Cuadernos de la Facultad Colecci6n MONOGRAFIA TEMATICA 2000 Ne 16 WORD STRESS AND SENTENCE ACCENT Héctor Ortiz-Lira Faculiad de Historia, Geografia y Letras PROYECTO: “Innovacion y mejoramiento integral de la Formacién Inicial Docente" UNIVERSIDAD METROPOLITANA DE CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIONUNIVERSIDAD METROPOLITANA DE CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACION FACULTAD DE HISTORIA, GEOGRAFIA Y LETRAS CUADERNOS DE LA FACULTAD Decana: Carmen Balart Carmona Secretaria Ejecutiva: Irma Césped Benitez COMITE EDITORIAL * Carmen Balart Carmona Departamento de Castellano * Guillermo Bravo Acevedo Departamento de Historia y Geografia Irma Césped Benitez Departamento de Castellano * Lenka Domie Kuscevie Departamento de Historia y Geografia + Samuel Feméndez Saavedra Departamento de Inglés + Giuseppina Grammatico Amari Centro de Estudios Clésicos * ‘Nelly Olguin Vilches Departamento de Castellano + Ivan Salas Pinilla Centro de Estudios Clasicos * Silvia Vyhmeister Tzschabran Departamento de Alemén © René Ziifiiga Hevia Departamento de Francés La correspondencia debe dirigirse a la Secretaria Administrativa de la Facultad de Historia, Geografia y Letras, Avenida José Pedro Alessandri 774, Nufioa, Santiago de Chile. Fono-Fax (56-2) 241 27 35. E-mail:cbalart@umce.cl Impreso en LOM 2000 Diagramacién: Eduardo Polanco Rumié Se prohibe toda reproduccién total o parcial por cualquier medio escrito 0 electrénico sin autorizacién escrita del Decano de la Facultad de Historia, Geografia y Letras,UNIVERSIDAD METROPOLITANA DE CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACION FACULTAD DE HISTORIA, GEOGRAFIA Y LETRAS DEPARTAMENTO DE INGLES § ————__________ CONTENTS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE THEORY OF PROMINENCE .... Ll Introduction... ae 12 Prominence.... 12.1 Piteh.. Loudness... Length .. 1.24 Quality 13 Stress and accent. 4 Accent and prominence... 1.3 Degrees of word stress 1.6 Word stress notation... 17 Stress shit... : : STRESS IN ENGLISH SIMPLE WORDS....... Introduction... a Word stress and syllable patterni Word stress and suffixation Word stress and grammatical category... Word stress in RP and American English. Alternative stress patterns... Word stress patterns 2.7.1 Two-syllable words 2.7.2 Three-syllable words 2.7.3 Four-syllable words 2.7.4 Five-syllable words 2.7.5 Six-syllable words 2.7.6 Seven-syllable words ‘STRESS IN ENGLISH COMPOUND WORDS. 3.1 Introduction Terminology... Compound word stress and EFL dictionaries Labels for stress in compounds and collocations. Single stress in compounds and collocations... 3.5.1 RECord player: BOOKshop.... RaINdrop : a WIRE-tapping, TIME-consuming watKing stick, LENDing library BLACKboard, B4LDhead...... MOTH-eaten, ¥-shaped HOMESICK... CooKbook, D4Ybreak.... TAKE-off. BACK ground OXford Street, DEANSgate - MiscellaneousDouble stress in compounds and collocations 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.63 3.6.4 3.6.5 COMpact DISC, SECond-HAND. 3.6.6 BRAND-NEW. 3.6.7 OLD-FASHioned. 3.6.8 HAM-FiSTed, HOME-MADE .. 3.6.9 ROLLing STONE. DARK BLUE Go0D-LooKing 6.12 Miscellaneous.. 3.7 Three-word compounds. 4.2 Nuclear accent 43° Nuclearity 44 Nucleus placement theories 4.4.1 The traditional model. 4.4.2 The syntactic model 44.3. The semantic model. 44.4 The focal model 4.44.1 Broad and narrow focus. 44.4.2 Advantages of the focal approach. 4.4.4.3 Newnes and givenness.. 4.4.4.4 Nucleus placement and givenness .. 4.4.4.5 Exceptions to LLI rule 4445.1 Event sentences 4445.2 Nounstinfinitives : 4.44.5.3 Wh-questions ending with a verb, 4.44.54 Final relative clauses 4.445.5 — Nounstadjectives/participles 4.44.5.6 Transitive verbstobject+verbal particle. 4.4.4.5.7. Indirect questions 4.44.5.8 Subject+passive vert 4445.9 Objects of general reference 44.45.10 Final vocatives.sunennn 44.45.11 Final reporting clauses 4445.12 Final adverbials i 4.44.5.13 Other patterns in broad and narrow focus Notes, REFERENCES PRACTICE MATERIAL ..Word stress and sentence accent Ane PRESENTATION The materials contained in this booklet have been designed 10 meet the needs of the students who ae taking the last courses in English Phonetics at teacher-training college level. We intend to offer the latest theory available in a way which is accessible 10 students, together with plenty of practice material for marking and reading. This booklet is divided into four ‘main sections. In the first, an analysis is carried out of the basic notions related 10 prominence; in the second, the problem of stress in simple words is revisited; the third addresses the topic of stress in compounds, and in the fourth, postlexical (or sentence) accentuation is examined in detail. We are aware that the students’ success in ‘maners of prosody is particularly influenced by their mother tongue, and that is why constant comparison with Spanish is made, in an effort to point cour differences and similarities. A final appendix contains practice ‘material for users to analyse and mark. This, together with the examples in the chapters, represents the largest collection of data on the subject ever published for EFL purposes. A key to the exercises together with a cassette containing the majority of the examples in the text are available from the author on request. PRESENTACION El material de este cuaderno ha sido disentado con el fin de satisfacer las necesidades de los alumnos de los tiltimos cursos de fonérica inglesa a nivel universitario. Es nuestro pro- POsito ofrecer los mds recientes contenidos tedricos de una manera que resulte accesible a los alumnos, ademas de abundante material para practicar lectura y ejercitar marcacién. Eltrabajo estd dividido en cuatro secciones. En la primera, se analizan las nociones bdsicas relacionadas con prominencia; en la segunda, se revisa el tema de la acenuacién en palabras simples; la tercera pare desarrolla la acentuacién de palabras compuestas, y la quanta examina en dewalle ‘ha ‘acentuaciGn contextual. Estamos cons- cientes de que la lengua materna ejerce Particular influencia sobre los resul- tados que logran los alumnos en materia de prosodia y es por eso que, enun esfuerzo por resakar diferencias y similitudes entre las dos lenguas, se recurre a constantes comparaciones con el castellano. El apéndice al final del texto contiene material de prictica para ser analizado y marcado. Este, junto con los ejemplos de los capitulos, representa el mayor corpus publicado para propositos de ensenanza. Existe una clave para los ejercicios y una grabacién en casete de la mayoria de los ejemplos, las cuales pueden ser solicitadas al autor.\ Mord res and sentence sccent Seance ecamccmmmmancee (7) 1 Fundamental concepts of the theory of prominence 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this opening chapter we shall look at various concepts which are central toa theory of soomeeee seins includes an analysis of notions such as stress, accemt and prominence. a and finally a re-examination of stress shift. Since we are catering for leamers whoee Mewes asus is Spanish, constant reference to similar problems in that language is included in vos discussion. 1.2. PROMINENCE ‘The first ask we must embark upon is to elucidate the distinction between the notions Responsible for highlighting portions of utwerance. We shall begin by analysing the most basic of the concepts, that of prominence.’ te ates cam be described and defined in articulatory, acoustic and auditory tenne ie, Se the point of view of the person (speaker) who produces prominence, Row ie physical viewpoint (that is, sound wave behaviour), and from the listener's angle (i.e. the way he and consepeenmence) In the EFL situation acoustic criteria seem to be of limited applicoiing and consequently we shall concentrate on the production and, more Particularly, on the 1.2.1) Price Differences in pitch are produced at the vocal folds: the tenser the vocal folds, the faster they vibrate, and the higher the nove that is produced -an.artculatory characterisation, But Se cannot actually feel our vocal folds vibrating faster or slower. What we hear me higher or lower note. So articulatory pitch depends mainly on the tension and consequent rate of Cibration of the vocal folds. Auditorily. it is that property of @ sound, in ome oe which it can be placed on a scale running from high to low. 1.2.2 LoupNess From an articulatory point of view, loudness is caused by greater muscular energy and breath force. Auditoily, itis defined a5 that propery of a sound which seer us, using nly Out ears, o place it on a scale going from loud to soft. So the speaker ele ts feature 3m one way ~extra energy— and the listener hears it in another way ~exira loudnessHéctor Ortiz Lira ._TTTE.CO€, COATT ToT TTT TTT 1.2.3 LENGTH { Itis not necessary for our purposes to define length from the point of view of the person who produces it. Auditorily, iis that property of a sound which enables us, using only our ears, to place it on a scale that goes from long to short. 1.2.4 QUALITY Articulatorily, quality depends on the shape of the cavities or resonators (mainly the mouth), whose function is to modify ~sometimes amplify, sometimes suppress the almost inaudible note produced at the vocal folds (commonly known as “voice” but-more appropriately, vocal fold vibration). Auditorily, quality is defined as that feature in terms of which two sounds, similarly presented and having the same pitch, loudness and length, are still perceived as different; we say that [z] and [a] for instance, differ in terms of quality. In English, syllables containing [9], [i], [u] and syllabic consonants are normally perceived as weak; two vowels, [1] and [u], play'a dual role, and the rest are strong. Another way of referring to these two types of vowels is full and reduced. The following table summarizes the auditory correlates of prominence, e.g. Correlates Syllables PITCH high ++ low LOUDNESS Joud = ++ soft LENGTH long = + short QUALITY strong ++ weak oS If we analyse the title of this chapter from the point of view of prominence, we will most probably conclude that there are four syllables which stand out from the rest. Here we show ~ them in small capitals, e.g. FUNdamental CONcepts of the THEOry of PROMinence. These four syllables are made prominent mainly because they contain strong vowel sounds produced with relatively greater loudness and, more important, with pitch movement of contrast.” In sum, all four elements can play a part in making a syllable stand out over the rest. They do not all play an equally important part, though, nor are all four always present together. In the example above there are also eight non-prominent syllables. These are, from left to right, -da, -tal, of, the, -ry, of, -in-, -ence, all of which consist of weak vowels or, in the case of -tal, absence of vowel. There are two syllables which are more prominent than the eight weak ones, but less prominent than the first four we analysed, e.g. -men- and -cepts. These two contain the strong vowel [e], and it is fairly possible that in a normal reading of the utterance, a native speaker would identify syllable -men- with some kind of a ‘rhythmic beat’, i.e. a’ combination of extra loudness and length. The really prominent syllables are so identified because they display the most decisive of the elements producing prominence —pitch contrast. There is 2 notation system called ‘interlinear tonetic’, which is a type of narrow transcription for intonation in which each syllable is represented by a dot: a large dot indicates a prominent syllable; 2 small dot, 2 non-prominent one. Since the upper line corresponds to the speaker's top pitch range and the bottom line to his boom pitch range, itWord stress and sentence accent cnc maNcRnteainannaccaanonmnnenmmmmnnnnan (TT) follows that the pitch of each individual syllable, prominent and non-prominent, can be shown. In the following diagram the size and hight of each syllable indicator represent only relative values, e.g. (1.1) fandament! konsepts ov 60 Grori ov prommons 1.3. STRESS AND ACCENT ‘The labels stress and accent have a long tradition in prosodic studies but it is only since the beginning of the seventies that the majority of phoneticians have come to agree on the notions they refer to. Whereas prominence is exclusively a phonetic notion ‘used to refer to the general distinctiveness of an utterance of any length’ (Crystal, 1969: 120),. stress and accent have phonological status. In this booklet we are also using prominence as a blanket term which covers all phenomena related to the highlighting of syllables in words and of ‘words in longer utterances; hence the tile of the chapter. Important differences can be established between stress and accent. In the first place, stress is a feature of the word, a lexical abstraction or a decontextualised form which becomes concrete realisation only if the word gets an accent in an utterance: hence, accent is a feature of the utterance, ie. a concrete, contextualised category. This makes accent an observable phenomenon, as opposed to stress, which is merely analytical. To sum up, stress is a potential for accent and accent is an exponent of stress. Let us explain the above in practical terms. Dictionaries give every word of two or more syllables a stress mark; each stress pattem represents not only an entry in the dictionary but also an entry in our mental lexicon, ie. each word is stored in our mind in the form of a pattem of sounds (ie. a phonemic pattem) and a pattem of prominences (i.e. a stress pattern); in more technical terms, stress is a phonological property of words.> Stresses in words, however, cannot guarantee that the word will get an accent in a particular context, since this will depend on two main factors the rhythmic structure of the utterance, as will be explained in §1.7- and pragmatic-discoursal principles, which regulate accentuation according to (i) word classes content words are much more accentable than structural words, (ii) the information structure of the unerance (roughly, words representing new information get an accent while those conveying given information tend not to), and (ii) language specific rules which, in the case of English, assign more accents to nouns than to verbs in particular constructions. (See chapter 4.) Monosyllables are never shown bearing stresses in dictionaries. This does not mean that they do not have a stress but simply that showing the stress on the only syllable available would be redundant. This explains why an unstressed dictionary form may very well need an accent in a given context, as is the case in STRESS and ACcent have been NEAR S¥Nonyms for a LONG TIME, where a normal reading would assign accent to four monosyllabies.Héctor Ortiz Lira (F) wisn ftiommmsnnasninmnaTn ‘The fact that words make use of pitch contrast in utterances in order to convey prominence -a feature they do not display at lexical, decontextualised level has made Various authors differentiate between stress and accent according to which of the correlates of prominence is the most dominant feature. Therefore, they define accent as a feature of prominence whose main perceptual component is pitch change; this has originated the tem itch accent’, widely used in modern descriptions; by way of contrast, they define stress_as 2 featur of prominence in which the dominant perceptual component is loudness. According to this view, in (1.1) the first three prominent syllables bear stress, and the last, accent. Followers of this view are A.C. Gimson (1962), Crystal (1969), Lehiste (1970), O'Connor & Amold (1973), and Cruttenden (1997). 1.4. ACCENT AND PROMINENCE ‘As was pointed out earlier, the most easily perceived type of prominence is pitch prominence signalled by changes in pitch; but since pitch contrast also happens to be the nain indicator of accent, the two phenomena, accent and prominence, are often confused in certain contexts. In this section we shall atteript to point out the danger implied and clear up this confusion. There are three main places in an intonation group* where pitch prominence can be confused with pitch accent. The first occurs just after the last (nuclear) accent, particularly if the prominent syllable is said on a relatively high pitch, e.g. some in example (1.2), or if it performs a rising pitch movement after an accented fall, e-g. does in (1.3). In inteclinear notation, prominent syllables are marked as 0, e.g. (1.2) dju wont sam (1.3) bobi daz °o . \ Confusion between accent and prominence in this position is the most troublesome of all, since the major part of the meaning of the whole utterance is conveyed by the portion beginning at the last accent (technically known as ‘nuclear tone’). What is crucial in our theory is that neither of these prominent syllables is accented because they do not initiate pitch contrast, but simply complete it some completes a rise and does, the rising end of a Tall-rise. We shall say that a syllable is accented when it begins pitch contrast. As can be seen jn the interlincar representation of examples (1.2) and (1.3) (contextualised below as (1.4) and (1.5), respectively), the last accents -WANT and BOB-~ are actually beginning pitch movement: the former, a movement ‘up-from’ and the latter, a movement “down-from’. Spanish leamers often mistake prominent syllables for accented ones at the end of utterances, particularly when a rising tone is involved, which results in an unmistakable sign of foreign accent, cf. (1.4) These grapes are deLicious. D'you WANT some? (*D’ you want SOME?) (1.5) A: Nobody ever WRITES to her. B: BOBby does. (*Bobby DOES.) ‘Ambiguity between accent and prominence can also take place before the first accent inWord strts and semenceoccent Lo the intonation-group, in the setch of utterance technically known as ‘pre-head’, and it involves words which are of the unaccentable type and usually ‘take weak-form pronunciations, e.g. pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, ete., as in (1.6) tt dgost didnt oks: ta mi Here the syllables it just are prominent but unaccented. The first pitch accent is realised as a ‘step-down’ on did and the nuclear accent -cur, as a movement ‘down-from'. In normal circumstances, the first two syllables would be very near the ‘baseline’, i.e. slightly above the bottom pitch. (This high, though unaccented, stretch of uterance conveys an emphatic effect.) Examples such as There are NO possibilities! [Sore nou posobtlatiz/ and You'd've THOUGHT it was Feasible! /jud av Bo:t 1 waz fi:zabl/ can be said with a pitch pattern very similar to that in (1.6), particularly if a protesting overtone was to be attached: both can begin with two high (therefore prominent), unaccented syllables. Finally, ambiguity between prominence and accent can occur when the first pitch accent, Which indicates the beginning of the ‘head’ °, and the last pitch accent, which is the nucleus, form a sequence of level tones, either high or low. The accentual status of any other Prominent syllables occurring between these two accents will be obscured by the absence of Pitch contrast, as is the case of the syllables ask- and who's in It's NO good ASKing WHO'S 10 BLAME, Some authors refer to these syllables as “tertiary stresses’, since stresses do not involve pitch prominence. In the present analysis we shall leave the question unsolved and refer to these syllables as either accented or prominent. Fortunately, in this position in the intonation-group, the neutralisation of the contrast does not have any practical effect, e.9. (1.7) tts nau gud a:skin hu:z to blem ‘The pitch accents in a head such as that in example (1.1), sometimes referred to as ‘stepping head’, form a series of steps-down in which they do in fact initiate 2 movement and will be considered accents. In summary, (i) not all prominent syllables are accented, and (ii) the majority of accented syllables are. prominent, though ~given the phonological status of accent- it is perfectly Possible to find accented syllables which are perceived as non-prominent and, inexteme cases, accented syllables which are hardly perceived at all, e.g. the gesture which realises the First accented syllable in Jones’ much quoted uterance Thank you pronounced [kkju] (1956: 245). The formulaic overtone implied by syllable shank starting a rising movement from a rather low pitch makes the listener perceive only the second, prominent syllable, you Gones said there was a subjective stress on the first double consonant.) This solution posesHéctor Ortiz Lira () womtnenaniannenlSh Saco another problem for the identification of accent, that of the ‘subjective effort’ hypothesis. The view is disputed by phoneticians who deny the possibility of considering syllables which are not perceived by the listener. We can think of similar pattems in Spanish, c.g. Claro! as an answer implying the obvious, with a very low, voiceless first syllable. The {nterlinear notation of the English utterance shows a prominent syllable only, e.g. (1.8) k kju ° ‘The native speaker and listener do not always depend on the same clues as the foreign student for the perception of accent. When two native speakers communicate, they are sharing the same linguistic code, and consequently will make judgements based not on what they acwally hear, but on what they know they should hear. From this point of view, the native listener's perception of accent is subjective as it is influenced by his previous Knowledge of the language. He normally knows where accent is and will seldom confuse it with prominence: This type of confusion may lead to ambiguity. 1.5 DEGREES OF WORD STRESS ‘The question of how many levels of stress can be distinguished in English words is not without problems. The same can be said of Spanish, for that matter. Spanish speakers are normally aware of the existence of one syllable in every word (of more than one syllable) which they identify as accented: this is the syllable carrying primary stress. The existence of other (secondary) stresses in relatively longer words is an aspect of Spanish phonology native speakers tend not to be aware of, and one on which linguists do not fully agree. The existence of at least two degrees of stress in certain English words of two or more syllables is an issue more firmly settled. The traditional American school of prosody accounts for four degrees ~primary, secondary, tertiary and weak (e.g. Trager & Smith, 1951: 37). Chomsky & Halle (1968: 16) speak of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary o zero. In the British school, Kingdon (1958) recognises the existence of three degrees -primary, secondary and weak or unstressed. The latest version (1989) of the IPA (international Phonetic Association) alphabet provides marks for two degrees only, primary and secondary. Of the two pronouncing dictionaries published in Britain in the 90°s, LPD (Wells, 1990: 683) recognizes three main degrees of stress (primary, secondary and tertiary) plus two further degrees, which are typical of syllables carrying no stress marks but which have a strong vowel (fourth degree) and a weak vowel (fifth degree). Although EPD (Jones, Roach & Hartman, 1997: xii) recognizes three levels, it finally sticks to only two in order to avoid unnecessary complexity. Roach (1991) operates with three ~primary and secondary Stress and prominent syllables. Lastly, GPE (Gimson & Crutienden, 1994) distinguishes four degrees -primary, secondary, full vowel and reduced vowel, but at citation level, however, it operates with only two marks, one for primary and one for secondary. ‘The following table shows the various levels of word stress according to GPE (1994), LPD (1990) and the present author:Word stress and sentence accent LATA GPE LPD This_work 1 primary stress primary stress primary stress 2 secondary stress secondary stress secondary stress 3 full vowel tertiary siress prominent syllable 4 reduced vowel strong vowel non-prominent syllable 3 weak vowel Only two degrees of stress will be accounted for and consequently marked in the Present analysis. These two stresses have phonological status, Le. their distubution 1h ae word, together with the phonemic pattem ~that is, each word taken as a sequence of phonemes and mental eget the phonological information with which the lexical item 19 recorded ann muta {exicon. The other two types of syllable, prominent and non-prominecs nes ‘mere phonetic categories and are left unmarked. A syllable is prominent wher i conate strong Howel or displays (but does not initiate) some kind of pitch movenene performs a thythmic beat. Detween them in stiedy phonetic terms and say that one is stronger (or weaker) than the Gites, characterisation in perceptual terms is, however, subjective and labre we od Us into difficulty. The following diagram shows the possible correlations starting from the least marked (ie. ‘normal’) contexts; ~> means ‘can be realised as", e.g. Lexical level Contextual level primary stress ~ nuclear accent, prenuclear accent, unaccented syllable in pre-head and tail; secondary stress ~ prenuclear accent, unaccented syllable in pre-head and tail, nuclear accent in contrastive contexts: prominent syllable unaccented syllable in pre-head and tail, nuclear accent in very contrastive contexts; Don-prominent syllable _-» _unaccented syllable in pre-head and tail. 6 1.6 WORD STRESS NOTATION them show primary stresses only, while others show primary ave! secondary stresses; some otions are of a more phonological nature, whereas others, marc phonetically biased, indicate the pitch movement which normally accompanies strewe syllables —asually a falling tone on the last, primary stress. The following are the mos eens types:Héctor Ortiz Lira TTI TOT TAT ATT TTTATTAAANNN 1.6.1 The syllable carrying primary stress is capitalised; the secondary stress is left unmarked, e.g. pronunciAtion, BAby sitter, plum PUDding 1.6.2 The stressed syllable is underlined; either the primary only or both, primary and secondary stresses, can be shown, e.g. pronunciation, pronunciation, baby sitter, plum pudding, plum pudding 1.6.3 The stressed syllables are assigned numbers, 1 for primary, 2 for secondary, etc.; other numbers can be used to indicate further degrees of stress, e.g. baby sitter, plum pudding, brand-new car, elevator operator 1.6.4 Stress marks are placed cither before or on top of each syllable bearing the stress; several sub-systems can be identified, among which the system that uses " for primary stress and , for secondary is the most widespread in EFL dictionaries and other reference books produced in the UK; these marks have been recommended by the IPA for over 70 years. The tonetic-stress marking system invented by Kingdon (1939) continues to be the most widely used in intonation courses produced in Britain, e.g. 1.6.4.1 (' =primary, , =secondary,, =tertiary) ,decon, tami'nation, ‘baby sitter, ‘baby ,sitter, ‘baby, sitter 1.6.4.2. (> =primary, ' =secondary) "decon' aby sitter, plum ‘pudding, ‘plum “pudding ‘decon'tami nation, 1.6.4.3 ¢ =primary,' =secondary,, =tertiary) ‘decon tam? nation, ‘ele, vator 'ope,rator, “black board ‘rubber 1.6.4.4 (’=primary, * = secondary, * = tertiary) décontamindtion, White House, white hOuse (=not a brown one), élevator éperator 1.6.5 All syllables are accounted for in ‘interlinear notation’ -a sort of pictorial, narrow transcription indicating stresses/accents and pitches. The conventions are as follows: a large tailed dot = primary stress; a large filled dot = secondary stress; a large empty dot prominent syllable; a small dot = non-prominent syllable. This transcription was originally invented to show intonation, but at this point we shall use it to indicate word stress. In (1.9), ‘two words are transcribed with their citation pronunciation, which normally implies falling intonation —first with tonetic-siress marks and then in interlinear notation, e.g. (1.9) ‘dispa:t'mentl 0% 1.6.6 (e =primary, # = secondary, o = prominent,Word stress and sentence accent aM sometimes referred to as ‘tadpole’, is a simplification of the interlinear notation; it accounts for all four types of syllable with no indication of pitch movement, e.g. brand-new car @ 0 & differentiate @+ e+ 0 In this work we shall normally use the tonetic stress marking system, a sort of broad wanscription which fulfills two roles: it displays accentuation by presence and_pitch movement according to the shape of the mark; as explained before, prominence is left unmarked. The pictorial nature of the notation, which makes it relatively easy to interpret, together with the economy represented by the small number of marks it consists of, explain why the system has been successfully adopted in various intonation courses. The use of ” for primary stress shows the normal association of this stress with a falling nuclear tone, typical of citations forms. For instance, the citation pronunciation of the word deparmentat /'dizpart'mentl/ contains all four levels of prominence/stress. If we number the syllables from 1 (efi) to 4 (right) we find that syllable 1 bears secondary stress: syllable 2 is prominent; syllable 3 has primary stress, and syllable 4 is non-prominent. Notice, however, that in the citation pattem of the phrase departmental meeting /'dixpa:tment! “mi:tm/ the syllable starting pitch contrast is no longer the third syllable, but the first. This phenomenon is explained in the next section. 1.7 STRESS SHIFT By definition, a syllable bearing primary stress is the one which normally initiates pitch Contrast; a secondary stress is less likely to be pitch contrast initiator, but it can certainly play that role when the thythmic pressure of the context (i.e. the neighbouring prominences) causes the redistribution of stresses called ‘stress shift’. This change of roles is the result of the tendency in English to separate strong, primary stresses by weak, unstressed syllables. ‘A similar tendency is not unknown in Spanish. The problem is that there is still a fairly amount of research to be done in order to identify the accentual behaviour of double-stressed items which reverse their stress patterns in a way similar to English when used in connected speech. This would explain why a word such as 'veinti “cuasro, with two potential stresses, becomes 'veinticuairo “mil, and why the question ;Estds de acuerdo? can either get the answer Abso 'luta ‘mente or Abso 'lutamente de acuerdo. This tendency towards stress shift ‘seems more noticeable in English than in Spanish. The pressure exerted by adjacent stresses in Spanish, for instance, would make an English speaker say the names ‘Ivdn “Torres and ‘Fidel *Castro, rather than the normal Spanish patterns J 'van “Torres and Fi ‘del “Castro Other pantems, of the BBC type ~1'bi: bit “siv, "be be “se/-are the same. in both languages, e.g. JVC, KLM, FBI, etc. Stress shift in English affects both simple and compound words whose citation pattern consists of a secondary stress followed by a primary stress in the same word. This double- stress pattem, however, accommodates 10 the pattem of stresses which precede and follow in the text, in such a way that stresses on consecutive (or almost consecutive) syllables are avoided. For instance, the accentuation of the phrase preconceived ideas comes from the citation pattems ‘precon'ceived + ideas, The resulting pattem is, however, ‘preconceived F deas, in which syllable pre-, originally carrying secondary stress, becomes the only pitch movement initiator in the word, and the original primary stress, -ceived, becomes » mere thythmic beat for which there is no mark available in our system. ’ (In other notation systems a mark is provided for these prominent syllables.) This stress pattem reflects theHéctor Ortiz Lira NTTTTET_ETET TTT TNA attibutive function of the adjective, i.e. the adjective premodifies the head of the NP. In Your i 'deas are precon ‘ceived the adjective is predicative, ie. itis part of the predicate, and consequently it is the secondary stress on pre- which is lost. Other examples with double- stressed simple words are, e.g. (1.10) citation forms: ‘atmos ‘pheric, ‘audiovisual, ‘auto “matic attributive use: ‘Let's di'scuss ‘atmospheric “pressure "Why not ‘use ‘audiovisual “aids We 'made the 'trip on ‘automatic ‘pilot predicative use: The ‘music was ‘highly atmos ‘pheric The ‘system we use is audio visual The ‘process is ‘fully auto™matic Double-stressed compounds can also be subject to stress shift when used as adjectives or adverbs, either attributively or predicatively, e.g. (1.11) citation form: ‘double “decker attributive use: 'Double-decker ‘buses are ‘typically “British predicative use: I ‘love double-“deckers (1.12) citation form: ‘second-hand attributive use: I’m ‘talking about ‘second-hand “furniture predicative use: The ‘books were ‘bought second- "hand (1.13) citation form: —'well-“formed attributive use: "This is ane 'xample of a ‘well-formed “sentence redicative use: ‘Sentences ‘must be well-formed Similarly, proper names and names represented by initials can also undergo stress shift in the same conditions, e.g. (1.14) citation form: ‘Piccadilly attributive use: _ 'Let’s 'go to ‘Piccadilly *Circus predicative use: She ‘lives near Piccadilly (1.15) citation form: 'C ‘D attributive use: The ‘new 'version’s on ‘CD “Rom predicative use: I ‘have iton C“D Stress shift also affects phrasal verbs, the citation patterns of which consist of two stresses, ¢.g. (1.16) citation form: — ‘come “out auributive use: The ‘pictures ‘came out ~wellccc predicative use: ord gress ond sentence acen Ce manana The ‘pictures ‘didn't come “out ‘A small group of single-, late-stressed adjectives, exhibit a similar tendency. Their predicative patter is the same as their citation pattem ', ¢.g. citation forms: attributive use: (1.17) (1.18) _ predicative use: ex*cess, com pact, di ‘rect We ‘had 10 ‘pay ‘excess “baggage Td ‘like to ‘buy her a ‘compact “disc A ‘wansitive ‘verb takes a ‘direct “object I'ma 'fraid he ‘smokes to ex*cess The ‘new ‘flat is ‘very com‘pact We ‘went to the ‘beach di*rect The above also occurs in a number of single-stressed place names, e.g. (1.19) citation forms: attributive use: predicative use: Ber*lin, Bel’fast ‘When was the ‘Berlin “Wall knocked down? He ‘lives on ‘Belfast “Avenue We ‘went through ‘East Ber*lin The ‘capital of ‘Northern ‘Ireland's Belfast Finally, short phrases containing two stresses and which combine with further stressed material can also be affected by stress shift, e.g. (1.20) (1.21) (1.22) (1.23) (1.24) (1.25) (1.27) ‘much “more + at*tention (1.28) far “less + ex*citing (1.29) ‘quite a “bit + “older (1.30) ‘very “little + time ‘very ‘warm + ‘welcome = ‘fairly “new + creation "good “night + kiss a ‘hard “day + night a ‘lot “more + rain a ‘lot “less + “money (1.26) ‘not “very + much a ‘very warm ‘welcome a ‘fairly new cre “ation @ ‘good night “kiss a a ‘hard day's “night "lot more rain "lot less “money ‘not very “much ‘much more at*tention {far less ex*citing ‘quite a bit “older ‘very little ~timeHéctor Ortiz Lira CMCC ATTA TATA 2. Stress in English simple words 2.1 INTRODUCTION “The first thing that needs to be clarified is to state what we understand by simple word, Swrictly speaking, a simple word is one which is made up of a single grammatical unit called Stem, Cg photograph, judge, Derivatives such as photography, photographic and pre- judgement are not, technically speaking, simple words, but complex, because they contain ‘affixes (either prefixes and/or suffixes). For EFL purposes, however, it will be better to consider all three examples as simple ‘words. Stress in compounds will be dealt with in chapter 3. ‘The second aspect is related to the way in which Spanish speakers can lean English stress patierns. The two main views on the subject are that }) the rules that govern English Srese placement in words are so complicated, that students had bener learn the pater of Sach word as they leam the word itself, (i) the leamer should keep in mind the most Common rules that predict stress placement in words and apply them whenever necessary; these are phonological rules, which establish relationships between phonemic patterning and suress (in §2.2 stress is related to English vowels), and morphological rules, which indicate the relationship between suffixes and stress (see §2.3) and also between grammatical class land stress, e.g. ‘progress (noun)~ pro “gress (verb; see §2.4). A further rule, which has to do with etymology, predicts stress placement according to whether the word is, for instance, Of Germanic, Greek or Latin origin. However, given that our students of English are, on the Sshole, not familiar with diachronic studies, we shall not take up this analysis. Finally, = Special difficulty is met with stress variation —the stress pattem of a few words depends on $PStish vs. American preference and, furthermore, RP speakers sometimes vary in the stress pattem they use, the result being that a few words have alternative patiems (see §2.5 and §2.6, respectively.) Spanish speakers are recommended to make use of as, many different types, of information as possible in order to predict stress placement in simple words. They. should also be aware of the large number of exceptions to the rules. Rules and main exceptions are analysed in the next sections.” 2.2 WORD STRESS AND SYLLABLE PATTERNING ‘The English phonological vowel system may be said to consist of two separate subsystems, strong and weak, each one correlating with syllable stress. Thus, whereas stresced syllables can only have strong vowels, unstressed syllables can be made up of either Strong or weak vowels. In the table below, the column ‘sessed’ indicates what vowel phonemes can get a sess in English syllables; the last two columns indicate what vowels rake syllables either *prominent’ or ‘non-prominent’. The following conclusions may be drawn from the table: (Any vowel apart from /2, i, w/ —the so-called ‘unstressable vowels’- may occur with either a primary or secondary stress; /i, w/ are not to be confused with /it, wi, e.g. bikini fbr kimi. The rest of the vowels may be stressed or unstressed.Word stress and sentence accent meetin seconormaanene (31) (ii) All long vowels and cenain short vowels always make syllables prominent; this means that they are inherently prominent. Gii) /1, v/ belong to both subsystems. For instance, in the word minimum /’mmrmom/, JW plays the part of a strong vowel in syllable 1 and a weak vowel in the next syllable. Syllables containing /t, u/ are prominent if they are stressed; this is because these vowels do not have inherent prominence. The last four types of syllables are always considered non- prominent. Stressed prominent _non-prominent Strong vowels (long): iz . . a: . . 3: . . u: . . 7 . . all diphthongs : : Strong vowels (short): 1 a () e . . . : . > . : v . @) a . . Weak vowels: i : 1 . v . u . a . syllabic consonants : ee Other rules help predict stress in words depending on the phonological structure of the syllable involved. For instance, in the verbs supply, prefer, explain, etc., the stress coincides with a long vowel, whereas in vary, differ, etc., the final short vowels are unstressed. Something similar occurs with the ‘nouns control, desire, debate, on the one hand, and with story, metre, apricot, on the other. Still other rules are based on the number of syllables and final consonants a word has. This type of information is probably the mostHéctor Ortiz Lira (2) ws nementommennunn Si A sunnanmsrasenm complicated to remember, but experience has shown that the task is made easier if a more meaningful element is brought into the discussion. For instance, a comparison of long Spanish cognate words with the corresponding English forms may help leamers ‘ix strese patterns in their minds, e.g. English verb forms ending in -ate(d), -ify (-ified), -ise(d), ete, and Spanish forms in -ar, -ado, etc. bring out marked differences, as in (2.1) ‘complicate, “complicated compli “car, compli *cado decorate, “decorated deco” rar, deco rado modify, “modified modifi car, modifi~cado satisfy, “satisfied satisfa “cer, satis “fecho “organize, “organized organi ~zar, organi *zado “realise, “realised realizar, realizado In general, English three-syllable words have a strong tendency to bear stress on the antepenultimate syllable. ‘° In the next section, the influence of suffixes on word stress is looked at in greater depth. 2.3 WORD STRESS AND SUFFIXATION Word stress is partly predicted from morphology. This means that the addition of suffixes will determine stress placement according to Whether the suffix leaves the stem Patter unaltered, or whether it atracts stress towards itself, or shifts it to the preceding syllable. The following are among the most productive examples: 2.3.1 SUFFIXES NOT AFFECTING STEM STRESS -able, -ible rely, re liable; “notice, “noticeable; divide, divisible ful ‘plenty, “plentiful; for “get, for gerful -less “colour, “colourless; re*gard, regardless oly ‘passionate, “passionately; “separate, “separately -ment “manage, “management; de velop, de “velopment -ness de*cisive, decisiveness; “arbitrary, “arbitrariness Exceptions: admire, “admirable; compare, “comparable; pre-fer, “preferable elect, “eligible; ne glect, “negligible. Also intelligible 2.3.2 SUFFIXES ATTRACTING STRESS -ee ad" dress, 'address‘ee; “interview, ‘interview’ ee ~ese “journal, ‘journal “ese; Ja‘pan, ‘Japanese ete disc, diskette; “laundry, ‘launder etre 2.3.3 SUFFIXES REJECTING STRESS The following suffixes reject stress to the immediately preceding syllable, e.g. i artist, ar tistic; economy, ‘economic oblige, ‘obli~ gation; in’spire, 'inspi ‘rationMord szes and sentence accent cance comemmneenmnanncsce (B) -ity “curious, ‘curiosity; “solemn, so'lemnity Exceptions: “Arab, Arabic. Also @ rithmeric, catholic, “lunatic, “politic, “rhetoric Leamers are well-advised to pay attention to the rules governing the so-called ‘stress alterations’ resulting from the addition of affixes to stems so as t0 form related words: The application of phonological rules may cause changes in both the pattern of phonemes and stress placement. An examination of the correspondence between phoneme and Spelling reveals that vowels vary with stress. These rules may provide students with further clues to predict stress patterns. In the following examples, the tadpole notations do not indicate prominent, unstressed vowels, as in diplomar /“drplome/, e.g. (2.2) (+) + (me) + rw) diplomat diplomacy diplomatic photograph photography photographic benefit beneficence beneficial democrat democracy democratic politics political politician competence competitor competition (2.3) Ge) 7 (erm) explain explanation compete competition incline inclination derive derivation repeat repetition invite invitation 2.4 WORD STRESS AND GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY Stress placement may distinguish between certain nouns and adjectives, on the one hand, and verbs, on the other, most of which are two-syllable words with identical spellings and identical or similar phonemic patterns. This is one of the easiest rules for the prediction of stress placement which leamers can put into practice. All they have to remember is ther nouns and adjectives take stress on the first syllable and verbs on the second. Notice that similar rule operates in the Spanish noun “1érmino and the adjective “iiltimo and the Serresponding verbs ter mino, termi‘nd, ul timo, ulti “mo. In this section we shall examine 40 of the most common pairs. In the majority of cases, the unstressed syllable of the vers Contains a weak vowel (e.g. suspect /sa°spekU, contest /kan"test/, but this tendency is not So strong with nouns and adjectives, since the unstressed syllables of these words are Prominent, e.g. /kontest/, /saspekt, as can be seen in: (24) accent annex atribute conduct conflict. contest. contract contrast convert convict decrease defect desert. ~—_escort exploit export —exaract_— frequent object. perfect. permit pervert’ present produce progress project protest rebel record subject’ survey suspectHéctor Ortiz Lira VETTE TTT TAN Ina few cases it is only the stress pattem which distinguishes between noun and verb, as in the pair /impott/ (n.) ~ /im'po:t/ (v.). Similarly: (2.5) dictate digest discount increase — insult. torment —_ transport 2.5 WORD STRESS IN RP AND AMERICAN ENGLISH ‘There is noticeable variation in stress placement between British and American English particularly in words of French origin. In general, the tendency here is for Americans to place the primary stress on the last syllable, following a more ‘French’ pronunciation, so to speak, whereas the British prefer an early stress. The following is a list containing the most ‘common examples of two-, three-, and four-syllable words. They are mostly nouns, with a few adjectives, e.g. 2.5.1 TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS RP ~ AmE @> () ballet, beret, brochure, café, cliché, collage, coupé, crochet, debris, detail, gateau, glacé, paté, plateau, précis, premiére, sachet, vaccine; a) @>) Verbs in -ate: dictate, donate, locate, migrate, vibrate, etc.; moustache, stewardess, trachea; 2.5.2. THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS Ge) (@-@) attaché, fiancé(e); @+) (e+) cabaret, emigré, matinée, protégé, resumé; (ere) (@ +) cigarette, magazine, margarine, souvenir; 2.5.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS +) advertisement laboratory aluminium A further difference between British and American English involves presence or absence of vowel reduction in the suffix of a few words ending in -ary, -ery, -ory, -ony, -berry with primary stress either on the antepenultimate or earlier syllabie. Whereas the British version favours elision of schwa, the American version prefers a strong vowel, which some views identify with secondary or tertiary stress. We shall say the difference does not imply stress but merely prominence, e.g. (2.6) RP - AmE secretary, library 'sekratri, “latbrif [sekrateri, “latbreri/ monastery, cemetery ['monostri,"semotri/ _monesteri, “semateri/accent Word srt and sentence scant ween (3) territory, category —_Fterotri, “kaetogri/ Pterato:ri, “kaetogozri/ testimony, matrimony testimani, “‘matrimeni/ /testimouni, ‘metrimouni/ strawberry, blackberry Pstro:bri, blekbri/ _strotberi, “‘blaekberi/ 2.6 ALTERNATIVE STRESS PATTERNS There are a number of words with optional stress patterns, the most common of which students should be aware of, in order not to discard the options they have not adopted as incorrect. In most cases preference is due to generation differences among RP speakers. The list below contains some of the most representative examples, with the recommended option first, following the information given in the current pronunciation dictionaries. The following notations do not account for prominent syllables, e.g. 2.6.1 ‘TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS @-) ~ (mw) adult, brochure, bureau, contact (v.), decade, defect (n.), detail, finance, meanwhile, mishap; Ge) ~ ws bouquet, elsewhere, ice cream, regime, research, terrain, weekend: 2.6.2 THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS Ge) ~ (+) dispuant, exquisite, uprising: +) = bw Sonorous, uprising; (re) ~ (+s) registrar, souvenir, submarine; (+5) ~ (@+@) caravan, discothéque, kerosene; 2.6.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS (++) ~ Gms) controversy, exigency, formidable, kilomerre; Gers) ~ (++) applicable, contribute, demonstrable, despicable, disputable, explicable, hospitable, metallurgy nomenclature; j@- ~ (e+) television ) 2.6.4 FIVE-SYLLABLE WORDS ( 5) ~ ees) momentarily, necess arity 2.7 WORD STRESS PATTERNS ‘The main stress patterns in their citation forms are illustrated in the next section, The following principles are worth mentioning, e.g. @ Every word has one, and onty one, primary stress, (i) Secondary stresses (normally one, less frequently two) always precede, and neverHéctor Ortiz Lira G2) vont esrnaennensnnmn Se See thnemnuonantonnenaneeeme follow, primary stresses in words. (See §1.6 and §3.3 for other views). There is a strong tendency in English for secondary and primary stresses to be separated by unstressed syllables. Therefore, consecutive stresses -secondary and primary- are relatively unusual. They derive mostly from prefixation, e.g. redo /'ri? du/, unlike /'an‘latk/, etc. (iii) A three-syllable word with a primary stress on the last syllable has a stress on the antepenultimate syllable, e.g. magazine ‘maga zizn/; in a few cases where the primary stress is on the penultimate syllable, the secondary may occur on the previous syllable, e.g. remarry /'ri:*mari/. A four-syllable word with a primary stress on the penultimate syllable has a secondary stress on the first syllable, e.g. conversation /"konvo serft/; if it has the primary stress on the last syllable, then the secondary stress will normally be on the first syllable, e.g. misunderstand /‘misands'stend/. (iv) Five- and six-syllable words with the primary stress on the fourth syllable from the left take the secondary stress either on the first syllable, e.g. organisation /'o:ganar-zer{n/, or on the second, e.g. consideration fkan'sida’rerjn/. Similarly, irritability /'ir1ta“brloti/, responsibility /rr'sponss bilati/. (v) English derivatives do not always follow the stress pattem of the roots they come from, e.g. person /~psisn/, personification /po'sousfi “keifn/; compare /kom “peal, comparable Fkomprabi/. (vi) Primary stresses usually separate vowels occurring in sequence and hiatus is produced, rather than the corresponding semi-vowel+diphthong sequence (as Spanish phonology would prefer), e.g. variation /'veari*erfn/, graduation 'graedzu"erfa/. Cf. * Wea rjeifn, graedswerfn/. We shall use the so-called ‘tadpole’ notation to account for syllables (see §1.6.6), e.g. 2.7.1 TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.1.1 Primary stress+unstressed syllable ( +) Senate, mountain, chocolate, preface, island, circus, colour 2.7.1.2 Primary sttess+prominent syllable (# 0) contrast, access, contact, empire, expert, aspect, climax 2.7.1.3 Unstressed syllable+primary stress (+ ) again, fatigue, career, caress, patrol, offence, remark 2.7.1.4 Prominent syllable+primary stress (0 @ ) canteen, cartoon, champagne, augment, shampoo, technique 2.7.1.5 Secondary stress+primary stress (@ # ) unknown, Chinese, farewell, eighteen, mayonnaise, rebuild, defrost 2.7.2. THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS 27.21 +9 fortunate, lunatic, catholic, literature, necessary, comfortable(or snce accent Word stress and sentencs ww (7) SA v a ey sy 2.7.2.3 2.7.2.7 2.7.2.8 2.7.2.9 (+0) corridor, absolute, catalogue, caravan, handicap, paragraph (oo) subtitle, pullover, cucumber, triangle, rectagle, corpuscle Gam) advantage, determine, develop, consider, horizon, abandon (ow) ambition, fantastic, authentic, optician, transmission, partition (m0) distribute, tomato, recipient, antaché, contribute, flancée, tobacco ens substandard, non-fiction, scientific, subconscious, prejudgement (ee) guarantee, seventeen, cigarette, magazine, refugee, recommend 2.7.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS 2. oa 7.3.2 2.7.3.3 2.7.3.4 2.7.3.5 eae 2.7.3.7 2.7.3.8 (wes) category, accuracy, arbitrary, delicacy, eligible, ceremony, irritable (0%) commentator, calculator, architecture, operator, centimetre, interlanguage (@++0) characterize, systematic , automobile, capitalize, regularize, counterattack Gas) obligatory, demonstrative, laboratory, certificate, advertisement (m0) appreciate, enthusiast, preoccupied, apologize, similitude, economize (ows) authority, morvality, diameter, orthography, antiquity, bicarbonate (era) variation, circulation, elementary, conversation, idiotic, interference ons) acceptation, departmental, importation, conurbation, retardationHéctor Ortiz Lira TTTT_,T_E_ TTT TTT TTT NNO 2.7.3.9 (or-@) superimpose, underemployed, hypercorrect, interconnect, interrelate * 2.7.3.10 (@ @ ++) uncountable, subcontinent, mismanagement, postgraduate, coauthoring 2.7.4 FIVE-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.4.1 2.74.2 2.7.4.3 2.7.4.4 2.7.4.5 2.7.4.6 2.7.4.7 2.7.4.8 (eee) ‘figuratively, capitalism, qualitatively, cannibalism, speculatively (mers) inevitable, inadequacy, communicative, vocabulary, catholicism Garros accelerator, sophisticated, refrigerator, enthusiasm, collaborator (erm-5) curiosity, university, pedagogical, capability, possibility, inexplicable (e-@ +0) differentiate, underestimate, rehabilitate, decontaminate, counterespionage (Conn) classification, characteristic, Mediterranean, qualification, organization Gow) continuation, consideration, appreciation, pronunciation, association (eon) predisposition, devaluation, prefabrication, revaluation, miscalculation 2.7.5. SIX-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.5.1 2.7.5.2 aenae 27.5.4 (ermees) unexceptionable, indistinguishable, unimaginative, individualism (@oene9 characteristically, discontinuity, unsystematically, irritability G familiarity, availability, inferiority, responsibility, impossibility electrification, experimentation, personification, exemplification #)Mord azes ond sentence eccent snare emennnnconnanns (7) 2.7.5.5 (eres +) differentiation, mispronunciation, recapitulation, individualistic 2.7.6 SEVEN-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.6.1 (ce+ewes) intelligibili inevitability, invulnerability, impracticability 2.7.6.2 (@re+w ++) irresponsibility, unconventionality, superficiality, unrealiabilityHéctor Ortiz Lira Fo) WHAT 3 Stress in English compound words 3.1 INTRODUCTION Stress in English compounds, with its varying position, is a real stumbling-block for Spanish-speaking leamers due mainly to the rather fixed occurrence word stress has in Spanish. Two types of phenomena are meant by variation: first, the primary stress of English compounds may go on either the first or the second element in the citation pattem and, secondly, this may also vary according to context. On the other hand, all citation patterns of Spanish compounds have the primary stress on the second element, irrespective Of intemal structure and meaning, e.g. saca'corchos, cuatro’ cientos, cantau*tor, mercado “negro, radio ré loj, etc. ‘This section offers the learner a simplified taxonomy of the main classes of compounds and collocations, illustrated with a fairly modem corpus. Rather than commit each particular item to memory -an impossible task students are recommended to memorize the stress- assignment rules and put them into practice every time they come across a new compound. ‘Associations between patterns and meanings as well as constant comparison between similar structures producing contrasting pairs of the type ‘walking stick ~'rolling stone, etc. will help identify ‘normal’ examples and exceptions. Students are also advised to check word stress in dictionaries whenever they are in doubt and say the words out loud a number of times so as to help fix them in their memory. 3.2. TERMINOLOGY Quirk et al. (1985: 1567) define compound as ‘a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically asa single word.” No account for stress is present in this definition, but later on, at pp. 1592-1593, they characterize compound nouns as generally taking the primary stress on the first element, and although they acknowledge the existence of a smaller number of compounds with the primary stress on the second element, they also admit that ‘in some cases we may be in doubt as to whether we should regard sequences with this stress patter as compounds or as free syntactic phrases’. Now, if we leave aside stress placement as the basic criterion of analysis and take the semantic aspect as the decisive factor to identify compounds (i.e. the degree of cohesion between the elements), we will also come across certain word combinations whose compound status might be in doubt. For instance, how should we consider relatively common two-element constructions which frequently co-occur, such as slim chance and feeble hope, none of which are given as individual or even subordinate entries in dictionaries? Furthermore, should we rely on dictionary status for a two-element lexical unit to be considered a compound? Notice that a third criterion, that of spelling, has not been brought into the discussion, due to the fact that a fairly degree of variation can be found in the way compounds are written ~as one single word, or as two words, either separated by a space or a hyphen. ‘We shall bypass the difficulty posed by compounds by acknowledging the existence of other word combinations which the learner would also do well to incorporate into his mental lexicon, irrespective of the fact that they may not conform fully to the category of compound.Word stress and sentence accent Acc Following Camey (1991: 1) we shall take into consideration the notion of collocation, which he conveniently defines in phonological terms: ‘Any frequently recurring two-clement structure [...] for which a stress patiem may be predicted.’ This category includes collocations which can be found in EFL dictionaries of a general kind ~not necessarily specialist pronunciation dictionaries, e.g. vinual reality, national curriculum, etc., plus 2 few others which have not got (and probably will never get) dictionary status, e.g. insufficient evidence. A random examination of the two standard pronunciation dictionaries, LPD (Wells, 1990) and EPD (Jones, Roach & Hartman, 1997) reveals interesting differences in the corpus offered, as the following sample of two-element collocations shows, e.g. LPD EPD artificial insemination cartticial intelligence + : artificial kidney . artificial respiration bus bar . bus boy bus conductor busman bus shelter bus station bus stop 00d afternoon good book goodbye good day good evening Good Friday 00d grief! : Good Heavens! . good looker : g00d looks goodman . good morning good night 00d offices ‘good Samaritan goodwife goodwill ‘g00d-hearted ‘good-humoured 300d-looking 00d-natured 00d-remperedHéctor Ortiz Lira CITI TTT TTT ANTON AGN ARNNNNN 3.3 COMPOUND WORD STRESS AND EFL DICTIONARIES All EFL dictionaries can be of help in matters of information about stress. The main differences between them lic in the notation system they use to show primary and secondary stresses, in the corpus they include and, occasionally, in the pattems they show, e.g. OALD comer'shop ,user-iiendly Third'World ‘Home Office CIDE comer ishop tuser-friendly {Third |World Home {Office CCED comer shop user-friendly Third World + Home Office LDCE juser-'friendly Third 'World* ‘Home ,Office LPD — comer'shop user-'friendly* Third 'World* ‘Home, Office ‘comer shop EPD comer 'shop ,user-'friendly Third 'World ‘Home Office ‘home ,page (stress shift) (Notes to the abbreviations: OALD : Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 1995. CIDE : Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1995. CCED : Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, 1995. LDCE : Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1995. °D : Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 1990. EPD : English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1997.) ‘These examples show that: (@® CCED is the only dictionary which does not use the stress marks ' and , to indicate primary and secondary stresses, respectively. CIDE uses two systems, stress marks in the main dictionary and black and white rectangles in the Phrase Index. (@) LPD records alternative stress patterns whenever they are in common educated use, as shown by corner shop. EPD does so less frequently. ii) Only LDCE and LPD indicate the possibility of stress shift (by means of the wedge sign *) all the time; EPD does so only occasionally, with the phrase ‘stress shift’ . (iv) Whereas the majority of dictionaries indicate the existence of an extra stress after the primary (¢.g. secondary for EPD and tertiary for LPD), a few ignore that possibility. (v) EPD probably contains the most up-dated corpus, as shown by the inclusion of a term such as home page. As with simple words, we shall use the tonetic-stress marking system, of generalized use in the British school of prosody, which indicates stressed syllables ‘by means of ! (secondary stress) and » (primary stress), following Kingdon (1958b), Windsor Lewis (1969), Finch & Ortiz (1982) and Gimson & Cruttenden (1994). These are distributed in words in such a way that only one primary stress may occur in a compound word, and the |anc Word stress and sentence accent & Primary stress is always the last stress; the secondary stress always precedes the primary and never the other way round. Thus, some of the examples above would be marked as follows: ‘user- ‘friendly "Third ‘World “Home Office Tertiary and further degrees of stress will be ignored. The following pattems show the distribution of stresses in polysyllabic compounds, e.2. LPD EPD com,muni'cations, satellite communi'cations satellite continental ‘breakfast cont nental ‘breakfast This work com'muni'cations satellite ‘continental “breakfast 3.4 LABELS FOR STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS ‘The stress patterns of English compounds and collocations have been given different labels in the literature. Most of them describe are shown in (a). There is a set of labels whic! in (b), e.g. ‘woman doctor (=ginecdlogo) “English teacher (=profesor(a) de inglés) the placement of the main, primary stress; these h refers to the number of stresses and is given ‘woman “doctor (=doctora) "English “teacher (=profesor(a) inglés(a)) (@) early stress_—_late stress initial stress final stress compound stress phrasal stress E2 El strong-weak _ weak-strong (b)___single stress __double stress @) The labels ‘early’ and ‘late’, which refer to the fact that it is the first element that has* more stress’ than the second, are found in Wells (1990: 150). (@) “Initial” and ‘final’ stress are the names used by Fudge (1984: 134-137). (iii) The labels ‘compound’ vs. ‘phrasal’ (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) are misleading because the pattem consisting of a primary stress on the second element (which is typical of noun phrases such as an incredible blonde) can also be found in many compounds, as will be shown in the word-lists that follow; a characterization of compounds in terms of stress placement is, then, unsatisfactory. Gv) In the labels E-2 and E-1 (Poldauf, 1984: 106), E stands for ‘element’, or participating word, and the numbers denote stands for the word on the right, and E-2, for Position, starting from the right; therefore, E-1 r the word on the left.Héctor Ortiz Lira (2) wnmnnnnsesemmsoamnSictitenmnanencemnsaannatte (W) ‘The categories strong-weak (sw) and weak-strong (ws), of rhythmic nature. indicate the relative prominence of the two sequences -a basic notion in metrical theory, as wXpressed, for instance, by Ladd (1996) and, in general by all supporters of the metrical- autosegmental theory. (oi) The reasons for the labels ‘single’ vs. “double” (Jones, 1956; Kingdon, 19580; Finch’ Oniz, 1982) are that (a) by virue ofa generally agreed principle, a primary stress is cane ronsidered the last stress in an utterance; (b) a late primary stress —ie. main stress. om aso ony leccal item_can be (and normally is) preceded by a secondary stress on the first a ee this work we shall use the terms ‘single’ and ‘double’ in order to emphasize the role of secondary stresses in processes such as stress shift. For EFL purposes, compounds can be organised according to the type of stress pattem eg. single (early) vs. double (late), i. a phonological classification or aocarding fo the Beemer {eS resulting collocation e.g, nouns vs. adjectives, i.e. a symtactic-functional taxonomy. Here we will take the former criterion as the ‘basis for the organisation of the corpus, and will indicate the function of the resulting pattern. ‘The patterns exemplified here corPit citation forms, i.e. the pattems of compounds and collocations said in isolation. 3.5. SINGLE STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.5.1 “record player (@ Noun L+noun 2 (N1+N2), where NI (record) is the diect abject of the action of the agent N2 (player). The resulting collocation functions as noun. (Gi) The agent usually ends in -er,-or , and can be either human or non-human. (ii) Sometimes the direct object relationship between NI and N2 is less obvious, as can be seen in (b), €.8- (@) balletdancer bandleader blood donor bookkeeper bricklayer bullfighter cabinet-maker cash dispenser cement mixer cassette recorder _—_ dishwasher dressmaker eggbeater ‘food processor ‘fortune-teller sglue-sniffer goalkeeper hairdresser hairdryer holidaymaker housekeeper _ landowner law-breaker lawnmower lie detector rine detector ‘moneylender newsreader newsvendor _painliller paperhanger park keeper proofreader ppurse-snatcher screwdriver ‘shareholder ‘shock absorber ‘shopkeeper skyscraper ‘lide projector songwriter sallholder tape recorder er taxi driver tin opener tongue twister video recorder windscreen wiper word processor (b) babysitter chain-smoker churchgoer coat hanger cradle-snatcher drug dealer {fishmonger Geiger counter grasshopper ._housebreaker shunger striker pressure cooker Scaremonger schoolteacher screenwriter ‘slum dweller stockbroker theatregoer ‘vacuum cleaner (©) Exceptions: stage manager, school governorWord stress and sentence accent aaa am (25) acca 3.5.2 ‘bookshop @ Noun 1+noun 2 (N1+N2), where N1 (book) delimits the meaning of N2 (shop), by stating ‘what type of thing’ itis. The resulting compound usually functions as noun. Gi) Single stress is the commonest pattem in N1+N2 collocations. In many other examples, an N1 with more specific reference favours double stress, as in ‘Kitchen “sink (see §3.6.1). Similarly, whereas ‘school “secretary has specific reference, ‘schoolboy has not. In other pairs this criterion does not seem t0 operate very clearly, e.g. uni 'versiry “lecturer vs> school teacher. (ii) Single vs. double stress can be responsible for changes in meaning, as in (b). (@) access road address book advice column aircraft airhostess airlener airline airmail airport air terminal amusement arcade animal kingdom apron strings aptitude test backache ballot box bankaccount bar code bedbug bedelothes bedroom bedspread bedtime birth certificate birth control _ birthday card birthday party birthplace birthrate blockhead blood bank blood group blood presure blood relation blood transfusion blood vessel bloodhound book club book token bookcase bookmark bookstall bookworm boyfriend bread box buffet car call box cash card child abuse Christmas card clothes brush clothesbasket clothesline clothespeg coffee bar coffee break coffee cuy coffee table credit card crime rate cupboard love daylight daytime death penalty death rate death squad depositaccount disabled access dish towel drug abuse drug addict earphones football foomore footpath footstep girlfriend ‘guidebook hairpin hairstyle handbag headache headlamp headline headphone heart anack heart failure heat wave hunchback hunger strike identity card key ring keyboard ladybird laptop library card license plate life insurance love affair money order motorbike ‘motorcar motorcycle ‘mountain bike ‘mountain range nail scissors nail varnish newsagent newsletter newspaper newsstand night shift nightclub nighttime ozone layer panda car paper clip paperback paperwork penalty area phone book phone box Phonecard Photo album pocket money pocketbook police force police officer police station post office postcard press conference Price tag problem child Punctuation mark ‘puppy dog question mark ‘question tag raincoat rainstorm recordlibrary roadblock road tax road works room service __ rulebook rush hour safery belt safery pin saladbar Sandwich course ‘savings account schoolgirl ‘schoolmaster schoolmate schoolmistressHéctor Ortiz Lira G2) tan osaasnnaN Si omannenEeHaeEEeNEKANNN schoolwork seafood sea level seagull Seaman Seaport seashell seashore Sex appeal Shock treatment shoelace shoeshop shop assistant slot machine sound effects soup plate Soup spoon Space-age spacecraft spacel Space suit Sports car sports jacket stamp collection store detective sunglasses sunroof supply teacher surface mail ‘systems analyst table manners tablecloth table tennis ea bag teabreak tea party tea towel teamwork teapot tear gas teaspoon teatime time bomb time limit time signal timetable wilet roll toothache toy shop video arcade watercolour watermelon watermill waterpower waterproof wheelchair wind instrument window seat windstorm word order wristwatch (b) ‘family name (=sumame) ‘family “name (=family reputation) “toy factory (=where toys are made) ‘toy ‘factory (=for a child to play with) ‘party line’ (=shared phone line) 'party “line (=political view) 3.5.3 ‘raindrop Noun 1+noun 2 (N1+N2), where Ni (rain) is usually a mass noun indicating the material N2 (drop) is made of. Semantically, the collocation expresses an ‘unintentional accumulation’ rather than an ‘intended construction’, e.g. breadcrumb ——_dunghill dustheap sand dune sawdust snowflake soap bubble soap flake waterfall 3.5.4 ‘wire-tapping, ‘time-consuming @ _Noun+verb [-ing] (N+V[ing]), where N is the object of V, ic. ‘XK taps wire’, as in (a); in other examples, the role of the noun as object is less obvious, as in (b). i) Some resulting collocations can function mainly as nouns, e.g. "wire-tapping, or mainly as adjectives, e.g. “time-consuming. (@) bookbinding bookkeeping beekeeping breathtaking childbearing dressmaking ‘fee-paying fire fighting hairdressing hair-raising hair-splicing heartbreaking horseracing housekeepin; labour-saving language teaching mind reading money taundring ——_‘maneyiending painstaking proofreading —_—_role playing shareholding Sidesplitting sightseeing surfriding thought-provoking time-consuming timesaving troublemaking troubleshooting typewriting weightlifting wind surfing window dressing word processing wrongdoingWord stress and sentence accent AMA (b) air-conditioning brainstorming handwriting hang-gliding housewarming kerb crawling food poisoning law-abiding oil painting pony-trekking ‘shoplifting ski jumping tap dancing window-shoppping (©) Exceptions: family planning zebra crossing 3.5.5 ‘walking stick, lending library G@) Verb [-ing]+noun (V{ing]+N), where N is nor in subject relation to V. Thus, in “walking stick, the noun does not do the walking itself; the meaning is rather ‘a stick for walking. ° The noun sometimes represents the place or time for the action of the verb, as in “shopping centre and’ freezing point ; these examples are listed in (a). Gi) In"lending library the noun does perform the action indicated by the verb, ie. ‘the library lends books’, but the action is not in progress; other examples of this type are those in (b). (ii) Contrasting examples due to single vs. double stress can be found in (c). (a) baking powder balancing act bathing costume —_boardinghouse boarding school bowling alley breathing space building block building society carving knife changing room climbing frame closing time cooking apple chewing gum dancing iesson dialling tone dining car dining room drinking water driving licence driving sear driving test eating apple filing cabinet filling station finishing school fishing rod ‘ying pan housing estate hearing aid icing sugar insulating tape ironing board knitting needle launching pad living room meeting point melting point parking light parking lot parking meter playing field polling station Purchasing power reading matter reading room recording studio rowing boat selling point shaving cream shopping bag shopping list shopping mall singing lesson sitting room skipping-rope sleeping bag sleeping car sleeping pill spending money stepping-stone stumbling block swimming pool swimming trunks teaching hospital teething troubles racing paper runing fork waiting list waiting room washing powder whopping cough writing paper (b) answering machine cleaning woman humming bird mincing machine nursing home operating system _printing press publishing house rocking chair rolling pin sealing wax sewing machine soldering iron sparking plug spinning wheel steering wheel sticking plaster teaching practice Training college maining course travelling expenses vending machine washing machine watering can (©) “moving van (=a removal van) ‘moving “van (=a van actually moving) “sleeping parmer (=concubine) ‘sleeping “parmer (=inactive business partner)Hector Ont ur 3.5.6 “blackboard, ‘baldhead (@ _Adjective+noun (A+N) collocations are a very common type of construction in English. They usually take double stress by default, as if they were phrases. (Cf. N1+N2 compounds in §3.5.2, which are considered to take single stress by default) There is, however, another group of A+N collocations with a more specialised meaning which take single stress; some of these can be considered to be long-established compounds. ‘The number of adjectives participating in these constructions is relatively small; they are generally one- or two-syllable long and are of low semantic specialisation, e.g. black, free, hard, high, etc. On the whole, A+N compounds with single stress are much more restricted than N1+NB compounds with single stress (i.e. those in §3.5.2). Gi) In some cases there is a potential contrast between the specialised meaning of the ‘compound (with single stress, as in “blackboard) and the phrase consisting of the sarne two elements (with double stress, as in ‘black “board), as shown in (c). (Gi) In summary, the main points regarding A+N collocations are: (2A4N collocations functioning as nouns normally have double stress, e.g. a 'tomic ‘energy 2) Some A+N collocations functioning as nouns have a specialised meaning and take single stress, e.g. “blackberry and the rest of the examples in (a); (3) Some A+N collocations functioning as nouns and taking single stress are called “bahuvrihi’ /ba:hu*'vrithi / compounds. They are used to designate a person by specifying a physical or mental characteristic, e.g. a man who has a grey beard ix a “greybeard. Others designate objects, ¢.g. a book with a hard cover is a “hardback, etc.; see examples in (b); @ after effects anybody anyone anyplace anything blackberry blackboard blacklist black people blacksmith black spot bluebell bluebird Christian name coldcream comic strip commonplace current account darkroom deadline deadlock dry dock everybody everyone everything firstname freehand freehold freelance ‘freephone yreeway ‘funny bone ‘given name ‘grandchild ‘granddaughter ‘grandma grandmother grandpa grandson grandstand green belt greengrocer greyhound ‘grey matter hardboard hardware highbrow high jump highlight high-rise high school high season high street highway hothouse hotline howplate last name lowbrow lowland low season madhouse middle man middle name middle school —_old boy old girl open day quicksand real estate right angle shortbread shortcake shorthand shortlist sickbay sick leave ssick pay smallpox small talk Soft spot software special school strongbox stronghold ‘trong point Sweet com Sweetheart sweetshop whiteboard whitewash wholesale wildcat wild flower wildlife wise guyWord stress and sentence accent asec (6) bad-mouth big-mouth busybody fathead greenback hardback hardtop heavyweight Tazybones loudmouth paleface redbrick redhead redskin sleepyhead slowcoach Smart-arse thickhead (©) “blackbird 3p. mirlo) ‘black “bird (=any bird which is black) blackboard (=writing surface) ‘black “board (=any board which is black) “bluebell (=Sp. jacinto) ‘blue “bell (=any bell which is blue) ‘common room (=college staff room) ‘common “room (=one used jointly) “crossword (=type of word puzzle) ‘cross “word (=e angry word) “funny man (= a comedian) ‘funny “man (=a strange man) “darkroom (=for processing films) ‘dark ~room (= a room which is dark) “English teacher (=teacher of English) 'English “teacher (=teacher who is English) “greenhouse (=glass building for plants) ‘green “house (=any house which is green) *Greenland (=Sp. Groenlandia) ‘green “land (=any land which is green) > grey matter (=brains) 'grey “matter (=anything grey) “heavyweight (=heaviest type boxer) ‘heavy “weight (=a weight which is heavy) “hotplate (=part of a cooker) ‘hot “plate (=a plate which is hot) {special schoo! (=for disabled children) special “schoo! (=out of the common) “White House (=US President's residence) ‘white “house (=any house which is white) 3.5.7 “moth-eaten, V-shaped (@) _Noun+participle (N+P) in which N is usually the subject of P, ie. moths have eaten X; more examples are those in (a). (G) “The relationship between N and P is more complex in (b): in “corpus based we understand "based on a corpus’, in “woiler-rained, ‘tained to use a toilet’, and in egg, shaped, ‘shaped like an egg.’ (Gi "The function of the resulting collocation is adjectival and the early-stress pattem of the citation form does not vary when the compound is used cither attabutively. or predicatively, e.g. citation form: > moth-eaten attributive use: a 'moth-eaten “sweater predicative use: ‘Those i'deas can be de 'scribed as “moth-eaten, (a) action-packed coin-operated flea-binen frostbiten heargelt hen-pecked horror-stricken landlocked ‘moonlit snowbound snow-capped star-crossed sunburnt sunlit terror-stricken time-honoured weather-beaten weather-bound windswept (6) air-conditioned —_blue-coloured bed-ridden cigar-shaped heartbroken oval-shaped pear-shaped red-coloured star-spangled —_type-written white-washedHéctor Ortiz Lira TTT oT TTT TTT RN 3.5.8 “homesick A very short inventory of nounsadjective (N+A) compounds have single stress. The pattern remains unaltered in postmodifying positions, e.g. 'Yelt very “homesick, e.g. accident-prone _colour-blind poverty-stricken streetwise 3.5.9 ‘cookbook, ‘daybreak () Verbsnoun (V+N) result in compounds functioning mainly as nouns and sometimes as adjectives; they are illustrated in (a). Main exception: ‘stop “press. (ii) Noun+verb (N+V) collocations function as nouns; see (b). (@) breakneck call girl t catchword cease-fire chat show cutthroat froldatt lnitwear inow-all pickpocket playboy pushchair rattlesnake spendthrift ‘stopgap swearword talk show telltale (b) corkscrew fire escape _firefly landslide rolleall sunrise sunset sunshine 3.5.10 “take-off ‘Verb+particle (V+Pc), originating double-stress phrasal and prepositional verbs, take single stress when functioning as nouns, ¢.g. to 'take “off is nominalised as a “take-off, see. examples in (a). V+Pc can also function as adjective, as in a “breakaway faction. backup blackout breakdown breakthrough brec brush-up ckeckin checkout comeback countdown cutback cutout fallout flashback go-ahead handout hangover hideaway Kickoff knockdown knockout letdown leup lookout playback play-off press-up pullover push-up rip-off roll-on runaway see-through shoot-out sit-down sit-in spin-off standby stopover takeaway turnover write-off write-up 3.5.11 “background ‘Adverb+noun (Adv+N) originate compounds which function mainly as nouns, e.g. aftereffect Antichrist crossroads forearm ‘foreground foreman foresight ‘oretaste in-patient ir outlaw overcoat infrastructure ; overdose overheads overtime postscriptWord stress and sentence accent Scan subsection supermarket underclothes underground 3.5.12 “Oxford Street, Deansgate The nouns street and gate do not take stress in street name collocations, which makes the patterns single-stressed. On the contrary, all other words denoting thoroughfares. are stressed (see §3.6.3), e.g. Bond Street Downing Sireet Fleet Street Princess Street Regent Street Bishopsgate Deansgate Fishergate Southgate Westgate 3.5.13 Miscellaneous 3.5.13.1 Verb+adverb originate nouns, e.g. Bettogether know-how standstill 3.5.13.2 Verb#verb originate verbs, nouns and adjectives, e.g. touch-type (v.) make-believe (n.) slapdash (adj.) 3.5.13.3 Abbreviation+noun originate nouns, e.g. Aclevel Olevel L-driver T-bone T-junction U-turn Veneck 3.6 DOUBLE STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.6.1 ‘kitchen “sink Noun lnoun 2 (N1+N2), where NI has specific reference, as in'kitchen “sink (=the sink of the Kitchen), In some cases, NI may represent an organisation, a location, or a time, as in (a). NI can also be @ value, as in (b). Noun-genitive cases are included in (c), In all cases the resulting compound functions as noun, e.g. (@) academy award — bank holiday bay window bedroom slippers bedroom window block leters bottom drawer camp bed city centre daylight robbery diningroom table district nurse family allowance family doctor family planning family ree fellow citizen fellow creature ‘girl Friday girl guide ground floor “group therapy hall porter headmaster lawn tennis life expectancy life imprisonment lump sum mass production morning paper mother tongue night watchman office party pedestrian precinct platinum blonde Sarurday night school hall School uniform School year shop window town hall rade union win beds zebra crossing (b) dollar bill eso coin pound noteHéctor Ortiz Lira VITA TTTTTTTATATAANARNANNNANNN (c) devil's advocate gentleman's agreement students’ union teacher's pet women’s lib 3.6.2 ‘baby “boy Noun 14noun 2 (N1+N2), where the referent is both N1 and N2, e.g. in ‘baby “boy the referent is both a baby and a boy, e.g. acid rain baby girl clock radio arden city ‘guardian angel infant prodigy junk food famer driver mother hen poison gas ‘queen bee queen mother radio telescope strip cartoon Student teacher twin brother twin sister woman driver woman writer 3.6.3 ‘Buckingham “Palace Noun 1+noun 2 (N1+N2), where NI (and sometimes also N2) is a proper name; the majority are place names, as in (a). Examples of street names are those in (b). Group (c) includes proper noun-genitive examples. For exceptions consisting in single stress patterns, see (d) and §3.5.12. (@) Achilles heel Atacama Desert Cambridge University Channel Tunnel Chicago Tribune Christmas Day Davis Cup Father Christmas Gaza Strip Greater London Hollywood stars Hudson River Hyde Park Tron Curtain James Bond Jane Eyre Jodrell Bank Loch Ness London Airport London Bridge Magellan Strait Manchester City Mexican wave Mexico City Molotov cocktail Morse code Mother Nature Niagara Falls North Sea Paddington Station Panama Canal River Thames Sherlock Holmes Sherwood Forest Shetland Islands ‘Tom Collins Union Jack World Bank World Cup Yorkshire pudding (b) Gloucester Avenue Oxford Circus Milton Close Bedford Crescent Stainburn Drive Hammersmith Flyover Spring Gardens Plymouth Grove Penny Lane Oxford Road Leicester Square Mancunian Way (©) Adam's apple Aladdin's cave Hobson's choice Noah's ark @® Exceptions: Home Office Lake District Labour Party 3.6.4 ‘apple ‘pie @_ Noun L+noun 2 (N1+N2), where NI (appie) is frequently a mass noun N2 (pie) is made of. The difference with the “raindrop implies intentionality; see (a). Gi) Exceptions to the above rule are single-stressed collocations mainly with juice and cake, as in (b). ie type of compound (see §3.5.3) is that thisWord stress and sentence accent aA eM Git) Double vs. single stress may produce different meanings, as illustrated in (c). (@) bacon sandwich banana split brick wall bronze medal camomile tea carbon dioxide chocolate biscuit cotton wool creamcracker crystal ball custard apple fish finger fruit salad glass fibre gold medal iron gate ivory tower lemon curd Temon squash log cabin mince pie mud pie plum pudding pork pie rag doll rice pudding rope ladder rubber band rubber stamp sausage roll semolina pudding silver medal stone wall suede shoes (b) Exceptions: lemon juice orange juice chocolate cake Christmas cake fruitcake sponge cake cornflakes coconut mitk © ‘paper “bag (=bag made of paper) ‘paper bag (=bag for newspapers) ‘cheese “biscuit (=one made of cheese) “cheese biscuit (one for eating with cheese) 3.6.5 ‘compact “disc, ‘second-hand @ Adjective+noun (A+N) collocations which function as nouns usually take double Suess by default. Most adjectives occurring in this type of compound are unlikely to occur in Single-stressed compounds due to their semantic specificity, as illustrated in (a). This type of collocation is very productive. Some adjectives take the form of ‘-ed’ adjectivals; othe” less Specialised, adjectives participating in compounds are shown in (by; most of the items in thas section function as nouns; a few, mainly as adjectives. Section (c) includes collocations involving proper names, and section (4), the main single-stress exceptions, (ii) A+N collocations can also function as adjectives, some of them as either pre- or postmodifiers (ie. attibutively and predicatively), such as double-stress ‘second. “hand, and others mainly or only as premodifiers (ie. attributively), such as single-strese “redbrck (see §3.5.6). The ‘second-hand type of compound is illustrated in section (b), (ii) EFL leamers must bear in mind the changes in the stress pattems that some of these compounds undergo when they function as adjectives and afe either followed or Preceded by another stress in connected speech. This type of change, called ‘stress shift’ 0 the literature, is a clear indication of the tendency in English 10 avoid the occurrence ot adjacent stresses, as explained in §1.7. This can already be seen in some of the collocations in (a), cf. 'conti“nental ~ ‘continental “breakfast, 'undi ‘vided ~ ‘undivided attention, e.g. (@) abominable snowman absolute majority accidental death acid rain ancient monument animated cartoon artificial respiration ammospheric pressure atomic energy audiovisual aids ‘automatic pilot barbed wire cardinal point citric acid civil war classified ad common sense continental breakfast current affairs deadly sin definite article diplomatic immunity direct object dirty trick domestic animal domestic appliance ‘Floppy disk Foreign affairs further education general knowledgeHéctor Ortiz Lira LATTA ATTEN genetic engineering giant panda glotal stop guided missile honourable mention identical twin indefinite article industrial action industrial revolution inflationary spiral intellectual property intensive care literary criticism live performance magnetic tape minimum wage mobile library ‘modal auxiliary national anthem native speaker natural history natural science nervous breakdown nuclear reactor personal computer poral stereo lain clothes plastic surgery litical prisoner Possessive pronoun postal order practical joke precious stone preconceived ideas premarital sex prime minister printed circuit Private detective private school professional advice Proper noun public library } ‘public opinion Public relations public school { public transport sacred cow Secret admirer | Secret service Seventh heaven sexual discrimination | Sexual harassment Sexual intercourse single bed skimmed milk special delivery square brackets Square root stringed-instriment syllabic consonant undivided attention vicious circle wishful thinking (0) back garden bad news best man bestseller black currant black eye black market black pudding broad beans brown rice brown sugar close shave I cold feet dark glasses dark horse dead end i double bed double-decker easy chair false alarm first aid first-class ‘first-rate ‘flat feet {front door ‘front page ‘ull house ‘full moon {free port ‘front page full stop ‘full-time ‘good cause green fingers happy event happy medium hard cash hard currency hard disk hard drugs hard labour red carpet hard luck hard shoulder high-class high fidelity high tea lastnight last siraw long-distance long-term lost cause lost property _ loudspeaker low tide middle class middle finger old man open-air part-time | plain-clothes red tape rough diamond round figures \ round trip safe sex second best second class I Second-hand second helping second thoughts short circuit ' short story slow motion ssmalll change small print ) Soft furnishings strong language sweet nothings tall story | wet blanket white elephant ‘ © Arctic Circle Big Brother Black Sea ‘Common Marker Deep South European Community Good Friday Grand Canyon \ Greater London Holy Ghost Holy Scripture Middle Ages ! Middle East National Trust New Delhi New York Old Testament Open University Pacific Ocean Promised Land ; Red Cross Red Sea Received Pronunciation Roman alphabet Round Table Royal Highness Russian rouletteWord sees and sentence eccent aan aemanmemmmncmny (3) Scottish Gaelic Supreme Court Wild West Yellow Pages (a) Exceptions: Black Country Holy Week Long Beach West Country White House 3.6.6 ‘brand: ‘new Nountadiective (NA) collocations give rise mainly to adjectives. The double-stress Pater corresponds 10 the citation pate; as premodifier it takes early-stress and os Postmodifier, late stess, cf.a.‘navy-biue “sweater ~I pre 'fer navy- “blue: see (a), A email Sroup of N+A collocations with double-stress functions as nouns; these are listed in (b)* eg. (@) bone-dry bone lazy bottle green brick-red class-conscious dirt cheap duty-free Inee-deep navy-blue ozone-friendly itch-black itch-dark post-free rent-free Sea-green sky-blue sky-high snow-white stone-blind stone-cold stone-dead stone deaf stone sober tax-free user-friendly worldwide (b) Amnesty International attorney general crystal clear director general God almighty notary public poet laureate President elect prince consort proof positive Secretary-general ‘surgeon general Sunday best 3.6.7 ‘old-fashioned Adiestive-nountadjectval [-ed] (A+N[-ed]) combinations give rise to a group of very derealen tdiertves with double stress in their citation patterns. Stress shift modifies the sefault pattem in a way similar to that in §3.6.5 and §3.6.6,e.¢, totally absentmmnce eo ‘absent-minded pro fessor. absent-minded —_bad-tempered broad-minded blue-eved close-fisted cold-blooded dark-haired double-breasted empty-handed empty-headed fat-bottomed four-legged high-pitched high-priced high-spirited il-humoured long-winded middle-aged narrow-minded one-sided open-minded quick-tempered quick-wined round-shouldered Stiff-necked Strong-minded Sweet-tempered __three-storeyed nightfisted 3.6.8 ‘ham- fisted, ‘home-made G) Noun L+noun 2+adjectival [-ed] (N1+N2[-ed]) collocations result in adjectives Hith double stress by default; this patem is modified by the stress shift role in des regular fashion, ie. predicatvely: She is ‘very self-contained ‘and attributively: a ‘self-contained “flat,Héctor Ortiz Lira 6) mmo massHsenwneemsuNlse oe se amumasoA RAMEN Noun+participle (N+P) compounds, which also function as adjectives, behave in a similar way to the previous group, e.g. air-conditioned _bell-bottomed Jfilter-tipped ham-fisted hand-knitted handmade handwritten machine-made ‘man-made middle-aged self-centered self-contained self-employed self'made self-satisfied selftaught tailor-made 3.6.9 ‘rolling ‘stone Verb [-ing]+noun (V[-ing]+N) originate nouns in which N is usually the subject of the verbal action in V, i.e. ‘the stone rolls’. The corresponding collocation with single stress (ce. §3.5.5) is much more productive, e.g. developing country falling star finishing touch —_flying colours flying saucer" floating voter ‘freezing cold helping hand ing article leading actor leading author leading question living fossil living memory living wage loving kindness missing link ‘moving picture moving staircase paying guest revolving door running commentary running total running water shooting star siting target sisting tenant sleeping policeman sliding door spitting image standing order standing ovation supporting role underlying form visiting professor weeping willow working-class working week 3.6.10 ‘dark “blue Adjective 1+adjective 2 (A1+A2) produce double-stress adjectives by default, which are readily subject to stress-shift, e.g. ‘Anglo-A*merican ~An ‘Anglo-American a~greement: Anglo-American Anglo-Chilean Anglo-Saxon bitter-sweet British-American dark green deaf mute double-quick Latin American light blue light green red-hot royal blue 3.6.11 'good- “looking Adjective+verb [-ing] (A+V[-ing]) give rise to adjectives with double stress in the lexical pattern as well as stress shifted versions, e.g: An ‘easygoing “teacher (attributively) ~ He's 'very easy going (predicatively). easygoing ever-changing everlasting far-reaching __forthcomin hard-working _heavy-going long-lasting long-playing longstanding longsuffering outgoingWord stress and sentence accent Mec 3.6.12 Miscellaneous 3.6.12.1 Self+verb [-ing] originate adjectives, e.g self-catering “self-defeating selfraising self-supporting 3.6.12.2 Noun (agent)+adverb originate nouns, e.g. hhanger-on looker-on runner-up passer-by 3.6.12.3 Adverb+participle give origin to adjectives, e.g. farfetched ‘far-flung (far-gone 3.7 THREE-WORD COMPOUNDS Zhe following lists contain some of the most common three-word collocations classified according to their stress pattems. The entries appear in alphabetical order and me, account is given of the rules which have yielded the final pattems. The pattern in §3.7.1, the most frequent, contains mainly stress-shifted modifiers attached to a final stressed noun, The great majority of examples function as nouns. 3.7.1 'Second World “War apple pie bed audiovisual aids back-alley abortion blackboard jungle broken-hearted lover closed circuit television commonsense decision first degree murder firsthand account five-pound charge ‘five-star hotel happy-go-lucky ‘middle-age spread nationwide broadcast nexidoor neighbour old age pension one-track mind one-way rraffic rearview mirror roll-top desk self-confessed liar self-made man soft-boiled eggs stamped addressed envelope ten-pound fee test-tube baby three-day week three-ring circus top-class model Pwenty-p stamp bwenty-pound fine bwo-piece suit well-balanced diet 3.7.2. morning “after pill April Fool's Day autonomic nervous system good luck charm lefi-luggage office love-hate relationship no-goarea no-win situation non-stick frying-pan arent-teacher association poison-pen letter red blood cell school-leaving age 3.7.3 ‘merry-go-round coffee-table book Jfire-insurance policy greenhouse effect inkjet printer ‘mature-age student windscreen wiperHéctor Ortiz Lira VTC ToT TATA 4 Sentence accent 4.1 INTRODUCTION Sentence accent is an aspect of postlexical phonology which some authors ascribe to the area of accentuation and others to the area of intonation. For Halliday (1967), who analyses the problem under the name of ‘tonicity’, this is one of the three components intonation basically consists of.!? His view is widely shared by other phoneticians in Britain. The close interaction between intonation and accentuation made Kingdon (1938) devise his ‘tonetic stress’ marking system (§1.6.4), in order to account for both prosodies simultaneously — accentuation by the presence of the marks and intonation by the shape thereof. In the USA, writers, with the exception of Bolinger, have analysed stress and pitch as separate features, Bolinger (1958) argued that syllables are made prominent mainly by means of pitch movement (see foomote 4), while admitting that other pitch movements contribute to intonation exclusively. In the present work, sentence accentuation (je. the prominence pattem of utterances) and intonation (i.e. the pitch pattern of utterances) will be analysed as two independent aspects (or as ‘the two sides of the intonational coin’, according to Ladd, 1996). Whichever position we take, this is an aspect of prosody where some of the most important body of theoretical discussion has developed in the last two decades or so. The main objectives of chapter 4 are, in the first place, to discuss the terminology related to the subject; secondly, to examine long-standing notions such as normal, contrastive and emphatic accent and, finally, to analyse the principles which govem nuclear accent placement; these were mentioned in §1.3. 4.2 NUCLEAR ACCENT Following the British tradition of prosody, the present analysis of sentence accentuation is based on the notion of nuclear accent, which in §1.4 was phonetically identified as the syllable starting the last pitch movement (contrast, obtrusion) in an intonation-group and, functionally, as the syllable that marks the beginning of the most meaningful portion of utterance. In this respect, Cruttenden (1997: 42) explains that ‘there seems to be some general psycholinguistic principle at work whereby the proces sing of intonational meaning takes place at the end of each [intonation-} group and the most recent signal carries the ‘most meaning’. Linguists writing as far back as the 17th century took an interest in problems related to emphasis on one word rather than another in an‘uterance as part of their concern for elocution, and this became more noticeable towards the end of the 18th century. Although the concept of nucleus can be seen in linguists’ writings towards the tum of the century, nobody seemed to feel the need to define it, Sweet (1913), the most influential phonetician of the 19th century, called it ‘predominant stress’. The beginning of the 20th century is the period where intonation took off, and clear schools of thought began to develop. Palmer (1922), the founder of the nuclear approach to intonation, defined nucleus as ‘the stressed syllable of the most prominent word’ in an utterance.’ After Kingdon (1938), already mentioned as the inventor of the ‘tonetic-stress’ marking system, came Crystal (1969) and O'Connor & Amold (1973). All of them coincide in establishing the interdependence 4 | 4Word stress and sentence accent cn NM between prominence and pitch and in general agree on the internal structure of intonation- groups. (See foomote 5.) One further point in common is that none of them elaborated a theory of nucleus placement One of the main differences between the British and the American schools of prosody is the theoretical status attached to the last accent of the utterance. Americans in general, including Bolinger and, more recently, Pierrehumbert (the main representative of the auto. segmental theory), ignore the notion, as did the Spanish school of prosody. To sum up, according to the British school of prosody, nucleus is a feature of intonation which coincides with a stress; in the American school, nucleus is mainly a feature of stress which may or may Rot co-occur with pitch movement. That is, both approaches agree in terms of one basic notion, viz, the existence of a degree of accent which overpowers all other accents in the intonation-group. Independent of theoretical affiliation, the notion of nuclear accent, whether formally acknowledged or otherwise, has received a multiplicity of names in the literature. ‘Tonie syllable’ is the term used by Halliday (1967), Crystal (1969) and Brazil (1994). Bolinger acknowledges the existence of what he variously calls “terminal accent’, ‘last main accent” and “major accent’. Other names have been used -‘primary accentistress’, ‘terminal accentistress’, ‘final accenUstress’, ‘focal accent/stress’, etc.; the term ‘sentence stress" can also be found, but students had better be wamed about it, due to the occasional overlapping of the terms stress and accent. One final word about the term ‘sentence accent’: we have adopted this label mainly because of its wide acceptance in the prosodic literature. It may. however, not be the most accurate, due to the implications of the word ‘sentence’. More precise terms would be, for instance, ‘uterance-level accentuation’ or ‘posilexical accentuation’. Since a key factor to convey meaning involves the last accent in the intonation-group and because there are important differences in the way English and Spanish assign the location of this accent, we shall devote an extensive portion of this chapter to ‘matters related to nucleus placement. 4.3 NUCLEARITY Nucleus has been defined according to formal and functional criteria. In general, definitions can be classified imto three main groups: (i) phonetic, (ii) distributional, and (iii) functional. Some definitions can be alloted to two groups simultaneously: @) Phonetic definitions concentrate on the type of prominence displayed by the nuclear syllable. Here we find definitions which refer to ‘the stressed syllable of the most prominent word’, ‘major pitch movement’, ‘the syllable camying maximal prominence’. “the syllable at which a significant pitch movement begins’, etc. (4)_Distributional definitions refer to position in the intonation-group, usually the word ‘last’, e.g. “the last prominent syllable’, ‘the last fully stressed syllable’, ‘the last main accent’, ‘the final accented syllable’, ‘the rightmost of a number of assigned accents". etc. Gi) Functional definitions, of a more phonological nature, say what the nucleus does, e.g. the centre of an intonation contour with which ‘the comment of the utterance would. be associated’ (DaneS, 1967: 226), ‘the primary cue to what the speaker considers the most important part of his unerance’ (Cutler, 1984: 87), the ‘chief means of signalling the focus marking “a phonological reality thats relevant Outside the area of pitch contours proper" (Gussenhoven, 1984: 22, 326-327), and the location which determines whether t broad focus interpretation is possible’ (Ladd, 1997: 203)Héctor Ortiz Lira CEEETTC OAT TTT NARRATOR ‘As became clear in footnotes 4 and 5, we have prefered a distributional definition of nucleus over a phonetic one, since it is perfectly posible to find a nuclear accent whose pitch movement is less prominent than a prenuclear pitch accent.? 4.4 NUCLEUS PLACEMENT THEORIES Approaches to nucleus placement belong mainly to four schools of thought: the traditional, the syntactic, the semantic, and the focal. It should be pointed out that some views are not totaly independent of each other, and that there is a diversity of intermediate positions. 4.4.1 THE TRADITIONAL MODEL One of the most traditional analyses bases its argumentation on a classification of words according to the semantic burden they carry and consequent capacity of accentability when used in connected speech. The division into lexical items (also called content words) and structural items (or function, or grammatical words) — corresponding roughly to ‘open’ and “closed” classes (Lyons, 1977) — has been adopted mainly (but not exclusively) by EFL vwriters due to the simplicity implied by the approach: the former category has been found to be far more accentable than the Jatter. (A similar assumption can be found in the American school, e.g. Trager and Smith, 1951, and Chomsky and Halle, 1968). The following tables ‘summarise the information given by authors of three different theoretical persuasions —Quilis (1985) for Spanish, and Pike (1945) and Kingdon (1958a) for English- on the subject of accented and deaccented word categories, for comparison’s sake: WORD-CLASSES TYPICALLY ACCENTED QUILIS (1985) PIKE (1945) KINGDON (19584) nouns ‘nouns nearly all nouns adjectives: adjectives adjectives (proper, participials) + pronouns (subjective, pronouns (indefinite, pronouns (demonstrative, “objective, indefinite, demonstrative, possessive, emphatic, Possessive, demonstrative, interrogative) interrogative) imterrogative) determiners (demonstrative, determiners (demonstrative, ‘numerical, cardinal, ‘numerical, cardinal, ordinal, indefinite, ordinal, interrogative, ‘mtesrogative, indefinite negative) articles) verbs (main, auxiliary) ‘verbs (main) verbs (main, negative nee adverbs adverbs (1ime, place, mannes) adverbs (ime, place, manner, frequency) interjection imterjections reposition (seguin) longer prepositions ‘conjunctions (compound) ‘conjunctions (emphatic)Word noes ond sentnce acent Aan nencemmnawaanane (7) WORD CLASSES TYPICALLY UNACCENTED QUILIS (1985) PIKE (1945) KINGDON (1958) nouns of wide denotation pronouns (complement, ‘Pronouns (reflexive, personal) Pronouns (reflexive, relative, reflexive) personal, reciprocal) determiners (possessive, ‘determiners (possessive, definite anicies) relative, indefinite, antcles) verbs (auxiliany) verbs (affirmative auxiliary in statements) adverbs (relative) adverbs (degree) adverbs (degree, relative) Prepositions Prepositions Prepositions (monosyllabic) ‘most conjunctions conjuntions (co-ordinating, subordinating, comparative) forms of address Analyses of data confirm the assumption: Crystal (1969: 267) reports that ‘tonicity was almost entirely restricted to the four “lexical” classes, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (93%)' and compares his results with the 95% obtained by Quirk et al. (1964) Interestingly, Crystal is puzzled at the marked predominance of nouns over verbs ‘The above description of word classes has been incorporated into another traditional rule of nucleus placement, viz, that generally known as nuclear accent on the “Last Lexical Item fue (LLI for shor). The first formal characterisation is in Halliday (1967: 22-23): “the tonic, in neutral tonicity, falls on the last lexical item in the tone group”. ‘This means that in utterances which do not express conwast or emphasis, ie. those which are neutral (or normal), the nuclear accent occurs on the last noun, verb, etc. On the other hand. there sre two conditions under which “marked tonicity” can'occur: when a non-final element (either suuctural or lexical) is “contrastive’, and when a final element is ‘given’, i.e. "has boca entioned before or is present in the siwation’. Two examples adapted from Halliday can illustrate the difference: (4.1) Ar Sorry. I've just broken an egecup B: "Don't worry. There's a'nother one in the “cupboard, (Neutral tonicity; nuclear accént on the last lexical item.) (4.2) A: Here's the eggcup you wanted. But we need an extra one, I’m afraid B: There’ s @ nother one in the cupboard. (Marked tonicity; B takes cupboard as siven and so the nuclear accent falls on the last new lexical item. In an analysis of a corpus of about 1,200 intonation-groups, Altenberg (1987) found that () there is a strong tendency for the last lexical tem to carry the nucleus (78%), (a) English nouns have the greatest potental for prosodic prominence and particularly nuclen accent (73%); (ii) the nuclear accent falls on the last word of the intonation-group in 88% ofHéctor Ortiz Lira (@) eunownsntsnenmnnennnlls See onnsseenuaumewoAn the cases; this suggests replacing a rule based on the lexical-structural distinction, such as the LLI rule, by a purely positional rule for predictive purposes, i.e. a kind of ‘Last Item’ rule of accent which could be worded: ‘There's a strong tendency for intonation-groups to have the muclear accent on the last item.’ This, by the way, is the rule which seems to govern nuclear accent placement in Spanish (Ortiz-Lira, 1994). 4.4.2. THE SYNTACTIC MODEL ‘The traditional representative of the syntactic approach is Chomsky & Halle (1968). ‘Their main tenet is stated by the authors at p. 25: ‘Once the speaker has selected a sentence with a particular syntactic structure and certain lexical items [...] the choice of stress contour is not a matter subject to further independent decision.’ And the following foomote: ‘We assume that the position of emphatic siress is marked in the surface structure, and we neglect matters that we have assigned to the theory of performance.’ The syntactic approach to nucleus placement can be summarised in three main points: () Accent placement is determined exclusively by syntactic structure and predicted by rule, without any reference to either semantic or pragmatic factors; since syntactically driven rules can assign only one accentual pattern to each syntactic structure, it follows that (ji) Fach uterance has a normal or neutral accent placement, and consequently (ii) Any other options for nucleus placement are considered special, i.e. either contrastive or emphatic. This deterministic approach was soon found inadequate to deal not only with a number of uuerances of anormal type, ie. those ending in an accented final lexical item, but also with a variety of other patterns which take an early accent but would still be considered ‘unemphatic and non-contrastive, as in (4.3), where both final lexical items, open and made are unaccented, c.g. (4.3) A: Whatare you doing “here? B: You left the “door open ‘A: Orperhaps you got a"key made Important ammendments to the original generative approach through the introduction of information elements into the discussion were introduced, among others, by Bresnan (1971) and Schmerling (1976). In spite of the correlations which can be found between accentability and syntax, the exclusively syntactic view to nucleus placement is generally considered untenable in the current literature, 4.4.3. THE SEMANTIC MODEL ‘The main (and probably only) representative of the semantic (also known as the ‘highlighting’) model is Bolinger (1972, 1978, 1986). He argues that speakers assign accents by some kind of a mental mechanism which directly reflects their intent, totally ignoring syntactic factors. Bolinger opposes this ‘free will’ approach to the deterministic view in most of his writings on the subject, and concludes that it is the speaker, not the grammar, which ‘does the choosing’. He explicitly criticises Chomsky (1971: 205) for automatically claiming the need for contrastive accent in cases of syntactic parallelism, as in (4.4), (with adapted notation):Word srs and sentence ocent nat cemsnnensecmnnasens (3) (4.4) John is neither Eager to please, nor EAsy to please, not CERtain to please Bolinger argues that the above pattem is also used in constructions which are not syntactically parallel, but are made parallel by means of accent. While explicitly stating that “the symtax in no way determines the accent placement’, Ladd (1980: 79-80), an exponent of the focal approach, would argue that parallel is a semantic notion signalled by focus, as shown in (4.5), where three different accent patterns render three different meanings: (4.5) A: When was the last time you saw any of your relatives? By: My MOTHer called me yesterday--does that count? (=would my mother count as a relative?) Bz: My mother CALLED me yesterday--does that count? (=would calling count as some kind of seeing?) Bs: My MOTHer called ME yesterday--does that count? (=would my mother getting in touch with me count the same as my getting in touch with her?) In Bolinger’s view, words will get an accent according to their relative or absolute semantic weight expressed in terms of unexpectedness; thus, highly predictable words are unlikely to be accented (e.g. make and things), whereas highly unpredictable words are likely to carry accent (e.g. emphasise and insects), as in: (4.6) Thave a ‘point to make (4.7) Thave a point to “emphasise Similarly, absolute semantic weight is at play in examples such as: (4.8) Those are “crawling things (4.9) Those are crawling “insects Lexical information load and speakers’ intention are pivotal factors in Bolinger’s theory. His theoretical position that the location of nuclear accents is determined by ‘Semantic and emotional highlighting’ is put into practice by two interacting accentual notions, ‘accents of interest’ (4.10 and 4.11) and ‘accents of power’ (4.12 and 4.13), neither of which is formally defined anywhere. The former allow the speaker to highlight individual words (i.e. they ‘inform’), and the later allow the arrangement of the accents, so that they can occu near the beginning and/or the end of the intonation-group (ie. they “impress"). All examples are from Bolinger (1986), e.g (4.10) A: Why don’t you like fluorescent lamps? B: The “hum annoys me, (Annoyance is expected; accent of interest on the noun.) (4.11) A: You look worried B: I “am worried. My “mother’s going in for an operation. (Deflated end creates a Particular effect because it goes against expectations.) (4.12) Tcouldn’t be'gin to tell you all the trouble I’ve been through. (One single “exclamatory early accent’ of power.) (4.13) Good morning. How are “you (As an opener, not as a response; an exclamatory late accent of power.) The semantic view to accent placement, however, also runs into difficulty with certainHéctor Ortiz Lira UTA AOA TATA pattems, such as the different degree of accentability of English arguments and predicates. As will be seen in the next section, nouns normally take prevalence over verbs in matters of accentuation. Bolinger’s only explanation is his notion of ‘downplaying’, but downplaying is also evoked to account for problems as dissimilar as the deaccenting of repeated material, as in (4.11), or of the so-called ‘empty words’, as in (4.8). The two last approaches, the syntactic and the semantic, caused extensive arguments and counter-arguments at the beginning of the 70’s; the central point of the discussion was-to explain controversial accentual pattems. 4.4.4 THE FOCAL MODEL ‘A general idea of focus is one which we do not seem to find much difficulty in understanding, in spite of the fact that it remains an ill-defined notion in the literature; it appears as if authors generally avoid defining it In general terms, and irrespective of theoretical affiliation, we intuitively assume that “focusing is a central part of what we do when we accent’ (Ladd, 1979: 98). We will restrict the discussion to focus in connection with (and realised by) nuclear accent assignment. One of the first mentions of the term focus along these lines is introduced by Halliday (1967) when he talks about ‘points of information focus’, as part of the theory that explains the way in which intonation relates to information structure in spoken language. He also examines the distinction between marked and unmarked focus. Focus has also been variously characterised. Culicover & Rochemont (1983) have suggested that focus is determined by context; for Gussenhoven (1984) and: Maidment (1990), focus marks semantic constituents; for Ladd (1979), focus is a syntactic phenom- enon; according to Selkirk (1984), focus applies to syntactic constituents, and Allerton (1978) does not think it possible to define it in phonological or syntactic or even semantic terms. What we do know is that focus represents an intermediate level of analysis, i.e, it provides a convenient device to explain the (quite often) elusive correlation between a phonological notion such as nuclear accent and prominent material of different lengths (from one syllable to whole constituents and sentences), and particularly the word which authors have variously characterised as the most deserving of the label ‘new’, the most important, informative, newsworthy, unpredictable, etc. Focus, then, is not to be defined according to nucleus placement; the relationship is rather the other way round: the accentual pattern of an uutierance (including the nuclear accent) is the physical manifestation of the focus of the utterance. Summing up, there is general agreement that (i) accents signal focus; (i) not all focused constituents need take an accent, and (iii) unfocused constituents do ‘not take an accent. Our main task will be to identify the focus of an utterance and within the focused portion, the syllable bearing the nuclear accent. Since, by definition, the nuclear accent consists of a single syllable, the difficulty arises when there is a large portion of utterance in focus — sometimes even the whole of the intonation-group. 4.4.4.1 BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS Two further concepts will be adopted here, which are closely connected with the information structure of the utterance: broad and narrow focus; the former was coined by Ladd (1980) and refers to the fact that the information conveyed by the intonation-group is completely new (‘all-new’) and therefore ‘in focus’. On the other hand, an utterance is in tWord stress aid sentence accent ane 6) narrow focus when only a portion of it is in focus, i.e. when it contains new and given information.'* This is illustrated in the next examples: (4.14) to (4.17) are in broad focus. They can be thought of as B’s responses to questions such as What's the maner?, What's rnew i» What happened?,etc.; we can also say that the answers provided by B are unexpected and therefore come ‘out of the blue’; B’s exchanges in (4.18) to (4.20) are in narrow focus, te they contain given information, i.e. information already present in the discourse. e.p, (4.14) [for'got to ‘bring my “library card]pocus (4.15) [My “car broke down}rocys (4.16) [The 'president’s de'cided to sub'mit his ‘resig nation], (4.17) [Too many ‘cooks ‘spoil the “broth}gocys locus (4.18) A: Did you sleep well? B: [icredibly}pqcys well (4.19) A: You say you need twenty-five B: [Thiny-Irocus five (4.20) A: What do you think of the new measures taken? Were they effective? B: I think they were [ inlrocus effective ‘The above examples appear to indicate that scope of focus is a mauer of degree, going from the broadest (broad focus) to the narrowest, as shown in (4.20), where a’ sinsle morpheme is brought into focus. More specifically, in utterances in broad focus, the general tendency is for the nuclear accent to go on the last lexical item; the only exception is (4-15) Which, together with other similar patterns, will be explained in §4.4.4.5: in (4.14), the accent falls on the lexically stressed syllable of the single-stressed lexical item (compound) library card. In uuerances in narrow focus the nuclear accent goes on. the fpoweed constituent. Three general conclusions emerge from the examples: (i) the narrower the focus, the more obvious nucleus placement is (ie. the more direct its relation to accent): (ii) the nuclear accent falls within the focused material; (iii) the focused material involves new information, (For focused constituents involving given information, which are consequently accented, see §4.4.4.4.) 4.4.4.2. ADVANTAGES OF THE FOCAL APPROACH We shall now analyse the reasons why the focal analysis is a clear advantage over the semantic and syntactic views. In the first place, it takes contextual and pragmatic aspects into account, without necessarily disregarding syntactic considerations. One clear example of the Superiority of the focal analysis is that it can satisfactorily explain similar surface. patterns which are ambiguous between different readings. For instance, (4.21) Isaw “John this morning can be interpreted either as in (4.22), i.e. a ‘normal’, broad-focus reading, or as in (4.23), ie. a contrastive, narrow-focus reading, e.2. (4.22) A: Why are you so happy? B: [I saw “John this moming}pocusHéctor Ortiz Lira LTT TTT AANA (4.23) A: Did you see ‘Pete this morning? B: [saw [‘John]pocus this moming ‘The last two examples also show that nucleus placement alone (John, in this case) cannot indicate the scope of the focus; this can only be done by taking contextual and situational considerations into account. ‘The focal approach can also offer a satisfactory explanation for the accentual patterns traditionally called ‘neutral’ and ‘contrastivelemphatic’. We shall say that normal nucleus placement is the pattern of an utterance in broad focus; contrastive and emphatic accentuation correspond to utterances in narrow focus. But, as we shall see now, normal nucleus placement does not only leave the focus broad, but also unspecified. For instance, the aocentual pattern in (4.24) We attended an intemational ‘conference last week can derive from different types of focus, from broad (as in 4.25) to narrow, in different degrees of narrowness, e.g. (4.25) A: What's the news? B: [We attended an international “conference last weeklpocus (4.26) A: What did you do? B: We [atterided an international ‘conference last week]rocys (4.27) A: Where did you go? B: We attended [an international “conference last weeklrocus (4.28) A: Where did you go last week? B: We attended (an intemational “conference]rocys last week Clearly, it is not possible to characterise a given accentual pattem as being in either broad or narrow focus without considering contextual factors. Another advantage of the focal approach is that it can offer more satisfactory answers to patterns of interference across languages. For instance, if a native speaker of English has to explain why he has arrived late, he might say (4.29) [My “car didn’t worklrocus A native speaker of Spanish, on the other hand, will normally say: (4.30) [El auto no me funcic'né}pocys A semantic view of nucleus placement can only claim that the English speaker is more interested in the car and the Spanish speaker in the working -a very weak argument Instead, we shall say that focus is a language universal concept, and the ways in which languages realise focus through accent are language specific, i.e. the rules governing the relationship depend on each language in particular. Ladd’s contribution to a theory of nucleus placement is significant. His notions of ‘deaccenting’ and ‘default accent’ are central issues in his theory and of very practicalord sues and sentence sccent acca msmmmmmnanensey (5) Yalue from an EFL. point of view. He defines deaccenting as ‘absence of the [accent] that an item would normally have’ (1979: 107). But deaccenting also implies moving the mrclen accent onto an item which is thus accented by default. In sum, a nuclear accent can resalt from applying focus on a particular constituent (focus accent) or as a result of default accu, ugh deaccenting. Examples of default accent are those in (4.32) and (4.34). It is worth oucing that in the majority of cases the nuclear accent is shifted to the left (as shown in 4.32), and sometimes to the right of the broad-focus versions (as in 4.34); the brondvfoct versions are (4.31) and (4.33), e.g. (4.31) A: What's the mater? B: I'mafraid Ihave some very distressing “news. (FOCUS ACCENT) (4.32) A: Any news? B: I'm afraid Ihave some very di'stressing news. (DEFAULT ACCEND) (4.33) A: What's the mater? B: This is nota subject we could reach a ‘compromise about. FOCUS ACCENT) (4.34) A: Couldn’t we reach a compromise? B: This is nota subject we could reach a compromise about. (DEFAULT ACCENT) Default accent and narrow focus accent are the two types of non-neutral accent place- ent Ladd recognises. AAs for the concept of contrastive accent, we shall understand both default accent ‘that may result from the deaccenting of an item that would otherwise be accented’ (Ladd, 1979: 129), and narrow focus accent arising from a desire to contract 4.4.4.3 NEWNESS AND GIVENNESS Srempis to formalise a theory of information structure, including the concepts of given Ys. new information, are due to work begun by the Prague linguists at the beginning of the dunarked Position of given information is atthe beginning of the intonation- group, and (ip the condition of givenness is determined by the speaker. We shall say that statement (iy i only a general tendency. (See §4.4.4.4) hor preceding context’. For Brown & Yule (1983) its information “physically presen is the context’ or ‘mentioned in the discourse’. Various characterisations speak aboue wie “pation “in the ai or ‘on stage’, ‘shared knowledge’, ‘common ground’, ‘backgrowna’, ‘assumed familiarity’, etc. Finally, given information can be established both linguistically (when it is physically Pfesent in the discourse) and situationally (when it is related to a particular situation Ye sore tmguistic context). Apart from the examples given in (4.18) to (4.20). ‘which sevens seen OF Ae, type well vs. incredibly well, linguistically given material may be SSuablished through various types of sense reiatons: (i) synonymy (4.35). (i) hypocyma! sgsrordinate (4.36), (ii) converse (4.37), and (iv) parvwhole (4.38); simationally siven ie illustrated in (4.39), e.g.Héctor Ortiz Lira MTA OOOO TITANIA (435) A: Shall we take a detour to avoid the town centre? B: I “hate diversions. (4.36) A: Would you like a coke? B: “Sorry. I don’t “fancy soft drinks. (4.37) A: Llentit to John. B: “Why did he borrow it, may Lask? A: I’ve sprained my ankle. B: You'll have to 'rest your leg com pletely. A: (watching B, who is ready to bite into a nice apple) What a “nice apple! (4.38) (4.39) 4.4.4.4 NUCLEUS PLACEMENT AND GIVENNESS We have stated that in general terms deaccenting is related to givenness and accenting to newness. In this section we shall examine some of the main instances of given information which, in spite of its condition, is brought into focus and then reaccented. Identical material can be reused, focalised and accented as a process of recapitulation on the part of the addressee, to make it clear to the speaker that he agrees with him (4.40), or that he has understood the message (4.41); as a means to reiterate information for clarification purposes (4.42); with the purpose of marking the beginning of a new aspect of the same topic (4.43); when there are no new items in the discourse context (4.44); when the same form conveys two different meanings (in 4.45, the form Liverpool has two referents — the football team and the city), and because of intonation idiomaticity (4.46), e.g. (4.40) A: Would you like a coffee? “Yes. A “coffee would be - nice ‘Two oh six double three double one B G41) & B: 'Two oh 'six double 'three double “one. “Right A B: A (4.42) A: Who discovered America? ‘Christopher Columbus Columbus. “Yes. “Excellent (4.43) Because we're so far away, I can never get fresh milk and yoghurt) “Yoghurt may ‘not be as ‘crucial as “milk, but... (4.44) A: And you decided to come back B: I de'cided to come “back. “Yes (4.45) We ‘hope to 'show the 'real “Liverpool at “Liverpool (4.46) t's not what you said, it’s the 'way you “said it Cruttenden (1997: 82-86) examines three further types of reaccentuation: contrasts, as in (4.47), where girls are part of class; echoes, as in (4.48), and insists, as in (4.49), e.g. (4.47) The 'whole ‘class took part. But ‘only the “girls got a prize (4.48) A: Buy me six pairs, will you? B: 'Six pairs? (4.49) A: What kind of rock do you like? Br Idon’t “like rockWord stress and sentence accent a cn 4.4.4.5 EXCEPTIONS TOLLI RULE In §4.4.4.1 we stated that in utterances in broad focus, the nuclear accent will very Uikely go on the last lexical item, a reworded version of Halliday’s LLI principle. Thi traditional rule implies that ifthe accent falls on a previous lexical item, or on a grammatical item, then the uterance is in narrow focus. As we also advanced in the same secuon, however, there are a number of constructions in broad focus in which the nuclear accom: goes on a lexical item preceding the last (e.g. (4.15)). These exceptions to the last lexical tem tile of accentuation are examined now. ‘The first group involves utterances made up of arguments (i.e. noun phrases acting as subjects) and predicates (ie, verbs and predicate ROuns ‘or adjectives), which show a marked prevalence of arguments in matters of accentuation; the second group relates to final items with low semantic weight. 4.4.4.5.1 ‘Event’ sentences ‘Typically, this relatively short type of unerance consists of a non-pronominal subject followed by an intransitive predicate. Crutienden (1997: 75) identifies the verb ae one eee denotes appearance or disappearance (particularly with human subjects) or misfortane (very often with non-human subjects). Examples of ‘event’ sentences can be found in vations ey Practice materials, but a satisfactory explanation for their accentual behaviour is. seldom ahempied in them. Thompson (1981: 48-49) was one of the first to clearly state that “boch {is noun ard the verb are new information, but the noun is stressed’. Gussenhoven (1984. 2) identifies ‘event’ sentences as those referring to historical events, ie. those im which Something was (is, will be, might have been, was not, ete.) an event”, ie. a past, present, furure or presumed event. Schmerling (1976: 81-98) calls these utterances “news sentences’, i umnich the whole of them is news and ‘predicawes receive lower stress than’ hei: arguments’, as the following examples indicate:'* (4.50) The “water's running (4.51) The “baby’s crying (4.52) The *kettle’s boiling (4.53) There’ s a “bus coming! (4.54) My “head aches (4.95) The “car broke down (4.56) An ‘accident happened (4.57) The “children will walk in Jue ae various kinds of exceptions to the above rule. Ladd (1980: 91) wars about the different accentual behaviour of proper nouns, since “names seem to be snueh oct auntatle than other NPs in identical contexts’, a5 in (4.58), and Faber (1987: 344) and soutenden (1990: 13) claim that in sentences containing human subjects and apentive vere Poth have to take an accent, as shown in (4.59a); (4.596), on the other hand, contain a nets human subject, e.g. (4.58) Jesus “wept (4-59) (@) Tes just my “daughter | “shivering ~ (b) It’s just the “door slamming Gussenhoven (1984) describes exceptions such as utterances whose subjects are Quantifiers and pronouns (4.60); definitional sentences (4.61); contigency sentences (4.62,Héctor Ortiz Lira T_T COTO TTA TN the meaning here being ‘if there are thieves, they will be prosecuted’); sentences with generic arguments (i.c. those referring to whole classes of entities, 4.63), and sentences in which the predicate is complemented (4.64). These exceptions marked (a) are accented on the predicate; regular ‘event’ sentences —shown as (b)- bring out the contrast, e.g. (4.60) (@) "Everybody has escaped! ~ (b) The “prisoners have escaped! (4.61) (@) 'Milk is “animal ~ (b) The “milk’s in the sun (4.62) (a) ‘Thieves will be “prosecuted ~ (b) “Thieves have been around (4.63) (@) ‘Ice “melts ~(b) If you're ‘not “careful, | “ice will form (4.64) (@) Our ‘dog's my'steriously disap’ peared ~ (b) Our “dog’s disappeared The Spanish versions of these utterances typically have predicate+argument word order, with the nuclear accent in final position, e.g. (4.65) Se su'bi6 la “leche (4.66) Secor'té la “luz (4.67) Empe'z6 el semi nario (4.68) Me fa'llaron los “frenos 4.4.4.5.2 Nouns + infinitives Newman’s (1946: 179) much quoted pair of examples (4.69) and (4.70) is probably the first formal account of sentences with a NP followed by an infinitive sequence in terms of syntactic relations, e.g. (4.69) Ihave in’structions to leave ( The term ‘obtrusion’ is used by some authors to refer to the fact that the pitch of a syllable deviates from a relatively constant pitch line and is therefore perceived as different (prominent) from the previous syllables -either higher or lower. The term was coined by Bolinger (1958) and can also be found in Lack (1980, 1996) and Cruttenden (1997). Bolinger speaks of upward and downward obtrusion and Cruttenden (1997), of step-up and step-down in pitch. The phrase ‘pitch change’ is also found in the literature, We prefer to use the word ‘contrast’ because of its similarity with Spanish, For further information, see Crutteaden (1997, chapter 2). >We shall define ‘mental lexicon’ as ‘the stored mental representation of what we know about the lexical items in our language’ (Crystal, 1997: 221). * Following the British tradition, we have adopted the notion of intonation group to refer to the basic unit of intonational structure into which utterances can be divided. It can be defined as a word or a group of words (e.g.a clause, a subject, an adverbial, a vocative, etc) unified by a tune. Each intonation group has a hierarchical inernal structure based on the prominent parts known as pitch accents. An adaptation of Lad's (1996: 45-46) definition of pitch accent is as follows: a pitch feature consisting mainly, but not exclusively, ofa pitch movement which signals that the syllable with which itis associated is prominent in the utterance. ‘The last pitch accent is called the nucleus or nuclear accent, without which an intonation group would be considered incomplete. Other names for intonation group are: tone group, tone unit, intonational phrase, word ‘group, sense group, breath group, etc. * Apart from the nuclear accent, an intonation group can have one or more pitch accents preceding it. The stretch of utterance which begins with a pitch accent is called head. Informationally speaking, the bead plays the part of modifying the meaning conveyed by the nuclear tone. An example of an intonation-group displaying all possible components is: {into} (‘nation is a ‘subject of in‘creasing im] ['por} {tance]] prehead head nucleus tail © —__ Inextremely contrastive contexts even a non-prominent syllable can become nuclear, ¢.g. Did you say ‘intend or ‘pretend? 7 Stress shift has been profusely described in the literature. Jones (1956: 253-254) called it ‘rhythmical variations’. Knowles (1987: 124-126) describes it as the ‘intermediate accent rule’. Metrical phonologists refer to the resulting strong-weak-strong sequence as the ‘iambic reversal’ rule (Liberman & Prince, 1977: 319; Hogg & McCully, 1987: 132). * — ‘Two-syllable words affected by stress-shift rules pose an extra problem to analysts. A different explanation from the one offered is to say that these words have an underlying double-stress pattern and are therefore subject to stress-shift rules, ie. ‘ex°cess, ‘compact. Lack of consensus is shown by words such as Berlin and Beffast. Berlin is given with only one sess in EPD but with two in LPD. EPD provides two altematives for Belfast, both single-stressed, ie. -- and'~; LPD, on the other hand, prefers the double-stress pattern, * The approach to word stress adopted in this booklet can be said to belong to the traditional model, Which is, in our experience, the most convenient for EFL purposes. The most modem view —the metrical approach- considers suess a relational notion expressed in terms of strong and weak syllables forming metrical feet. ‘The following figures show the relationship between stress placement and number of syllables in English and Spanish, adapted from Delatue (1965). The figures, given in percentages, show the predominance of words with a stress on the penultimate syllable in Spanish.Mord rm od omens econ rt et weseconssasmnnnsaey (3) 2-syllable words 3-syllable words 4s words ist_[ and Ist 2nd. 3c ist 2nd, 3d 4th English | 74 26 35 39 6 33 36 29 2 Spanish | _78 2 6 74 20 0 u 80 9 Xt Note that there are afew cases where stress does not differentiate between grammatical classes, ie. verbs and nouns andor adjectives have the same phonemic and stress pattems, e.g. adress, “comment, “concrete, deposit, di°rect, ex ‘press, ‘process. nine aliday (1967), the three meaningful choices of intonation are ‘Tone’ (the pitch pater proper, ‘tonicity’ (the location of the last accented syllable or ‘nucieus’) and ‘tonality’ (ihe distribution of the intonation-groups). These form the set of phonological systems which Halliday collectively refers to a inwonation. In this booklet the mark | will be used to indicate only those intonation-group boundaries which do not coincide with a stop. vat nat defitition of mucieus adopted bere is not without problems, since nuclens perception tests reveal that native listeners do not always coincide in identifying the last pitch movement. particularly when it ‘Gonsists of arise preceded by a fal. For a discussion ofthis topic, see Cruttenden (1997), vroes) er similar but not necessarily identical views on focus (broad and narrow), see also Gussenhoven (1984), Ladd (1996) and Crunenden (1997). Ladd (1996, ch. 5) is also a good discussion on the distbation ot accents within focused constituents. Fhe tt (1996: 293) later amis tha the term “fant accent" should be replaced by a new term, in view of the different meaning assigned by computer jargon nowadays. toon: The fst attempts at explaining the accentual patering of “event” sentences can be found in Palmer (1922: 73) and Schubiger (1935: 84). Palmer, for instance, speaks of ‘statements putting forward a fax mot Previously mentioned. and Schubiger, of ‘announcements’ which consist grammatically of a subject and @ Predicae but, psychologically speaking, are all predicae. Halliday also acknowledges the exisienee of ‘puansiuve clauses with inanimate nouns as subjects; since these constructions violate LLL, he is forced to (eseribe them as examples of marked (i.e. non-neutral) information focus. » eo e,itonation of final vocatives in Spanish is pariculaly susceptible to pragmatic factors ant Solera use: The use of ptch-accented vocatives in cern varieties of Spanish (eg. Argentine, Colombian, Venezuelan, Peninsular) appears to be less marked than in Chilean Spanish. cecens Tae MOSE detailed grammatical and pragmatic accounts of adverbials are Quirk et al. (1985) and Gieenbaum & Quirk (1990). Gussenhoven (1984: 111-116), on the other hand, proposes four categories ot aaverbials, apart from time-space markers, viz. (2) ‘cobesion markers’, such as adtives (e.g, as a mater of Zate actually), inferenials (e.g. then, of course), concessives (e.g. however, though), reinforcing (eg of course if necessary); contrasive (e.g. on the other hand, for a change); (b) ‘hearer-appeal markers", such rou know { mean, thanks, please; (©) ‘comment clauses’, such as 1 suppose, 1 wonder, 1 hope; and @) ‘approximatives’, such as in a way, or more, or something, and so on. » dn tO dictionaries, OALD and CIDE, ae particularly useful for their information on the accentuation of ready-made expressions. In this respect they are even more informative than the two standard pronouncing dictionaries, LPD and EPD. = an further difficulty relates to the tone used with these pronouns, e.g. She ‘won't talk to “anybody (ashe 'S quite incommunicatve). Cf. Ske ‘won't alk ro “anybody (=but she does talk to selected people)Héctor Ortiz Lira 4) UTTAR REFERENCES Allerton, D. (1978). ‘The notion of “ givenness” and its relations to presupposition and to theme.’ Lingua, 44, 133-168. Altenberg, B. (1987). Prosodic patierns in spoken English. Studies in the correlation between Prosody and grammar for text-to-speech conversion. Lund: University Press. Bolinger, D. L. (1958). ‘A theory of pitch accent in English’ . Word, 14, 2-3, 109-149, Bolinger, D. I. (1972). ‘Accent is predictable (if you're a mind reader). Language, 48, 3, 633 Bolinger, D. L. (1978). ‘Free will and determinism in language: or, who does the choosing, the grammar or the speaker?” In Sufier, M. (ed.), Contemporary studies in Romance linguistics, pp. 1-17. Washington: Georgetown University Press. Bolinger, D. L. (1985). “Two views of accent’. Journal of Linguistics, 21, 79-123. Bolinger, D. L. (1986). Intonation and its parts. Melody in spoken English. London: Edward Arnold. Brazil, D. (1994). Pronunciation for advanced leamers of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bresnan, J. (1971). “Sentence stress and syntactic transformations’ . Language, 47,2, 257-281. Brown, G. (1990). Listening to spoken English. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carney, T. (1991). ‘English compound stress revisited’. Unpublished notes, University of Manchester. Chomsky, N. (1971). ‘Deep structure, surface structure, and semantic interpretation’. In Steinberg, D. & L. “Jakobovits (eds.), Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader. in Philosophy, linguistics and psychology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row. Cruttenden, A. (1981). The intonation of English sentences with special reference to sentence adverbials. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester. Cruttenden, A. (1990). “Nucleus placement and three classes of exception’. In Ramsaran, S. (ed), Studies in the pronunciation of English, pp. 9-18. London: Routledge. Cruttenden, A. (1997). Intonation. (2nd edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (1969). Prosodic systems and’ intonation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Culicover, P-W- & Rochemont, M. (1983). ‘Stress and focus in English’. Language, 59, 1, 123-165. Cutler, A. (1984). ‘Stress and accent in language production and understanding’. In Gibbon, D, & H. Richter (eds), Intonation, accent & rhythm. Studies in discourse phonology, pp. 77-90. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Danes, F. (1967). “Order of elements and sentence intonation’. In Bolinger, D.L. (ed.) (1972), Intonation, pp. 216-232. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Delattre, P. (1965). Comparing the phonetic features of English, French, German and Spanish, London: George G., Harrap & Co. Ltd. Faber, D. (1987). “The accentuation of intransitive sentences in English’. Journal of uistics, 23, 341-358. Finch, D. & Ortiz-Lira, H. (1982). A course in English phonetics for Spanish speakers. London; Heinemann Educational Books. Fudge, E. (1984). English word-stress. London: George Allen & Unwin. Gimson, A.C. (1962). An introduction to the pronunciation of English. London: Edward Amold. Gimson, A.C. & Cruttenden, A. (1994). Gimson's pronunciation of English. London: Edward ‘Amold. Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990). A student’s grammar of the English language. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Gussenhoven, C. (1984). On the grammar and semantics of sentence accent. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.Word stress and sentence accent Ee aememmnzsnce Halley? MAK: (26D. Intonation and grammar in British English. The Hague: Mouton Halliday, M.A.K. (1970). A course in spoken English: intonation. Londony tegen University Pre 8, Hogg, R. d& McCully, C.B. (1987). Metrical phonology: a coursebook. Cambridge: University Press. Jassem, W. & Gibbon, D. (1982). ‘Re-defining English accent and stress’. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 1, 2-16. Jones, D, (1956). An outline of English phonetics. Cambridge: W. Hetfer & Sons Ltd. Jones, Do Roach, P. & Harman, J. (1997). English pronouncing distionery Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Kingdon, R. (1939). ‘Tonetic stress marks for English’. Le Maitre Phonétique, 68, 60-64. Kingdon, R. (1958a). The groundwork of English intonation. London Longmans, ‘ambridge Kuno, S. (1978). ‘Generative discourse analysis in America’. In Dressler, W.U. (ed.), Current Bends in texilinguistics, pp. 275-294. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, Ladd, D. R. (1979). “Light and shadow: a study of the syntax and semantics of sentence accent in English’. ‘in Waugh, LR. & Van Coetsem, F. (eds.), Coniriburioos °° grammatical studies~semantics and syntax. Leiden: E.J, Brill. Ladd, D. R. (1980). The structure of intonational meaning: evidence from English. Bloomington & London: Indiana University Press. Ladd, D. R. (1996). intonational Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lehi: . berms, M & Prince, AS. (1977). ‘On stress and linguistic rhythm’ Linguistic Inquiry, 8, 249-336, Mans: J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Maldment, J.A. (1990). ‘Focus and tone in English intonsdow ta. In Ramsaran, S. (ed.), Studies in the pronunciation of English, pp. 19-26. Londo, Routledge. Seeman, S. (1946). 'On the stress system of English”. Word. 2, 5, sot ne Sregnnor, LD. & Amold, G.F. (1973), Intonation of collomuial English. London: Longman. O'Connor, J.D. & Fletcher, C. (1989). Sounds English: a Pronunciation practice book. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Oniz-Lira, H. (1994). contrastive analysis of English and ‘Spanish sentence accentuation. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, Palmer, HE. (1922), English intonation, with systematic exercises. Cambridge: Heffer. Pike, KL. (1945). The intonation of American English Agw deboe University of Michigan Press, Poldauf, I. (1984). English word stress. Oxford: Pergamon. Quills, A- 1985). 1 comentario fonoldgico y fonéiico de textos. Madrid: Arco Libros S.A. Quirk, R Duckworth, A.. Svartvik, J, Rusiecli, J. & Cola, a (1964). ‘Studies in the Sen papOndence of prosodic to grammatical features in English’. In Proceedings of the Sth International Congress of Linguistics, pp. 619-691, The Hague Mone ce Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svantvik, J (1983), A Comprehensive grammar of the English language. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited Roach, F. (1990). English phonetics and phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Schmerling, S.F. (1976). Aspects of English sentence stress, Aven’ University of Texas Press. Schubiget, M, (1935). The role of intonation in spoken English Cambridge: Heffer. Selkirk, 'E, (1984). Phonology and syntax: the relation bowen Sound and structure. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.LT. Press, Sweet. H. (1913). Collected papers of Henry Sweet. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Thompson, I. (1981). Intonation Practice. London: Oxford University Press. Trager, G. L. & Smith, H.L. (1951). An ouiline of English soaence, Washington: American Council of Learned Societies. Wells, J.C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited.Kepaate invosatien creer et) and mark them. In the ease of connected speech, they’ shousd Separate intonation-group boundaries. Finally, they should read the items out loud, 1, Stress in simple words 1.1 commence suburb café impulse control canal excerpt folklore robot distinct vaccine suspense lament massage donate 1.2 interval disciple entertain cauliflower expertise recipient sarcasm decisive recognize molecule Pyramid tribunal contagious maintenance advertise 1.3. optimism centenary apparatus Profitable irreparable penicillin situated mediocre escalator hereditary 1.4 commemorative communication recommendation intelligible indivisible contamination improvisation interrogation intoxicated abomucile 15. allergyallergic suburb-suburban academy-academic remedy-remedial narrate-narrative refer-reference apply-applicable exclaim-exclamatory 1.6 vary-variable-variation _ imitate-imitation-imitative refer-reference-referential demonstrate-demonstration-demonstrative observe-observatory oboon on 2. _ Stress in compounds and collocations 2.1 heavy metal guided tour natural gas native speaker fing immemorial preventive medicine personal compuler illegal immigrant interior decorator ‘refrigerator-freezer juvenile delinquency fourdermesinn 2.2 population explosion examination paper concentration camp multiplication table registration number reacreation ground television programme Independence Day magazine stand 2.3. sticking point learning disability _firing-squad losing battle running shoe mining industry ‘hopping mad fishing grounds Sreeting card pronouncing dictionary learning process consulting room 2.4 habit-forming _ namedropping decision-making shoplifting ‘free thinking” public funding Jamity planning French dressing wishful thinking phone-tapping ‘sleepwalking spine-chilling 2.5 Three-word compounds and collocations Third World countries infant mortality rate front-page news hormone replacement therapy Internal Revenue Service ‘Tnever'necer ined silver wedding anniversary Public-address system peak time traffic video cassette recorder computer aided design redbrick university Brith Broadcasting Corporation teacher training-college second-class incon Public service announcement daylight saving time three-piece suite next-door neighbour leftchand drive New Year's Eve fairy godmother fancy dress party all-day meeting All Saints’ Day ‘back-seat driver great-grandmother four-wheel drive new-laid eggs forget-me-not all-night party all-round athlete New York City ‘stone-cold soberWord ‘and sentence accent stress an pe 3. Stress shift 3.1 insufficient insufficient evidence coed @ coed school Prepositional prepositional phrases unskilled unskilled labour disappointing a disappointing result HV HIV positive North Sea” North Sea oil IBM IBM compatible 3.2 never-ending Work at schoo! is never-ending Learning a foreign language is a never-ending process Seven years old Tom is a seven-year-old child Rosie is seven years old outdoor An outdoor life is extremely healthy Farmers live mainly outdoors out of the way 1 love visiting out-of-the-way places W's a nice area but a bit out of the way off putting George's behaviour is realty off-putting ‘She gave him an off-putting look 4. Sentence accent 44 16. V7. 18. 19, 20. Sentences: Even a tragedy can have a happy ending, Better the devil you know than the devil you don't now. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A Positive anything is better than a positive nothing. ‘When is a door not a door? Very simple: when it’s ajar. To be or not to be. That is the question. God help the poor, for the rich can help themselves, Toune men think old men fools, and old men know young men to be so, The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. Thope you don’t mind my saying this, but I don't like that tie you're wearing. He decided to buy not the most comfortable car but the most expensive one. Tate, Soup had been as hot asthe champagne, and the champagne as Clava che sGuicken, and the chicken as fat as the waiter, the meal would’ ve becs perfect! pane is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, art ee is not being talked about, T can’t get the new battery into my clock. I can get the back off all ight, but it’s geting the new one under the thingummy that’s the problem. It wot 0 in at all. Rosle is in a complete daze. Cupid’ s been at work. They met in a launderete. In ‘he walked and it was love at first sight. 2h Peak times the underground system runs every couple of minutes, At off-peak times it’s every five or seven minutes, Ate you the person who was in the other day? Yes? I thought I Tecognised your Yoice. Listen, the house is stil on offer, but I can’t give you an anener straight away. Bes ate lovely but they all have their advantages and disadvantages. A cat is easier pecause it cleans itself and all the rest of it. A dog can take you for a walk sea you hhave to go even when you feel lazy. {was bom in nineteen fifty-two, and my wife in nineteen sixty.two. We have two Children. Paul, who's fifteen, and Jane, who's fourteen,Héctor Ortiz Lira nt 4.2 Dialogues: 1. 1. 12, 13, 14, 15. 16, 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. A: What business are you in? B: Me? I’m in compuiters at the moment. ‘What about the job you were applying for? It was a bank, wasn’t it? ‘That’ s tight, I heard from them this morning. I ve got an interview next week. ‘That’ s none of your business, On the contrary: I think it’s very much my business. Are you in Santiago for business or pleasure? For business and pleasure. | have news for you. Not the very best of news, I’m sorry to say. If you tell me the bad news in a good way it won't sound so bad. I'm sony I couldn’ t help you. A fine friend you turned out to be! Do you think Tom will succeed? T don’t think so, I know so! Were you able to find the place all right? No. And to make things worse, the phone’ s just gone dead. Is there any tea going? ‘Yes, here it is. Shall I pour or will you? : I'm terribly worried about you, honestly. You haven’ t been eating much and you're such a workaholic, Come on, don’t lay it on. You’re imagining things. Can’t find your glasses again? No, I''m affaid, But they’ ve got to be somewhere! Don't forget the agreement that you and I came to, know. I'll help you on condition that you'll help me in return, How can I get in touch with the gas people? ‘Well the number to ring is one six four, double two three two. ‘The instructions are to transcribe into RP or into our own accent if we don’t speak RP ourselves, ‘Whatever will the teacher think of next? Thave a confession to make. I’ ve just realised I left the money behind. Couldn't we phone somebody? Or don’t you trust anybody? Now that Jim’ s walked out on us, who’ s going to help us? Nobody. We've got to help ourselves, I'd like to take Emily with us. What time does the last show begin? Eight thirty. But I’m sure it’s a film for adults only, definitely. Have you been to the south of Chile, by any chance? Yes. And I’ve been to the north too, What will happen to programmes that run from midday to midnight? I’ve no idea. What happens to those is anyone’s guess. ‘What can I do now that the whole project has been cancelled? None of my business I guess. That's your funeral. It’s a real business filling in this form, isn’t it? You’ re telling me! It’s a nightmare, really! My sister’ s coming to see me tomorrow. I’ d like to take her to the theatre, I wonder what’s on. Have you seen the paper? Sorry, mate, but you want your eyes tested. There, right in front of you! PP WP Dw D> w> wr Bee A B A B. A B A B: A B: A B A B: A: B: A B A B:Mord ares ond sentence econ AAR aantaaaaummnmmannsamaewnts (79) 23. 24, 25. 26. 21. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 31. 38. 39. 41. A: Now we're in a fix! We'll never get that, pay rise. B: Come on, you should look on the bright side of things. A: Are you going to wear that swimsuit you bought just recently? B: Of course. Specially if what’ s his name is there. A: I want you to look at this picture. What do you think it’s a picture of? B: As far as I can make out, it’s a small ‘square inside a big circle. A: If] asked you to become my partner, what would you say? B: I wouldn't know what to ‘say. A: Do you think the rest of the board will be Pleased with what I’ ve done? B: You’ ve been the biggest contributor so far, by far! As simple as that! A: Do you want to see John? B: He wants to see me, you mean. I certainly don’t want to see him. A: Two more policemen have been kicked out, according to the news. B; Law makers can’t be law breakers. A: I wonder why Meg keeps turing me down. B: She won't go out with anybody. Remember she’s got her finals in June. A: I’m sorry I've kept changing the time, but twelve is also out of the question. B: Not to worry. Is three a good time for you? A: The second-floor offices are being decorated. B: [-know. I wish they'd do the third floor ones as well. A: Guess what! I’ve passed my driving test! B: Good for you! Now we can drive away for a day or two, can’t we? ‘A: What’ the use of having a good-looking husband if he’s always bad- tempered? B: My husband isn’t good-looking but unfortunately I can’t call him: good- tempered, either. A: Most people think of an actor’ s life as glamorous. What’s your opinion? Br Well yes, it has its glamorous side, of course. But think of ail the lines and moves he has to learn. A: Wemustn’t forget Ann’s birthday. Shall I get her a book or something? ‘Wel, it’s her sister who likes reading. Ann's fond of music. And clothes. A: That settles it then, What size does she take? A: What's the name of that plant you gave me? B: Which plant? A: The pale green one with the bright red berries. A: I’m afraid the picnic’ s out. It’s pouring outside, Well, they promised rain. ‘Yeah, it looked like rain anyway. Tom, where’ s the book I lent you the other day? I left it on your desk. Together with the cassette I borrowed, remember? A: I'm afraid I don’t The trouble is I want to lend it to somebody. A: Which flat shall we choose? B: Well, the one in Burton Square had a lovely kitchen. But the one in Stanley ‘Street was cheaper. Never mind the kitchen. Let’ s go for the cheap one. Ever been to Mexico? Never been near the country. Would you like to go there? I'd leap at the chance! AD B A B:4, Héctor Ortiz Lira CATIA AT TOTNNNRNANNARN 42. How do you picture your ideal man? Slim and athletic, with jet black hair and greenish green eyes. ‘And about twenty-five, I suppose? Nearer thirty-five. Could I have your name, please? Robinson. Robinson. And your first name? George Robinson. Is it five yet? Ten minutes past five. My watch says five o” clock. It's ten minutes slow then. Hello, Paul Harrison speaking. Hello, Paul. Eric here. Is Jenny in? No, she’ s not. Would you like to leave a message? Yes, please. Tell her that Eric called. She’ s got some papers to sign. How did the tip go? Did you enjoy yourself? ‘Yes, I suppose I did. But let me tell you something. No more package tours for me, where you simply can’ t choose the food you'd like to eat. Was it that bad? It’s the monotony of it that gets me, Always the same. I think chefs all have one-track minds! Where do you live? I live in Bedford Street. I thought you lived in Bedford Avenue. No, Bedford Sureet. ‘There’ s a Bedford Road, isn’t there? There’ s a Redford Road, but no Bedford Road. 43. > SP wp Prop 45. PPS Bp 46. PF 47. Analyse accent placement and type of focus and then provide the rest of the dialogue: 1(a) He shaved and took a bath. 1(b) He didn’t take a shower, he took a bath. 2(a) He failed completely. 2(b) He failed unfortunately. 3(a) I'm afraid not. 3(b) I’m afraid so. 4(a) Can I offer you something? 4(b) Can I offer you a drink? ‘5(a) Promise you won’t tell anyone. 5(b) Promise you won’ tell my parents. 6(a) That’ s a promise I will stand by. 6(b) There were lots of people standing by. 7a) You know that it belongs to me. 7(b) It belongs to me you know. 8(a) Someone’ s coming to the door. 8(b) A policeman’ s coming to the door. The following exchanges correspond to speaker B; provide A: 1(a) I “hoped you'd recognise me. 1(b) I , hoped you'd “recognise me. 2(a) I was a'fraid nobody would come. 2(b) I was a, fraid nobody would ‘come. 3(a) It’s “ten to four. 3(b) It's ‘ten to “four, 3(c) It’s ten “to four. 4(a) On the ‘first of “May. 4(b) On the “first of May. 4(c) “On the first of May. 5(a) 'How many “languages do you speak? 5(b) 'How many ‘languages do you “speak 6(a) I’ m ‘off to the “seaside tomorrow. 6(b) I’ m ‘off to the 'seaside to’ morrow ‘7(a) I think we “like each other. 7(b) I think we like each “other.