I.

INTRODUCTION

1. Nature and Scope of the Course

a. Environmental Issues and Policies (EIP) in relation to sociology, economics, politics and other
fields of science
a.1. EIP and its relation to basic human needs, culture, lifestyle, etc.
a.2. EIP and its relation to our country’s economic growth and progress
a.3. Environmental Degradation – the basis for existing and future policies
a.4. EIP and its interdependence with chemistry, physics, medicine, agro-forestry,
aquaculture, sociology and etc.
a.5. EIP and its application to sustainable development

Sustainable Development – development that provides people with a better life without sacrificing or depleting
resources or causing environmental impacts that will undercut the needs of future generations.

b. Science and Technology: its effects to various habitats

b.1. What is Science?
Science – describes nature. It provides us knowledge about the things around us. It explains
the laws that govern nature.
Two main goals of science are:
a. To describe and discover the laws of nature
Scientists probe the secrets of the universe by trying to discover the laws that govern
its behavior. (i.e. Archimedes discovered the law governing the behavior of the cork and
iron in water)
b. To control nature for the benefit of mankind (i.e. need light – switch on a fluorescent
lamp; feel cool – turn on the electric fan)

b.2. What is Technology?

Technology is the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial
objectives/purposes.

b.3. The role of S&T in a country’s economy

b.3.1. Advances in the fields of agriculture, aquaculture, engineering, medicine, genetics, etc.
b.3.2. Improving the quality of life
b.3.3. Influence in the country’s economic advancement using advanced processes
b.3.4. S&T in our daily life (advanced transport, telecommunication, appliances, etc.)
b.3.5. The bright and dark sides of S&T (benefits and harmful effects)

The products of science include those that are good and those that are bad for people and other living
organisms as well as the environment. There is a need to take a global outlook in order to adequately maintain a
healthful balance in nature.

2. Importance of the course/Why study environmental science?

a. Gain knowledge, concepts and awareness of the following:
a.1. Present status of Philippine environments
a. deforestation g. energy problems
b. soil erosion and siltation of rivers and lakes h. overpopulation and etc.
c. scarcity of clean water for drinking
d. destruction of wildlife and natural resources
e. bioaccumulation of pesticides in animals
f. effects of mining activities
a.2. Present environmental status of the world
a. rapid population growth f. deforestation
b. depletion of the ozone layer g. desertification
c. global warming h. acid rain and etc.
d. climate change
e. pollution problems
b. Gain access/participate in the conservation, preservation and protection of our ecosystems by:
1. participating in organizations dealing with environmental concerns
2. being politically active and aware
3. preparing for responsible parenthood
 4. fostering that all living things have the right to live
5. appreciating the belief that life on earth must continue in harmony with nature.

Sustainable Development- entails the use of available resources without endangering or compromising the
environment to ensure the development of society.
- Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs

Objectives:
- social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone
- effective protection of the environment
- prudent use of natural resources
- maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and development

II. ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Ecosystem - A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment
- the interaction or relationship between organisms and their environment
- refers to all living and non-living components in a given area

Main parts of the earth’s ecosystems:

1. Atmosphere 3. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere

Levels of Organization:

Protoplasm - make up the living substance of a cell

Cell - the basic unit of life
Tissue - a group of cells performing the same specific function
Organ - a group of tissues performing a particular function
Organ System - collective organs with related functions
Organism - where levels of organization from protoplasm to organ systems are found
Population - a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular
time
Community - a group of populations in a given area
Ecosystem - the basic unit of ecology, refers to the interaction between organisms and
the environment
Biosphere - the world of life; the portion of the earth and its environment within which life in any
of its forms is manifested
Earth - the planetary environment

Ecology - focuses and emphasizes on the interaction taking place between organisms and the environment
- includes how living and non-living factors in the environment influence one another

Species - natural population or a group of organisms which transmit specific traits from parents to offspring
- they are reproductively isolated from other populations
Habitat - the place or type of place where an organism or population naturally lives as a community
Ecological Niche - work performed by an organism.
- the role of a particular organism in its environment

Ecosystem Structure
- the operational interactions and interrelationships of the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem
- all ecosystems are composed of biotic and abiotic components

2 Components of an Ecosystem
1. Abiotic Component
- generally referred to as the life support system that enables the living components to grow, reproduce, and
develop in the eternal cycle of life
- includes all the factors of the non-living environment
 A. Physical Factors
- Inorganic Substances and Organic Compounds (proteins, lipids, minearals, N, C, etc.)
- Climate Regime (rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind, etc)
- Latitude (distance from equator)
- Altitude (elevation in relation to sea level)
- Nature of soil (terrestrial ecosystem)
- Fire/Heat
- Amount of suspended materials (aquatic ecosystem)
B. Chemical Factors
- Level of water and air in soil
- Plant nutrients disposed in the environment (terrestrial – soil; aquatic – water)
- Salinity of water for aquatic ecosystems
- Level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in aquatic ecosystems
- Level of artificial or natural toxic substances dissolved in soil and water

2. Biotic Component
- make up the living part of an ecosystem

Producers - Green Plants/Microscopic Plants

- often called autotrophs (self-feeders)
- organisms that can manufacture organic compounds as sources of energy and nutrients
Consumers - Animals
- known as heterotrophs (feeding on others)
- feed on living plants and animals or feed on small fragments of dead plant and animal matter

Types of Consumers
Herbivores (Primary Consumers) - plant-eaters. feed directly and only on all or part of living plants.
Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)- flesh eaters. feed on plant-eating animals.
Omnivores (Tertiary/High-Level Consumers) - feed on plants, herbivores, and/or carnivores.

Detritivores - agents of decay; decomposers

- consumer organisms that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and animal matter
Two major classes:
1. Detritus Feeders - ingest fragments of dead organisms and their cast-off parts and organic wastes
(crabs, earthworms, clams)
2. Decomposers - digest dead tissue or waste material and absorb their soluble nutrients
Two classes of Decomposers
a. Microscopic, single celled bacteria - decomposers in places or substrates where even oxygen
is limited.
b. Fungi - are the foremost decomposers of wood

Related Ecological Concepts

1. Limiting Factors - a factor primarily responsible for determining the growth and/or reproduction of an
organism or population. It may be a physical factor such as temperature or light, a chemical factor such
as particular nutrient, or a biological factor such as competing species. The limiting factor may differ at
different times and places.
2. Law of Minimum - also known as Liebig’s Law of Minimums. A system may be limited by the absence
or minimum amount (in terms of what is needed) of any required factor.
3. Law of Tolerance - states that the existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an ecosystem
are determined by whether the levels of one or more physical or chemical factors fall above or below the
levels tolerated by the species.
4. Carrying Capacity - the maximum population of a given species that an ecosystem can support without
being degraded or destroyed in the long run. The carrying capacity may be exceeded, but not without
lessening the system’s ability to support life in the long run.

Examples of Limiting Factors

A. Terrestrial Ecosystem
1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Light
 4. Soil Nutrients
B. Marine/Aquatic Ecosystem
1. Salinity
2. Temperature
3. Sunlight
4. Dissolved Oxygen

Population Growth and Carrying Capacity

a. An ecosystem can support only a given number of individuals at a given time. When the capacity
level is exceeded, an imbalance in the ecosystem occurs.
b. Carrying Capacity is the size of the population of users a resource is able to support. A number of
factors in the environment, such as food, oxygen, diseases, predators and space, determine the
number of organisms that can survive in a given area.

Four factors interact to set the Carrying Capacity

1. Availability of Space
2. Availability of Energy
3. Accumulation of waste products and their means of disposal
4. Interaction among organisms

Ecosystem Functions
1. Production - responsible for the accumulation of organic substances in the ecosystem
*Free energy is fixed from a particular energy source such as sunlight (photosynthesis) by phototrophs
and from chemical compounds and nutrients from the environment.
(the byproducts of respiration, CO2 + H2O, are the raw materials)
*Raw materials are transformed into energy rich glucose material (CH2O) resulting in the production of
oxygen gas (O2)

Light Energy
CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2
Enzymes

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

- the rate at which plants in the ecosystem produce usable chemical energy or biomass.
- equal to the rate at which plants use photosynthesis to store chemical energy in biomass minus the rate at
which they use some of this chemical energy in aerobic cellular respiration to live, grow and reproduce.
- reported as the amount of energy produced by plant material in a specified area of land over a given time.
- ecosystems with the highest average NPP; estuaries, swamps, marshes, and tropical rainforests while
ecosystems with the lowest are tundras (arctic grasslands), open oceans, and deserts.

2. Consumption - balances production and decomposition

- acts as a regulating function, so that production would not be too much and
decomposition too little, or vice versa.
- involves the digestion of ingested food material with the aid of digestive enzymes.
The digestive enzymes simplify, rearrange and absorb the food materials such that animal protoplasm
would be synthesized.

3. Respiration - the process of unleashing bound energy for utilization

- breaking down of food in order for energy to be released for use
- with the aid of enzymes and oxidants, the chemical bonds in the food (glucose) snap to
give off energy

Enzymes
CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy Released

Energy is utilized to fuel all essential functions in the organism (protoplasm building, reproduction,
photosynthesis, locomotion, ingestion, absorption, etc.)
Energy not utilized is dissipated from the system as heat.
Expelled from the system along with heat is Carbon Dioxide (CO2), a byproduct that serves as index for
decomposition in the ecosystem level.

4. Decomposition - responsible for the breakdown of complex structures in the ecosystem.

- the process involves the presence of substrates (e.g. fallen leaves, twigs, logs, animal
matter, feces) and the secretion of degradation enzymes to reduce complex organic structures.
Degradation Products:
- Some are absorbed as food by the decomposer organism
- Most if not leached, find their way back to the plants and again become incorporated in
living protoplasm
In terrestrial ecosystems
Aerobic Decomposers (Fungi) - primary wood decomposers
Anaerobic Decomposers (Bacteria) - degrade plant and animal mater
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

Laws of Thermodynamics - govern energy processes in biological systems

1. The First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy)
“The total amount of energy in all its forms remains constant. Thus, energy is neither created nor
destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.”
Example: When a goat eats a garden plant, the plant is no longer seen. But the matter and chemical
energy of the plant is converted to different forms of energy inside the goat’s body.
2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Degradation of Energy Quality)
“Each time energy is transformed, it tends to go from a more organized and concentrated form to a less
organized and more dispersed form.”

Energy transfers are never 100% Efficient

Feeding Relationships
- Energy is stored by the producers is taken in or eaten by a series of consumers. Ultimately, decomposers
release any energy fixed by producers or accumulated by consumers (unused energy and nutrients).

Food Chain - refers to the transfer of energy from the source (plants) through a series of food organisms, in a
process of sequential eating and being eaten.
 Each time one organism eats another in the food chain, energy is transferred.
 For every transfer, about 80 to 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.
 The movement of energy is in one direction only. Usually from plants to a series of animals eating each
other.
 Man is ultimately at the highest level.

2 Types:
1. Grazing Food Chain- start from green plants from which the chain goes to grazing herbivores and
then to carnivores.
2. Detritus Food Chain - from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to detritus-feeding
organisms and their predators

Food Web - the interconnected or interlocking relationships among various food chains in an ecosystem.
 In a food web, an organism may feed on several members of the web.
 Several different predators may eat a prey
 In complex natural communities, organisms whose food is obtained from plants by the same number of
steps are said to belong to the same trophic level.
 A food web represents an attempt to describe the numerous alternative food energy pathways in a
community, most of whose members have more than one choice of food.

First Trophic Level (feeding) - Plants (Producer Level)

Second Trophic Level - plant-eaters (Primary Consumer Level)
Third Trophic Level - carnivores that eat the herbivores (Secondary Consumer Level)
Fourth Trophic Level - secondary carnivores (Third Consumer Level)

Food Pyramid - constitutes the overall structure of dependency among the living elements in an ecosystem.
At the lowest level of the food pyramid are the food sources (producers).
- one may even go further down and say that the base of the food pyramid is composed oforganic matter that
serves as fertilizer for producers.
- the sustainability of the food pyramid rests on the continuing presence and efficiency of those at the bottom
- the amount of usable energy decreases as it flows higher op the food chain/web/pyramid.
Population Dynamics

Species Diversity - is the extent to which an ecosystem possesses differences in species in terms of genetic
variation and distribution.
Population - is a group of interbreeding organisms belonging to the same species. It is the interaction between
organisms that causes a population change.

Characteristics of Population:
1. Size - pertains to the number of individuals in a population
Factors that contribute to the size of a population:
a. Natality - the number of organisms that are born
b. Mortality - the number of species that die
c. Immigration - members of the species that enter the land
d. Emigration - members of the species that leave the land

2. Density - it is the number of individuals of a population in a particular area (i.e. 100 cows/hectare, 300
trees/acre)
It is dependent upon such factors such as availability of space, food, water, light and heat.

3. Distribution - it tells us how these individuals are located in an area. It is the arrangement of the
individuals of a population within a particular space.
Three Patterns of Distribution:
a. Random Distribution - there is no specific order; the organisms are spread throughout the area
without an overall pattern.
b. Uniform Distribution - the organism are evenly distributed/organized over an area.
c. Clumped Distribution - the organisms are concentrated in an area. It may offer the population
protection from enemies.

4. Natality and Mortality

Natality - refers to the number of individuals added to the population by means of reproduction
Birth Rate - the number of individuals born per 1000 individuals per year
Mortality - the number of deaths per year
Death Rate - refers to the number of individuals who die per 1000 individuals per year

5. Sex Ratio and Age Distribution

Sex Ratio - refers to the relative number of males and females
Age Distribution - the number of individuals of each age in the population
- classification of age structure:

a. Pre-reproductive stage – organisms are not mature enough to reproduce

b. Reproductive stage – those that are capable of reproduction

c. Post-reproductive stage – those too old to reproduce

Dominance - The state that exists when one organism or population has power over another.
Dominant Species - Species being the most abundant and/or having the most biomass

The most essential species in the ecosystem are called Keystone Species as their activities determine the
structure of the entire community and consist of species that often turn unexpectedly to be the ones important to
the survival of the community.

Environmental Resistance - are the environmental factors that limit and regulate population size.
Death Phase - the time period wherein there is a decline in population size.

Species Interactions

Different organisms in the ecosystem occupy a certain ecological niche - the physical, chemical and biological
factors that a species needs to live, grow, and reproduce in an ecosystem.

Major Types of Species Interaction:

1. Interspecific Competition - happens when two or more species in the same ecosystem use the same
scarce resources such as food, water, oxygen, sunlight, soil nutrients, space, shelter or anything required
for survival

2. Predation (+,-) - an interaction where an organism called the prey is killed and the one that kills is the
predator. Many predators are larger and usually stronger and are faster than the prey. The predators kill
for food, so they benefit while the prey is harmed.
Example: Frog and Fly

3. Parasitism (+,-) - parasites feed off another organism called their host; but unlike predators, they live
on or in the host for a good part of their life cycle. Parasites draw nourishment from and gradually
weaken the host. This may or may not kill the host
Example: Flea and Dog

4. Mutualism (+,+)- two different types of organisms interact directly in ways that benefit each species.
Example: Honeybee + Flower (bees acquire nectar from the flower, flowers are pollinated by the bees)

5. Commensalism (+,0)- one type of organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed to any
great degree.
Example: Barnacles + Whales, Orchids + Trees

6. Ammensalism (-,0) – one organism is inhibited while the other is unaffected (negative-zero interaction)

Evolution – a theory that explains how random changes in genetic material and competition for scarce
resources can cause species to change gradually

Adaptation – when species acquire traits that allow them to survive in their environments

Terms adapt is use in two ways:

1. acclimation is a limited physiological modification available to individual organisms.
The changes an organism acquires are not passed on to its offspring.
2. operates at the population level and is brought about by inheritance of specific genetic
traits that allow species to live in a particular environment. (evolution)

Natural selection – describes the process in which better competitors are more likely to survive and reproduce
more successfully.

Succession – process by which organisms occupy a site and gradually change environmental conditions by
creating soil, shade or shelter or by increasing humidity

Primary succession – occurs when a community begins to develop on a site previously unoccupied by living
organisms.

Secondary succession – occurs when an existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops
at the site.

Homeostasis – defined as the tendency of an ecosystem to resist change and remain in equilibrium.

Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical Cycle – is the movement of nutrients through the ecosystem
- “bio” refers to the living organism, “geo” refers to inorganic molecules,”chemical” refers to the
interaction between them

Important Players

1. Green Plants – which organize the nutrients into biologically useful components
2. Animals – which converts some organic compounds by consumption
3. Decomposers – which converts organic matter into simple elements

2 Types of Biogeochemical Cycles

1. gaseous cycle- the main reservoirs of nutrients are the atmosphere and the oceans
2. sedimentary cycle- the main reservoir is in the soil, rocks and minerals

Hydrologic Cycle – collects, purifies and distributes the earth’s fixed supply of water

Main processes involved:

1. Evaporation - The process wherein water (liquid) turns into water vapor
2. Condensation - Atmospheric vapor turns into a dense clouds because of cold
3. Transpiration - The process of giving off or exhaling water vapor through the skin or
mucous membranes
4. Precipitation - The falling to earth of any form of water
5. Runoff - The occurrence of surplus liquid (as water) exceeding the limit or capacity of
The soil

Carbon Cycle
Carbon Reservoirs:

1. Oceans
2. Rocks and Sediments
3. Terrestrial Biosphere
4. Aquatic Biosphere
5. Fossil Fuels
6. Biosphere

 Carbon is the basic building block of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA and other
organic compounds necessary for life.

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen- is the most important component of protein – building block of matter

 it makes up about 78% of the air, but plants cannot use gaseous Nitrogen

4 Processes involved:

1. Fixation- processes of conversion of nitrogen from gaseous state, N2 to the usable ammonia and
nitrate.
2 types:

a. atmospheric fixation – lightning and cosmic radiation combines nitrogen and oxygen gases in the
atmosphere which then fall to the earth as nitric acid, in acid rain
b. biological fixation – where bacteria are able to perform nitrogen fixation

2. Ammonification – involves breakdown of dead organisms and their proteins and nucleic acids are
further broken down into amino acids.
 - amino acids are converted into carbon dioxide, water and ammonia, with a release
of energy
- ammonia is the usable form of nitrogen that plant roots absorb

3. Nitrification – bacteria use ammonia to produce their energy needs by converting it to nitrous acid and
water, and then to nitrate and nitrite with a yield of .
4. Denitrification – process by which Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere

Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus - Nonmetallic element of the nitrogen family that occurs commonly in inorganic phosphate rocks
and as organic phosphates in all living cells

- mainly a sedimentary cycle

- based on phosphorus containing rocks that are mined or are naturally weathered
- not naturally available in the natural environment thus sudden release in waterways from
farmland fertilizers result in algal blooms

Sulfur Cycle

- Sulfur passes through the gaseous, liquid and solid parts of our planet same with other nutrients
in a series of continuous reactions known as the sulfur cycle.
basically a nutrient cycle
 - Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruption and through emissions from hot
springs.
- Sulfur enters the atmosphere primarily in the form of sulfur dioxide, then it remains in the
atmosphere in that form or after reacting with water, in the form of sulfuric acid. Sulfur is carried
back to the earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows.

- When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it is converted by
microorganisms into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere,
where it is oxidized to sulfuric acid.

Habitat - is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment
that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a species population.

Biomes

Biomes - Refer to biological communities with similar climate conditions, growth patterns, and vegetation
types
- A major biotic community characterized by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate

Major Types of Biomes:

1. Terrestrial
2. Aquatic (Freshwater, Marine, Estuarine)

Deserts
Regions:
- Northern Primary and Southwestern Africa
- Parts of the Middle East and Asia
- Australia
- The Great Basin and southwestern United States
- Northern Mexico
- Usually around latitudes of 30 N and 30 S
Climate and Soils
- Very dry
- Hot days and cold nights, varying with latitudes
- Rainfall less than 10 inches/yr
- Soils thin and porous
Major Vegetation
- Widely scattered thorny bushes and shrubs, occasional cacti, and small flowers that quickly carpet the desert
floor after brief rains
- Extensive shallow root system as well as deep taproots ( as long as 100 ft) provide means of access to scarce
rainfall and groundwater
Animals
- Rodents, lizards, toads, snakes and other reptiles, owls, hawks, vultures, small birds, and numerous insects
- In plants, the following adaptations are observed:
1. Water-storing leaves and stems
2.Thick epidermal layers to reduce water loss
3. Salt tolerance
4. Drought deciduous (lose leaves during dry season)
5. Bloom and set seed quickly when a spring rain falls
- In animals, the following adaptations are observed:
1. Nocturnal (day: burrow to avoid sun’s heat and desiccation)
2. Get most of their moisture from seeds and plants
3. Highly concentrated urine
4. Nearly dry feces
Tundras
Primary Regions:
- North of the Coniferous forest in the Northern Hemisphere and extending southward at elevations above the
coniferous forests
Climate and Soils:
- Bitter cold except for an 8 –to-10 week growing season having long days and moderate temperatures
- Precipitation low, less than 10 inches annually
- Soils thin and underlain by permanent frost
Major Vegetation:
- Low-growing lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges, and dwarf shrubs
Animals:
- Year round: lemmings, arctic hares, ptarmigan, arctic fox and many others
-Mountain sheep migrate in and out of tundra
- Summers: many geese, ducks, sandpipers and other waterfowl migrate in to raise their young
- Insects and other invertebrates dense during the short summers.

Grasslands/Prairies/Savannas/Steppes
Primary Regions:
- Central N. America, central Russia and Siberia, sub equatorial Africa and S. America, much of southern India,
N. Australia
Climate and soils:
- Highly seasonal, abundant rainfall during wet season, hot and dry in summers and dry seasons
- Fires frequent
- Rainfall 10 to 60 inches/yr
- Soils rich and often deep
Major Vegetation:
- Grass species, from tall grasses in higher rainfall areas and short grasses where dryer
- Sparse bushes and occasional woodlands in some areas
Animals
- Large grazing animals – bison, antelopes
-Wild horses, kangaroos, giraffes, zebras, rhinos
- Predators – wolves, coyotes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas,lions
- Variety of birds, small burrowing animals such as rabbits, dogs,
- Grassland with scattered trees is called as Savanna

Coniferous Forest
Primary Regions:
- Northern Portions of North America, Europe and Asia, extending southward at high elevations (glaciated
terrain)
Climate and soils:
- Seasonal, winters usually long and cold
- Precipitation often light in winter, heavier in summer
- Soils acidic and humus-rich, much litter
Major Vegetation:
- Coniferous trees (spruce, fir, pine, hemlock)
- Smaller amounts of deciduous tress (birch, maple)
- Poor understory
Animals
- Large herbivores such as mule deer, moose, elk, caribou; smaller herbivores such as mice, hares, red
 squirrels
- Predators like lynx, foxes, bears, wolverines, fisher
- Important nesting area for many migratory warbles, thrushes and others

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Primary Regions:
- Western and central Europe, eastern Asia eastern North America
Climate and Soils:
- Seasonal
- Temperatures below freezing in winter, summers often warm and humid
- Rainfall ranging from 30 to 80 inches/yr.
-Soils well developed and rich
Major Vegetation:
- Broad-leaved deciduous ( leaf-shedding)trees ( oaks, hickory, maples, ash, beech)
- Shrubby undergrowth, ferns, lichens and mosses
Animals:
- Rich soil holding abundant microbiota
- Mammals such as squirrel, chipmunks, porcupines, mice,deer etc.
- Birds such as thrushes, warbles, woodpeckers, owls
-Snakes, frogs, toads, and salamander

Tropical Rainforests
Primary Regions
- Northern S. America, Central America, Western and central equatorial Africa, SE Asia, various island in the
Indian and Pacific Ocean
Climate and Soils
- Annual temperature average 28oC
- Rainfall frequent and heavy, annual greater than 95 inches
- Soils thin and often acidic, nutrient poor
Major Vegetation:
- Great diversity of towering trees, the tallest being 60 m or so
- Epiphytes and lianas (orchids or woody vines that climb to the tree tops)
- Dense canopy, little understory
Animals:
- Enormous biodiversity
-Exotic,colorful insects
- Amphibians, reptiles, and birds very abundant –e.g. lizards, parrots, snakes, monkeys and small mammals
- A few large predators – tigers and jaguars

Freshwater Ecosystems

Factors Affecting the type and number of organisms found in freshwater:

1. The amount or concentration of nutrients
2. The depth through which sunlight can penetrate
3. The amount of dissolved oxygen
4. Water temperature

Major Freshwater ecosystems:

Lakes -are standing freshwater ecosystems.

 - formed when water is collected from direct precipitation, surface run off, or ground water flow.
- water fills the basin-like depression formed from volcanic activity e.g. Taal Lake, Tadlac Lake in Los
Banos, Bulusan Lake in Sorsogn, Lake Sebu; glaciation and impact featrues of meteorites e.g. Crater
Lake in Oregon.

Distinct Zones of Lakes:

1. Littoral zone – found in the shallow, nutrient rich water near the shore.
2. Limnetic zone – is the open water surface layer that receives sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis and
contains floating phytoplanktons, plant-eating zooplanktons, and fish that depends on such kind of
environment.
3. Profundal zone – zone of deep water; not penetrated by sunlight; inhabited mostly by fish that are adapted to
its cooler, darker water and lower levels of dissolved oxygen.
4. Benthic zone – supports bloodworms and other decomposers

Major Types of Lakes

1. Oligotrophic lake- with a low supply of plant nutrients
- Usually deep and has crystal clear water, cold temperatures, and relatively small population of
phytoplanktons and fishes. e.g. Taal lake

2. Eutrophic Lake - with large or excessive supply of plant nutrients

- Usually shallow and has cloudy warm water, large populations of phytoplanktons and
zooplanktons, and diverse populations of fishes. e.g. Laguna Lake

(Water) Reservoir - large and deep, human-created bodies of standing freshwater, often built behind dams.
- built primarily for water storage

Ponds - small, shallow; usually human created impoundments of freshwater used primarily for watering
livestock, raising freshwater fish, or recreation.

Streams - are relatively small and flowing bodies of freshwater that empty into rivers
Rivers - wider and deeper than streams and empty into the ocean

Major Marine Ecosystems:

- Distinguished from the freshwater ecosystem because of its higher level of salinity (salt content)

Coral Reefs - A reef consisting of coral consolidated into limestone

- Support a large part of marine biodiversity and provide aesthetic value for tourism and
preservation efforts
- The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters;
however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up by corals and other calcium-
depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor.

Oceans/Seas - A large body of water constituting a principal part of the hydrosphere

- Marine life you’ll find in the pelagic zone includes wide-ranging animals such as cetaceans,
large fish such as blue- fin tuna, deep sea fishes and invertebrates such as jellyfish

Estuarine Ecosystems
- Found along coastlines where freshwater from rivers mixes with salty oceanic waters
- Productive ecosystems because of the large amount of nutrients from the rivers
- Serve as nursery sites for fish and crustaceans
- Serve as barriers to pollution as they trap sediments that prevent pollutants from reaching the
ocean.

Wetlands are areas of standing water that support aquatic plants. Marshes, swamps, and bogs are all
considered wetlands. Plant species adapted to the very moist and humid conditions are called hydrophytes.
These include pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce. Marsh flora also include such species as
cypress and gum. Wetlands have the highest species diversity of all ecosystems. Many species of amphibians,
reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders), and furbearers can be found in the wetlands. Wetlands are not
considered freshwater ecosystems as there are some, such as salt marshes, that have high salt concentrations -
these support different species of animals, such as shrimp, shellfish, and various grasses.

Marshes - Low-lying wet land with grassy vegetation; usually is a transition zone between land and water
- Consists of large areas of surface ground water, fed by underground water and natural drainage after
rain. The soil conditions are extremely wet and contain nutrient-rich sediment full of micro-organisms and
runoff from nearby farms, which is often rich in fertilizer. The wet soil supports the soft-stemmed vegetation
that has adapted to these wet conditions, including reeds, bulrushes and lilies that grow abundantly. The
vegetation creates the necessary cover for birds, duck, otters and muskrats to coexist in this ecosystem. The
abundant food supply is an important factor for the survival of the marshland ecosystem

Coastal Wetlands
- In temperate areas, coastal wetlands usually consist of a mix of bays, lagoons, and salt marshes
Human activities cause wetland degradation and loss by changing water quality, quantity, and flow
rates; increasing pollutant inputs; and changing species composition as a result of disturbance and the
introduction of nonnative or exotic species.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

A. Global Environmental Issues

Rapid Population Growth

- The high rate of human population growth in regions of the globe that causes overpopulation. Environmental
problems that result from overpopulation include resource scarcity and pollution.
- Populations grow or decline through the interplay of three factors; births, deaths, and migration
Extreme overpopulation in some parts of the world has led to famine. Food production cannot keep pace
with the increasing numbers of people. Agricultural lands are degraded and potable water is a scarce resource.
These regions are ravaged by conflicts caused by the inadequate distribution of resources.

Birth/Fertility Rates-The ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area.
Death/Mortality Rates - The ratio of deaths in an area to the population of that area.
Migration - The movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) an area.

*Average fertility age range: 15-44 years old

Factors affecting birth rates and fertility rates:

- Average level of education and affluence
- Importance of children as a part of the family labor force
- Cost of raising and educating children
- Education and employment opportunities for women
- Infant mortality rate
- Average marriage age
- Availability of private and public pension systems
- Availability of reliable methods of birth control
- Religious beliefs, tradition, and cultural norms that influence the number of children couples
want to have

Factors affecting death rates:

- Nutrition
- Fewer infant deaths and longer average life expectancy
- Improvements in medical and public health technology

Global Warming
- The increase in the average temperature of earth’s atmosphere.
- Mainly caused by the greenhouse effect

Although our species has existed for only a small fraction of earth’s history, we are altering its atmosphere 10-
100 times faster than the natural rate of change over the past 10,000 years. Global warming from our binge of
fossil fuel burning and deforestation and depletion of stratospheric ozone from use of chlorofluorocarbons and
other chemicals is now a global threat.

Greenhouse Effect - caused by atmospheric gases (greenhouse gases) that allow sunshine to pass through but
absorb heat that is radiated back from the warmed surface of the earth
Most common greenhouse gases
- Water Vapor (H2O)
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Methane (CH4)
- Ozone (O3)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Possible effects of global warming:

- Decreased food production efficiency
- Negative impact on forests and biodiversity
- Significant changes in sea levels (melting of the polar ice caps)

Solutions: dealing with global warming

- Prevention and regulation of confirmed harmful substances
- Cleanup of toxic residue in the atmosphere
- Human adaptation to the effects of global warming

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone (O3) - a colorless gas soluble in alkalis and cold water; a strong oxidizing agent; can be produced by
electric discharge in oxygen or by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen in the stratosphere
where it acts as a screen from ultraviolet radiation
Ozone Layer - a layer in the stratosphere (approximately 20 miles from the earth’s surface) that contains a
concentration of ozone sufficient enough to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – a fluorocarbon bound with a chlorine particle; formerly used as refrigerant and
propellant in aerosol cans

Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation - overexposure to this radiation can cause sunburn and skin cancer, damage to the
eyes and the immune system

*Ozone layer depletion is usually caused by Chlorine and Bromine containing compounds
*Under the influence of high-energy radiation, ozone-depleting substances speed up the breakdown of ozone
(O3) into O2 and O. Each molecule can last in the stratosphere for 65-110 years.
*With less ozone in the atmosphere, more biologically harmful UV-B radiation will reach Earth’s surface,
giving people worse sunburns, earlier appearance of wrinkles, more cataracts (clouding of the eye lens that
reduces vision and can cause blindness if not removed.

Possible consequences/effects:
- Skin cancers/Melanomas
- Suppression of human immune system
- Eye Diseases
- Lower crop yields
- Reduction of phytoplankton population

Some solutions:
- Ban the production and use of ozone-depleting substances
- Find alternatives to CFCs
- Avoid using polystyrene/Styrofoam

Energy Sources/Global Energy Problem

Many nations are now experiencing difficulties in maintaining the demand for consumable energy. Due to the
increasing dependence on technology and advanced machinery, people tend to use up more of the resource than
what is actually needed.
Where does consumable energy come from?
 Usually, energy is harvested from rich fossil fuel deposits of coal and crude oil. These provide essential
 fuel and/or heat for homes and cars
 Other sources include solar, geothermal, and hydro power plants

Renewable Energy Sources

- Energy sources that can be replenished in a relatively short time period. They are also generally easy to
maintain.
Examples:
- Tidal Power - Wind
- Hydro (Waterfalls) - Geothermal
- Solar

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

- Energy sources which use up scarce materials that can be difficult to produce or harvest or material that
would take a long period of time to replenish
Examples:
- Coal
- Nuclear
- Fossil Fuel

Some solutions to the problem:

- Choose cleaner, more eco-friendly alternatives
- Avoid unnecessary consumption energy
- Energy companies should develop renewable energy for long term plans

Natural Resource Depletion

Natural resources - valuable materials supplied by the environment for industrial, commercial, and household
use
Depletion - when the resource is no longer available or when it is overharvested
Scarcity - a particular resource can barely support the demand. Resources that used to be easy to obtain are now
harder to obtain

Common examples of natural resources:

1. Water
2. Clean Air
3. Food
4. Biodiversity
5. Energy/Fuel

*Resource scarcity leads to increased competition among humans and/or native species that rely on the material
or natural resource for survival.

Resource Management and Allocation - the systematic use of resources. It is necessary for sustainable
consumption and environmental restoration

A. Soil/Land Resource
- Agriculture, Housing, Infrastructure, Urban Expansion
Deforestation - the process of removing trees from an area.
Erosion - removal/transfer of rock and soil material from one place to another. It is usually
caused by the flow of water and gusts of wind
B. Mineral
- Construction, Jewelry, Electronics, Art and Aesthetics
*Ore Harvesting
Quartz - used in making watches
Marble - construction, statues and ornaments
Limestone - lime and cement
Granite - construction material (resistant to weathering)

C. Wildlife
*Endemic Species (Native/Exclusive Organisms)
*Ecological Balance
- Pest Control
 - Limiting Excessive Population Growth
*Food

D. Water
*Potable Water
*Habitat (water-dwelling organisms)
*Eutrophication - introduction of excessive amounts of nutrients into bodies of water, mainly occurring
in lakes and other non-moving bodies of water
*Siltation - transformation of sandy water banks and shores into grainy mud/clay areas

Sustainability
- The ability to maintain a certain range of performance. In this case, it refers to the capacity of a system to
meet the resource demands of the people in both short term and long term perspectives.
- To ensure that the environment can cope with tomorrow’s resource demand, the current generation must
consider economic, environmental, and social factors. This will ensure a balanced development for the
future generations.

 A man is hungry and wishes to eat a loaf of bread. Half of the loaf is already capable of satiating him. If
he were to follow the concept of sustainable development, he would leave half of the loaf for his son to
eat instead of consuming the whole.

Global Environmental Initiatives

- Most of the world has now acknowledged the reality of environmental degradation and some have agreements
and global policies regarding the improvement of environmental conditions.

Some examples:
Montreal Protocol - an international treaty that is aimed towards reducing the impact of ozone-depleting
substances (geared towards ozone-depleting substances)
Vienna Conference - the first international conference on ozone layer depletion
Kyoto Protocol - aimed at mitigation the impacts of global warming. It also deals with the causes of the
problem
Environmental Tariffs - an import or export tax placed on products being imported from, or also being sent to
countries with substandard environmental pollution controls
Agenda 21 -A global environmental action plan related to sustainable development held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil in 1992

B. Philippine Environmental Issues

The Philippines is considered as a developing country or a third world country. In terms of implementing
environmental technologies and policies, developing countries tend to be more lenient due to the limitations
towards economic progress. Industrialization brings about pollution, but it also helps the country’s income and
productivity.
Aside from the loose implementation of policies, most Philippine citizens lack the necessary awareness
needed to prevent environmental degradation. Most of our countrymen prefer the mentality “out of sight, out of
mind.” which means once they can no longer see their waste; it’s no longer considered their problem.

1. Population and Human Settlement

One of the first problems encountered when dealing with the environment is how humans deal with
their surroundings. Are they aware of pollution? Do they know how to limit their resource consumption? The
next problem would be dealing with the fact that the human population is still on the rise. This adds stress to the
environment and its capability to support life.

Poverty
- The state of having little or no money and few or no material possessions
- One of the major factors that affect a person’s social tendencies, including environmental inclinations

The Philippines is a country with a high poverty index. Most people attribute this to lack of education
and economic trends. The rich tend to acquire more financial resources than the poor despite the fact that they
are far fewer in number.
 Rich people

Poor people

Population Financial Resources

Main causes of poverty: Some solutions:

- Low educational attainment - Improve/increase educational system support
- Fluctuating job market - Livelihood programs
- Unequal distribution of wealth - Enforce taxes properly

Rapid Urbanization

Urban Areas - areas that are considered major places of commerce, information, culture, and trading
- major towns and cities are classified as urban areas

Urban Expansion - when cities expand and influence the economic, industrial, and cultural behavior of its
neighboring areas
- companies and businesses from the city start outsourcing personnel for jobs
- people from the rural areas adapt to the cultural norms of the urban areas, often resulting in
less than ideal changes in behavior and philosophy
Some Causes:
- Expensive land within city limits
- People from urban areas tend to ask for higher job benefits
- Business opportunities/new market options in rural areas

Effects of Urbanization
Good:
- Provides people with job opportunities
- People adapt to different cultures
- New technology is introduced to rural areas
Bad:
- Increased crime rate
- People no longer value tradition
- People from rural areas become more materialistic

Solutions:
- City planning should update land use plans
- Improve job compensation
- Psychological implications

Solid Waste
- any unwanted or discarded material that is not gaseous or liquid in form
- includes food wastes, yard wastes, containers and product packaging, and other miscellaneous inorganic
wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources

Produced by:
- Households and businesses
- Agricultural operations
- Mining, Oil and natural gas production, and other industrial activities

Examples of SW:
- Used paper - Fruit peeling
- Fly ash - Food scraps
- Plastics
- Scrap metal

Solid waste contributes to the urban flooding problem. Trash clogs up the drainage systems, preventing
the flow of water. It can also be considered a health hazard, specifically in areas where people live near
dumpsites/landfills or polluted waterways.

 Great Pacific Garbage Patch

- Located in the North Pacific Ocean, a huge patch of garbage resembling an island.

Dealing with Solid Waste:

1.) Waste Management - deals with waste only after it is produced, utilizing waste materials by converting
them into reusable/recycled materials
2.) Waste (Production) Prevention - method that uses the philosophy “prevention is better than cure”. People
are made aware of reduced waste output and the difference between needs and wants

Other solutions:
- Reducing waste and pollution generation
- Resource conservation
- Material reuse and recycling
- Composting (for biodegradable waste)

Hazardous Waste
- any discarded material that contains one or more toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic
compounds at levels that exceed established limits; is flammable; is reactive or unstable enough to explode or
release toxic fumes; or is capable of corroding metal containers such as tanks, drums, and barrels.

Examples:
- Radioactive wastes
- Hazardous and toxic materials discarded by households
* Liquid detergents, soap residue
*Aerosol sprays
*Unused lotion, shampoo and other beauty care products
- Mining wastes
- Oil and gas-drilling wastes
- Municipal incinerator ash
- Lead
- Dioxins

Improper disposal of hazardous, toxic, and radioactive waste can have serious consequences. Direct
exposure to these compounds cause skin irritations, organ failure, and even death. Chronic exposure can cause
cancer, mutations, and deformities among newborn babies.

Solutions:
- Pollution prevention
- Recycling and Reusing
- Detoxifying
- Monitoring of potential hazard areas
- Strict implementation of the STD system
*S - Storage
T - Treatment
D - Disposal

Pollution

Contamination - introduction of a foreign substance (usually with undesirable effects) into a native/local
substance.
Pollution - excessive contamination that causes adverse effects towards the environment
- Undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a
consequence of human activities
Hazards and Risk - a hazard is any substance or action that can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or
environmental damage. Risk is the possibility of suffering harm from a hazard.
- risk assessment involves using data, assumptions, and models to estimate the probability
of harm to human health or the environment that may have resulted from exposure to specific
hazards

 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Soil/Land Pollution
 Noise Pollution

Some solutions to the problem:

- Prevention
- Cleanup (Cleanup) - ridding the area of the harmful substance
- Control by Dilution (Dilution) - reduction of substance concentration by adding water or air
- Monitoring (Monitoring) - keeping high risk areas under surveillance
- Updating Pollution Standards

Air Pollution
- the addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the environment, human
health, and quality of life. Air pollution occurs inside homes, schools, and offices; in cities; across continents;
and even globally.

Adverse effects:
- Promotes cancer
- Causes acid rain (pollutants react with water vapor during/before precipitation)
- Damage to habitats
- Degraded crop quality

Sources of Air Pollutants:

- Burning fossil fuels
- Landfills and dump sites
- Forest fires
- Volcanic eruptions (ash)
- Soil erosion caused by wind

Solutions:
- Proper enforcement of updated air quality policies and standards
- Ambient air quality monitoring
- Eco-friendly industrial standards
- Pollution control and prevention technology (Scrubbers and Filters)
- Proper indoor ventilation

Soil/Land Pollution
- Usually caused by over cultivation and the buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens
(disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and animal life.
- Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during a long process that may take
thousands of years

Other causes:
- Excessive use of insecticides and herbicides (Soil Degradation)
- Faulty irrigation practices (Erosion)
- Solid waste

Cultivating degraded soil results in lower quality crop yields. Excessive use of fertilizers also causes soil
acidity, making the area unsuitable for further agricultural purposes.

Some solutions to soil degradation:

- Fallowing (leaving the soil untilled for one or two seasons)
- Crop rotation
- Promoting the use of organic fertilizers

Water Pollution
- Contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by harmful substances
- Most dangerous when sources of drinking water are involved. It also causes complications in marine
and other aquatic habitats

Some causes of Water Pollution:

- Hazardous/Toxic Waste
- Eutrophication
- Domestic waste (septic sewage, organic material)

Major pollutants:
- Petroleum products
- Pesticides and Inorganic Fertilizers
- Heavy Metals
- Sediments and excess organic matter

The amount of pollutants that are introduced into water systems can be reduced by improving sewer
systems, updating waste treatment technologies, and isolating clean water sources from possible hazards such as
dense human settlements.

Noise Pollution
- Exposure to levels of sound that are annoying stressful, or damaging to the ears. Most noise pollution
comes from automobiles, factories and aircraft. Prolonged exposure to noise pollution can cause temporary to
permanent deafness or ringing in the ears.

- People can avoid producing too much noise by being mindful of their surroundings. A person’s
karaoke session could mean a night without sleep for his neighbor. Loud forms of music are also best kept to
oneself using portable music players or a designated performance area.
Moving things around can also cause a certain degree of noise, such as rearranging chairs inside a
classroom or renovating a building’s roof.

Philippine Biodiversity
- The Philippines is a country teeming with life. It is home to many endemic and ecologically significant
species.
- Migratory birds pass through Philippine wetlands during their seasonal migration from cold regions of
the globe towards warmer regions where they reproduce.
- Plants and animals help control and balance environmental functions. Some animals are an integral
part of agriculture, helping farmers by eating harmful pests.

Endemic - Species that are native to or confined to a certain region

El Niño - Oceanic atmospheric phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean, during which unusually warm ocean
conditions appear along the western coast of Ecuador and Peru, causing climatic changes of varying
severity.
- Occurs every three to seven years and can affect climates around the world for more than a year
- The name El Niño, Spanish for “The Child,” refers to the infant Jesus Christ and is applied because
the current usually begins during Christmas season.

La Niña - Occurs when cooler water moves into the equatorial Pacific Ocean and wind systems change their
normal paths, bringing different weather patterns across the globe.
- A Typical La Niña winter brings with it cold air with high rainfall.
- La Niña promotes the growth of strong hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean.

IV. POLICIES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 - Environmentally concernedgovernments around the world impose laws and regulations that limit, prevent,
and repair environmental degradation. Most developing countries have outdated policies that fail to address new
problems due to politically motivated provisions.

Environmental sustainability is concerned with the preservation of the environment while also addressing the
need for social and economic growth.

It deals with the following fields:

- Aquaculture
*Fishing Regulations
- Agriculture
*Food Aid
*Land Reform
- Water Supply
- Air Quality
- Cleanliness of the Environment
*Solid Waste
*Toxic, Hazardous, and Radioactive Waste
- Other Natural Resources
*Forests *Metals
*Mineral Deposits *Rare Compounds

P.D. - Presidential Decree

R.A. - Republic Act

PD 984 - Pollution Control Law

PD 1151 - Philippine Environmental Policy - General Policies (EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment)
PD 1152 - Philippine Environmental Policy - Management Strategies (Resource Quality)
RA 6969 - Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act
RA 8749 - Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
RA 9003 - The Solid Waste Management Act of 2001
RA 9275 - Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
RA 9279 - Climate Change Act of 2009