 134) 6 7 8.s01193 31 [cats 4923 4982 495514989 3953 4997 5011 $3408 7 Bison a2 32 5e52. 5103 5119 5/22/5145 13.4057 8! 91132 33 52zsl§237 £250 £203,5276 33457 8! 31032 38 3550'3303 £378 5291 5403 1304:°5 6 8) 9101 as 5478590 5592 551415527 120415 6 7] 81011 35 39'5611 6523 5635:5637 124° 5 6 7! 81071} 37 5717 5729 5750 5732'8762 123-567) 8 910 38 3809 5832/5843 5855 £568'5277 123,567; 8 910 33 $923 5555/5955 5966 $377 ,5989 123: 4 67, 8 910 : i 41 Gi38 6160;6170 6130 6121, 6201 123i 4s sl7a9 42| +6232 6243 6023 6263/6275 S254 6225 630 1234565789 43 | -6535:6335 6385 6365 6575 6325 6975. 6305 2a: 6:7 a9 aa | -6235,6843 6354 6264) 6874 6584 6123-6503 123 356789 45 | -6532!6542 6551 6561/6571 6580 6590! 6599 123 956 789 46 6837 66:6 6656/6605 6675 6E8:/6593 12a a5 6,778 47 6730 6739 673916758 6767 6776/6785 123 a3she78 48 S221 6220 6239/6045 6857 6255 6875 gf12 3 35 5; 67 49 6911 6920 6928 |6937 6926 6953, 6963 123,43 45/678 USEFUL CONSTANTS WITH THEIR LOGARITHMS No Log. No. No. Lot. 579-296 e 271828 04383 = 34sis9 04571 srasin! sonore Soa Tera 3 - Os coal 208265" R zao2s — o-ns22 ones are1® 0-917 453 293 oe ° arci’ 000 290 888 locex = o-aet act” 0-009 004 848 xSCHOOL OF APPLIED NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS ADD e]1 2 3/4 5 6] 7 - veajasei7es I | 6290 | 6998 7007 7016 teslsasle7e 7078 | 7084 7083 7101 123/34sie738 “7160 | 7168 7177 7185 122)34sle77 “243 | 7251 7259 7267 122/34sle67 -7324 | 7332 7330 7338 ele alae 667 -raoa | 7412 7419 7227 r2zlsesiser “7482 | 7490 7a87 7205, 122)30513 67 “7889 | 7566 7574 7832 122|34sise7 763s | 7682 7649 7637 122j3aelse7 7709 | 7718 7723 7721 aa2issaise7 7789 7793 7602 tiz[pesises 7860 7863 7675 ri2izaaises Post 7938.7945 | 112/334is66 8000 8097 ecrz! 112l334is6e 8068 8075 rajaz4aisss 8126 8142 112jaaaisss aca #20 Tialagciss 2267 4273 112;334ise6 8331 8358 V12/334ia6 8395 8301 ri2[saalase 2457 ec63 ri2|zaalase asi9 8523, iizl2aalass 8579 ri2i2aalass 8639 V12i234la85 8698 T12234)455 1 2756 tizizasisss Baa 112 331455 asrr 112;233'f45 8927 V122aaiges 8962 Vie23ajaas +9031 | 9036 112;2a9j245 “3085 | 9080 112'2a3!aa3 “s138 | 9133 112]233 243 9191 | 9196, 1121233 445 ik aes 112:233 548 i s299 rizizaaaas “3345 | 9350 2220 1izisaaaas “3385 | 9400 | 9430 ortizesisas ess | 9280, 3373 o1i[223 344 “9495 | 9499 9523 | 9526 O1n2z2344 -954a | 9547 9571 | ss76 orslezsisas 9590 | 9595, 9519 | 9628. o1ilezaisa4 “3638 | $63 8665 se71 ors[z233a4 “ses | sea9 aria i srt Orteaaiaag 9731 | 8736 7st S720 9763, o1a[22aj3aaa “3777 | 9782 9786 st0s | 9g08 orif2zalsa 3823 | 9827 9232 9850 ! 856 orsf2zalaaa “9868 | 9872 957 3294 | se59 orif2aalaea 3912 9917 sazt ag29 | 653 orsi22a/aaa +3956 | 9961 sse5, 9963 | 9987 orif2z2(324 Only the decime! portion (mantisse) of exe: logarithm is shown in this table The integral portion (cherecterstie) must ba determined independentiyFOR YOUR NOTES O Glalt bo. —> Wht is meonuig Ef 60 | g Ln..a..tomic.. frmchere... > what is eae Ze / Ande. - Taxget —> JE Js mere Thema) | wat Coda, 2 ( @ eeiie Pectrur bine. t..a ney mle Mab iS He | Uae (©). Constant Potentie CoP). CPreut —ehet s's the coolly ene? [ are Cintas t @. what is Hex. CF eR... Rveuregle, 2. Wwe —> eolice Hu exepefer fume + d pias tS me locas hoff fe . Ee \ y 192- lb Ye 30. 2 @ Coke Qe A.sherbwm,~ 169 Oe wg) @® Amio...2. ge. MA —2 SFPD 32% mm 2G Ma..—?. FED G20. What's Te coermee. is. 2 Alewwatten. ui “He. waberiel 7s. Campedt Onion @ sae Conphor Chih Defelope meat. — FN) — Ver | FF eget — OP — ey teah pase 9 hg Caleyaten .: dom p Io 9 objet to Mor lifes Svemm. Kecaf to flo clisfeusce , ign 2! 3) Salt Sertan hat ts “he materia) ed - 2) weer > Calecenn Pe. fla 1M Degen tas inal Bae BE rend 45) thy Seren is upd an ce ge het 1S Ste collimator «7 B el we Pea? Wrburticn 3S (6) Cu tHe Creve. -FOR YOUR NOTES aera Duplo. type: 2g ¢ anauley ¢ Deptairey | AD ere qyasfier Sensstevrte Orleufalitem 'O» a elf —> oxide ov vetumelyic a apfreaxad) Hae ik wll [pok g P- fly 2 gas OF, Pe, hiss ag) OS 20h) fovitad — —stohen al of} 2 Beeta Fextitle — 9 B Sigh alg a ky OF Hy ad Angwey — Meno cyamad’e vechiaton Ve. Cowvect. +00m for. blerrsup Ot ‘fea elges of Che, yadieqrap hit a woxlley frren fr fecr Phe __ ‘Mediate Seurte fs of finite olimepeoos rs Dibe wrptheerPnes, CB) anor exgharpness Eton wateortins G) moore | aS) (8% wre fei i lay “Or j Papentionn! by amano mA ho ooug Rn BAgoe